energy, science

8/9/2019 Energy, Science

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Energy Science Made Simple

1. INTRODUCTION Understanding how energy behaves especially on the more microscopic theoretical level is

not easy for even those with university science degrees. Present advanced concepts withnames such as thermodynamics, entropy, relativity, quantum mechanics, quantum field

theory, and string theories are difficult to comprehend. Often complicated formulas and

scientific jargon are used.

In this booklet all the concepts of energy are presented in a reasonably uncomplicated way.

hile these concepts presented are founded on modern accepted scientific information, many

of the e!planations are different than in present popular books. "oncise definitions are

provided that can be used in the same way in all disciplines of science and result in a quicker

understanding of the concepts presented. Understanding energy through concepts rather than

e!tensive formulas is stressed.

#he focus of this booklet is to provide concepts of energy that can be useful in general

education, for general interest, as well as being useful in practical applications in the fields ofengineering, physics, chemistry and biology. $ating %ear &' minimum.

Fig 1 Not many people understand present energy concepts such as entropy

2. MODERN ENERGY SCIENCE#raditionally (ngineering, Physics, "hemistry and )iology all focus on concepts of energy

in a different way. *or e!ample more comple! energy concepts in (ngineering are often

limited to topics involving thermodynamics. #his branch of science adopts the older +oule or

classical view of energy. In Physics the much bigger and modern (instein picture of energy

based on $elativity and uantum theories is popular. In "hemistry the study of energy is

often restricted to a small subset of thermodynamic topics mi!ed with quantum theories. In)iology the study of energy is severely restricted to a small subset of "hemistry energy

topics.

-any modern scientific and engineering developments involve energy concepts from

many scientific disciplines. -odern scientists and engineers therefore should be more

familiar with energy concepts outside of their specific areas. It is beneficial then to group the

basic concepts of energy from the different areas of science together. uch a common study

of energy is called energy science.

Our current understanding of energy comes from different time periods, different

disciplines of science, and different theories or models. hen studying energy science one

should be aware of which model is being used. ometimes an old model is used because it is

simpler to understand but this does not result in a knowledge of the latest ideas on the topic.


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It would be better to find a simple way of e!plaining a current model. ometimes a

convenient model is used for ease of understanding only but is not necessarily labeled as

such. Other times there are competing models based on different theories. /t times these

competing models are even bundled together. Other times comple! terms are not defined.

0efinitions are important because words can often represent many paragraphs of thinking. Ifenergy science is taught by mi!ing up current, old, convenient and competing models along

with definitions that are not spelled out, then a lot of confusion can result.

In this booklet the current view is always used but this is not always based on the most

popular e!planation, rather it is an attempt at reviewing the information and weaving a single

best thread through the current competing models available.

3. DEFINING ENERGY?

Fig 2 Energy is the ability to create a force over a distance some time in the future

(nergy is not that old a word, #homas %oung proposed it in &123 4'5. Initially energy was

thought of as the ability to do macroscopic work like the work the kinetic energy of a

cannonball can do on impact or the work that the potential energy of a hoisted block of

granite can do on falling. ork was defined as...a force acting over a distance. 6ater in &172

+oule said that this energy or ability to do macroscopic work was also contained within the

molecules. 8e suggested that the molecules contained forms of microscopic energy just likethat contained in the moving cannonball and the hoisted block of granite. In &92: (instein

suggested that matter such as the molecules and atoms are really very large collections of

energy particles. /s well there e!isted energy particles such as the photon that transferred

energy between different types of matter. Under some conditions some of these energy

particles could be liberated from the atoms in different forms such as light and heat. hen we

feel the weight of an apple in our hand we are really feeling the weight of the energy particles

in the apple. 8ow could energy be defined then according to modern science 4;5< (nergy...the

ability to create a force over a distance in the universe from the very smallest event within the

tiniest of particles to the very largest between celestial objects in the universe. ork...a force

acting over a distance in the universe from the very smallest event within the tiniest of

particles to the very largest between celestial objects in the universe. (nergy then is theability to do work some time in the future. It is stored work potential. ork is the actual act

of the force acting over a distance.

#he definition of energy however is a rather small part of what energy science is all about.

*irst of all energy such as matter and photons is not the only =entity= that appears to e!ist in

the universe. #here is a space continuum 4'>5and there are force fields that are not considered

to be made of energy or matter. It is the properties of the entire system and how energy

behaves in this system that are of most interest in energy science.

4. THEORIES OF WHAT FILLS THE UNIVERSE

-any theories have been proposed over time as to what fills up the universe. (ven the?reeks had their theories. /ristotle concluded that everything on the earth was made of four


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substances@ earth, water, air and fire. #he universe outside of the earth was made of a fifth

substance called aether. In &>77 $ene 0escartes proposed that the universe was entirely full

of three elements. /ll material things were made of the third element. #he second elementAs

particles made up a fluid called the aether that filled the space inBbetween the third element.

#he first element was what the aether particles were made of. 6ight was not made of the third

element but was rather a vibration that traveled in the aether fluid. In the theory proposed byIsaac Cewton around &>3>, light as well as all physical objects were made of particles that

travel in empty space. 8e got most scientists to accept this idea during the &322s. Cewton

based his theory on his e!periments with prisms. -any phenomena of light could not be

e!plained if light was a wave such as a sound wave. In &12& #homas %oung produced an

interference pattern with light and pronounced light was a wave traveling in a material aether,

so most scientists again changed their views. cientists believed the aether not only provided

a medium for light waves to travel in but also did the job of controlling the speed of light just

as the properties of air control the speed of sound traveling through it. Physical objects

however were considered to be particles.

*itDeauAs tests in &1;9 showed that the speed of light was e!tremely constant. It was

theoriDed that the aether was stationary at some point in the universe. If this was true, it waslikely that the earth moved through this stationary aether. In &113 the famous -ichelsonB

-orley test, which used two beams of light traveling perpendicular to each other, failed to

detect the motion of the earth through the aether. #his startled many scientists and they began

looking for other theories that would e!plain the behavior of light. 6orentD felt that the

instruments -ichelson and -orley had used may have changed in length in the direction of

travel relative to the aether. Poincare a leading *rench mathematician felt that our time

system may be altered as we travel through the aether.

#heories about how mass and energy behaved as they traveled through the universe were

being developed long before (instein stated his famous theories. (ven the formulae (EmFc'it

appears was put on paper in &111 by +.+. #homson. ith (instein came the turning point in

beginning to fathom the much bigger picture of how the universe behaved. In &92: (instein

wrote two separate theories regarding the behavior of energy in the universe. #he first is now

labeled as the uantum theory and described how energy is emitted and absorbed on the

microscopic level as particles or quanta of energy as opposed to waves such as sound waves.

#he second is called the pecial $elativity theory and it described how light and matter

changed energy as they traveled relative to spaceBtime. In &9&> (instein published the

?eneral $elativity theory which described a more comple! relationship between space, mass,

energy, motion and gravity. 8e proposed that energy did not travel in a material aether as had

been thought. #he properties of spaceBtime, he suggested, were considerably different.

(instein also worked on a Unified field theory, where he hoped to reveal how all forces were

really made up of a common entity, but never succeeded. In the &9'2s uantum -echanics became popular. ome variations of this theory viewed

particles as wavelike while others viewed all microscopic particles as points with

probabilistic outcome of their behavior. It does not take into account the relativistic factors in

high speed particles. In &91> the string theory and a little later the superstring theory 4'35,

-embrane theory, and around &991 the -Btheory 4'95 were proposed which claimed that all

matter and force particles are the result of different nodes of vibrating strings or membranes.

Other scientists claim that strings are just ideas at this point and there is not definite proof, we

should be thinking more in terms of a broader more open discussion forum where a wide

range of possibilities can be discussed. #his broader view has recently been labeled the

#heory of (verything.

