ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

INTERNATIONAL MEDIA AND COMMUNICATIONS EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

DONALD H.JOHNSTON Columbia University New York, New York

VOLUME 4 R-Z

(Ю\ (Л ACADEMIC PRESS An imprint of Elsevier Science

Amsterdam Boston London New York Oxford Paris San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo

CONTENTS

Contents by Subject Area

Contributors

Foreword

Preface

Guide to the Use of the Encyclopedia

VOLUME 4 Radio Broadcasting: Post-1945 Christopher H. Sterling

Radio Broadcasting: Pre-1945 Christopher H. Sterling

Radio, Future Role of Dwight DeWerth-Pallmeyer

Radio, International Donald R. Browne

Rating Systems for Media Joanne Cantor

Reality-Based Television (Docudrama) Barbara J. Irwin

Reference Works (Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, etc.) Blanche Woolls

Religion and the Media Wayne Luther Thompson

Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania, Status of Media in Peter Gross

Russia, Status of Media in Michael J. Berlin

Satellite Broadcasting Robert M. Frieden

XI

XV

xxi

xxiii

xvii

1З

25

33

47

59

71

8 1

91

103

115

Saudi Arabia and Gulf States, Status of Media in 127 Deborah Wheeler

Science Reporting 143 Joanna S. Ploeger

Separatist Movements and the Media 155 Donald R. Shanor

Sexual Content in Film and Television 169 Amy Richards Franzini

Singapore, Status of Media in 177 Eddie C. Y. Kuo and Hao Xiaoming

Sources, Confidentiality of 193 Dominic Lasorsa

South Africa, Status of Media in 205 Sebiletso Mokone-Matabane

South America, Status of Media in 217 Joseph D. Straubhaar

Southeastern Africa, Status of Media in 227 Francis P. Kasoma

Soviet Union 1929-1991, Status of Media in 245 Laura Roselle

Spain and Portugal, Status of Media in 255 Jose A. Garcia Aviles

Sports Reporting 275 Stephen V. Bird

Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, and Iceland, Status of Media in 285 Helge Renning

Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan, Status of Media in 301 Nabil H. Dajani and Orayb Aref Najjar

Tabloid Journalism 317 Joe Atkinson

Taiwan, Status of Media in 329 Ringo Ma

V

VI Contents

Talk Show Culture Ellen Hume

Telegraph Christopher H. Sterling

Telephone Phyllis Bernt

Television Broadcasting: Cable TV Patrick R. Parsons

Television Broadcasting: Networks William A. Richter

Television Formats Riley Maynard

Television, Future Role of David F. Donnelly

Television, Role of: 1945-1975 Christopher H. Sterling

Television, Role of: 1975-Present George Comstock and Erica Scharrer

Terrorism and the Media Brigitte L. Nacos

Thailand, Status of Media in Peter J. Eng

Theatrical Films Randy Steinberg

Traditional Cultures, Impact of Media on Raul Reis

Turkey, Status of Media in Christine Ogan

Ukraine, Status of Media in Craig L. LaMay

United Kingdom, Status of Media in Holli Semetko

United Nations, Role of Joseph A. Mehan

United States, Status of Media in Jean Folkerts

Vietnam, Status of Media in Russell Hiang-Khng Heng

Violence in Films and Television Joanne Cantor

Virtual Diplomacy Sheryl J. Brown and Margarita S. Studemeister

War Reporting: Access, Censorship, and Other Issues John J. Schulz

З41

355

367

381

393

409

415

429

443

459

473

4 8 9

501

511

519

529

541

551

561

573

585

595

War Reporting, Overview 611 Debra Reddin van Tuyll

West Bank and Gaza, Status of Media in 623 Orayb Aref Najjar

Women in the Media 639 Marilyn Greenwald

Yugoslavia (Former), Status of Media in 653 Roland Brunner and Nena Skopljanac

Zimbabwe, Status of Media in 667 Last Moyo

Index 683

VOLUME 1 Adversary, Role of Media as 1 Brant Houston

Advertising and Promotion 7 John Philip Jones

Advertising: Electronic Media 17 Joanne Gula

Advertising: Evaluation of Effectiveness 27 John Philip Jones

Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay, Status of Media in 35 Silvio Waisbord

