engaging visual culture - pennsylvania state...

K a ren Keifer-Boyd and Jane Maitland-Gholson

Engaging Visual Culture

Copyright © 2007

Davis Publications, Inc.

Worcester, Massachusetts U.S.A.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any

means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,

recording, or any storage and retrieval system now known

or to be invented, except by a reviewer who wishes to

quote brief passages in conjunction with a review written

for inclusion in a magazine, newspaper, or broadcast.

Publisher: Wyatt Wade

Managing Editor: David Coen

Manufacturing: Georgiana Rock

Design: Jeannet Leendertse

Library of Congress Control Number: 2007000000

ISBN-978-0-87192-775-0

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America

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C h a p t e r

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S y n t h e s i s

Have you been to a movie theater recently? What did you spend your hard-

earned money and time to see? Was it satisfying? If so, what was it about the

experience that captured your interest and prompted you to give it a critical

thumbs-up? If the movie was disappointing, what did the experience lack that

you expected it would have?

What TV programming have you viewed lately? Were the commercials you

endured worth the effort? Or perhaps you played a computer game? Was

it worth the time you invested? Makers of moving pictures—whether film,

analog video, or digital video, whether delivered via theaters, televisions, or

computers—are forever seeking to capture targeted audiences’ imaginations

and dollars. Even more important, these story forms are powerful visual cultural

conduits of socialization.

1 2 2 C h a p t e r 9

But how can we bring to light the hidden mean-

ings and messages in moving pictures? As its title

(“Synthesis”) implies, this concluding chapter is

focused on synthesis of the concepts introduced in

the preceding chapters. As we’ll show, this book’s key

concepts can be applied to any type of visual culture.

For our demonstration we have chosen film and

video, also called “time-based media” or moving pic-

tures. We encourage application of the Intervisual

Process described in Chapter 3 to the study of time-

based media from different perspectives. After

exploring strategies to consciously consider forms,

techniques, and covert message delivery systems, we

suggest ways in which students can begin, not only

to investigate the meanings embedded in film and

video as forms of visual culture, but also to construct

their own moving picture meanings, reflecting their

own values.

Expose: Making Meaning from Moving Picture sA theme that has been repeated throughout this

book is that a conscious choice must be made to sys-

tematically attend to the visual world. To avoid being

manipulated, viewers need to consider how, why, and

by whom visual stimuli are constructed. A strategy for

doing this is the Intervisual Process.

Understanding One’s Own Preferences

As an introduction to this topic, it is important for

both teachers and students to first articulate and

understand personal preferences. Thinking in terms

of the Intervisual Process, in which we consider visual

phenomena using four steps, we suggest thinking

about film by filling in information in the “Viewer”

angle of the triangle (see Figure 9.1). The viewer

needs to know what he or she can bring to a

thoughtful consideration of film and video. The

Viewer Preference Questionnaire on page 123 can

enhance such a consideration.

When we teach about film and/or video imagery,

we begin by asking students to fill out some version

of the Viewer Preference Questionnaire. By articulat-

ing their preferences, students begin to build their

viewer perspective—what they bring to the experi-

ence of moving images. Students will come to the

tasks in this chapter with pre-determined attitudes

and beliefs that will influence their responses and

valuations of the ideas presented in a film. They need

to be consciously aware of what they bring to their

viewing experience. For example, a person who

spends many hours each day viewing films, TV, and/or

playing video/computer games will operate from a

more developed baseline of information and value

the imagery differently than will someone who sel-

dom participates in these activities. Individuals who

believe that they view films only for entertainment

will consider their content differently than will those

who believe these media are important conduits

of information. Viewers who prefer informational

9.1 An Intervisual Process for Constructing Meaning from Visual

Culture

1 2 3S y n t h e s i s

Viewer Pre f e rence Questionnaire

Answer the following questions:

1 Predominantly, why do you view films? (If you never view films, why not?)

2 Predominantly, why do you watch TV? (If you never watch TV, why not?)

3 Predominantly, why do you engage in video games? (If you never play video games, why not?)

4 Approximately, how often do you go to a movie theater to view a film?

5 Approximately, how often do you view a videotape or DVD at home?

6 Approximately, how many hours a day do you spend watching TV?

7 Approximately, how many hours a day do you

spend playing video games on your TV or online?

Respond to these questions by circling one of the answers that follow them:

8 Do you consider film to have an influence on your life? A lot Some None

9 Do you consider TV to have an influence on your life? A lot Some None

10 Do you consider video and/or computer games to have

an influence on your life? A lot Some None

11 Explain your answers. (Why? Why not? How?)

1 2 4 C h a p t e r 9

documentaries will have a different sense of the

viewing experience from viewers who say that they

prefer action thrillers.

The Viewing a Film Activity

After establishing viewer preferences, the next step

is to guide active engagement with a “text” as sug-

gested by a second angle of our Intervisual Process

triad represented in Figure 9.1. That is, select and

view a film as described in the sidebar on page 125.

Thus far in this chapter, we have mentioned film,

video, and video/computer games. Clearly, these all

represent moving picture visual culture. While this

activity focuses on film as an example, many of its

strategies are applicable to all three media.

In our experience, the vast majority of students

will say in the Viewer Preference Questionnaire that

they watch movies exclusively for entertainment.

