emergency light
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Project report
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emergency light
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Description and Working:Automatic lamp control is our minor project. We can use this system as our stydy lamp
table.we are using a relay derive circuit at the ouput side. We can also take an example of
LED. In this project we are tried make LED lamp using leds and DC power supply. We
made 5v DC regulated supply for this purpose. An LED lamp (LED light bulb) is a solid-
state lamp that uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as the source of light. The LEDs
involved may be conventional semiconductor light-emitting diodes, to organic LEDs
(OLED), or polymer light-emitting diodes (PLED) devices, although PLED technologies
are not currently commercially available.
Since the light output of individual light-emitting diodes is small compared to
incandescent and compact fluorescent lamps, multiple diodes are often used together. In
recent years, as diode technology has improved, high power light-emitting diodes with
higher lumen output are making it possible to replace other lamps with LED lamps. One
high power LED chip used in some commercial LED lights can emit 7,527 lumens while
using only 100 watts. LED lamps can be made interchangeable with other types of lamps.
Diodes use direct current (DC) electrical power, so LED lamps must also include internal
circuits to operate from standard AC voltage. LEDs are damaged by being run at higher
temperatures, so LED lamps typically include heat management elements such as heat
sinks and cooling fins. LED lamps offer long service life and high energy efficiency, but
initial costs are higher than those of fluorescent lamps.
This circuit is a small +05 volts power supply, which is useful when experimenting with
digital electronics. Small inexpensive wall transformers with variable output voltage are
available from any electronics shop. Those transformers are easily available, but usually
their voltage regulation is very poor, which makes them not very usable for digital circuit
experimenter unless a better regulation can be achieved in some way. The following
circuit is the answer to the problem.
This circuit can give +05V output at about 1A current. The circuit has overload and
terminal protection.
Summary of circuit features
Brief description of operation: Gives out well regulated +5V output, output
current capability of 700 mA.
Circuit protection: Built-in overheating protection shuts down output when
regulator IC gets too hot.
Circuit complexity: Simple and easy to build.
Circuit performance: Stable +9V output voltage, reliable operation.
Availability of components: Easy to get, uses only common basic components.
Design testing: Based on datasheet example circuit, I have used this circuit
successfully as part of other electronics projects.
Applications: Part of electronics devices, small laboratory power supply.
Power supply voltage: Unregulated DC 5-18V power supply.
Power supply current: Needed output current 1A.
Components cost: Few rupees for the electronic components plus the cost of input
transformer.
Circuit diagram of power supply
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Component list
1. IN4007 Diodes
2. 7805 regulator IC.
3. 1000 uf electrolytic capacitor, at least 25V voltage rating.
4. 470 uf electrolytic capacitor, at least 25V voltage rating.
5. 470 Ohms Resistance
6. LED
We are using center taped full wave rectifier and Pi- filter for filtering.
Component Description1) Voltage Regulator LM7805:
The above circuit utilizes the voltage regulator IC 7805 for the constant power supply.
The capacitors must have enough high voltage rating to safely handle the input voltage
feed to circuit. The circuit is very easy to build for example into a piece of Vero board.
1 2 3
Pin diagram of 7805regulator IC
PIN 1 : Unregulated voltage input
PIN 2 : Ground
PIN 3 : Regulated voltage output
2) About Rectifiers
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as
components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made
of solid state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.
A device which performs the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is known as an
inverter.
When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the negative or positive portion
of the waveform), the difference between the term diode and the term rectifier is merely
one of usage, i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to convert AC to
DC. Almost all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific arrangement for more
efficiently converting AC to DC than is possible with only one diode. Before the
development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes and copper(I) oxide
or selenium rectifier stacks were used.
Early radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on
a crystal of galena (lead sulfide) to serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".
Rectification may occasionally serve in roles other than to generate D.C. current per se.
For example, in gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of
flame. Two metal electrodes in the outer layer of the flame provide a current path, and
rectification of an applied alternating voltage will happen in the plasma, but only while
the flame is present to generate it.
Half-wave rectification
In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed,
while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the
output, it is very inefficient if used for power transfer. Half-wave rectification can be
achieved with a single diode in a one-phase supply, or with three diodes in a three-phase
supply. The output DC voltage of a half wave rectifier can be calculated with the
following two ideal equations.