Armenia, Status of Media in 47 Christine Ogan

Australia and New Zealand, Status of Media in 53 John Henningham

Austria and Switzerland, Status of Media in 65 Werner A. Meier

Baltic States, Status of Media in 77 Marius Lukosiunas

Books 87 Murray Seeger

Books, Future Role of 105 Murray Seeger

Botswana, Status of Media in 121 James Zaffiro

Brazil, Status of Media in 129 Rosental Calmon Alves

Burma, Laos, and Cambodia, Status of Media in 139 Bertil Lintner

Contents VII

Business and Economics Journalism Nixon К. Kariithi

Cartoons and Animated Films S. L. Harrison

Cellular Telephony Richard A. Gershon

Censorship Michael S. Sweeney

Central America, Status of Media in Rick Rockwell

China, Status of Media in Judy Polumbaum

Cold War, Role of Media in Louis W. Liebovich

Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela, Status of Media in Leonardo C. Ferreira

Comic Strips and Comic Books John A. Lent

Communication Conglomerates Carla Brooks Johnston

Computer Networks Timothy Stephen and Sibel Adali

Computers, Early Development of Judith Clapp

Computers, Overview Sharon Kleinman

Computers: Personal Computers Harpreet Mahajan

Conflict of Interest Samuel P. Winch

Copyright Law Geoffrey P. Hull

Crime Reporting William J. Drummond

Cross-Cultural Communication Carla Brooks Johnston

Cultural Values and Mass Communications S. M. Mazharul Haque

Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary, Status of Media in Peter Bajomi-Läzär and Zuzana Simek

Daytime Television, Culture of Robert J. Thompson

Democracy and the Media Kathleen M. McGraw and R. Andrew Holbrook

Developing Nations and the Media George A. Krimsky

153

163

175

189

205

215

227

235

247

259

271

279

295

303

325

333

347

357

369

381

391

399

409

Disasters, Reporting of Phil Scraton

Documentary Films Jeremy Murray-Brown

Dramatic Shows (Television) Mary B. Cassata

East Africa, Status of Media in Nicholls K. Boas

Economic Development, Communication and Heather E. Hudson

Egypt, Status of Media in Hussein Amin

Electronic Commerce Rolf T. Wigand

Electronic Mail Teresa M. Harrison

Electronic (Virtual) Communities Nancy Williams and Barry Kort

English Language, Role in International Communications Larry E. Smith

English-Speaking West Africa, Status of Media in Ritchard Tamba M'Bayo

Environmental Movement and the Media Michael Frome

Ethics in Media, Overview Sherry Baker and Michael Perkins

Ethiopia, Status of Media in Getachew Metaferia

Ethnic and Foreign-Language Press Arthur S. Hayes

Ethnic and Gender Stereotyping Ronald N. Jacobs and Gayle Sulik

Ethnic Conflict and the Media Kimberly Jones

Ethnic Media, Overview Donald R. Shanor

VOLUME 2

Film Lisa Joniak

Film, Historic Development of

419

431

447

461

469

479

489

505

515

523

529

543

553

561

571

587

597

609

1

11

Bruce Evensen

VIII

Foreign Policy and the Media 23 Abbas Malek

France, Status of Media in 31 Raymond Kuhn

Freedom of Expression, Western Historical Foundations of 41 David J. Vergobbi

Freedom of Information Laws 53 Kathleen Edwards

Freedom of the Press, Concept of 69 Kyu Ho Youm

Freedom of the Press, Historic Aspects of 81 Leonard R. Sussman

Freedom of the Press in Africa 95 Lyombe Eko

Freedom of the Press in Asia 117 Shelton A. Gunaratne

Freedom of the Press in Eastern Europe 127 Donald R. Shanor

Freedom of the Press in Latin America 141 Craig L. LaMay and Coulter M. Bump

Freedom of the Press in the Former Soviet Republics 155 Laura Belin

Freedom of the Press in the Middle East and North Africa 169 Joel Campagna

Freedom of the Press in the United States 181 Margaret Blanchard

Freedom of the Press in Western Europe 193 Howard Tumber and Marina Prentoulis

French-Speaking Central Africa, Status of Media in 203 Festus Eribo

French-Speaking West Africa, Status of Media in 209 Mitchell Land

Germany 1933-1945, as Media Case Study 221 Rudolf Stöber

Germany, Status of Media in 237 Peter J. Humphreys

Ghana, Status of Media in 251 Carla W. Heath

Globalization of Media, Concept and Nature of 265 William Hachten

Global Media, Historic Development of 279 Monroe E. Price

Government Role in Media Carla Brooks Johnston

Greece, Status of Media in Michael G. Meimaris

Health and Medical Reporting Scott C. Ratzan, Matthew D. Matsaganis, and J. Gregory Payne