Further, they tend not to consider movies to be

worthy of any serious thought. We attempt to sug-

gest an alternative to this perspective by looking

carefully at how, for whom, and why movies are

made. We do this by asking students to consider a

film they have selected and viewed through the lens

of the Intervisual Process. Students consider a text,

in this case a movie they have viewed, the intentions

of the maker, their viewer perspective (what they

bring to the experience), and the social, political,

economic, and historical contexts within which that

text exists. Indeed, Part 2 of the activity sidebar on

page 125 outlines a film debriefing that follows our

Intervisual Process.

To provide a fuller explanation of how this

debriefing is done, let us imagine that a group of

students have just viewed The Wizard of Oz, the 1939

film directed by Victor Flemming. If we were to cre-

ate a giant version of the Intervisual Process triangle

on a piece of butcher paper hung on the wall, what

follows is how we would fill in the angles and center

of the Intervisual Process figure.

The “Visual” Perspective: The Wizard of Oz In the

space reserved for perspectives about the visual,

we ask students to describe what they actually see

in the movie itself. One approach would be to isolate

selected scenes and consider the elements of those

scenes. This might be used to introduce or reinforce

elements of art and principles of design. Filmmakers

design individual shots and follow many of the same

rules that graphic designers use in their compositions.

For example, we could talk about the element of

color, asking students to compare and contrast the

use of black and white in the first scenes to the use

of color in scenes that occur after Dorothy arrives in

Oz. Selected scenes could be analyzed for the use

of horizontal, vertical, and diagonal lines to create

feelings of peace, stability, or chaos.

Another approach would be to create storyboards

that outline the plot, paying special attention to

how the structure of the story carries the viewer

into another world, asking for and getting from the

viewer a suspension of disbelief. At what point is it

apparent that this story is no longer taking place in

Kansas? Viewers must pay attention to the structure

of the story and how the visual effects are used to

communicate and enhance the ebb and flow of plot

lines. Older students might frame the plot in the con-

text of a classic quest tale or a coming-of-age story.

Concurrently, some consideration could be given to

the soundtrack and the role it plays in manipulating

viewers’ feelings.

The “Maker” Perspective: Filmmaker’s Intention In

the space reserved for maker perspectives, we might

ask students to speculate about why the filmmakers

produced this film. To entertain? Yes, this is obvious.


Activity: Viewing a Film

Activity 1, Part 1

Participants select and view a film of general interest.

When teaching this activity, teachers may instruct students

to view a film on their own for purposes of class discus-

sion. Alternatively, a film may be assigned for students to

view outside of class. A teacher may also select a film may

for a class to view during school time, although time con-

straints may be limiting. (See Appendix G for alternative

approaches to film selection.)

For our purposes, movies intended for theatrical release—

a film first shown in movie theaters rather than one made

for TV—will be most effective. We make this distinction

because made-for-TV films, in most cases, have a distinctly

different quality than theatrical films. The scene structure

necessary to accommodate commercial breaks sets arbi-

trary rules for story development, pacing, and suspense.

Also, these productions are generally made with much

lower budgets. This tends to dictate limitations in setting,

lighting, and other technical effects. Films are best viewed

in a movie theater, but if this option is not available, it is

best to view them on the largest screen possible in a dark-

ened room (to recreate the maker’s intention) using a DVD

or VHS tape to avoid commercial interruption.

Part 2

After viewing the film, complete the following

questionnaire:

Film title:

Country of origin:

Year of release (if available):

Director:

1 List at least three outstanding visual characteristics of

the film that are still “replaying” in your mind’s eye.

2 What do you think is the filmmaker’s primary purpose?

3 Can you identify any information about the historical

period and/or the society or culture in which the film

was made, or an economic or political situation that

would enhance a viewer’s understanding? If so, what is

this information?

4 What is your initial response to the film?

5 Would you recommend it to a friend? Why or why not?

6 If a friend asked you what is the film’s message, what

would you say?

1 2 6 C h a p t e r 9

To make money? Of course. Filmmaking is big busi-

ness and was so when this film was made. But did

the makers perhaps have other purposes in mind?

Certainly, if the only goal was to make money, a less

risky, less visually lavish film could have been made.

What type of story do the filmmakers want to tell?

We would ask students to speculate on what the

filmmaker might have wanted viewers to think about

and feel as they watch this movie. It is useful to have

some information available to enhance this discus-

sion. Googling The Wizard of Oz yields 5,090,000 hits,

so there is no end of information and interest in this

visual culture phenomenon.

The “Viewer” Perspective: The Experience of the

Film If we were filling out our butcher paper version

of Figure 9.1 we would ask students to list the

descriptors that capture their experience of the film.

One defining characteristic that all viewers bring to

this film is their age. Older viewers might use descrip-

tors like whimsical, fantastical, old-fashioned, or nos-

talgic. Younger viewers might use words like scary,

funny, sad, and happy. When teaching a film unit

to first-year college students, a consistent 99.9 per-

cent of our U.S. students had experienced the film.

International students often had never seen it and

were amazed and puzzled by the phenomenon of

this film as a U.S. cultural icon.

The “Context” Center: Surrounding the Visual,

Viewers, and Maker of The Wizard of Oz In the

center of our butcher paper triangle, we ask students

to describe the possible historical, social, cultural,

economic, and political contexts of the movie. For

example, what historical events were taking place

just before or during the time in which this film was

made? What was U.S. society like? Were the times

economically prosperous or not? How might this

influence the way in which the makers created this

film? Are there elements of the story that might rep-

resent events happening in the world?