Full-wave rectification
A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity
(positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the
input waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient. However, in a circuit with a
non-center tapped transformer, four diodes are required instead of the one needed for
half-wave rectification. (See semiconductors, diode). Four diodes arranged this way are
called a diode bridge or bridge rectifier:
Graetz bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes.
For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two diodes back-to-back
(i.e. anodes-to-anode or cathode-to-cathode) can form a full-wave rectifier. Twice as
many windings are required on the transformer secondary to obtain the same output
voltage compared to the bridge rectifier above.
Full-wave rectifier using a transformer and 2 diodes.
Full-wave rectifier, with vacuum tube having two anodes.
A very common vacuum tube rectifier configuration contained one cathode and twin
anodes inside a single envelope; in this way, the two diodes required only one vacuum
tube. The 5U4 and 5Y3 were popular examples of this configuration.
A three-phase bridge rectifier.
3-phase AC input, half & full wave rectified DC output waveforms
For three-phase AC, six diodes are used. Typically there are three pairs of diodes, each
pair, though, is not the same kind of double diode that would be used for a full wave
single-phase rectifier. Instead the pairs are in series (anode to cathode). Typically,
commercially available double diodes have four terminals so the user can configure them
as single-phase split supply use, for half a bridge, or for three-phase use.
Disassembled automobile alternator, showing the six diodes that comprise a full-wave
three-phase bridge rectifier.
Most devices that generate alternating current (such devices are called alternators)
generate three-phase AC. For example, an automobile alternator has six diodes inside it
to function as a full-wave rectifier for battery charging applications.
3) About filters
Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions,
specifically intended to remove unwanted signal components and/or enhance wanted
ones. Electronic filters can be:
passive or active
analog or digital
discrete-time (sampled) or continuous-time
linear or non-linear
infinite impulse response (IIR type) or finite impulse response (FIR type)
The most common types of electronic filters are linear filters, regardless of other aspects
of their design. See the article on linear filters for details on their design and analysis.
History
The oldest forms of electronic filters are passive analog linear filters, constructed using
only resistors and capacitors or resistors and inductors. These are known as RC and RL
single pole filters respectively. More complex multipole LC filters have also existed for
many years and the operation of such filters is well understood with many books having
been written about them.
Hybrid filters have also been made, typically involving combinations of analog amplifiers
with mechanical resonators or delay lines. Other devices such as CCD delay lines have
also been used as discrete-time filters. With the availability of digital signal processing,
active digital filters have become common.
Classification by technology
Passive filters
Passive implementations of linear filters are based on combinations of resistors (R),
inductors (L) and capacitors (C). These types are collectively known as passive filters,
because they do not depend upon an external power supply.
Inductors block high-frequency signals and conduct low-frequency signals, while
capacitors do the reverse. A filter in which the signal passes through an inductor, or in
which a capacitor provides a path to earth, presents less attenuation to low-frequency
signals than high-frequency signals and is a low-pass filter. If the signal passes through a
capacitor, or has a path to ground through an inductor, then the filter presents less
attenuation to high-frequency signals than low-frequency signals and is a high-pass filter.
Resistors on their own have no frequency-selective properties, but are added to inductors
and capacitors to determine the time-constants of the circuit, and therefore the
frequencies to which it responds.
At very high frequencies (above about 100 Megahertz), sometimes the inductors consist
of single loops or strips of sheet metal, and the capacitors consist of adjacent strips of
metal. These inductive or capacitive pieces of metal are called stubs.
The inductors and capacitors are the reactive elements of the filter. The number of
elements determines the order of the filter. In this context, an LC tuned circuit being used
in a band-pass or band-stop filter is considered a single element even though it consists of
two components.
Single element types
The simplest passive filters consist of a single reactive element. These are constructed of
RC, RL, LC or RLC elements.
The quality or "Q" factor is a measure that is sometimes used to describe simple band-
pass or band-stop filters. A filter is said to have a high Q if it selects or rejects a range of
frequencies that is narrow in comparison to the centre frequency. Q may be defined as the
ratio of centre frequency divided by 3dB bandwidth. It is not commonly employed with
higher order filters where other parameters are of more concern.
4) Diode
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with
far greater ease than in the other. The most common kind of diode in modern circuit
design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist.
Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams such as Figure below. The
term “diode” is customarily reserved for small signal devices, I ≤ 1 A. The term rectifier
is used for power devices, I > 1 A.
Semiconductor diode schematic symbol: Arrows indicate the direction of electron current
flow.
When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent
current through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage. (Figure
below)
Diode operation: (a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward biased. (b) Current
flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed biased.
When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the
diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is “backward”
and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode may be
thought of as like a switch: “closed” when forward-biased and “open” when reverse-
biased. Oddly enough, the direction of the diode symbol's “arrowhead” points against the
direction of electron flow. This is because the diode symbol was invented by engineers,
who predominantly use conventional flow notation in their schematics, showing current
as a flow of charge from the positive (+) side of the voltage source to the negative (-).
This convention holds true for all semiconductor symbols possessing “arrowheads:” the
arrow points in the permitted direction of conventional flow, and against the permitted
direction of electron flow.
Diode behavior is analogous to the behavior of a hydraulic device called a check valve. A
check valve allows fluid flow through it in only one direction as in Figure below.
Hydraulic check valve analogy: (a) Electron current flow permitted. (b) Current flow
prohibited.
Check valves are essentially pressure-operated devices: they open and allow flow if the
pressure across them is of the correct “polarity” to open the gate (in the analogy shown,
greater fluid pressure on the right than on the left). If the pressure is of the opposite
“polarity,” the pressure difference across the check valve will close and hold the gate so
that no flow occurs. Like check valves, diodes are essentially “pressure-” operated
(voltage-operated) devices. The essential difference between forward-bias and reverse-
bias is the polarity of the voltage dropped across the diode. Let's take a closer look at the
simple battery-diode-lamp circuit shown earlier, this time investigating voltage drops
across the various components in Figure below.
Diode circuit voltage measurements: (a) Forward biased. (b) Reverse biased.
A forward-biased diode conducts current and drops a small voltage across it, leaving
most of the battery voltage dropped across the lamp. If the battery's polarity is reversed,
the diode becomes reverse-biased, and drops all of the battery's voltage leaving none for
the lamp. If we consider the diode to be a self-actuating switch (closed in the forward-
bias mode and open in the reverse-bias mode), this behavior makes sense. The most
substantial difference is that the diode drops a lot more voltage when conducting than the
average mechanical switch (0.7 volts versus tens of millivolts).
This forward-bias voltage drop exhibited by the diode is due to the action of the depletion
region formed by the P-N junction under the influence of an applied voltage. If no
voltage applied is across a semiconductor diode, a thin depletion region exists around the
region of the P-N junction, preventing current flow. (Figure below (a)) The depletion
region is almost devoid of available charge carriers, and acts as an insulator:
Diode representations: PN-junction model, schematic symbol, physical part.
The schematic symbol of the diode is shown in Figure above (b) such that the anode
(pointing end) corresponds to the P-type semiconductor at (a). The cathode bar, non-
pointing end, at (b) corresponds to the N-type material at (a). Also note that the cathode
stripe on the physical part (c) corresponds to the cathode on the symbol.
If a reverse-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, this depletion region
expands, further resisting any current through it. (Figure below)
Depletion region expands with reverse bias.
Conversely, if a forward-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, the depletion
region collapses becoming thinner. The diode becomes less resistive to current through it.
In order for a sustained current to go through the diode; though, the depletion region must
be fully collapsed by the applied voltage. This takes a certain minimum voltage to
accomplish, called the forward voltage as illustrated in Figure below.
Inceasing forward bias from (a) to (b) decreases depletion region thickness.
For silicon diodes, the typical forward voltage is 0.7 volts, nominal. For germanium
diodes, the forward voltage is only 0.3 volts. The chemical constituency of the P-N
junction comprising the diode accounts for its nominal forward voltage figure, which is
why silicon and germanium diodes have such different forward voltages. Forward voltage
drop remains approximately constant for a wide range of diode currents, meaning that
diode voltage drop is not like that of a resistor or even a normal (closed) switch. For most
simplified circuit analysis, the voltage drop across a conducting diode may be considered
constant at the nominal figure and not related to the amount of current.
5) Resistor
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a
resistor, a current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The
reciprocal of the constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a
given voltage V, a larger value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by
Ohm's law:
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy,
such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits,
particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude.