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6(# 6orentD aether theory...the latest aether theory before special relativity

$ (instein pecial $elativity theory...all motion is relative in the universe

# (instein uantum #heory...light is emitted as wavelike particles

?$ (instein ?eneral $elativity theory...gravity causes space to be curved

-uantum -echanics...all energy is composed of particles and probabilities of

location

U*# Unified *ield #heory...attempt at finding common entity for all four forces

*# uantum *ield #heory...forces are the result of different types of force particles

?U# ?rand Unified #heory...unification of strong, weak, electromagnetic interactions

#U# #otally Unified #heory...e!plain working of universe down to single particle

TOE #heory of (verything...try to e!plain working of the universe as the biggest picture

Fig 3 Major theories of how the universe behaves

5. REASONS FOR A THEORY OF EVERYTHING It is a well known fact that (insteinAs pecial $elativity and ?eneral $elativity are not

complete theories of the universe. #hey e!plain nothing of how the microscopic world of

energy relates. (instein is also father of the uantum theory which describes how energy is

e!changed on the microscopic level as vibrating particles. It is interesting however that even

(instein, who developed both the $elativity and uantum theories, did not ever combine the

two together. (ach of the theories e!plains a part of how the universe operates by using

models that are valid only in a very limited sense. #hese theories can be described as partial

theories. uantum -echanics is also a partial theory. Presently we do have modern models or

theories that are much more comprehensive so these theories should be talked about only in a

historical sense.

It is not likely that we will know e!actly how the universe operates to the smallest detail

for many years. Perhaps the smallest entity of space will be too small for us to ever measureand identify. (ven though we will not know about the biggest picture for some time, it is best

that a modern theory such as the #heory of (verything be used. Only the framework of such a

system is presently understood. It is better to use such a modern view as opposed to hanging

on to theories such as $elativity and uantum mechanics which hold partial and opposing

concepts of the universe. #he #heory of (verything therefore will not be a complete picture

presently but it will be filled in slowly over time. It is at least an attempt at painting the

biggest picture. If we see a large canvas we know that there is much left to fill in. If we have

a small canvas which is nearly full, we think that there is little left to paint in. #he #heory of

(verything can be used to encompass all the different theories as long as they propose to

describe the biggest picture possible.


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Fig 4 Einstein rarely mentioned details of the space continuum that energy travels in

One of the major things that is missing from most of the theories is, what fills space. *ore!ample (insteinAs pecial $elativity theory renounced the aether as the medium that light

traveled in. -any people to this day think that (insteinAs pecial $elativity theory proposed

that light and matter traveled in space that was totally void. #hough it was not mentioned in

the theory, (instein later cleared up this matter by saying that =this rigid fourBdimensional

space of the pecial theory of $elativity is to some e!tent a fourBdimensional analogue of

8./. 6orentDAs rigid threeBdimensional aether= 4&5. o (insteinAs spaceBtime in his pecial

$elativity theory can be thought of as a type of aether. (instein didnAt like to use the word

aether however and preferred the word spaceBtime. #his was because the aether was

commonly thought to be made of a type of gas that was made of matter. 8is spaceBtime was a

type of structure of space which was not made of matter. Unfortunately his e!planations of

what spaceBtime really is were often not mentioned in his books. In (insteinAs ?eneral $elativity theory the structure of spaceBtime is not considered to be a

type of rigid ;Bdimensional structure of space at all. paceBtime is now composed of fields

such as the gravitational and magnetic fields which fill the universe 4&c5. #hese fields are

considered to be the product of matter, so the argument given is that there would be no fields

and so no type of structure in the universe without matter. #here is little e!planation given as

to what these fields might be however, but it seems clear that (instein did not envision forces

to be the result of photonBlike particles. $ather he though of fields as an unidentifiable

something which pervades the universe.

#he whole issue of what fills space was even more confused in the era after &932 when

scientists now tried to e!plain the force fields of (insteinAs ?eneral $elativity to be the result

of force carrying particles such as photons. #hese are called gauge theories. )ut combining

these theories creates some problems. (instein had e!plained the structure of spaceBtime to be

the mysterious all pervading force fields. #hese force fields provide the structure of space in

which matter and other particles such as in photons travel in relation to. uch a structure is

necessary to provide a uniform speed of light and is necessary for inertia to e!ist. 0id the

gauge particles now travel in totally empty space< #his is why quantum field theory, which

was developed in the era after &932, is not based on (insteinAs ?eneral $elativity theory, but

reverts back to the concept of (insteinAs pecial $elativity theory. Cow the force carrying

gauge particles have a rigid structure of spaceBtime to travel in relation to.

/ great deal of recent scientific evidence suggests that none of the traditional theories are

totally correct. *or e!ample force fields are not likely the result of gauge particles at all. /swell the force fields of (insteinAs ?eneral $elativity theory do need to travel in another


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underlying structure of space. #his does not make the older theories totally wrong. -odern

theories always use the older theories as a foundation to create new and better ones when

better evidence is obtained.

6. SPACE CONTINUUM, FORCE FIELDS, WAVICLES, THEORY OFEVERYTHING 0ifferent forms of energy such as matter and photons are not the only =entities= that e!ists

in the universe it seems. It is possible that the entire universe is composed of at least three

layers of entities that can be identified. *irst there is a space continuum which forms a fi!ed

absolute 7Bdimensional structure that entirely fills the universe. econdly there are force

fields that travel within this space continuum. #hirdly there are traveling energy wavicles,

which are tiny vibrating entities that contain energy in different forms such as photons and

atoms. #he space continuum is stationary in the universe, but wavicles and force fields

probably travel at the speed of light relative to this space continuum. -atter wavicles such as

atoms can be thought to be merely collections of individual wavicles.

Fig !he energy in each photon is related to its wavicle"fre#uency relative to the space

continuum

-ost energy is composed of vibrating wavicles. hen energy wavicles travel at high speed

relative to the space continuum there is a 0oppler 4>5 type effect that occurs. In *ig : there

are two diagrams, one with the star and planet at rest relative to the fi!ed space continuum,

and a second with the star and planet moving relative to the space continuum. #he star,

planet, and the human observer are made of matter that are really just a collection of vibratingwavicles. hen matter is forced to increase its speed relative to the space continuum, the

vibrating matter wavicles are forced to vibrate quicker as well. #his is the reason matter gains

a large amount of relativistic mass 475 when it travels near the speed of light. (lectrons have

been accelerated to near the speed of light in particle accelerators. ome of these electrons

have more than &,222 times as much relativistic mass than their normal rest mass.

In the first diagram there is a single photon wavicle being emitted from the star. Imagine

that e!ited atoms on this star emit photons of red light, depicting a cold dying star. If a single

atom emitted a single photon in the direction of the planet, it would leave the star and travel

at the speed of light relative to the space continuum. It would travel as a red photon relative

to the space continuum. hen the photon arrived at the observer on the planet, the observer

would see the photon as the same red light relative to the eye of the observer which is at restrelative to the space continuum.


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In the second diagram the same dying star of the first diagram has been accelerated up to a

high speed so that it is now traveling to the left at &22,222 kmGsec relative to the space

continuum. #he observer on the earth has also been accelerated and is moving right at

&22,222 kmGsec relative to the space continuum. Cow when a single photon is emitted from

the star it is not emitted as a photon of red light, rather it will be yellow light. %ellow light isvibrating at a faster rate than red light. )ecause a photon is really a vibration, as the atom

moves at &22,222 kmGsec relative to space continuum during an emission, the vibration it is

emitting is compressed. #he photon that is emitted is vibrating at a higher rate. hen the

yellow photon arrives at the human observer on the planet, the vibration is once again

compressed because the observer is traveling at &22,222 kmGsec towards the photon relative

to the space continuum. #herefore the observer would see violet light. Photons that vibrate

faster contain a larger amount of energy and relativistic mass.

#he 0oppler effect is much more difficult to utiliDe when analyDing energy wavicles than

when dealing with sound waves. hen a train travels along the tracks and sounds its horn,

the frequency of horn vibrations do not change significantly in relation to how fast the train is

traveling. #his is because the horn vibrations are related to the space continuum of space,while the sound it produces is related to the air molecules. hen we consider light however,

both the light as well as the atom which is producing the emission, are both traveling in

relation to the space continuum and change properties the faster they travel. #herefore the

above e!amples are quite simplistic interpretations of the 0oppler effect.

