emotional intelligence, emotional labour …...vision—the journal of business perspective vol. 12...

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, EMOTIONAL LABOURAND WORK EFFECTIVENESS IN SERVICEORGANISATIONS: A PROPOSED MODEL

Abdul Kadir Othman, Hazman Shah Abdullah and Jasmine Ahmad

The paper draws together literature on emotional intelligence (EI) and emotional labour (EL) and examinesits influence on work effectiveness (WQ) in different business settings; professional service, service shopand mass service. In professional service, it is proposed that EI is important in assisting employees toachieve highly in five facets of WQ; job role, career role, innovator role, team role and organisation role. Inservice shop, the influence of EI is moderate but the role of EL is increasingly important. In mass service, EIdoes not significantly contribute to high WQ instead EL plays its effective role in promising WQ. Therefore,the role of emotional intelligence and emotional labour in influencing service quality is dependent on thetype of service organisations.

Key Words: Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Labour, Work Effectiveness, Service Types

INTRODUCTION

THIS paper examines the growing application ofemotional intelligence (EI) in the development ofhuman capital in modern organisations. A number

of studies have posited the importance of EI in workperformance (Abraham, 2004, Austin, 2004, Carmeli,2003, Gabriel and Griffiths, 2002, Higgs, 2004, Law,Wong and Song, 2004, Lyons and Schneider, 2005, Sy,Tram, and O’ Hara, 2006, and Varca, 2004) as well asservice provision (Bardzil and Slaski, 2003, Kernbachand Schutte, 2005,Sojka, and Deeter-Schmeiz, 2002).Many service businesses compete successfully on thebasis of high tech or high touch operations or acombination of both. The EI proponents support itsuniversal efficacy. But, it is well established in servicescience that service businesses vary significantly(Lovelock, 1983, Schmenner, 1986, and Shostack, 1977).This paper is an attempt to develop a contingency basedor nuanced view of the fit between different types ofservice businesses and the potential role of EI ininfluencing service providers’ work effectiveness (WQ).The role of EI is defined via a set of propositions in three

service settings namely professional service, service shopand mass service. Where the intensity of service provider-client interaction is high (more thick informationexchange, high discretion, extended interaction, highvalue exchange, for example in a professional service),EI will play an important role in affecting WQ. In serviceswhere the intensity of service provider-client interactionis low (for example consumer banking), EI has a morelimited role in promising WQ. Given the relative intensityand competitive centrality of human capital in servicebusinesses, the concept of EI is viewed as particularlyimportant in developing competitive advantage.However, in services management, the concept ofemotional labour (EL), which refers to “the managementof feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodilydisplay” (Hochschild, 1983) cannot be ignored.Organisations establish display rules, which are meantto control the employees’ behaviours during serviceencounter and generate emotional labour demands.Service personnel are required to display appropriateemotions to enhance their role. However, EL is effectivedepending on the contexts it is applied. This paperattempts to relate the concept of EI as well as EL to WQ

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VISION—The Journal of Business Perspective ● Vol. 12 ● No. 1 ● January–March 2008

32 ● Othman, Abdullah and Ahmad

according to different service settings. It is proposed thatservice provider with different levels of EI willsignificantly influence WQ through its differentdimensions; job role, career role, innovator role, teamrole and organisation role. The relationships aremoderated by different service settings.

Emotional Intelligence

Reviewing various definitions of emotional intelligence(EI), the one suggested by Mayer and Salovey (1997)is borrowed since the paper is meant to look at the EIas an ability to perceive, regulate and use emotions andnot as the competencies as proposed by other authors.Mayer and Salovey’s ability model defines EI as“intelligence” in the traditional sense, that is, as a setof mental abilities to do with emotions and theprocessing of emotional information that are a part of,and contribute to, logical thought and intelligence ingeneral. These abilities are arranged hierarchically frombasic psychological processes to the morepsychologically integrated and complex, and arethought to develop with age and experience in muchthe same way as crystallised abilities. Moreover, theyare considered to be independent of traits and talentsand preferred ways of behaving (Mayer and Salovey,

1990). Therefore, EI is defined as the ability to perceiveaccurately, appraise, and express emotion; the abilityto access and/or generate feelings when they facilitatethought; the ability to understand emotion andemotional knowledge; and the ability to regulateemotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth.The detail and description of each dimension is includedin Table 1.