When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the
resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor,
according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may
also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as
having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of
that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics
applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require
heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated
maximum working voltage of the resistor.
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms law;
this specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller
values of resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a
resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature
coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor.
They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors
manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is also
characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and position of its
leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using
them.
6) Capacitor
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive electronic component consisting
of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential
difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops in the dielectric
that stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. An ideal
capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads.
This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference
between them.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power
supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many
other purposes.
The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor,
hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown
voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
7) LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) (pronounced /ˌ ɛ l iː ˈdiː/ , L-E-D[1]) is a semiconductor light
source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for
lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962,[2] early LEDs emitted
low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet
and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. When a light-emitting diode is
forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within
the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon)
is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area
(less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation
pattern.[3] LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching,
and greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are
relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact
fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation
lighting, automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indicators) as
well as in traffic signals.
TRANSISTOR (BC558)
A transistor is semi conductor device consisting of three regions
separated by two P-N junctions. The three regions are Base, Emitter &
Collector.
The base may be of N- type or P- type. The emitter and collector have
same impurities but different from that of base. Thus if base is of N- type
then emitter and collector are of P- type then transistor is called P-N-P
transistor and vice versa transistor is called N-P-N transistor.
The base is made thin and number density of majority carriers is
always less than emitter and collector. The base provides junction for proper
interaction between emitter and collector.
Electrons are majority charge carriers in N- region and in P-region,
holes are the majority charge carriers. Thus two types of charge carriers are
involved in current flow through N-P-N or P-N-P transistor.
SYMBOLS FOR TRANSISTORS :
In schematic symbols, the emitter is always represented by an arrow
indicating the direction of conventional current in the device.
In case of N-P-N transistor arrow points away from base and in case
of P-N-P transistor it points towards base.
When transistor is used in circuit, emitter - base junction is always
forward biased while base - collector junction is always reverse biased.
Fig. Structure and symbol of P-N-P transistor
BIASING OF TRANSISTOR :
The two junctions can be biased in four different ways:
Both junctions may be forward biased. It causes large current to flow
across junctions. Transistor is to be operated in “SATURATION
REGION”.
Both junctions may be reversed biased. It causes very small current to
flow across junctions. Transistor is to be operated in “CUT OFF
REGION”.
E-B junction is forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased.
The transistor is said to be operated in “ACTIVE REGION”. Most of
the transistors work in this region.
E-B junction is reversed biased and C-B junction is forward biased.
The transistor is said to be operated in “INVERTED MODE”.
Fig. (a) P-N-P transistor biasing (b) N-P-N transistor biasing
CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS :
There are three possible ways in which a transistor can be connected
in the circuit which are following :
Common Base Configuration : Base is made common in this
configuration.
Common Emitter Configuration : Emitter is made common in this
configuration.
Common Collector Configuration : Collector is made common in this
configuration.
Fig. PNP Common Base Configuration
Fig. PNP Common Emitter Fig. NPN Common Collector
Configuration Configuration
BC558
Absolute Maximum Rating : Ta = 25°C unless otherwise noted
Parameter Symbol Value
Collector – Emitter Voltage VCEO -30
Collector – Base Voltage VCBO -30
Emitter – Base Voltage VEBO -5
Collector Current (DC) IC -100
Collector Dissipation PC 500
Junction Temperature TJ 150
Storage Temperature TSTG -65 to 150
Electrical Characteristics : Ta = 25°C unless otherwise noted
Parameter Symbol Test Condition Min. Type
Collector Cut-off Current ICBO VCB = -30V, IE=0
DC Current Gain hfe VCB = -5V, IC=2mA 110
Collector Emitter Saturation
Voltage
VCE(sat) IC= -10mA, IB= -0.5mA
IC= -100mA, IB= -5mA
-90
-250
Collector Base Saturation
Voltage
VBE(sat) IC= -10mA, IB= -0.5mA
IC= -100mA, IB= -5mA
-700
-900
Base Emitter On Voltage VBE(On) VCE= -5V, IC= -2mA
VCE= -5V, IC= -10mA
-600 -660
Current Gain Bandwidth
Product
fT VCE= -5V, IC= -10mA,
f=10MHz
150
Output Capacitance Cob VCB= -
10V,IE=0,f=1MHz
Noise Figure NF VCE= -5V, IC= -200mA 2
DIODE
It is a P-type region and N-type region formed in the same crystal
structure, and hence a P-N junction is produced. Some of the conduction
electrons near the junction diffuse in to P-type semiconductor from the N-type
semiconductor across the junction combing with the holes. The loss of
electrons makes the N-type semiconductor positively charged and hence the
neutralization of the holes on the other hand makes P-type semiconductor
negatively charged. This region where positive and negative charges develop is
called depletion region.