7. OSERVER AND ASOLUTE SYSTEMS

Fig $ !he coriolis effect can be e%plained as the earth spinning in a fi%ed space continuum

(instein populariDed a certain relative system of measurement which could be called theObserver measurement system. )ecause of the 0oppler effect that occurs when energy

wavicles travel in the universe, and because of the speed of light, measuring tools, clocks,

and mass all change as an observer moves relative to the space continuum. /n observer...is

considered to be a human or an instrument that is measuring the event. o it is impossible to

get an absolute measurement of distance, time, and mass in relation to the space continuum.

o in the Observer system, time is based on clocks the observer has which vary their speed

depending how fast they travel relative to the space continuum. 0istances in the universe are

based on how quickly a ray of light can travel from the distant event. -easurements of mass

become only comparisons with other frames of reference.

/nother system of measurement that is just as valid as the Observer measurement system is

the /bsolute measurement system. In this system, all measurements are considered to be

relative to absolute geometric coordinates. (instein refused to think in terms of an /bsolute


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system that I am sure he must have understood e!isted. 8e believed that the Observer system

was only valid because it is the information that an observer receives 495. If however we only

think using an Observer system, things get mighty confusing. It is like flying in the clouds

with no instruments. It is the reason why few people understand what the theory of $elativity

is all about. (ven today however, this relative Observer measurement system is the only waywe have of measuring events in the universe. )ut does this mean that there is no absolute

fi!ed space continuum of space< It turns out that there have been tests done which can

determine that the earth is most likely traveling in an absolute space continuum. -ichelson

and ?ale first showed this in &9': when they sent beams of light in opposite directions in a

circular path of evacuated pipes. / more modern test has been done with ?lobal Positioning

atellites. #wo short bursts of light signals are sent around the earth in opposite directions. /

difference of time is recorded. #his is called the coriolis effect. uch a test clears up some

misconceptions about the speed of light. It is often thought that the speed of light will always

be measured as being constant relative to an observer. #his is not true, a fact that (instein

even pointed out. ome measurements of the speed of light will show that its speed is always

constant relative to the observer and other types of tests will show it is not at all. In reality,tests and careful analysis will show that the speed of light must be constant relative to an

absolute space continuum only. If we are traveling relative to this space continuum however,

our measuring instruments will be skewed in different ways depending on how the tests are

done.

e have a dilemma. It seems there is a fi!ed space continuum but there is no way of

measuring to it. #o properly calculate events in the universe we must relate these initially to

an absolute system because that is what light speed is constant relative to. #he best solution to

this dilemma is to start by understanding the theoretical model of an /bsolute measurement

system, then relate this to an Observer system. It is the way that most scientific measurements

are understood and the method of measurement that is used when calculating distance and

time with maps. It is known that a map is a small scale of what the real event will be. It is

possible to plan the trip theoretically based on calculations or the scale of the map. #he

/bsolute measurement system is based on an outside theoretical observer in space measuring

at what speed energy travels relative to the space continuum without taking into account the

speed of light. #hough it is not known e!actly where the space continuum is fi!ed at, it is

possible to estimate it from celestial movements. #ime instead of being fi!ed to the changing

relativistic mass of clocks is based on movements of certain celestial objects in space just as

our present time system is. 0istances are theoretically calculated to absolute points in space.

-ass does increase as energy travels faster but this is calculated relative to the space

continuum. #he ma!imum speed of light in a single direction is always the speed of light

relative to the space continuum. #he ma!imum separation speed of two energy wavicles ishowever twice the speed of light.

(instein also loved to think in terms of a ; dimensional universe 435 with the length of time

it took for light to travel between events as being a ;th dimension. Present string theories use

from 9 to '> dimensions 4'15. #hese e!tra =dimensions= are not spatial dimensions of volume

however. #hey are other attributes of what occurs in that space. -ost people identify the

concept of dimension with the spatial ones and using the word dimensions for these just leads

to confusion. It would be better in physics to define dimensions...as a measure of spatial

e!tent, width, height and length in the absolute sense. Other =dimensions= should be called

attributes. Of course it is even possible to create make belief geometric models with many

dimensions mathematically, but why< It is even hard for most people to visualiDe models in 7

dimensions. *or e!ample in physics and engineering 7Bdimensional volume is often separatedinto three spatial directions of !, y and D for analysis.


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(instein also suggested that space is curved due to gravity force fields that alter the

movement of energy traveling through it. #his may have been a fine analogy at the time

however we presently have identified at least four different force fields that affect energy.

Our present day model would need to have four different overlapping warps because each

force affects energy in a different way. #he Observer measurement system, ;Bdimensional space and warped space are not in fact

an integral part of the universe. #hey are just modeling techniques that some scientists like to

use. e can in fact use any model we like. I suggest that an /bsolute measurement system

using 7Bdimensional space is the easiest for most people to comprehend as the =ground floor=

for doing calculations.

!. SPACE CONTINUUM, FORCE FIELDS, WAVICLES

Fig & Matter wavicles are really just collections of interaction wavicles

Presently force fields and energy wavicles are not very well understood in science 4:5. #hebiggest dilemma is that currently most scientists think that forces are produced by the

e!change of interactive wavicles such as photons. In this view it is imagined that the

magnetic field is actually a flow of virtual photons emanating from one end of the magnet

and being returned in the other. 8owever it is also a well known fact that different types of

blackbodies absorb every type of real photon that is emitted. urely then a blackbody placed

in the path of a stationary magnetic field would absorb the virtual photons that were emitted

and quickly heat up. /t least the magnet would absorb the photons if the virtual photons were

anything like a real photon. If virtual photons arenAt at all like real photons then they are a

completely different kind of entity than real photons with completely different properties. In

actual fact force fields do not behave in any kind of way that would suggest that they are

made of particles at all. /s was already mentioned, it is possible that the entire universe is composed of at least

three layers of entities that can be identified. It appears that there a space continuum which

forms a fi!ed absolute 7Bdimensional structure that entirely fills the universe. /t present we

have no words in our language to describe such an entity that is not made up of any form of

matter. It is not solid, liquid or gas, because these are words to describe different formations

of atomic particles. e can only use common words such as granularity, cellularity, or

metrical to describe the fact that the space continuum must be divided off into very small sub

entities. It must have sub entities because the speed of energy as well as force fields that

travel through space devoid of matter is very uniform. 8ow would energy wavicles and force

fields know how to travel at a certain rate if the space continuum or space were one large

entity< urely photons do not have a sense of detecting their absolute velocity, a computer,and a throttle to control their speed through empty space to such an e!act standard as the


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speed of light. If the space continuum has very small entities, then energy wavicles and force

fields could have a uniform speed by jumping from one entity to another or by traveling in

relation to these entities. #his is somewhat similar to how the speed of sound can be constant

by traveling in a medium.

#raveling through the space continuum of space are the force fields. #hey are called fieldsbecause they are spread out into large areas of space. Presently force fields are not very well

understood in science 4&25. #here are four force fields that are thought to e!ist. #he trong

field holds quarks together. #he eak field is responsible for holding together leptons such as

the electron. #he (lectromagnetic field holds together atoms and molecules, is responsible for

magnetism and electric fields. #he ?ravitational field pulls all energy wavicles together.

(lectromagnetic force fields travel through the space continuum at the speed of light. It is

speculated that other force fields may as well. hile energy wavicles are vibrating, it appears

that force fields are not the result of any sort of vibration. #hey appear to transfer forces by

some presently unknown mechanism. It is not known whether all force fields are the result of

one basic type of interaction or if there are four or even more individual interactions that

e!ist. (ven thought force fields do not contain energy wavicles, they do contain a certainamount of energy. #hey can be thought of as e!tensions of the energy wavicles that drive

them. *or e!ample a magnetic field can be produced by a flow of electrons in a wire. #his

magnetic field can in turn produce a flow of electrons in another wire some distance away.

Cot all energy is transferred directly through the force fields. "ommonly there is an

indirect transfer of energy through the creation of energy wavicles such as photons. hen the

lines of force in a field system move there are often wavicles such as photons that are formed.