Emotional Labour

Emotional labour (EL) is viewed as the display of aparticular emotion in exchange for a wage. Wong andLaw (2002) in reviewing works on EL summarised thatthere are at least three types of “labour” to be offered tothe organisation in exchange for reward. Mental labourrefers to the cognitive skills and knowledge as well asthe expertise of employees. Physical labour refers to thephysical efforts of employees to achieve organisationalgoals. Emotional labour refers to the extent to which anemployee is required to present an appropriate emotionin order to perform the job in an efficient and effectivemanner (Wong and Law, 2002).

One of the earliest works on EL is the one that hasbeen carried out by Hochschild (1983). The studyintroduced the construct of EL as the act of managing

Table 1: EI Dimensions/Branches and Descriptions of Exemplary skills

Dimensions/Branches Descriptions

Ability to identify emotion in one’s physical and psychological states

Perceiving Emotion Ability to identify emotion in other people

Ability to express emotions accurately and to express needs related to them

Ability to discriminate between accurate/honest and inaccurate/dishonest feelings

Ability to redirect and prioritise thinking on the basis of associated feelings

Using Emotions to Ability to generate emotions to facilitate judgment and memory

Facilitate Thought Ability to capitalise on mood changes to appreciate multiple points of view

Ability to use emotional states to facilitate problem solving and creativity

Ability to understand relationships among various emotions

Understanding Emotions Ability to perceive the causes and consequences of emotions

Ability to understand complex feelings, emotional blends, and contradictory states

Ability to understand transitions among emotions

Ability to be open to feelings, both pleasant and unpleasant

Ability to monitor and reflect on emotions

Managing Emotions Ability to engage in, prolong, or detach from an emotional state

Ability to manage emotions in oneself

Ability to manage emotions in others

Source: Salovey, Kokkonen, Lopes and Mayer (2004)


Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Labour and Work Effectiveness in Service Organisations ● 33

emotion in the service of one’s job. Hochschild definedEL as “the management of feeling to create a publiclyobservable facial and bodily display”. She suggests thatEL involves the induction or suppression of feeling inorder to sustain in others a sense of being cared for in aconvivial safe place (Hochschild, 1983). Hochschild(1983) also proposed a classification of occupationsbased on their EL demands. The occupations high in ELare in the categories of professional technical (e.g. nurses,physicians, therapists, and lawyers), clerical (e.g.cashiers, clerks, bank tellers and bill collectors) andservice workers (e.g. protective service workers,personnel service workers, health service workers andwaiters). In most theories, employees are required todisplay the standard expression of emotions regardlessof how they actually feel (Grandey, 2000). Research onEL primarily focuses on the two dimensions namelysurface act and deep act (Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002,Brotheridge, and Lee, 2003). Surface act is fake unfeltemotions and/or suppress felt emotions. Deep act, on theother hand, is modification of felt emotions so thatgenuine display of emotion will follow.

The display rules are present in a number ofoccupations and generate EL demands. Servicepersonnel are typically expected to display positiveemotions to promote goodwill, patronage and spendingwhile keeping to themselves their negative feelings(Diefendorff and Richard, 2003, Grandey, 2000,Hochschild, 1983, Rafaeli and Sutton, 1987) policeinterrogators and bill collectors are demanded to displaynegative emotions to gain compliance from debtors andsuspects (Stenross and Kleiman, 1989 and Sutton,1991). In this paper, EL refers the extent to which anemployee is required to display an appropriate emotionin order to perform the job efficiently and effectivelyby using surface acting.

Service Typology

Silvestro, Fitzgerald, Johnson and Voss (1992) proposeda classification scheme based on business processes,bringing together several previously suggestedclassification scheme into a cohesive framework. Basedon data from eleven service industries, the authorssuggested three types of service processes; professionalservice, service shops and mass services. Theclassification is based on six dimensions; people versusequipment, level of customisation, extent of employee/customer contact, level of employee discretion, valueadded in back office versus front office and productversus process focus. This paper will apply the servicetypologies suggested by Silvestro et al. (1992). The threeservice process types are shown in Table 2.