Fig. Diode
If a P-region is made positive with respect to the N-region by an external
circuit then junction is forward biased and junction has a very low resistance to
the flow of current. Holes in the positive P-type material are attracted across the
junction to the negative side and the free electrons in the N-type material are
like wise attracted to the opposite side. If a positive voltage is applied to N-
zone with respect to the P-zone terminal, the P-N junction is reverse biased.
Fig. Volt-Ampere Characteristics of a P-N Diode
Temperature Dependence of V-I Characteristics
The cut-in voltage decreases at the rate of 2.5 mV/°C. Also above 25°C,
the reverse saturation current I0 doubles for every 6°C (10°C) for Si (Ge)
diodes. However, the shape of overall characteristic does not alter with
temperature.
Diode Resistance
Static Resistance : The static resistance of a diode denoted by R is the ratio
of diode voltage V to diode current I. The static resistance R varies
widely as the operating point shifts and it does not constitute a useful
parameter.
Dynamic or Incremental Resistance : The dynamic resistance of a diode
is defined as the reciprocal of the slope of the current voltage
characteristic. Thus dynamic resistance is given by -
r dV/dI …………(1)
The dynamic resistance forms an important parameter for small
signal operation of the diode. The dynamic resistance, however, is not a
constant but varies with the operating point.
For a semiconductor diode, the dynamic resistance r as per V-I
characteristic is given by,
r dV/dI = VT/I0V/VT = VT/(I+I0) ……….(2)
If the reverse bias is greater than a few tenth of a volt, then
V/V >>1 and r is extremely large.
For forward bias exceeding a few tenths of volt, I>>I0, so that
r = VT/I ……..(3)
Thus dynamic forward resistance varies inversely as the current I.
At room temperature, i.e.
T = 300°K, for = 1.
R = 26/I ……..(4)
where r is in ohms and I is in milli-amperes.
Depletion Layer Capacitance (Transition Capacitance) CT
The width W of the depletion layer at the junction increases with the
increase of reverse bias magnitude. This depletion region along with the
concentration of uncovered immobile charges constitutes a capacitor whose
incremental capacitance CT is given by,
CT = dQ/dV
where dQ is the increase in charge resulting from a change dV in
voltage. Hence a voltage change dV in time interval dt will result in a current i
given by,
i = dQ/dt ……..(5)
CT = dV/dt ……..(6)
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
LED falls within the family of P-N junction devices. The light emitting
diode (LED) is a diode that will give off visible light when it is energized. In
any forward biased P-N junction there is, within the structure and primarily
close to the junction, a recombination of holes and electrons. This
recombination requires that the energy possessed by the unbound free electron
be transferred to another state.
The process of giving off light by applying an electrical source of energy
is called electroluminescence. As shown in fig., with its graphic symbol, the
conducting surface connected to the P-material is much smaller, to permit the
emergence of the maximum number of photons of light energy. Note in the
figure that the recombination of the injected carriers due to the forward-biased
junction results in emitted light at the site of recombination. There may, of
course, be some absorption of the packages of photon energy in the structure
itself, but a very large percentage are able to leave, as shown in the fig.