Explode: Layering Concepts in Pursuit of Deeper ContextIs the purpose of viewing The Wizard of Oz to take

part in entertainment? Yes, of course. But is it only

entertainment? If this film is a childhood cultural icon

that seems to resonate among U.S. children of all

backgrounds, then it may reflect a set of shared

beliefs and values. How might we use film to rein-

force a visual culture approach? What questioning

strategy could support this endeavor? Using the

Intervisual Process, what kinds of questions might

help us get to the heart of addressing the “context”

center represented in Figure 9.1? We suggest using

a strategy in which questions are developed around

the chapter topics presented in this book. What

follows is an example of just such an approach,

as applied to The Wizard of Oz.

Beliefs

As suggested in Chapter 1, visual culture communi-

cates meaning by tapping into the viewers’ belief

systems. The more a viewer unearths his or her

own belief system, the more conscious this process

becomes. What beliefs might The Wizard of Oz tap

into? Put another way, what beliefs does this movie

communicate that may or may not be consistent with

our own?

Definitions

We argue in Chapter 2 that in order to understand

any phenomenon, it is useful to articulate a working

definition of the phenomenon. If we define film as

entertainment, then we will be less interested in con-

sidering it as an important influence on our lives.

How might we apply this principle of definition to

a specific film? Film critics often begin their critiques

by identifying the genre to which a particular film

belongs. Each genre then carries with it different

expectations and characteristics that make it more

or less true to its definition. It is not possible to say

whether Apocalypse Now or Willy Wonka and the

Chocolate Factory is a better film. These films genres

are so wildly different in definition and expectation

that direct comparison is absurd.

So, in the present context we might ask questions

such as, to what genre does The Wizard of Oz

belong? What are the expectations associated with

this type of film? What place do fantasy stories play

in our contemporary culture?

Processes

In Chapter 3 we consider the Intervisual Process to

engage viewers in the act of interpretation. However,

film production follows a very complex set of making

processes. Knowing about these processes is impor-

tant to understanding moving picture meanings.

These processes will be explored in detail later.

In the context of this film, what creative processes

appear to have gone into the making of The Wizard

of Oz? What processes do we value when viewing

film? Do we all value the same processes? How do

the processes of this film compare to our contempo-

rary expectations for a fantasy film?

Origins

In Chapter 4 we explored the idea that adult ways

of seeing and thinking about visual culture can have

their inception in childhood memories and experi-

ences. One way of thinking about our experience

of The Wizard of Oz, at least for older viewers, is to

reflect on what that experience was like for us as

children and why. However, another way to think


The Origins of Oz

The original novel was published in 1900

by L. (Lyman) Frank Baum, who went

by the name Frank. He was born

in 1856 in northern New York. His father

made a fortune in the burgeoning oil

industry, and his mother, Cynthia

Stanton, was a women’s rights activist.

There are many interesting facts about

his life that might have contributed to

the formulation of his fanciful writings,

including twenty-four sequels to the

original book that was the inspiration

for the movie. For example, he hated

the rigid discipline of the military school

he was sent to for a period of time as

a child. Consider the portrayal of the

witches’ flying monkey soldiers who

chant like drones. By most accounts,

Frank Baum loved children and felt it

was important to nurture their imagina-

tions.1 He was a proponent of feminism,

likely due in great part to his mother’s

influence. He wrote several novels under

female pen names in which he consis-

tently portrays female characters as

powerful and self-possessed, rather than

passive observers. A Google search on

Baum yields millions of hits, so a great

cache of information is available.

1 2 8 C h a p t e r 9

about origins of ways of seeing in relation to a film

is to consider the origins of the film itself. In the

context of this film, is it possible that knowing

something about the original story and the intentions

of its author might affect our experience of viewing

it? (See sidebar on page 127.) How?

Codes

In Chapter 5 we considered the ways in which visual

images contain codes of meaning, and the impor-

tance of understanding codes in order to fully appre-

ciate the meanings images communicate. What

symbolic codes can you identify in The Wizard of Oz?

Do the ruby slippers have possible symbolic meaning?

How might the characters of the Tin Man, the

Scarecrow, and the Cowardly Lion be symbolic of the

qualities they lack? Can you think of ways in which

the story itself is about social and cultural codes?

Power

In Chapter 6 we looked at the importance that power

plays in the meanings of visual imagery and consid-

ered how objects of visual culture can be conduits of

power (recall the example of Chilean arpilleras).

What are the power relationships in The Wizard

of Oz? Who is powerful? Who is not? Is Dorothy

powerful? What about the Tin Man, the Scarecrow,

or the Cowardly Lion? Is the Wizard powerful? How

does power shift as the story progresses? How are

these shifting power relationships satisfying (or not)

to a child viewer? To any viewer?

Politics

In Chapter 7 we considered how any situation could

be viewed politically. That is, it is possible to see the

ways in which institutions impose a way of thinking

on a society that may reflect values held by some

individuals or groups, but not by others. In the con-

text of this film, are there messages in the story

about the ways in which institutions impose their

power that may not be valued by all groups or indi-

viduals? How might the Wizard represent institu-

tional power? Is there a possible political message in

the way that institutional power turns out not to be

what it at first seemed? (“Ignore that man standing

behind the curtain.”)

Story

Considering how we explored story in Chapter 8,

especially in relation to place, we argue that

designed spaces, whether physical or virtual, can

tell stories, and stories take place within constructed

places that reflect the values of the story maker.