Job Performance

Job performance is defined as the aggregated value tothe organisation of the discrete behavioural episodes thatan individual performs over a standard interval of time(Motowidlo, Borman, and Schmit, 1997). Jobperformance, in this paper, serves as a proxy of workeffectiveness as it is used to assess how well theemployees have accomplished their assigned tasks. Jobperformance is divided into two dimensions; taskperformance and contextual performance (Borman andMotowidlo, 1993). Task performance refers tobehaviours that are directly linked with completion ofthe job. It consists of two types; executing technicalprocesses, and maintaining and servicing technicalrequirements (Motowidlo, Borman, and Schmit, 1997).Contextual performance, on the other hand, refers tointerpersonal behaviours or actions that benefit theorganisation. It includes activities such as helping andcooperating with others, following organisational rules

Table 2: Silvestro’s et al. (1992) Service Classification Scheme

Service Types Description Examples

Organisations with relatively few transactions, highly customised, Consultants, corporate banks,

Professional Service process oriented, with relatively long customer contact time. doctors and architectsValue added process occurs in the front office where considerablejudgment is applied in meeting customer needs.

A category which falls between professional and mass services. Retail banks, rental servicesService Shop Value added process occurs in the front office where considerable and hotels

judgment is applied in meeting customer needs.

Organisations where there are many customer transactions, Telecommunication,

Mass Service with limited contact time and little customisation. The offering is bus services and fast foodsmainly product-oriented with most of the value being added inthe back office and little judgment applied by the front office staff.



and procedures, and volunteering to carry out taskactivities (Motowidlo, Borman, and Schmit, 1997). Sincethere is a gap in the literature with regard to the genericfactors to measure job performance (authors andresearchers tend to construct factors underlying jobperformance specifically to tailor with their specificresearch needs), Welbourne, Johnson and Erez (1998)have taken the initiative to investigate the general factorsunderlying the job performance dimensions. They utilisetwo related theories, namely Role Theory and IdentityTheory and suggest five dimensions of job performanceknown as Role-Based Performance Scale (RBPS), whichhas been refined and tested by the authors. RBPS assessesdifferent facets of job incumbent’s roles, which consistof job, career, innovator, team and organisation role. Thefollowing discussions will utilise the RBPS model inestablishing the linkages between EI and workeffectiveness.

EI, Service Typology and Job Performance

A large body of research work has investigated therelationship between emotional intelligence andperformance. Employees’ emotional intelligence foundit to be positively associated with job satisfaction(Langhorn, 2004, Sy, Tram and O’ Hara, 2006 and,Wong and Law, 2002), positively associated withprediction of job advancement (Dulewicz and Higgs,2000), positively associated with organisationalcommitment (Wong and Law, 2002), positivelyassociated with work performance (Abraham, 2004,Austin, 2004, Carmeli, 2003, Gabriel and Griffiths, 2002,Higgs, 2004, Law, Wong and Song, 2004, Lyons andSchneider, 2005, Sy, Tram and O’ Hara, 2006, and Varca,2004), negatively associated with turnover intention(Wong and Law, 2002) and negatively related to stress(Dulewicz, Higgs and Slaski, 2003, Slaski, andCartwright, 2003).

EI and Job Role

Job has been defined as doing things specifically relatedto one’s job description (Welbourne, Johnson, and Erez,1998). Job role is the most salient aspect of the jobperformance model. Researchers have devoted a lot ofefforts in trying to establish associations between EI andwork performance especially with regard to the job beingcompleted (Abraham, 2004, Austin, 2004, Bachman,Stein, Campbell and Sitarenios, 2000, Carmeli, 2003,Dulewicz, Higgs and Slaski, 2003, Gabriel and Griffiths,2002, Higgs, 2004, Law, Wong and Song, 2004, Lyons