*or e!ample when the electromagnetic field around a radio transmission aerial e!pands and

contracts, real wavicles of low energy called radio wavicles are formed. #he moving fields in

effect scoop out small wavicles of energy as if out of nothing. In reality though the new

wavicle of energy was created by direct transfer of the energy in the transmission aerial

through the fields and to the new energy wavicles. If the forces in the field collapse slowly,

wavicles with slow vibration equal to the vibrations of the magnetic field will be created. If

the magnetic force field collapse quickly, wavicles with a fast vibration will be created.

hile field vibrations are large 7Bdimensional areas of force, energy wavicles are

considered to be individual vibrations of a single separate energy wavicle. avicles are often

thought of as being very small, in reality they can cover a huge volume of space otherwise

our eyes or the tiny aerials of cell phones would not be able to collide with enough of them.

ome low frequency photons can be considered to be many kilometers in height or width. *or

e!ample a curved satellite dish is only composed of wires. ouldnAt photons just travel

through the mesh if they were tiny particles< In fact the photons are too large for them to go

through the mesh. (nergy wavicles likely travel forward at a ma!imum speed of 722,222 kmGsec relative to

the space continuum, which is called the speed of light. It does not appear that the vibrations

of the wavicles are vibrations of the space continuum entities, rather the energy wavicles

seem to be vibrating in their own cell like structures, but in relation to the metrical aspect of

the space continuum. avicles at times have been described as vibrating strings or

membranes. I like to think of them as simply wavicles, which can include any kind of

vibrating string, membrane, ball, blob or bubble.

?roups of wavicles can form wavicle chains and wavicle webs. #hese various collections

result in the different properties that atoms and molecules possess. In the present string

theory, all the different types of energy particles are described as different frequencies of the

vibrating strings. uch a system does not seem possible because the energy of each individualwavicle is already based on the speed of the vibrations of the wavicles. Photons themselves


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have vibrations ranging from near Dero to e!tremely fast. It is more likely that all the different

atoms are rather created by the different combinations and groupings of wavicle chains and

webs. #here may also be other possible variations within energy wavicles which at present

we cannot detect. *or e!ample it appears that energy wavicles have different characteristics

such as being open ended, closed loops, and twisting vibrations. #he energy wavicles in the universe can be divided into different groups which have

different properties. /ll energy wavicles can be divided into either bosons or fermions 4&&5. /

boson...is a wavicle which can e!ist in the same spot as another wavicle. / photon is a boson.

/ fermion...is a wavicle that cannot e!ist in the same spot as another wavicle. #he basic

components of matter such as the proton, neutron, electron, and neutrinos are all fermions.

/nother way of dividing all wavicles is into those that contain entirely matter and ones that

donAt. It appears that some bosons can contain small amounts of matter. -atter...is energy that

can e!ist even when it is stationary relative to the space continuum. #he term stationary refers

to the whole of the matter wavicle not moving. #he energy is still moving but rather than

traveling in a straight line the energy is circulating within the confines of the matter wavicle

similar to the illustration in *ig 3. #here have been many movies made and books written in the past about people traveling

near the speed of light. #he molecules in a person are made from matter and these would

contain much more relativistic mass and energy if they traveled at these speeds. hen matter

travels very fast relative to the space continuum, the wavicles are not traveling at greater than

the speed of light. $ather, the vibrations of the wavicles are faster. It is not likely that atoms

with wavicles vibrating so quickly and containing so much energy would be stable anymore.

/toms might start decomposing, forming other types of atoms as well as emitting radiation.

#his is a factor that (instein did not take into account in his totally relative Observer system.

8is system was based on relative effects that took place in e!periments with light at very low

speeds such as in the -ichelsonB-orley test. uch effects cannot necessarily be e!trapolated

to be uniform for all types of energy wavicles all the way to the speed of light.

". WAVICLES #$ PARTICLES AND WAVES

Fig ' (e see color based on the fre#uency of individual wavicles and not on spacing between

wavicles

It is understood by most modern scientists that the traveling vibration of energy wavicles is

not like ordinary water waves or sound waves. till te!tbooks continue to use the standard

water wave model to represent energy wavicles. (nergy wavicles in fact travel in a

completely different way. If a single water wave is generated in the center of a calm body of

water, it travels in a spherical pattern from the source. #he further away from the source, the

weaker the wave becomes. / boat lying far from the source of the wave would e!perienceonly part of the energy of the wave as it passes by the boat. #his does not happen with the


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energy wavicle. / single energy pulse can travel for years in space without spreading out if it

does not come in contact with matter wavicles. hen it is finally absorbed, the entire wavicle

will be absorbed into one atom. Cot only does the pulse not spread out sideways, the

vibration is confined into a small Done as it moves forward.

In uantum -echanics, a slightly different model is taught called the waveBparticle duality

theory. In this theory it is said that an energy particle can behave as either a particle or as awave, but not both. #his is not really an accurate portrayal. In fact an energy particle has

particleBlike and waveBlike properties, but it is neither of the two. /gain we do not presently

have a common word in our language that describes such an entity. ). 8offman in fact did

coin a new name wavicle for this new kind of object but you will not find it listed in most

common dictionaries. uch a new word can describe the real properties of a new entity. It is

difficult for us to achieve a clear understanding of the nature of a wavicle because this object

is very remote from our present e!perience that relates to material objects.

It is also a dilemma as to what related words should be used to describe such a vibrating

particle, because any terms such as waves, frequency or wavelength can be confusing

because they are related to material things. *or e!ample the word frequency in the physical

wave model usually means the frequency or number of wave crests traveling past a referencepoint per unit of time. ith energy wavicles, frequency does not refer to the number of

wavicles traveling by per second but rather the frequency of vibrations of the single energy

wavicle. /s well, a certain wavelength does not relate to the spacing between different energy

wavicles but rather the distance the wavicle travels in relation to the space continuum during

one vibration.

)ecause of this confusion a wave should be defined...as the transfer of energy by some

form of regular vibration, or oscillatory motion, in a material medium. avicleBfrequency is a

new word that can be used to describe...the number of vibrations of the energy wavicle per

unit of time. avicleBlength is a new word that can be used to describe...the distance an

energy vibration travels forward through the space continuum during one vibration.

odium lights produce photons of the same wavicleBfrequency and so their light is

monochromatic. #his does not mean however that the wavicles will be synchroniDed with

each other. uch light will be incoherent because it does not have a regular spacing between

photons as shown in *ig 1. $adio and especially laser wavicles on the other hand can be

coherent as well as monochromatic. #his is why laser light is so powerful. #he vibrations of

the photon wavicles are completely in step. #his is why radio wavicles can induce a current in

an electric wire, whereas infrared light wavicles cannot.

hen the eye sees a yellow light it is not interpreting the color yellow based on the spacing

between photons but rather the wavicleBfrequency of the photons. #he amount of energy in

each photon is called the boson energy e!pressed in joulesGwavicle. #he amount of energy

contained in each photon wavicle is e!actly proportional to the wavicleBfrequency. #he hotteran object is the larger will be the boson energy of the photon emitted and the higher will be

its wavicleBfrequency. #he boson energy of red light is about half as much as a violet light.

#he boson energy of a radio photon is very much less than an HBray photon.

If two separate waves in the ocean are produced in such a way that they are traveling in the

same direction and phase, they would reinforce each other and form a new single larger wave.

#his would be equivalent to forming a new photon of larger boson energy which would

represent a different color. hile this can occur with water waves, light wavicles cannot be

joined together to form one larger one or split apart unless they are absorbed by matter and

reBemitted. hen more light wavicles are concentrated on a surface it is only the brightness

that has been increased. *or e!ample it is possible to use a magnifying lens and concentrate

light from a large area into a point. #he brightness of the light increases, but not the color orboson energy of the wavicles.


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/nalyDing how wavicles travel through prisms, bend at the edges of a diffraction grating or

are polariDed can be complicated. )ecause the energy wavicle is vibrating, many phenomena

such as interference and diffraction can occur just as they do with water and sound waves.

#here are many similarities, but there are also many differences as well. One of the largest

differences is that the wavicles are so incredibly small. #here are so many events happening

per second, it is hard to imagine. hen a wavicle comes close to an atom, how will it bedeflected< #he wavicle is not hitting a flat surface, but an irregular surface composed of the

bumpy parts of the atom and is being deflected by the varying force fields that surround the

atom. It is impossible to tell which direction the deflection will be because of the many

unknown and changing events within the wavicle that cannot be measured during an

e!periment. uantum -echanics therefore suggests that microscopic events are based on

chance and probabilities. (instein didnAt think this could be right, and he was correct. #he

wavicles are obeying the law of physics for microscopic wavicles, it is just that scientists do

not have equipment that can measure such a tiny individual event.