The film genre to which The Wizard of Oz belongs

is fantasy. The story structure also belongs to a genre

of story known as a “quest”—a dominant story form

of numerous computer games. In the context of The

Wizard of Oz, how does place dictate story? What

are the values communicated by the place called

Kansas? What are the values that dictate life in the

place called Oz?

Empower: Creating a Vi d e oAn effective means to help students perceive all the

ways in which moving pictures influence their think-

ing is to have them construct their own work of mov-

ing picture visual culture. For years we have had

students create video representations of our classes.

That is, we ask them to collect video of our ongoing

class and then, in small groups, create a three- to five-

minute video story of their experience of the class.

Alternatively, a teacher might collect a pool of video

imagery outside of class that would reflect a general

group-determined theme. The project provides an

excellent opportunity for students to make

a value statement about their experience of the class-

room culture created during the class. Making a piece

of moving-picture visual culture will demystify the

“tricks” used by professional filmmakers. These strate-

gies, then, become the goals used during focus ques-

tioning sessions to debrief students after they watch

the videos. Discovering the power of using shot selec-

tion, editing, and sound empowers students to be

active viewers of film. We begin this process with

some basic contextualizing information. If teachers

work in districts in which classroom video recording

of students is restricted or banned, then an alterna-

tive plan is needed.

The Filmmaking Process

There are three basic steps in the filmmaking process:

preproduction, production, and postproduction. Let’s

look at a few selected aspects of these steps in order

to break down the complex layers of film art, and

help us to critically interpret what we experience

through film.

Preproduction Commercial filmmakers pay multi-

tudes of people to prepare for film production—cast-

ing directors, location scouts, costume designers, etc.

One of the most important preproduction elements,

at least in mainstream film, is the screenplay, the

backbone of all narrative films.

It is by virtue of the script that audiences are

coaxed into organizing their perceptions around

familiar narratives that deliver the content of the film.

Also, in preparation for production, filmmakers do

something called a treatment. This outlines a basic

description of the film, its communication goals and

objectives, and an outline of its beginning, middle,

and end.

Just like other visual art phenomena talked about

in this book, movies have form, both in the structure

of the written version and the visual end product.


Remembering our discussion of formalism in Chap-

ter 2, consider that films, too, are designed according

to certain perceptual principles.

Production and Videography Because of its ease of

use and increasing affordability, people who would

not have used home movie technology (emulsion-

based film) now have access to home video. This is

important to note for two reasons.

F i l m s c r i p t i n g

Movie scripts are written within pre-

scribed formats and almost invariably fol-

low a limited number of story templates.

It is truly a unique narrative film that

does not follow a basic three-act struc-

ture. Quite predictably, a crucial turning

point in the plot happens at the end of

Act I (which in some way complicates the

main characters’ lives) and then again at

the very end of Act II. This leads to the

climax and resolution of the story in Act

III.2 There are numerous screenwriting

“how to” books that spell out a handful

of basic plot templates with which the

vast majority of movie stories can be cat-

egorized. (For instance, boy meets girl,

boy loses girl, boy gets girl back—or any

gender variation thereof!)

1 3 0 C h a p t e r 9

It is useful to keep in mind that film and video are

very different and affect our perceptions differently.

Film creates the illusion of a much deeper depth of

field. Video tends to flatten images. This affects the

perceptual experience. Because of this difference,

there are strong conceptual relationships between

how film and video images are made, but the tech-

niques and processes that produce film and video are

quite different. So are the visual effects.

In amateur production, the film/video maker may

or may not create a screenplay from which to work.

A screenplay is a script that contains not only the

lines of dialogue that each character will speak, but

also some direction as to the setting, the lighting,

and the type of shot. If the work is fiction, then a

screenplay is a critical element. If the work will docu-

ment some real event, then for best results, in addi-

tion to the treatment described in preproduction,

the end product should be thought out well enough

to create what is called a shooting script. This lists

the images the maker hopes to capture in order to

be efficient in collecting the necessary footage to

tell the story. This is an especially important step for

beginning student video makers. It helps them be

efficient, given the limited amount of time with

shared equipment.

Postproduction For commercial films, postproduction

includes a wide variety of activity including marketing

and distribution. However, before the film ever gets

that far, after it is shot, two of the most important

processes remaining are editing and sound effects.

Arguably the most important process in film art

is its editing. Raw film must be cut, pasted, arranged,

and rearranged to better communicate the film-

maker’s vision. In video production, images can be

digitally pieced together in an order quite different

from that in which they were shot. The first step is to

Communicating with Vi d e o s

Everyone seems to be making videos.

Often, these turn out to be tedious to

watch because the makers are unfamiliar

with some basic visual techniques that

both film and video share. A few simple

rules about framing shots, camera angles,

and editing on home equipment could

make Uncle Fred’s videos of the kids’

birthday parties more aesthetically

pleasing and communicative. More

importantly, knowing something about

the perceptual principles that our brains

use to organize all images, but particu-

larly moving ones, can make us signifi-

cantly more aware of the techniques

used by professionals to manipulate our

perceptions.


create a log that lists all the images available and

where they can be found. Then an editing script is

created that identifies carefully selected shots, listed

in the order they will appear, and the audio tracks

that will accompany and enhance each visual image.

The flow of visual images is accomplished by follow-

ing one of two very different methods for visually

organizing information. The first is called continuity

editing and it follows the sequence of events chrono-

logically. Large chunks of time and action can be cut

to speed a story’s progression, as long as events hap-

pen in an order that follows the script. For example,

if an actor is shot walking up a sidewalk toward a

house, the viewer anticipates that they will go to the

door and knock. So, the entire walk up the sidewalk

can be edited out.