and Schneider, 2005, Sy, Tram and O’ Hara, 2006, andVarca, 2004). Employees with the abilities to perceive,understand, and regulate emotion in self and others andability to use emotion to facilitate thought and actionswould be able to achieve high performance in their job.They are able to accept job challenges, overcomeobstacles or work-related problems (Slaski andCartwright, 2002, 2003), and able to reduce the personal-job conflicts (Abraham, 1999). Those with low EIabilities tend to experience work-related stress (Slaskiand Cartwright, 2002, 2003) and emotional dissonance(Rafaeli and Sutton, 1987). Consequently jobdissatisfaction, a decline in organisational commitment,and, in turn, withdrawal intentions will entail (Abraham,1998, Morris, and Feldman, 1996) as well as lower jobperformance. Besides the significant relationshipbetween EI and performance, some studies have failedto establish the association between the two constructsand some found mixed results. Van Rooy andViswesvaran (2004) conducted meta-analyticinvestigation on 57 studies on EI performance link foundthat EI is weakly related to job performance. Besides,Jordan and Troth (2004) found that EI was unrelated toindividual performance. Instead, they found that EIpredicted group performance and integrative conflictresolution styles.

Basically, employees with high EI abilities willachieve high level of job performance and employeeswith low level of EI abilities will end up with low levelof job performance. However, the relationships aremoderated by types of services which they are associatedwith. Since the professional service is characterised ascustomised, high interaction and high judgment requiredfrom the service providers, they need to utilise the EIabilities to the highest level so that the services renderedmeet the objectives and effective work can beaccomplished as in the case of account officers(Bachman, Stein, Campbell, and Sitarenios, 2000),counsellors (Martin Jr, Easton, Wilson, Takemoto, andSullivan, 2004), professional salespersons (Rozell,Pettijohn, and Parker, 2006) and nurses (McQueen,2004). Leidner (1999) suggested that to be effective,service provider needs more than EL so that they do nothold up the work. In service shops, the need for EI ismoderate since the service is characterised by lesscustomised, less interaction and less judgment requiredon the part of service providers. In mass service, the jobperformed by service providers is characterised asroutine, low interaction and non-judgmental. The serviceis produced with little or without personal contact withthe customers therefore, EI plays little role in helping



employees to achieve effective work effectiveness.Employees can achieve high job performance byconforming to the SOP (Collier, 1990) or conformingto the organisation’s display rules (Brotheridge andGrandey, 2002, Hochschild, 1983, and Wharton, 1999).Studies have shown that EL is important in specific jobssuch as flight attendants (Hochschild, 1983),convenience store clerks (Sutton and Rafaeli, 1988),cashiers (Rafaeli, 1989), bill collectors (Sutton, 1991),waitresses (Paules, 1991), fast food restaurant workers(Leidner, 1993, 1996) and hairdressers (Parkinson,1991). Therefore, the following proposition isdeveloped.

Proposition 1(a): Depending on service types, EIsignificantly and positively influences workeffectiveness through job role. The influence of EIon work effectiveness (job role) is high inprofessional service, moderate in service shop andlow in mass service.

Proposition 1(b): Depending on service types, ELsignificantly and positively influences workeffectiveness through job role. The influence of ELon work effectiveness (job role) is high in massservice, moderate in service shop and low inprofessional service.

EI and Career Role

Career has been defined as obtaining the necessaryskills to progress through one’s organisation(Welbourne, Johnson, and Erez, 1998). The conceptof career as suggested by the authors is related to careercommitment and career satisfaction. Careercommitment refers to identification with andinvolvement in one’s occupation (Meuller, Wallace,and Price, 1992) and career satisfaction refers to one’sfeelings of satisfaction with his or her career as a whole(Lounsbury et al., 2003). Employees who are satisfiedwith their career should feel high career commitmentand are willing to obtain the necessary skills to progressthrough the organisation (Poon, 2004). She added thatpeople who are able to perceive and understand theirfeelings should be able to assess their job skills andinterests, set appropriate career objectives, developrealistic career plans, and obtain the developmentalexperiences needed to take advantage of careeropportunities (Poon, 2004). Studies have found thatEI is positively related to career commitment (Aremu,2005, Carson and Carson, 1998), career success(Cooper, 1997), career progress (Dulewicz and Higgs,

2000), and career development (Brown, George Curranand Smith, 2003, Stough, and De Guara, 2003). Onestudy found that EI moderates the effect of work-familyconflict on career commitment (Carmeli, 2003).Besides, one study emphasises on the importance ofemotion management on career orientation (Pulkkinen,Ohranen, and Tolvanen, 1999). To sum up, employeeswith high abilities to accurately perceive emotion in selfand others, understand emotions of self and others,manage those emotions, and use the emotions tofacilitate thought and actions may achieve career roleeffectiveness but employees with low EI abilities mayobtain low career role effectiveness. Again, therelationships are moderated by service types to whichthe employees are attached.