Fig. Process of electroluminescence in the LED
Absolute Maximum Ratings at TA = 25°C
Parameter High Eff. Red 4160 Units
Power dissipation 120 mW
Average forward current 20[1] mA
Peak forward current 60 mA
Operating and storage temperature range -55°C to 100°C
Lead soldering temperature
[1.6mm (0.063 in.) from body]
230°C for 3 seconds
[1] Derate from 50°C at 0.2 mA/°C
Electrical/Optical Characteristics at TA = 25°C
Parameter Symbol High Eff. Red 4160 Units Test
Conditions
Min. Type Max
Axial luminous intensity Iv 1.0 3.0 mcd IF = 10mA
Included angle between
half luminous intensity
points
21/2 80 deg. -
Peak wave length peak 635 nm Measureme
nt at Peak
Dominant wave length d 628 nm -
Speed of response s 90 ns
Capacitance C 11 pF VF=0;
f=1 MHz
Thermal resistance JC 120 °C/W Junction to
cathode lead
at 0.79 mm
(0.031 in)
from body
Forward voltage VF 2.2 3.0 V IF = 10mA
Reverse breakdown
voltage
BVR 5.0 V IR = 100A
Luminous efficacy v 147 Lm/V -
RESISTANCE
Resistance is the electronic component used to control the current
passing through the circuit. They are calibrated in ohms. In the other words
resistance are circuit elements having the function introducing electrical
resistance into the circuit. There are three basic types :
1. Fixed Resistance
2. Rheostat
3. Potentiometer
A fixed Resistance is a two terminal resistance whose electrical
resistance is constant. A rheostat is a resistance that can be changed in
resistance value without opening the circuit to make adjustment.
potentiometer is an adjustable resistance with three terminals one each end
of the resistance element and third movable along its length.
CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a device capable of storing an electric charge (static
electricity). It consists of two metal plates separated by dielectric material.
Capacitors are available in values ranging from less than one picofarad to
thousands of microfarad. While using a capacitor it’s ratings must be carefully
observed to make certain that the potential to be applied across the capacitor is
not greater than the rated value.
TYPES OF CAPACITORS :
Depends upon the basis of dielectric used:
Air insulated & vaccum capacitors
Paper insulated capacitors
Mica capacitors
Plastic film capacitors
Ceramic capacitors
Electrolytic & tantalum capacitors
CERAMIC CAPACITOR :
In this project, 0.01 microfarad capacitor is a ceramic capacitor.
The basis of the ceramic material is mainly barium titanate or a similar
material, but other ceramic substance including hydrous silicate of magnesia or
talc are also used. The electrodes are applied in the form of silver which is
either spread or plated on to the opposite faces of a thin tube, wafer or disc
made from the ceramic material. Connecting wires are then soldered to this
deposit and the whole capacitor dipped in for a suitable coating.
Fig. Tabular and disc type ceramic capacitors
ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR :
In this project, 10f capacitor is an electrolytic capacitor. In this type of
capacitors, the dielectric consists of an extremely thin film of aluminum oxide
formed on one of its aluminum foil plates. Intimate contact with the other plate
is achieved by impregnating the paper between the foils with an electrolyte in
the form of viscous substance, such as ammonium borate. The sandwich is then
rolled into a cylindrical element and housed in either metallic cardboard, plastic
or ceramic protective tube.
Fig. Electrolytic and Tantalum capacitor
RELAYS
STRIP
OUT N/C
OUT N/O
SPRING
MAGNET
230V P
Error: Reference source not found
A relay is an electrically operated switch. The relay contacts can be made to
operate in the pre-arranged fashion. For instance, normally open contacts
close and normally closed contacts open. In electromagnetic relays, the
contacts however complex they might be, they have only two position i.e.
OPEN and CLOSED, whereas in case of electromagnetic switches, the
contacts can have multiple positions.
NEED FOR THE USE OF RELAY
The reason behind using relay for switching loads is to provide complete
electrical isolation. The means that there is no electrical connection between
the driving circuits and the driven circuits. The driving circuit may be low
voltage operated low power circuits that control several kilowatts of power.
In our circuit where a high fan could be switched on or off depending upon
the output from the telephone.
Since the relay circuit operated on a low voltage, the controlling circuit is
quite safe. In an electromagnetic relay the armature is pulled by a magnetic
force only. There is no electrical connection between the coil of a relay and
the switching contacts of the relay. If there are more than one contact they
all are electrically isolated from each other by mounting them on insulating
plates and washers. Hence they can be wired to control different circuits
independently.
Some of the popular contacts forms are described below:
1. Electromagnetic relay
2. Power Relay.
3. Time Delay Relay.
4. Latching Relay.
5. Crystal Can Relay.
6. Co-axial Relay.
1. Electromagnetic relay:
An electromagnetic relay in its simplest form consists of a coil, a DC current
passing through which produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field
attracts an armature, which in turn operates the contacts. Normally open
contacts close and normally closed contacts open. Electromagnetic relays are
made in a large variety of contacts forms.