1%. E&TERNAL ENERGY #$ INTERNAL ENERGY

Fig ) *nternal energy and e%ternal energy forms

If a cannonball, as shown in *ig 9, is heated in a fire it will become hotter but it will not

take off out of the fire and leap into space. hy not< #he energy that was added was thermal

energy. #he energy added increases the velocity of the molecules, however the molecules are

traveling in all different directions and this does not result in any forward movement of the

collection of molecules. #his type of microscopic energy is called multidirectional energy. If

energy was added to the cannonball by a charge of gunpowder in a closed cannon, the

e!panding hot gases would be made more directional and so the cannonball would comeflying out of the bore of the cannon. #he cannonball flying out of a cannon would contain

both multidirectional and directional forms of energy. #he cannonball however does not

contain some molecules that are only traveling forward and some that are multidirectional.

#he two types of energy are superimposed on one another. In a cannonball flying through the

air, though the molecules may be traveling in all directions, the net direction of all of them is

forward. It is difficult to understand how directional energy could be stored in the same

wavicles as multidirectional energy. hy would the two forms not get mi!ed up< hy would

the directional part not slowly become multidirectional< #his does not occur because the

energy wavicles do not change direction until acted on by some outside force. #here would

need to be a directional force canceling out the directional part. (ven though the energy

wavicles are moving in all directions, the wavicles energy and direction is still perfectlyaccounted for in the process. If there is a mean direction in the sum of all the multidirectional


14/48

energy, this will be conserved.

In science it is beneficial to split up energy in the universe into three types, e!ternal energy,

internal energy, and nucleus energy. (!ternal energy 4&'5 in a very generaliDed way is

directional energy and internal energy is multidirectional energy. #here are e!ceptions

though. )ecause e!ternal energy is always stored in the same system as internal energy, it issometimes hard to identify what is the part that is e!ternal energy and so some rules need to

be made. #wo common forms of e!ternal energy are used as the reference, the directionally

oriented motion energy such as is contained in the cannonballAs forward movement known as

kinetic energy and the directionally oriented energy such as is contained in the hoisted block

of granite which is a form of potential energy. If other forms of energy can be entirely

converted into these two types in a simple oneBstep mechanism, they are also included as

forms of e!ternal energy. *or e!ample if a gas is compressed in a cylinder the molecules get

hotter and contain more motion energy of the molecules, but if the gas is allowed to e!pand

again quickly, the piston will return back to the starting point. #heoretically the compression

and e!pansion would not result in any loss of e!ternal energy. #he e!ternal energy that was

stored was in a system of multidirectional energy but it is called e!ternal energy. (!ternalenergy...is the directionally oriented motion energy or multidirectional energy that can

theoretically be entirely converted to directional energy in simple oneBstep mechanisms.

Internal energy...is the multidirectional energy contained in the molecular and smaller

motions that cannot entirely be converted into e!ternal energy or is more difficult to convert

into e!ternal energy. #he nucleus energy is the energy contained in energy wavicles that

cannot typically be converted into either internal or e!ternal energy. *or e!ample it does not

seem possible under normal circumstances to convert any of the energy contained in neutrons

or protons into thermal energy or electric energy other than a small amount of nuclear energy.

In *ig 9 both the cannonball in the fire and the water in the calorimeter represent forms of

internal energy. #hese are forms of multidirectional energy that cannot be entirely converted

into e!ternal energy. #he energy stored in the iron bar due to the magnet and the energy

stored in the cannonball due to the earthAs gravitational field are e!amples of e!ternal energy

because the energy was added and stored in a directional way. #he pendulum alternates

between two forms of e!ternal energy, potential energy and kinetic energy, both of which are

directional forms of energy.

(!ternal energy is very valuable because all forms of e!ternal energy can be entirely

converted into other forms of e!ternal energy theoretically. Unless perpetual motion is

possible it is impossible to convert most forms of internal energy entirely into e!ternal

energy. It is also impossible to convert many forms of internal energy entirely into other

forms.

11. FIRST AND SECOND LAWS OF ENERGY cientists are quite convinced that the property defined as energy cannot be destroyed in

the universe. (nergy can be thought of like dollar bills. If a country only prints H amount of

dollars, then different people and companies will own and trade these dollars, but the total

amount will never change. Presently this is called the 6aw of "onservation of (nergy in

physics or in engineering is called the *irst 6aw of #hermodynamics. It is more appropriate

to call this the *irst 6aw of (nergy...einstein energy can neither be created nor destroyed. #he

sum of all forms of energy remains constant in the universe. (instein energy...is the total of

all forms of energy in the universe or in a specific system 4&75 which will be described in

more detail in "hapter &7.

If any one type of energy could be converted entirely into any other specific form ofenergy, then perpetual motion would likely be possible. #hough there is no basic scientific


15/48

principle that does not allow perpetual motion, scientists feel that it is not possible. In

engineering, the econd 6aw of #hermodynamics states that...thermal energy can never be

entirely converted into e!ternal energy. #hermal energy is a form of internal energy, which is

the motion energy of the molecules. #here are however other forms of internal energy such as

chemical energy that also cannot be completely converted into e!ternal energy. (ven a fuelcell theoretically cannot entirely convert chemical energy into electricity, which is a form of

e!ternal energy. #herefore all types of conversion of internal energy into e!ternal energy are

limited by the econd 6aw of (nergy...different forms of energy cannot necessarily be

entirely converted into other forms of energy 4&;5. Obviously this law is not very e!plicit

because it will take several pages of words to describe what the limitations on energy

conversion are. It is simply a warning of what to e!pect.

12. SECOND LAW EVALUATIONS / econd law evaluation...is a calculation of the ma!imum amount of e!ternal energy that

could be e!tracted from a system based on a certain reference atmosphere. / reference

atmosphere...is a body of matter such as the earth that energy can flow into during a

conversion of internal energy to e!ternal energy. In engineering the second law evaluation is

also called an e!ergy evaluation or availability evaluation, but this is generally a more

specific type of evaluation involving only clausius energy, which will be introduced in

"hapter &7. If a second law analysis were done in biology, this would for e!ample entail a

calculation of the ma!imum amount of muscle energy that could be obtained from a certain

amount of food energy. Cot all the food can even be theoretically converted into muscle

work. *ood is a form of internal energy and cannot be entirely converted into muscle energy,

which is a form of e!ternal energy. #hen there are other irreversible losses in the muscle itself

that result in even less muscle energy being produced than the theoretical amount calculated.

In "hemistry it is the internal energy liberated in a reaction that is of primary importancerather than how much e!ternal energy could be e!tracted. econd law concepts however are

the basis of why chemical reactions will occur. (ven so second law analysis is not always

part of a standard biology or chemistry course even in university. It is only first law

evaluations that are generally done.

Physics and -echanical engineering are typically the disciples where second law

evaluations are generally taught. )ut while chemistry uses second law evaluation terms like

helmholtD energy and gibbs energy, mechanical engineering uses totally different terms like

availability and e!ergy. #he chemistry terms such as chemical energy or helmholtD energy are

referred to here as the plural energy system. #he mechanical engineering system which uses

the terms energy and e!ergy on the other hand is referred to as the singular energy system.

(!ergy...is considered to be the ma!imum amount of e!ternal energy that could be drawnfrom energy based on a certain reference atmosphere. (!ergy is not considered to be a form

of energy but a designation of the quality of energy. /vailability is a word that means the

same as e!ergy.

)oth the plural energy system as well as the singular energy system were started in the mid

&122s. cientists like ?ibbs and 8elmholtD started the basis of the plural energy system while

others like "lausius developed the singular energy system. #he plural energy system as

described in "hapter &7 has several inherent advantages over the singular energy system and

is what is used in this booklet.

#he first biggest advantage of the plural energy system is that everything is a form of

energy. #his is a word that is already well recogniDed. 8ardly anyone in the general

population has ever heard of e!ergy. #hey donAt know to even associate this word withenergy.