Bringing in the Silvestro’s et al. (1992) servicepositioning matrix, professional service providers requireEI abilities to achieve high career role. Since professionalservice providers deal with customised needs of thecustomers they have to equip themselves with thenecessary skills so that they can use their judgment tobetter serve the customers. Having high emotionalawareness facilitates the use of emotional input to formjudgment, make choices, and decide among options andhaving the ability to express emotions enables one toeffectively communicate with others to realise one’s goals(George, 2000). In service shop, the need for EI tofacilitate one’s career role is lower since the service ismore standardised and has lesser degree of interactionwith customers. The urgency to acquire necessary skillsto work effectively with customers is lower compared toprofessional service. At the other end of the continuum,mass service employees require the minimum amount ofEI abilities to gain career role effectiveness. Since theservice is standardised, EI may slightly influence serviceproviders to acquire necessary skills to progress in one’sjob. Career role in mass service is structured and predetermined by the management. It is basically associatedwith the EL practices of how to please the customers.Employees are rewarded with raises and promotions ifthey comply with display rules (Sutton, 1991). Therefore,the following proposition is suggested.

Proposition 2(a): Depending on service types, EIsignificantly and positively influences workeffectiveness through career role. The influence ofEI on work effectiveness (career) is high inprofessional service, moderate in service shop andlow in mass service.

Proposition 2(b): Depending on service types, ELsignificantly and positively influences work



effectiveness through career role. The influence ofEL on work effectiveness (career) is high in massservice, moderate in service shop and low inprofessional service.

EI and Innovator Role

Innovator has been defined as creativity and innovationin one’s job and the organisation as a whole(Welbourne, Johnson, and Erez, 1998). If organisationsintend to remain competitive in a complex and changingenvironment, they must have the employees who arenot only creative in their jobs but also contribute to theeffectiveness and adaptability of the organisations as awhole (Schein, 1980). Thompson and Werner (1997)asserted that “in most organisations, it is no longersufficient for an employee simply to carry out his orher essential job functions. Employees today areexpected to take initiative and engage in thosebehaviours which insure that the organisation’s goalsare realised. Moreover, the rapid pace of change inmany industries today has made the “job descriptions”per se somewhat obsolete”. Creativity has been definedas “the product of novel and useful ideas” (George andZhou, 2002, Madjar, Oldham, and Pratt, 2002). Creativeideas are derived from the employees’ abilities toidentify relationships or associations that others did notsee. Innovation or creativity is not a straight forwardprocess. According to Easterby-Smith, Crossan andNiccolini (2000), innovative learning is obviouslycomplex, involving a mix of rational, intuitive,emotional and social processes. Similarly, a number ofstudies have fairly established that emotion plays animportant role in employees’ readiness to be creativeand innovative (Amabile, Barsade, Mueller and Staw,2005, Fenwick, 2003, Fong, 2006, Fredrickson, 1998,2001, and Park, 2005). Studies have shown that EI isrelated to innovation and creativity (Stough and DeGuara, 2003, Suliaman, and Al-Shaikh, 2006).Employees with high EI will result in high innovatorrole but employees with low EI will end up with lowinnovator role. Emotionally intelligent employees areable to identify, understand, manage and use negativeor positive feelings by the way of finding associationsamong available elements to find novel and creativesolution to the problem at hand.

The relationships, nonetheless, are moderated byservice types in which the employees are working. Inprofessional service, services offered are customisedand require discretion and judgment from the service

providers. Creativity and innovation in one’s job ishighly valued in attending to the customers’ needs andconcern. In service shop, the need for EI is lowercompared to professional service. Complying with thejob requirements and using little discretion andjudgment are expected from the employees. Their roleis restricted to the organisations’ established rules(Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002, Hochschild, 1983,and Wharton, 1999). In mass service, since the servicesoffered are standardised, routine and with minimumlevel of interaction with the customers, serviceproviders cannot use EI abilities to facilitate theirinnovator role. Employees in fast food restaurants, forexample, are working in accordance to the establishedstandard operating procedures (SOP) with littleinteraction with the customers. Deviation from theprocedures is not tolerated therefore, the need for EI tofacilitate employees’ innovator role is minimum in massservice. They need EL more than EI in performingeffective work. Therefore, the following proposition issuggested.