2. Power relays:
Power relays are multi-pole heavy duty lapper type relays that are capable of
switching resistive loads of upto 25amp.. These relays are widely used for a
variety of industrial application like control of fractional horse power
motors, solenoids, heating elements and so on. These relays usually have
button like silver alloy contacts and the contact welding due to heavy in rush
current is avoided by wiping action of the contacts to quench the arc during
high voltage DC switching thus avoiding the contact welding.
3. Time Delay Relay:
A time delay relay is the one in which there is a desired amount of time
delay between the application of the actuating signal and operation of the
load switching devices.
4. Latching Relay:
In a Latching Relay, the relay contacts remain in the last energized position
even after removal of signal in the relay control circuit. The contacts are
held in the last relay-energized position after removal of energisation either
electrically or magnetically. The contacts can be released to the normal
position electrically or mechanically.
5. Crystal Can Relay:
They are so called, as they resemble quartz crystal in external shapes. These
are high performance hermetically sealed miniature or sub-miniature relay
widely used in aerospace and military application. These relays usually have
gold plated contacts and thus have extremely low contact resistance. Due to
low moment of inertia of the armature and also due to statically and
dynamically balanced nature of armature, these relays switch quite reliably
even under extreme condition of shock and vibration.
6. Co-axial Relay:
A Co-axial Relay has two basic parts, an actuator which is nothing but some
kind of a coil and a cavity, housing the relay contacts. The co-axial relay are
extensively used for radio frequency switching operations of equipment
THE JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
Collector Collector
Base Base
Emitter Emitter
C C
B B
E E
NPN PNP
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
+ + + + + _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
+ + + + + + + + + +
+ + +
+ + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + -- -- -- --
How to control sensors
What is a voltage divider?
You are going to find out but don't be in too much of a hurry. Work through
the Chapter and allow the explanation to develop.
The diagram below shows a light dependent resistor, or LDR, together
with its circuit symbol:
The light-sensitive part of the LDR is a wavy track of cadmium sulphide.
Light energy triggers the release of extra charge carriers in this material, so
that its resistance falls as the level of illumination increases.
A light sensor uses an LDR as part of a voltage divider.
The essential circuit of a voltage divider, also called a potential divider, is:
What happens if one of the resistors in the voltage divider is replaced by an
LDR? In the circuit below, Rtop is a 10 resistor, and an LDR is used as
Rbottom :
Suppose the LDR has a resistance of 500 , 0.5 , in bright light, and 200
in the shade (these values are reasonable).
When the LDR is in the light, Vout will be:
In the shade, Vout will be:
In other words, this circuit gives a LOW voltage when the LDR is in the
light, and a HIGH voltage when the LDR is in the shade. The voltage divider
circuit gives an output voltage which changes with illumination.
A sensor subsystem which functions like this could be thought of as a 'dark
sensor' and could be used to control lighting circuits which are switched on
automatically in the evening.
Perhaps this does not seem terribly exciting, but almost every sensor circuit
you can think of uses a voltage divider. There's just no other way to make
sensor subsystems work.
Here is the voltage divider built with the LDR in place of Rtop :
Temperature sensors
A temperature-sensitive resistor is called a thermistor. There are several
different types:
The resistance of most common types of thermistor decreases as the
temperature rises. They are called negative temperature coefficient, or ntc,
thermistors. Note the -t° next to the circuit symbol. A typical ntc thermistor
is made using semiconductor metal oxide materials. (Semiconductors have
resistance properties midway between those of conductors and insulators.)
As the temperature rises, more charge carriers become available and the
resistance falls.
Although less often used, it is possible to manufacture positive temperature
coefficient, or ptc, thermistors. These are made of different materials and
show an increase in resistance with temperature.
How could you make a sensor circuit for use in a fire alarm? You want a
circuit which will deliver a HIGH voltage when hot conditions are detected.
You need a voltage divider with the ntc thermistor in the Rtop position:
How could you make a sensor circuit to detect temperatures less than 4°C to
warn motorists that there may be ice on the road? You want a circuit which
will give a HIGH voltage in cold conditions. You need a voltage divider
with the thermistor in place of Rbottom :
This last application raises an important question: How do you know what
value of Vout you are going to get at 4°C?