Visual Design in Moving Picture s

When choosing what to shoot, the film/video maker

thinks about the desired effect on the viewer’s

experience. These include:

Visual Qualities

The use of light and dark, brightness, saturated

color, and shadows can all affect the mood the

visual experience creates. Shots that include strong

vertical lines tend to feel strong and stable. Shots

dominated by horizontals tend to feel peaceful.

Shots that emphasize diagonal lines tend to make

the viewer feel a little “tilted” and, therefore,

anxious.

Point of View (POV)

From where are you, the viewer, observing the

scene? Are you above, below, or at eye level with

the players in the scene? Do you feel “in the scene”

or are you observing from a distance? Suspense

movies often place the viewer in a psychological

box, keeping both the character and the viewer

from being able to see someone or something

coming.

Camera Shots

Placement of the camera produces the viewer’s point

of view. What the camera sees can feel very chaotic

or very organized. Figure 9.2 demonstrates a very

traditional way of lining up a shot. A cameraperson

might align eye levels on imaginary vertical and

horizontal lines that divide the camera’s frame into

thirds, from top to bottom and side to side.

Placing a scene’s focus of interest on one of the

intersections of the vertical and horizontal lines

in the camera’s frame creates a more dynamic and

pleasing composition than placing the focus of

interest in the “dead space” of the middle of the

picture. This technique is called the rule of thirds.3

9.2 Rule of Thirds

1 3 2 C h a p t e r 9

A second technique is called montage editing. This

approach presents a quick set of non-chronologically

ordered images that, when taken as a whole, convey

the filmmaker’s idea. In this case, viewers are less able

to anticipate the next image and, thus, must attend

very closely.

Other strategies are quick cuts and transition

edits. A filmmaker might use what is called a quick

cut that moves seamlessly from one image to

another, or a transition edit that slowly transitions

between two different but related images. For exam-

ple, a film might transition from a scene at the

kitchen sink by focusing on water coming out of a

faucet and then moving to a scene beside a waterfall,

opening with an image of falling water.

Sound, too, is an important aspect for interpreting

the intention of the maker. For example, the actual

hollow sound of a firearm discharge or the soft thud

of a boxing glove contacting flesh can be enhanced

to make viewers imagine an impact on their own

body. Music can be used to cue us to feel somber,

silly, or unsafe. The intensity and rhythm of the music

that accompanies a film can directly affect heart rate

and therefore has a direct effect on a viewer’s sense

of suspense or well-being. So these are important

choices for enhancing the effects of images. The

sidebar on this page provides suggestions for an

excellent beginning library of resources for learning

the basics of film and video production. Another

useful resource is to seek out inexpensive courses in

video production and editing, often available from

public access TV, continuing education departments

at colleges and universities, or community education

programs. A parent or community volunteer with

this expertise might also be a possibility. Finally,

this would be an activity well-suited for a cross-

disciplinary unit combining visual arts and computer

skills.

Film and Video Production Resourc e s

Chandler, Gael. Cut by Cut: Editing Your Film

or Video. Studio City, CA: Michael Wiese

Productions, 2004.

Goodman, Robert M., and Patrick McGrath. Editing

Digital Video: The Complete Creative and

Technical Guide. New York: McGraw Hill, 2003.

Hampe, Barry. Making Documentary Films and Reality

Videos: A Practical Guide to Planning, Filming and

Editing Documentaries of Real Events. New York:

Henry Holt and Company, 1997.

Murch, Walter. In the Blink of an Eye. Los Angeles:

Silman James Press, 2001.

Schroeppel, Tom. The Bare Bones Camera Course for

Film and Video. Tampa, FL: Tom Schroeppel, 1982.

The Influence of Technical Factors on

Assessment of Film

Activity 2

Reconsider the film you viewed in Activity 1. If possi-

ble, review some favorite scenes. Find examples of

the use of visual qualities (light and dark, verticals,

horizontals, diagonals), POV (Where are you, the

viewer, in relation to what you are seeing?), camera

angles (Above? Below? At eye level?). Return to the

questionnaire you completed (see page 125) and

reconsider your answers in light of each of the fac-

tors mentioned above. Does your opinion of the film

change in any way, based on knowing more about

how the film was made to influence your interpreta-

tion of it?

After looking at some of the technical aspects of the

film, do you want to revise your opinion about what

you think the maker’s intention is? Do you still see

the same meaning (message) in the film?


Activity: Making a Vi d e o

Activity 3: Learning about Moving Pictures by Making One

Equipment

Ideally, teachers and students have access to some form of

video recording device, most likely a digital video camera with

adequate memory cards. In the unlikely event that VHS tape is

used, access to analog video editing equipment is necessary.

Digital video will require access to a computer with digital video

editing software and sufficient random access memory (RAM).

It would be ideal to combine forces with a computer lab teacher

for a cross-disciplinary unit.

There are other alternatives. It is possible to create flipbook-like

animations with sequential drawings and PowerPoint’s custom

animation features. Using iMovie or other digital editing soft-

ware allows the import of scanned drawings or drawings cre-

ated in Photoshop or other image-manipulation software. When

no equipment is available, we have used storyboard drawing to

explore preproduction concepts.