Proposition 3(a): Depending on service types, EIsignificantly and positively influences workeffectiveness through innovator role. The influenceof EI on work effectiveness (innovator role) is highin professional service, moderate in service shop andlow in mass service.

Proposition 3(b): Depending on service types, ELsignificantly and positively influences workeffectiveness through innovator role. The influenceof EL on work effectiveness (innovator role) is highin mass service, moderate in service shop and lowin professional service.

EI and Team Role

Team has been defined as working with co-workers andteam members towards success of the firm (Welbourne,Johnson, and Erez, 1998). The importance of team rolein organisation as well as in research has recently beenrealised and given a special attention due to its effect increating a synergy in work outcomes. Thus, teamworkhas been included in the new performance models(Borman and Motowidlo, 1997, and Campbell, 1990).A number of studies have highlighted the link betweenEI and team performance. Rice (1999) suggested that EIplays a role in certain aspects of effective team leadershipand team performance. Stough and De Guara (2003)found that emotional control, a component of EI waspositively related to the ability to work as a team member



towards the success of the organisation. Similarly,Feyerherm and Rice (2002) found that understandingemotion and managing emotion were positively corelatedwith some measures of team performance especially withregard to customer service dimensions suggesting theimportance of EI in customer service environment.Perlini and Halverson (2006) found both intrapersonalcompetency and general mood, components of EI,predicted number of National Hockey League points andgames played. Jordan, Ashkanasy, Hartel and Hooper(2002) found that high EI teams operated at high levelof performance throughout the study period. Rapisarda(2002) found that EI competencies of influence, empathyand achievement orientation were positively related tostudents and faculty ratings of team cohesiveness. Shealso found that empathy was positively related to studentand faculty ratings of team performance, whereasachievement orientation was positively related to studentratings of team performance. Jordan and Troth (2004)found that EI predicted successful problem solving ofcognitive tasks in teams and contributed to integrativeconflict resolution styles and team performance. Thefindings are consistent with their earlier studies (Jordanand Troth, 2002).

To sum up, employees who have high EI abilitieswill attain effective team role but employees with lowEI abilities will result in ineffective team role. Teameffectiveness is obtained through empathy, cooperation,collaborative efforts in problem solving and conflictavoidance. The relationships, nevertheless, aremoderated by the types of service the employees areaffiliated to. In professional service, employees areexpected to work in team so that they can perform attheir best. Therefore, the abilities to perceive, understand,manage and use emotions in self and others are criticalin contributing to the team role effectiveness. In serviceshops, since the services are more standardised and lessinteraction, the need for EI abilities is moderate.Although team work is important, it is not as critical asin professional service. Usually, there are someguidelines stipulated by the management of how the teamshould work together. In mass service, the employeesare offering standardised and routine services withminimum interaction with the customers. Althoughworking in team is required, the management usuallyhas already determined every aspects of team so that theteam can function effectively. Rules and regulations areestablished, roles and functions of team members arepredetermined, and methods are fixed by themanagement. Therefore, in mass service, because ofstructured team role, the need for EI is the least significant

for the employees to achieve effective team role.Complying with display rules or adopting EL practicesmay be adequate to work in highly structured team asthe case in mass service. According to Wharton andErickson (1993) employees are required to displayintegrative emotions intended to bring people together.One has quoted that “in highly standardised situation, itmay be easy to fake an emotion. In less standardisedsituations (such as in professional service) there is thedanger that the true feelings may lurk through and maybe recognised by other people” (Zapf, 2002). Therefore,the following proposition is formed.

Proposition 4(a): Depending on service types, EIsignificantly and positively influences workeffectiveness through team role. The influence ofEI on work effectiveness (team role) is high inprofessional service, moderate in service shop andlow in mass service.

Proposition 4(b): Depending on service types, ELsignificantly and positively influences workeffectiveness through team role. The influence ofEL on work effectiveness (team role) is high in massservice, moderate in service shop and low inprofessional service.