16/48

/ second key advantage of the plural energy system is that it allows the present e!ergy

evaluation to be broken into at least eleven divisions@ e!ternal, kinetic, potential, electrical,

mechanical, e!pansion, helmholtD, gibbs, free, clausius and bound energy. #his makes a

second law evaluation more precise as each of these are not really equal in worth when

comparing realistic processes. -any of these subforms of energy listed in "hapter &7 arealready used in chemistry. #he singular energy system sometimes uses similar subforms of

e!ergy, but words for these subforms are even less recogniDed than the word e!ergy.

#he third advantage of the plural energy system is that all subforms of energy can be added

up in the same column, equation etc. #hey can also be identified as units of energy. In the

singular energy system the two entities must be kept separate because energy and e!ergy are

not considered to be the same. #his is because energy and e!ergy always overlap each other

and do not add up to the total einstein energy.

Proponents of the singular energy system maintain that forms of clausius energy in the

plural energy system are not really energy because they are not conserved in the universe

whereas energy is. In reality though, most engineers that use the singular energy system also

use terms such as chemical energy, nuclear energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy. o itcan be seen that the singular energy system uses names from both systems, which are not

really compatible. In reality there is really only one form of energy that is conserved in the

universe and this is named einstein energy in the plural energy system.

13. FORMS OF ENERGY

Fig 1+ Einstein energy can logically be divided into different forms

It is beneficial to have a proper naming system that covers all the basic types of different

energy in the universe. #his is because it is often difficult or impossible to convert certain

types of energy into other different forms. #he system of energy proposed in this booklet is

based on the plural energy naming system where all the different types of energy are twoword forms such as nuclear energy. #he basis of this two word naming system is borrowed


17/48

from chemistry. -any scientists over time have tried to establish single word names like

enthalpy, essergy and anergy for the different forms of energy but this is not necessarily

desirable as few people would recogniDe them as forms of energy. It is also confusing for

some forms of energy to be two words such as internal energy while others are not such as

enthalpy. /s well there are not enough different names that sound similar to energy that canbe used when many forms are used. #o be consistent, these single word energy names were

converted into two word names in the plural energy system.

#he plural energy system is shown as a series of bar charts in *ig &&. -ost of the names

are presently used in some discipline of science however some are new. #he '1 most popular

forms of energy are shown in three separate charts. #he first chart shows relativistic forms of

energy, which will be discussed in "hapter &>. #he second chart shows the &3 simple forms

of energy that are the most widely used. #he last chart shows the comple! forms of energy

which are used in more comple! energy calculations.

/t the head of the simple forms of energy chart is einstein energy which is...a new term for

the concept of the total energy in the universe or a particular system. hen referring to the

fact that energy is conserved in the universe it should be mentioned that it is einstein energythat is conserved, because other forms may not be. /ll einstein energy can be logically

divided into either e!ternal energy, internal energy, or nucleus energy, which was defined in

"hapter &2. (!ternal energy is logically divided up between the major forms of kinetic

energy and potential energy. inetic energy...is the e!ternal energy possessed by a body

because of its motion. Potential energy is the e!ternal energy possessed by a body because of

its position. #here are many subforms of e!ternal energy like gravitational energy and

magnetic energy, which are not listed in the chart because these are commonly just identified

with potential energy. (lectrical energy and mechanical energy are listed however because it

is often desirable to keep these forms of energy separate. (!pansion energy such as that

contained in high pressure air in an automobile tire is also listed because it is an important

hybrid form of e!ternal energy. It has many of the characteristics of internal energy but is

classed as e!ternal energy. Often all forms of e!ternal energy are grouped together in one

category. #his is because all forms of e!ternal energy can theoretically be entirely converted

into each other so differentiating is not so important.

Internal energy is logically divided up between eight different types that are the most used.

#hermal energy...is the motion energy of the molecules. 6atent energy...is the energy stored in

the atom due to the van der alls forces between the molecules in a substance which is stored

or released when undergoing a change of state, such as ice changing to water or water to

steam. olution energy...is the change in energy of a solution when a certain amount of solute

dissolves in a solvent. "hemical energy...is the energy stored due to the bonding of the atoms

in the molecules. (lectron energy...is the sum of both the motion and position energy of theelectron wavicle. #his is not the same as electrical energy which is a form of e!ternal energy.

$adiant energy...is the energy contained in bosons such as the moving photon wavicle.

Cuclear energy...is the energy stored due to the bonding of the particles in the atoms nucleus,

only the energy of a nuclear reaction is considered. Cucleus energy...is the energy stored in

the nucleus of the fermion such as the atom.

In present te!tbooks, chemical energy is described as the vibrational energy between the

atoms or molecules. #his makes it sound as if the atoms are vibrating back and forth. #his is

not really true. If this was the case, the molecules would quickly loose their energy to the

thermal energy system around them, and the molecules would soon disintegrate. #he

vibrational energy that is being referred to is really the wavicle vibrations inside the building

blocks of the atom itself. In "hapter &: this will be discussed in more detail. $adiant energy is considered another hybrid form of energy because while most radiant


18/48

energy is unorganiDed and cannot entirely be converted to e!ternal energy, other forms such

as radio wavicles are highly organiDed and theoretically can be entirely converted to e!ternal

energy.

"aloric energy...is a new term which represents the amount of internal energy that will

flow between two reservoirs 4&:5. "aloric energy generally cannot be completely convertedinto e!ternal energy. It can be split up into two parts for analysis. #he helmholtD energy...is

the part of caloric energy that could be converted into e!ternal energy in a future process. #he

bound energy...is the part of internal energy or caloric energy that cannot be converted into

e!ternal energy.

Fig 11 ,opular 2' forms of energy in the plural energy system shown in a bar chart

#here are another seven comple! forms of energy shown in the third chart of *ig &&.

ubstances usually contain mi!tures of e!ternal energy and internal energy. cientists have

developed many terms for combinations of these two types of energy. #he reason these

combinations are used is that it is often too much work to separate an internal or e!ternal

energy addition.

*or e!ample when thermal energy is added to air in a room, this thermal energy results in

the air e!panding. It does work against the atmospheric pressure. #his is e!ternal energy or

more specifically e!pansion energy that is stored in the e!panded air volume. #he rest of the

thermal energy goes into elevating the temperature of the air, a form of internal energy.

)ecause this thermal energy is not added with the intent of e!tracting any work, all that is

generally desired is to know how much thermal energy needs to be added to raise thetemperature of the air in the room. #he energy that is stored in the air of the room is called


19/48

heat energy in this booklet. It is often called enthalpy presently. It contains a mi!ture of

internal and e!ternal energies.

?ibbs energy...is composed of helmholtD energy plus e!pansion energy. *ree energy...is a

generic term that refers to either helmholtD energy or gibbs energy. "lausius energy...is

composed of e!ternal energy plus helmholtD energy. ?enerally in the singular energy systemmentioned in "hapter &', when it is stated that a certain process has a certain e!ergy, this is

equal to an amount of clausius energy. "ogeneration energy...is a new term that is composed

of e!ternal energy and caloric energy. It most often represents the combination of electricity

and thermal energy available in a coBgeneration power plant.

hen dealing with combinations or subclasses of e!ternal or internal energy, there is often

little concern with whether the energy is chemical or radiant etc. /t other times though it is

necessary to consider the various forms of energy such as chemical or thermal separately.

Fig 12 ,laces where energy is stored in internal energy

14. UNITS

)ecause there is such a large difference between the behavior of e!ternal energy andinternal energy it would be best to use different units for each. #his would make it easy to

differentiate between e!ternal or internal energy. /s was just shown however, calculations

very often involve mi!tures of the two, which can rightfully be added together to comply

with the *irst 6aw of (nergy. #he solution is to use one basic unit of energy but tag the

energy type to separate them. #his is similar to accounting where the dollar is the common

unit of money. In a corporation though some money is in the form of actual currency, other

money is in the form of land, buildings, shares and even the value of patents. #hese cannot all

be e!changed easily for each other but in the books they are all valued in dollars. Cote that

because tags are used e!tensively in this system, when there is multiplication used in an

equation, the multiplication symbol, which is a small centered dot =F= should always be used.

#he following equation uses tags such as H(, (, /( and )( after the amounts of energy.#he abbreviations are listed in *ig && or at the end of the booklet.