Logistics

For best results, divide students into small groups. Each group

should have access to the available equipment, on a rotating

basis if necessary. It will be important, based on the students’

age and their learning environment, to set appropriate param-

eters for the project. That is, where, when, and how video is

recorded should be considered in creating the criteria for the

activity.

The Task

Students will create a video that demonstrates understanding

of the basics of video preproduction, production, and post-

production as described in this chapter. The final product will be

a three- to five-minute video that tells a story from the team’s

point of view about a shared experience such as their art class.

The purpose of this activity is for students to experiment with

using time-based media as visual culture to communicate how

they interpret and value their experience in a way that may

or may not be shared by other class members. An ancillary pur-

pose is to provide an opportunity for discussion that directly

addresses alternative interpretations and values communicated

across all team productions. These purposes reflect the beliefs

and definitions of visual culture proposed in this book.

Organization: A Few Tips

• Groups: Each group should have three to four students.

Too many cooks will spoil this video soup, or at least make

full and coordinated participation difficult. With a smaller

class size, partnerships can be very efficient. We do not rec-

ommend single-student projects, since divergent viewpoints

within a group enhance appreciation of multiple points

of view.

• Video Content: In order to set limits that will keep the task

from becoming overwhelming (especially if this is the stu-

dents’ first videography experience), the basic video content

will be standard for all groups. However, each group will

contribute. This is accomplished by having students from

each group record video imagery on selected days of class-

room activity throughout a predetermined period of days,

weeks, and even months.

• All recorded video must be carefully labeled and stored. If

using analog video, footage must be logged. This means that

it should be viewed and the time code noted to allow effi-

cient location of selected images. This basic imagery can be

enhanced with additional images chosen by the group, titles,

sound, and simple effects.

• Instruction: Students’ ability to enter into the spirit of this

activity without hesitation will depend on conducting small

workshops that cover the key elements of preproduction,

production, and postproduction, such as demonstrations of

storyboarding, scripting, treatments, logs, shot design, and

different editing strategies.

1 3 4 C h a p t e r 9

Reflect: The Experience of FilmActivities in this chapter are designed to facilitate

students’ ability to interpret and explore moving

pictures as an important type of visual culture.

Experiences that students bring to their viewing will

influence the quality of their experience and their

interpretation of a film. Once again, it is important

to note that young people who are very concrete in

their thinking will tend to appreciate the concrete

elements of movies. They will like obvious charac-

terizations, and linear, straightforward, and familiar

plots. Much speculation has been made about the

demise of Westerns. This is blamed on a belief that

young people prefer stories concretely set in their

own era because Old West stories, even though

they are generally simple, concrete, and linear (see

discussion of the film Stagecoach in Appendix G),

still require too much of a suspension of belief.

Similarly, students who have reached formal opera-

tions will presumably like more multi-layered char-

acterizations, with nonlinear, more challenging,

and unfamiliar plots.

Catalyst: Making Moving Picture sNow let’s review the chapter’s activities for their

teaching implications and discuss some suggestions

for engaging students in those activities. We’ll con-

clude with a consideration of the use of film in cur-

riculum development.

Having used film as a focal point for teaching

visual culture to many different groups of learners,

we have found that making even the simplest of

moving pictures begins to turn passive observers of

film, TV, and digital video games into more active,

critical viewers. We want students to actively identify

and critique visual information that has the potential

to manipulate their beliefs and behaviors.

Dialogue: Student-Pro d u c e d

Video Messages

Carol: I really liked the student video

that made our class seem like a murder

mystery.

Jake: Yeah. I loved that shot of the

squeaky door to the classroom opening

and the Psycho music in the background.

Carol: It was fun. But this class sometimes

feels like a mystery. I thought that was

a clever way for those students to show

that point of view.

Sam: I was trying to figure out what

the meaning of all that montage editing

was in the second video. It kind of felt

jumbled to me.

Jake: Maybe they felt that a lot of what

we did in class did not feel like the usual

reading, writing, testing, reading, and

writing class. It kind of all comes at us

at once.

Sandy: Well for sure, I know what was

on the mind of the team that kept

focusing on pretty girls. I think they

were showing how distracted they were

during our class!

Making Activities Age Appropriate

Once again, we need to think about the ways in

which the types of activities described in this chapter

can be adapted for a range of ages. For example,

we might take a cue from the answers students

provide on questionnaires about what films or TV

programs to use as “text.” Indeed, the questionnaire

itself requires age-appropriate adjustment in order

to get the most useable information to inform our

teaching.

Primary The Wizard of Oz is quite appropriate for

this age group, although the flying monkeys have

been know to frighten very young children. If teach-

ing this activity to young children, we might choose

one or two very concrete visual aspects of the film

on which to focus. For example, we would facilitate

some simple discussion about the black-and-white

part of the film and the parts that are in color. For

example: Why do you think the first part of the story

doesn’t have color? How do we feel on a rainy day?

How do we feel on a sunny day? Did the black-and-

white part feel like a rainy day? Did the person who

made the movie want you to feel that way? Why do

you think Dorothy’s home is in black and white when

she gets back from Oz? Reading selected portions

and looking at illustrations of the original novel

would be a possible approach, combining this visual

activity with a reading unit.

With minimal adult assistance, children as young

as five years old can record and edit video due to the

ease and lightness of digital video cameras and digi-

tal editing programs such as iMovie. They also enjoy

being taped and seeing themselves. An activity might

be built around shooting digital video of the children

in their classroom. This video content could be very

simply edited together to communicate a shared

value of the classroom environment.