Key point: The biggest change in Vout from a voltage divider is obtained
when Rtop and Rbottom are equal in value
Sound sensors
Another name for a sound sensor is a microphone. The diagram shows a
cermet microphone:
Cermet' stands for 'ceramic' and 'metal'. A mixture of these materials is used
in making the sound-sensitive part of the microphone. To make them work
properly, cermet microphones need a voltage, usually around 1.5 V across
them. A suitable circuit for use with a 9 V supply is:
The 4.7 and the 1 resistors make a voltage divider which provides
1.6 V across the microphone. Sound waves generate small changes in
voltage, usually in the range 10-20 mV. To isolate these small signals from
the steady 1.6 V, a capacitor is used.
Signals from switches
When a switch is used to provide an input to a circuit, pressing the switch
usually generates a voltage signal. It is the voltage signal which triggers the
circuit into action. What do you need to get the switch to generate a voltage
signal? . . . You need a voltage divider. The circuit can be built in either of
two ways:
The pull down resistor in the first circuit forces Vout to become LOW
except when the push button switch is operated. This circuit delivers a HIGH
voltage when the switch is pressed. A resistor value of 10 is often used.
In the second circuit, the pull up resistor forces Vout to become HIGH
except when the switch is operated. Pressing the switch connects Vout
directly to 0 V. In other words, this circuit delivers a LOW voltage when the
switch is pressed.
In circuits which process logic signals, a LOW voltage is called 'logic 0' or
just '0', while a HIGH voltage is called 'logic1' or '1'. These voltage divider
circuits are perfect for providing input signals for logic systems.
What kinds of switches could you use. One variety of push button switch is
called a miniature tactile switch. These are small switches which work well
with prototype board:
SOLDERING
Soldering is the process of joining two metallic conductors the joint
where two metal conductors are to be joined or fused is heated with a device
called soldering iron and then as allow of tin and lead called solder is applied
which melts and converse the joint. The solder cools and solidifies quickly to
ensure is good and durable connection between the jointed metal converting the
joint solder also present oxidation.
SOLDERING & DESOLDERING TECHNIQUES :
There are basically two soldering techniques:
I. Manual soldering with iron.
II. Mass soldering.
The iron consist of an insulated handle connected via a metal shank to
the bit the function of bit is to
1. Stare host & convey it to the component
2. To store and deliver molten solder 7 flux.
3. To remove surplus solder from joints.
Soldering bit are made of copper because it has good heat capacity &
thermal conductivity. It may erode after long term use to avoid it coating of
nickel or tin is used.
SOLDERING WITH IRON :
The surface to be soldered must be cleaned & fluxed. The soldering iron
switched on & bellowed to attain soldering temperature. The solder in form of
wire is allied hear the component to be soldered &b heated with iron. The
surface to be soldered is filled, iron is removed & the joint is cold without
disturbing.
Solder joint are supposed to
1. Provide permanent low resistance path
2. Make a robust mechanical link between PCB & leads of components.
3. Allow heat flow between component, joining elements & PCB.
4. Retain adequate strength with temperature variation.
The following precaution should be taken while soldering.
1. Use always an iron plated copper core tip for soldering iron.
2. Slightly fore the tip with a cut file when it is cold.
3. Use a wet sponge to wipe out dirt from the tip before soldering instead of
asking the iron.
4. Tighten the tip screw if necessary before iron is connected to power
supply.
5. Clean component lead & copper pad before soldering.
6. Use proper tool for component handling instead of direct handling.
7. Apply solder between component leads, PCB pattern & tip of soldering
iron.
8. Iron should be kept in contact with the joint s for 2-3 second s only
instead of keeping for very long or very small time.
9. Use optimum quantity of solder.
10. Use multistoried wire instead of single strands solvent like isopropyl
alcohol.
11. Every time soldering is over, put a little clean solder on the tip.
Advantages :
1. Low power consumption- leds consume very less power as compare to CFL. Bulb
of 15 leds consume 150mA*1.5v only. Each led is of 1.5 v and 10mA
2. Reliablity is more- if one led will get damage even then over torch will work.
3. Low cost. LED lamp is less costly as compare to CFL.
Disadvantages-
1. Light intensity is less