EI and Organisation Role

Organisation has been defined as going above the callof duty in one’s concern for the firm (Welbourne,Johnson, and Erez, 1998). The concept is associated withorganisational citizenship behaviours (OCBs) (Organ,1988) where OCBs are defined as discretionarybehaviours on the part of a person that are believed topromote directly the effective functioning of anorganisation. Researchers have recently realised theimportance of organisation role in employees’ workperformance model (Borman and Motowidlo, 1993,Brief and Motowidlo, 1986, Campbell, 1990, Johnson,2001, MacKenzie, Podsakoff and Ahearne, 1998,Motowidlo and Van Scotter, 1994, Podsakoff andMacKenzie, 1997, and Rotundo and Sackett, 2002). OCBconsists of behaviours that go beyond specific rolerequirements, with the stipulation that such behavioursare performed voluntarily without expectation of rewards(Brief and Motowidlo, 1986). They include altruism(helping others), conscientiousness (going beyond theminimum role requirements), courtesy (preventing work-related problems from occurring), sportsmanship(tolerating unfavourable circumstances withoutcomplaining) and civic virtue (participating in, involving



in, and concerning about the life of the company)(Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, and Fetter, 1990).Research has demonstrated that positive emotion (e.g.enthusiasm and pride) is related to organisationalcitizenship behaviour (OCB) whereas negative emotion(e.g. anger and anxiety) is related to counterproductivework behaviour (CWB) (Spector and Fox, 2002). OCBis associated with empathy and perceived ability to help.Abraham (1999) claimed that EI may enhance certainprosocial behaviours, one of which is assisting co-workers with personal matters. Research has also shownmixed results on the ability of EI to enhance citizenshipbehaviours. Day and Carroll (2004) found that EI wereunrelated to individual-level citizenship behaviour butsomewhat related to group-level citizenship behaviour.Similarly, Côté and Miners (2006) found that theassociation between EI and OCB directed at theorganisation becomes more positive as cognitiveintelligence decreases, but not the association betweenEI and OCB directed at the individual.

Employees who have high EI abilities are able togenerate positive emotion and reduce negative onethrough emotion management to achieve highorganisation role but employees with low EI abilities mayend up with low organisation role. Again, therelationships are moderated by the types of services withwhich the employees are associated. In professionalservice, since the service is customised dependent onemployees’ discretion and high interaction with thecustomers, the abilities to perceive, understand, manageand use emotions in self and others will significantlycontribute to organisation role. Employees with high EIabilities are able to align their needs and organisationneeds and able to anticipate their future with theorganisation. Besides, they are able to see others’ workrelated problems and are willing to offer their help. Inservice shops, since the services are more standardisedand less interaction with the customers as well as otheremployees, going above the call of duties e.g. helpingothers and promoting the company may produce betteroutcomes but not as significant as in professional service.In mass service, offering standardised and routine servicedoes not significantly require employees’ discretion andjudgment as well as interaction with others. Therefore,EI role is the least significant in helping the employeesto perform well as suggested by Zapf (2002) that doing“object-related work” does not require effective emotionmanagement. Besides, going above the call of duties, tohelp others and promoting the organisation for example,is the least significant in the service delivery. Conforming

to the SOP is the norms. Therefore, the followingproposition is recommended.

Proposition 5(a): Depending on service types, EIsignificantly and positively influences workeffectiveness through organisation role. Theinfluence of EI on work effectiveness (organisationrole) is high in professional service, moderate inservice shop and low in mass service.

Proposition 5(b): Depending on service types, ELsignificantly and positively influences workeffectiveness through organisation role. Theinfluence of EL on work effectiveness (organisationrole) is high in mass service, moderate in serviceshop and low in professional service.