Hollywood, Culture and Influence of Michael Real

Hong Kong, Status of Media in Frank Ching

Human Rights Issues Susan Moeller

India, Status of Media in Ammu Joseph

Indonesia, Status of Media in Krishna Sen

Information Overload, Concept of David Shenk

Information Society William H. Dutton

Information Warfare Randall Whitaker

Intellectual Property Law Randall Larsen

Intelligence Gathering, Role of Media in John J. Schulz

International Communication Regimes J. P. Singh

Internet Elliot King

Internet Access Trevor R. Roycroft

Internet as Political Advocacy Forum Kenneth S. Rogerson

Internet: Commercial and Corporate Web Sites Jackie O. Pavlik

Internet, Global Aspects of Oussama Cherribi

Internet, Government Regulation of Barbara M. Jones

Internet, History and Development of Henry Edward Hardy

Internet Law Richard Warner

Internet News Reporting Abraham Santibanez

293

305

319

329

339

З51

363

383

395

407

419

429

451

463

477

489

503

509

517

527

541

551

563

Contents IX

Internet: Private and Personal Web Sites Susannah R. Stern

Investigative Journalism James L. Aucoin

Iraq, Status of Media in Mahmoud Tarabay

Ireland and Northern Ireland, Status of Media in Kevin Cullen

Islamic Culture, Role of Media in Richard W. Bulliet

Israel, Status of Media in Yehiel Limor

Italy, Status of Media in John English

Japan, Status of Media in Takesato Watanabe

Journalism/Communications Education LeAnne Daniels

Journalistic Codes of Ethics and Conduct Ralph D. Barney

Journals, Scholarly

575

5 8 3

5 9 3

5 9 9

611

6 2 1

6 3 3

6 4 1

6 5 5

6 7 З

6 8 7 Fytton Rowland and Hazel Woodward

Korea (North and South), Status of Media in Kyu Ho Youm

VOLUME 3

Legal System and the Media Arthur S. Hayes

Libel and Slander David Heller and Sandra Baron

Libraries, Public R. Kathleen Molz

Literacy, Current Status of Naz Rassool

Literacy, Historic Development of Randal Holme

Literary Journalism and the Media Helen Benedict

Magazines: News David E. Sumner

Magazines: Special Interest David Abrahamson

Malaysia, Status of Media in Lay Kim Wang

699

21

35

49

61

75

87

101

113

Media Criticism Craig L. LaMay

Mexico, Status of Media in Rick Rockwell

Minorities, Media Depiction of Joy F. Morrison

Namibia, Status of Media in James Zaffiro

National Development and Communications Robert L. Stevenson

Nationalist Movements and the Media Donald R. Shanor

National Security Affairs Reporting John J. Schulz

Native American Culture and the Media Shiela Reaves and Patty Loew

Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg, Status of Media in Kees Brants

New Media John V. Pavlik and Adam Clayton Powell III

News Agencies Christopher H. Sterling

Newspapers, Elite and National Richard Gross

Newspapers, Evolution of: 1955-Present Stephen Lacy and Daniel Riffe

Newspapers, Future Role of Roger F. Fidler

Newspapers, Local Dane S. Claussen

News Reporting, Radio Ronald Garay

News Reporting, Television Robert Zelnick

New World Information and Communication Order Leonard R. Sussman

Nigeria, Status of Media in Christopher Olugbenga Ayeni

Nonviolent Struggle and the Media Gene Sharp

North African States, Status of Media in Mustapha Masmoudi

Objectivity in Reporting Wolfgang Donsbach

Pacific Islands, Status of Media in

123

143

149

155

163

*77

191

2 0 5

215

2 2 5

235

2 4 7

257

2 6 7

277

2 9 9

315

3 3 5

З51

3 6 3

З71

3 8 3

3 9 3 Suzanna Layton

X Contents

Pakistan and Bangladesh, Status of Media in Shelton A. Gunaratne

Philippines, Status of Media in Sheila S. Coronel

Phonograms Geoffrey P. Hull

Photography Paul Martin Lester

Photojournalism (Still News Photography) David D. Perlmutter

Poetry, Drama, and Fiction Gail Shivel

Poland, Status of Media in Jane Leftwich Curry

Political Advertising Kathleen Hall Jamieson and Paul A. Waldman

Political Bias in the Media Holli Semetko

Political Cartoons Terry L. Seip

425

439

449

461

471

483

495

505

517

527

Politics and the Media Penn Kimball

Polling Frank Newport

Prior Restraint T. Barton Carter

Privacy vs Public Right to Know Jane E. Kirtley

Privatization, Liberalization, and Deregulation Folu F. Ogundimu

Propaganda John Spicer Nichols

Propaganda Films James Forsher

Public Journalism Tanni Haas

Public Opinion and the Media Carroll J. Glynn and Irkwon Jeong

Public Relations Don Bates

543

555

565

573

585

597

607

617

631

641