Content and Process Questions

Content Questions

Filmmakers are often accused of contributing to

societal problems. For example, Congress periodically

holds hearings to determine if film and video, and

more recently digital video games, contribute to

violence in our society. Often, the filmmakers’

argument is that they tell stories that reflect the

realities of our society. In your view, do films reflect

the society and culture in which they are created or

do films contribute to creating the culture in which

we live?

In our introduction to this chapter, we have sug-

gested that film has the power to tell us who we

are or who we should be. This implies that, in fact,

filmmakers do hold some responsibility for con-

tributing to our individual or shared sense of iden-

tity. Does this mean that film should be censored?

Should filmmakers not be allowed to present dis-

turbing portrayals of who we are?

Process Questions

The best filmmakers spend a great deal of effort

in thinking about all the aspects of film production,

including the setting in which a film is intended to

be viewed. Do you prefer viewing a film in a theater

or do you prefer the comfort of your own controlled

environment when viewing a film? Does viewing

a theatrical film on your TV change the meaning of

the experience?

1 3 6 C h a p t e r 9

Intermediate At this age, children love stories that

tell linear strings of “if/then” situations and then

resolve in some satisfying manner. Again, at this

age a film representation of a work of fiction being

studied in a reading unit would be a good approach.

Because this age-group is deeply engaged in learning

rules, stories that communicate and even challenge

shared values can create opportunities for discussion

of the ways in which movies support or challenge the

rules we have been taught to live by.

To introduce the idea of story told in moving pic-

tures, this age group will be fascinated with the flip-

book phenomenon in which they design a series of

images in small book form. As they flip through the

book, the images appear to be moving, much like

a tiny movie. Students in this group can also make

moving pictures with a series of stills they can ani-

mate with the public domain, free software Graphic

Converter or the timer feature of PowerPoint. Also,

individual items can move in a PowerPoint slide using

the custom animation feature.

This age group may also be capable of a small

video project, but this might require time-intensive

supervision and instruction. Because many digital

cameras now feature very simple editing mechanisms,

it is possible to create a small moving picture without

the intensive editing suggested in the activity

described in the chapter.

Secondary The activities described in this chapter are

well-suited for secondary-level learners. In our teach-

ing, we have often related this material about film

to advertising media. We have, for example, assigned

students to design a product, market it, and advertise

it. The instructional goal is for students to address the

ways in which advertising tells us stories about who

we should be.

Teaching for Student Engagement

Returning to the basic premises of experiential learn-

ing, one of the key challenges in facilitating activities

like those described in this chapter is deciding how

to anticipate and control the potential chaos that can

ensue. As is always the case for experienced teachers,

this means balancing the risk of giving up some con-

trol with the potential richness of the learning expe-

rience. Our best advice is to build in implicit controls

wherever possible by designing a unit that your

space, your available equipment, and your parent

helpers can support. For example, if equipment is

limited or unavailable, the use of storyboarding or

flipbooks can approximate a similar effect. Certainly,

viewing and facilitating the discussion of moving pic-

tures from a visual culture perspective can be done in

any environment.

As previously suggested in this book, when facili-

tating group discussion around the moving pictures

created by students, the liveliest discussion happens

when all group members have the opportunity to

voice alternative views. We find it useful for groups

to respond to each others’ projects, in this case

videos, using a format we provide. We often have

students use the Intervisual Process triangle created

on a large piece of butcher paper. In this way, what

is said is written down and is then public. This gives

everyone a chance to see what others have said

about a given work.

Principles for Curriculum Development

The most important underlying principle introduced

in this chapter that teachers can use for creating

curriculum supportive of a visual culture perspective

is this: simply because we think many aspects of our

visual culture are mere entertainment or throwaway

does not mean that these experiences are not impact-


ing our lives. This sounds simple enough, but the

visual culture is so pervasive that it is important for

visual arts teachers to guide students to carefully

observe and respond to it. The often hidden mean-

ings and messages of film, video, and digital video

games need to be made explicit or we abdicate our

power to choose alternative messages.

Synthesizing Ideas into ActionWhat are our beliefs about and definitions for all

manner of things in the world? What processes do

we use to make things or meanings? What are our

origins? What are the coded messages communicated

to us? How do we view power? What are the political

persuasions we espouse? What are the stories we tell

and what are the visual stories told to us that have

the power to shape our sense of self and the world?

Our goal in this book is to synthesize these concepts

into the possibility for action. A critically astute citi-

zenry that understands the visual culture in which

they live strengthens the democratic ideals of our

society.

Notes1 Petri Liukkonen, Books and Writers. L(yman) Frank Baum,

1856–1919, (2002), http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/lfbaum.htm

(accessed January 14, 2006).

2 Syd Field, Screenplay: The Foundations of Screenwriting;

a Step-by-Step Guide from Concept to Finished Script

(New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell, 1994).

3 Tom Schroeppel, The Bare Bones Camera Course for Film

and Video (Tampa, FL: Tom Schroeppel, 1982).

1 4 7

As an alternative viewing activity we sometimes

introduce film to a class by preparing a presentation

of short, selected scenes from a diverse range of films

that represent different time periods and genres.

In fact, in many film study textbooks, you will find

exemplary films organized according to genre and/or

their significance to the history of film. In our analysis

of The Wizard of Oz, we suggested that to fully

engage film as visual culture, it is important to appre-

ciate the larger social and historical contexts, includ-

ing expectations based on the film’s genre.