&22H(E&22(E72/( J 32)(

In science, the metric system is the preferred system of units around the world. In the

United tates, engineers often use the old (nglish system of units, which is now named the

/merican system. In this system the ftBlb is the unit of e!ternal energy and the )#U is the

unit of internal energy. #he older metric system also had such dual units. #he joule or

newtonBmeter was considered the unit of e!ternal energy and the calorie was the unit for

internal energy. hen doing calculations for energy conversion devices such as gas turbines,it is too cumbersome to use dual units for energy. Usually one or the other was picked. #his is


20/48

why presently the more preferred I metric system uses one unit of energy.

In the I metric system, the joule or kilo joule is considered the standard unit for energy

where & joule K+LE& newtonBmeter of energy and & kilo joule Kk+LE&222 joules. I...is a

*rench term that stands for International ystem of units. It is the system that is preferred in

engineering and physics and is making quick inroads into chemistry and biology. #he joule is

the preferred unit of energy in the I metric system as opposed to the calorie. 8owever, though the joule is the standard for energy in the I metric system, the wattBhour

or kilowattBhour is fast becoming the unit of choice when working with energy conversions

where electrical or mechanical energy are involved.

In this booklet the proposed units for temperature in the metric system are either degrees

"elsius written M" or degrees elvin written M. /s of &9>3 the presently accepted symbol

for elvin is minus the degree symbol. #his however is confusing as "elsius is most often

e!pressed in degrees and elvin is not. /lso can be mistaken for , the proposed single

character symbol for kinetic energy. )ecause the (nglish alphabet has a limited amount of

letters to be used as symbols, standard character set designations like the degree symbol can

be used to further identify a unit. #he degree symbol can easily be typed on a P" computer by

holding down the /lt key while typing ';1.

15. TEMPERATURE OF INTERNAL ENERGY

Fig 13 *nternal energy has varying amounts of energy per wavicle

(nergy is a two dimensional property of force times distance potential. #he previously

mentioned *irst 6aw of (nergy says nothing about the ability of different energy wavicles to

generate a certain amount of force. /s was already mentioned, all forms of e!ternal energy

can be theoretically converted entirely into other forms of e!ternal energy. *or e!ample a

block and tackle can be used to multiply the force that can be delivered. )y this means

someone can pull with a &22 kg force and raise a block of '222 kg. Internal energy cannot be

converted in this way. It is like the tow truck shown in *ig &7. Imagine that the tow truck has

enough gas in the tank to provide &22 units of energy. "ould it be assumed that the tow truck

can pull a train up a very steep grade with a total of &2 units of force but only for a very shortdistance of &2 units< Cot reallyN #he tow truck may not have the capacity to provide this

amount of force.

Previously a new term =boson energy= was introduced. #his is the amount of energy that a

matterless boson like a photon has. #emperature is a term 4&>5 that will be used in this

booklet to describe the amount of energy that all types of internal energy has. e could use

+oules or )#U as a measure of the amount of energy that each photon contains. #his would

be a very small fraction of a +oule such as &.'7 ! &2B'7joules, which are very small numbers

indeed. It is simpler to use a scale that merely represents the amount. e already use the scale

called temperature to measure thermal energy. #his represents the average collision energy

between molecules. $eal photons are created during these collisions, which are equal in

energy to each collision as shown later in *ig &3. #herefore radiant energy can already be

thought of as having a certain temperature. #his thinking can be e!tended to represent the


21/48

amount of energy in all types of photons and all types of internal energy. Units of temperature

such as &222M are easier to visualiDe and compare. #emperature...is a scale that represents

the amount of energy per wavicle of different forms of internal energy and is equivalent to the

ma!imum temperature that would result if converted entirely into thermal energy. #o avoid

confusion we can use terms such as thermal temperature and chemical temperature to avoidconfusion.

#ypes of energy such as chemical energy and nuclear energy represent a certain amount

energy that can be liberated per molecule or atom. *or e!ample when a hydrogen atom bonds

to an o!ygen molecule, not as much total energy is required in the newly formed water

molecule as in the separate hydrogen and o!ygen molecules. / certain amount of energy can

be released. hen the hydrogenBo!ygen bonding occurs, the e!cess energy under ideal

conditions can be released as a single package of energy for each newly created bond. In

other words the e!cess energy is not dribbled out in multiple randomly siDed amounts of

energy. #his single package of energy may not ever form a real photon that leaves the

confines of the molecule. It is however an amount of energy which has been released from

the atom or molecule. o it is rather referred to as a virtual photon. uch photons have a verylimited range in distance that they can cover before they become real photons. In many

chemical reactions, virtual photons of &2,222M or more can be created. In nuclear reactions

photons containing even larger amounts of energy can be created of around ',222,222M. It is

not possible however to take a certain quantity of thermal energy with a temperature of

722M and convert this totally to chemical energy of &2,222M or nuclear energy with

',222,222M temperature. In fact under normal circumstances none of the thermal energy

could be converted into nuclear energy. #his is because energy does not flow naturally from a

low temperature to a higher temperature. #he direction of the microscopic energy flow is

caused by the way photons are emitted as will be shown in "hapter &9, '2.

hen working with temperature in energy calculations it is best to use degrees elvin or

M which is the absolute temperature scale. #his absolute scale uses 2M to represent Dero

energy of any form of internal energy. #he "elsius or M" scale is only used to represent

thermal energy. It uses the same energy per wavicle as degrees elvin but starts the scale at

2M" which represent the freeDing point of water at normal conditions on earth. #his 2M" is

equal to '37.&:M. It is possible to have a very cold substance that has thermal energy of 2M

but still contains chemical energy of &2,222M and nuclear energy of ',222,222M.

16. TYPES OF MASS AND ENERGY Presently the word mass in science is usually defined as...the quantity of matter in a body.

Photons do not contain matter and so are said to contain no mass and are called massless.

)ut this has not always been the definition of mass. riters in the post (instein period of&9'2B&9:2 such as (ddington almost always considered the term mass to be a shortened form

for the relativistic mass that an object possessed.

hen energy travels relative to the metrical space continuum, it is the 0oppler effect that

produces a resistance to change in velocity. If a cannonball is accelerated out of a cannon, the

energy required to accelerate it is added to itAs total energy content. #his total energy content

is called the relativistic energy and the mass of this energy is called the relativistic mass.

-any modern writers such as tephen 8awking also use mass to mean the relativistic mass

4&35. hen they write about the more specific mass of matter at rest with an observer, they

use the words rest mass or invariant mass. Physicists have argued about which is the right

method for over 12 years.

#o properly come to a conclusion about how mass should be defined it is necessary tounderstand why we need the word mass to begin with. Presently the concept of mass is


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usually used to calculate the inertia and gravity effects of bodies of matter. It turns out

however that inertia and gravity effects are really related to how much energy a body

possesses. o for e!ample gravity acts on beams of light as well as bodies of matter. o it

would seem appropriate that all forms of energy should have mass. 6ooking at the issue even

deeper it turns out that we donAt really need mass at all. e could simply use the energycontent.

It is however usually more convenient to use mass than use the amount of energy for one

simple reason. #ake again the e!ample of the cannonball that is accelerated out of the cannon.

It gains a very small amount of e!ternal energy. #his gain in e!ternal energy usually is very

very tiny compared to the total energy locked in the atoms of the cannonball. If we use a mass

that is a very small ratio of the energy content, then the gain in e!ternal energy compared to

the mass is now more similar. /lso we donAt have to define which type of energy we are

talking about in each case. e know mass represents the energy of the matter in the

cannonball and the gain in energy due to an increase in speed represents the e!ternal energy.

It turns out however that in more comple! Physics calculations it is very beneficial to use

many different forms of both mass and energy. In the /bsolute measurement system mentioned in "hapter 3, it is desirable to subdivide

both =mass= and =energy= into four two word subtypes. /bsolute mass...is the total mass of

matter wavicles that are at rest relative to the space continuum. #his is the mass listed in the

periodic tables. $est mass...is the total mass of matter wavicles that are at rest relative to the

observer which may be traveling at various speeds relative to the space continuum. #his is a

specific form of the relativistic mass. $elativistic mass...is the total mass of energy wavicles

that are traveling relative to the space continuum. elocity mass...is the increased mass of all

matter wavicles as they travel faster relative to the space continuum, it is the difference

between two values of relativistic mass at different speeds. In reality we will never know

what the absolute mass of matter is. )ecause it is likely that the earth is traveling very slowly

through the space continuum compared to the speed of light, we can closely appro!imate the

absolute mass by using rest mass on earth. -ass is now defined as...a value that is

proportional to the amount of energy in an entity.