CONCLUSION

Service work involves interacting with others (customers,colleagues and managers), therefore dealing withemotions is inevitable. This paper examines the role ofEI in influencing work effectiveness in serviceorganisations. EI as an ability to perceive, use, understandand manage emotions is critical for service providers toeffectively carry out their work. Borrowing Welbourne,Johnson and Erez’s (1998) model of job performance, ithas been shown that EI plays a salient role in influencingservice providers’ job role, career role, innovator role,team role and organisation role towards an extent that isrequired by types of services to which they are associated.Using Silvestro’s et al. (1992) service positioning matrix,the propositions are made based on the characteristicsof service types. EI is proposed to be the most salientconcept in professional service whereas EL is the mostimportant concept in mass service to influenceemployees’ work effectiveness. The role of EI as wellas EL in service shop is believed to be moderate. Thediagram in Figure 1 depicts the influence of EI as wellas EL on service employees’ work effectiveness byconsidering the effects of service types on theirrelationships.

Managerial and Research Implication

Since it has been established that EI affects workeffectiveness of the service providers especially thosewho are associated with professional service, themanagement should consider selecting staff with highEI and developing the EI skills and abilities so that thehuman capital is ready to pursue particular strategies ofcustomer intimacy, care and nurturing. Given that EIabilities can be developed, training in specific facets of



EI; appraising, understanding emotions and managingin self and others as well as utilising emotions to facilitateperformance would guarantee that the service providerscould deliver services as expected by the management.Training in EI is proven to enhance service provision(Bardzil and Slaski, 2003). Moreover, the managementshould consider the organisation’s compensation systemto value not only the hard skills but also the soft skills ofthe employees. Besides, the compensation system shouldalso reflect on the employees’ creativity and innovation,teamwork effectiveness and organisation citizenshipbehaviours. These employees’ extra-job roles requirehigh EI abilities. Another aspect to consider is the currentselection process practiced by the organisations. Again,the selection process should reflect not only on theapplicants’ hard skills but also their soft skills. Newemployees with high emotional awareness and regulationshould be hired (Ashkanasy, 2002, Jordan, Ashkanasyand Hartel, 2002, and Leidner, 1999).

The paper limits its scope in investigating therelationship between EI and WQ. Some moderatingfactors that naturally embedded in the service types(Silvestro, Fitzgerald, Johnson, and Voss, 1992) havebeen included (by design) but, some are omitted (thoserelated to personal differences such as personality traits).Future research should include these factors to controlthe unintended variances. Besides, future research shouldfocus on testing the conceptualisation of the relationshipsbetween EI and WQ in different service settings.However, proper care should be taken in ensuring thatthe findings are valid and reliable so that they can begeneralised to the whole service industry. First, there areabundant of EI measures available to be adapted.Researchers should properly select the best measure thatcan produce the intended results. A brief but practical

scale should be used so that the researcher should obtainan acceptable response rate. Second, the homogeneityof the sample should be ensured by looking at theorganisation with a comparable size or operation (e.g.,HQ or branch) (Calder, Phillips and Tybout, 1981). Aproper selection of the sample is able to reduce theunexplained variance due to sampling error, and whatremains is the one explained by the variables in themodel. As an internal measure, job performance shouldbe observed from two different perspectives; peerevaluation and supervisor evaluation. It is suggestedbecause looking at job performance from differentperspectives can eliminate or at least reduce the biasassociated with the single source ratings. Furthermore,the accuracy of the assessment is more likely to beachieved because the peer can provide information thatthe supervisor is lacking since the peer is closer to theemployee than the supervisor.

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Figure 1: A Normative Model of EI, Service Typologies, EL and WQ

ProfessionalService

W QServiceShop

MassService

Low

Med

High

Cus

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izat

ion

HighE1

Low

LowEL

High



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Abdul Kadir Othman ([email protected]) is Lecture at the Faculty of Office Management and Technology, MARA Universityof Technology, Terengganu Branch. He is currently pursuing his PhD on the Influence of Emotional Intelligence on Work Effectivenessin Service Industry at the Faculty of Administrative Science and Policy Studies, MARA University of Technology, Shah Alam.

Hazman Shah Abdullah ([email protected]) is Professor, Human Resource Management , Faculty of Administrative Scienceand Policy Studies, MARA University of Technology, Shah Alam. He has written and published numerous articles on different themes,which include Human Resource Management, Quality Management, Administrative Science and Strategic Management, to name a few.

Jasmine Ahmed ([email protected]) is Associate Professor , Human Resource Management Faculty of AdministrativeScience and Policy Studies, MARA University of Technology, Shah Alam. Her work has been published in number of local as well asinternational journals.

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