*rom a grammatical viewpoint, it is safer to use the shortened word mass to represent

relativistic mass, which covers all forms of mass. In reality it is more precise, especially when

relating to the more comple! aspects of mass in science, to write or speak using the full two

word descriptions at all times. #his is because people will never come to an agreement of

what the single word mass should mean. #he four equivalent forms of energy represent the

energy contained in each of the four types of mass. #hese have been shown previously in the

charts of *ig &&. Cote that relativistic energy is e!actly the same as einstein energy. hy two

terms for what is really one form of energy< It is to differentiate between when we arespecifically dealing with relativistic effects and when we are not.

-/ E absolute mass, kg

-2 E rest mass

-$ E relativistic mass

- E velocity mass

(/ E absolute energy, joules

(2 E rest energy

($ E relativistic energy

( E velocity energy


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v E velocity of mass in mGsec relative to space continuum

c E velocity of light, roughly 722,222,222 mGsec relative to the space continuum

hen a cannonball is stationary relative to the space continuum, it contains an amount of

absolute mass. hen a cannonball is stationary relative to an observer, it contains an amountof rest mass. hen the cannonball is accelerated through the air, itAs total relativistic mass

increases. In physics it is usual to only calculate the increase in the relativistic energy which

is the increase of itAs velocity energy.

It is possible to calculate the e!tra amount of velocity energy that the cannonball contains

when it is traveling at low speeds relative to the speed of light by using the well know physics

formula (q K&L. Cote that velocity energy can relate to both thermal energy and kinetic

energy.

)ecause the cannonball has gained energy, it has also gained mass. It is possible to

calculate this mass through a type of relativistic 0oppler formulae, which is called the

*itD?erald relationship, as shown in (q K'L, which equates the velocity of the rest mass to the

new larger relativistic mass of the cannonball. #he gain in velocity mass can be calculatedwith (q K7L which subtracts out the rest mass. If this mass is plugged into the well know

(instein (q K;L, it will be found that the energy calculated will be identical with what is

calculated with (q K&L. Cote that (q K;L does not look like the usual (instein equation

because it uses the more e!act symbols for energy and mass.

#his can all be confusing at first. )asically all four forms of energy are related to their own

specific forms of mass with variations of (instein (q K;L. In other words, the rest mass of

matter is related to an amount of rest energy, or the velocity energy is related to its gain in

velocity mass using (q K;L. hen comparing how much energy is gained due to other forms

of mass there are different ratios that apply. *or e!ample when rest mass such as in the

cannonball is accelerated, its rest mass is related to its velocity energy gain by (q K&L. #he

photons entire energy however is velocity energy, and its energy is related to its velocity massby (q K;L. #he relativistic mass of matter compared to its rest mass is calculated by (q K'L. It

seems odd that the gain in velocity energy of matter compared to its absolute energy at low

speeds is only oneBhalf of what it is at high speeds. #his may be due to wavicles having a

different 0oppler effect when they are traveling in a straight line relative to the space

continuum vs traveling in a circular fashion.

*igure &7 shows this difference just mentioned in an object such as a cannonball. Cote that

at low speeds the typical formulae (q K&L applies. /t a certain higher speed the figure 2.>'

would have to be substituted for 2.:2 in the formulae.


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Fig 14 !he formulae to calculate the velocity energy changes with speed

hen a nuclear fission e!plosion occurs such as in an atomic bomb, the original collection

of matter wavicles of the uranium are rearranged into a new collection of matter wavicles.#here is a small amount of mass left over that cannot be utiliDed in the formation of the new

collection of wavicles. #his small amount of mass results in a great deal of energy being

liberated, largely in the form of super high energy photons. #he amount of energy liberated

can be calculated with a variation of (q K;L using absolute mass and absolute energy. )ecause

both matter and photons have both relativistic mass and relativistic energy, it is not proper to

say that mass is converted into energy in the system suggested here. It is better to say that a

certain amount of matter was converted into other forms of matter and released e!cess energy

in the process .

#he amount of absolute energy stored in the absolute mass of a & gram piece of aluminum

is 92,222,222,222,222 joules. #his is enough energy to power the average house at a normal

average electricity use of & kw for ',1:; years. -ost of the energy contained in the aluminumhowever could not ever be converted into electricity. (ven if one obtained a & gram piece of

pure uranium, the ma!imum amount of energy that could be liberated from it would be about

&G&222 of its absolute mass. #his is the nuclear energy of the uranium. /s well, not all of the

nuclear energy can be converted to e!ternal energy.

+ust as energy is conserved in the universe, mass is too. #herefore we also can have a *irst

6aw of -ass...mass can neither be created nor destroyed. #he sum of all forms of mass

remains constant in the universe. #here is also a econd 6aw of -ass...different forms of

mass cannot necessarily be entirely converted into other forms of mass.

17. MOMENTUM, IMPULSE, ACCELERATION, FORCES

Fig 1 Momentum is different than energy

/s was mentioned in "hapter >, there is a system that energy travels in composed of the


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space continuum. / key characteristic of the space continuum is that energy travels in straight

lines if there is no interference from other energy wavicles or force fields. hy it does so is

not understood presently. )esides wanting to travel in a straight line, another property of the

space continuum is that energy wants to travel in the same direction and at the same speed.

)oth of these properties can be considered to be the momentum of the energy. (nergywavicles have momentum because if they change in velocity relative to the space continuum,

the 0oppler effect requires that they change their energy content. hen energy is not

available or cannot be disposed of, they cannot change in speed.

hen objects such as the moon or spacecraft travel around the earth, they want to go in a

straight line. ?ravity force fields are traveling towards the center of the earth however and so

the moon travels in a circle around the earth. If gravity is pulling downwards, then how do

astronauts feel weightless< It is because the acceleration due to moving away from the natural

motion of space continuum and the acceleration due to gravity are completely balanced off.

Cot only are they balanced but both of these forces are balanced throughout the entire body

of the astronaut. )oth inertia and gravity act on every molecule in the body.

In the ?eneral $elativity theory proposed by (instein, acceleration is considered to be theresult of the force fields in the universe. (instein proposed that the reason why gravity and

inertia appear to feel the same is because they are equivalent 415. It appears he believed that

they were the same thing. )ased on the model presented in this booklet, it appears that both

inertia and gravity are the result of the space continuumAs effect on energy. It appears that

gravity is caused as a result of a force produced by its field and inertia is caused by a

movement relative to the space continuum. #his view is necessary to account for the way

different forces act on energy. )ecause both the gravity field and travel in the universe are

relative to the same space continuum, the effect appears to be identical. #his does not make

them equivalent in my view, however both effects could be considered to be very closely

related.

hen force fields are pulling or pushing on energy wavicles, they create a type of artificial

space continuum. (instein referred to this as warped space. *or e!ample imagine a

cannonball is placed on top of a table. #he moving gravity force field acting on the

cannonball is like a flowing river. If one put a raft in a flowing river, it would naturally flow

at the riverAs speed. In a dense fog it would be hard for boys on the raft to tell that they were

moving relative to anything else. #hey might imagine that the river was not flowing and they

were not moving anywhere. *orce fields are slightly different than the river because force

fields result in an acceleration while the river has a steady velocity. #he cannonball would not

travel at a steady speed on its way down to the floor, rather it would be accelerating.

-ass and energy are conserved in the universe. 0oes this mean that when the cannonball is

lifted from the floor to the table, the relativistic energy and relativistic mass increase in thecannonball< It appears they do. "ompared to the gravity force field, the cannonball is

accelerating away from the earth while it sits on the table. #he 0oppler effect results in a

faster wavicleBfrequency and more relativistic mass. #o get the cannonball onto the table,

there were energy wavicles such as photons transferred to the cannonball during lifting the

cannonball to the table. e can consi

energy, science

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