In this appendix, we choose to organize films

differently. Our list of noted and more obscure films

is meant to represent both a range of filmmakers

and time periods. The films are organized around

the guiding principles of our chapters. However,

it is important to recognize that, much as we

applied all of these principles to ways of viewing

The Wizard of Oz, this chart is not meant to imply

that a film categorized within one idea frame

cannot be looked at through the lens of an alterna-

tive guiding principle. Rather, the category place-

ment of the films is based on the type of question

asked about the film. By doing this, we are high-

lighting the types of questions that can stimulate

in-depth discussion.

Further, this film chart is meant to serve, not as a

definitive listing of “best movies,” but rather as a

model for teachers with an interest in film. Just as

this chart represents only a sampling of films we have

used with students, it is a tool upon which teachers

are invited to build.

We use a strategic approach that can also serve

as a model. There are three steps to our approach:

Question, Clip, and Discuss.

Step 1: Question: Develop one question that, when

you ask it, points to some aspect of the film as a

piece of visual culture. Our questions point to how

beliefs, definitions, processes, origins, codes, power

relationships, politics, and understandings of story

communicate an idea, feeling, or value that may or

may not be commonly shared by the audience. This

stimulates dialogue.

Step 2: Clip: Show a short clip (usually one to five

minutes). Short clips set useful limits on the focus of

discussion. This whets the appetite of viewers. They

often seek out the entire film to view on their own.

Step 3: Discuss: The teacher facilitates discussion of

varying points of view with an eye for challenging

the idea that film is merely entertainment and has no

effect on thought or behavior.

In our experience, contemporary young people

will likely not have seen all but the most recent films

listed. Therefore, unfamiliar visual qualities, tech-

niques, and narratives, especially of the older films,

fascinate them. The possibilities are endless!

Some of the films in our list are easily available.

Others may need to be tracked down at a public

library with a film/video collection, a full-service

video/DVD rental store, or an online DVD rental or

A Model for Discussing Films as Visual Culture

Appendix G: A Model for Discussing Filmsas Visual Culture

1 4 8 A p p e n d i x #

download service. DVDs or VHS tapes can easily be

cued to a specific scene. We have found it useful to

compile a single source tape or DVD.

Finally, it is important to note that we initially

developed this list with first-year college students

in mind. Therefore, many of these films are rated R

as indicated. As with all activities presented in this

book, the age of the target audience will influence

choice of film, specific scene choices, and questions

asked.

Regardless of the film clips chosen, the general

approach of Question, Clip, and Discuss is consistently

successful for any age group because children and

young people become fully engaged in viewing and

then talking about shared and unique interpretations

of what they have seen.

A p p e n d i x G

Dialogue about Film

Carol: I had never seen The Great Dictator. I had no

idea that an old black-and-white film could be so

much fun.

Kathy: And not seem old fashioned at all. I mean it’s

not in color and the hairdos are old, but the ideas

aren’t. But I never thought a movie could get away

with making fun of the Nazis and Adolph Hitler!

Jake: Actually, Charlie Chaplin didn’t get away

with it in 1940. Believe it or not, he was pressured

to apologize to the German government and he

was ostracized in Hollywood at the time. He even-

tually left the United States and went to live in

England.

Carol: Apologize to the Nazis?

Jake: Yes. In 1940, no one believed the stories com-

ing out of Europe that Jews were being rounded up

and sent to concentration camps. People basically

said that a civilized society just wouldn’t do such

things.

Fred: It’s pretty amazing, actually, how movies reflect

the times in which they are made.

Carol: Or have different meanings for different

groups of people. I read somewhere that older

people in China really liked Titanic.

Jake: I read that, too. But the people who lived

through China’s Cultural Revolution in the 1960s

didn’t care about the love story. If I get it right, the

sinking Titanic symbolized struggle and the ultimate

failure of communism to produce the new world

they had believed would be its legacy. They were

mourning the loss of their youthful hopes.

Fred: That goes a little too deep for me. But I do get

the idea that films seem to both reflect and create

culture.

Carol: Yeah. I wonder sometimes if films reflect

the violence of our society or if they make us think

it is normal for people to shoot one another over

nothing.

Fred: Hmm. I never thought about it like that before.

Films and Key Questions for Visual Culture Exploration

A Model for Discussing Films as Visual Culture

Key Concepts Film Title Director Date Genre Key Scene Key Questions

B E L I E F S *

Beliefs aboutwar andviolence

Apocalypse Now

(R)Francis FordCoppola

1979 The war moviegenre reflectspolitical points.War movies reflectthe values of thetime period inwhich they aremade, rather thanthe time of thewar they depict.

Napalm bomb-ing—“I love thesmell of napalm inthe morning!”

How does thisscene show youthat this film doesnot reflect 1940svalues regardingwar?

[For comparison,see Sands of

Iwo Jima (AllanDwan); Platoon

(Oliver Stone);Saving Private

Ryan (StevenSpielberg); and Jar Head (SamMendes).]

A belief inbaseball asrepresentingAmericanvalues

The Natural (PG)(In the traditionof a subgenre, thebaseball movie;e.g., Field of

Dreams [PhilAlden Robinson],or The Pride of

the Yankees

[Sam Wood])

Barry Levinson 1984 In the romancegenre, subjectssuch as love and baseball are idealized.

Last scene How do visualeffects contributeto a “baseballbelief system” and a mythologycreated aroundthe sport?

Beliefs abouttechnology

Wallace and

Gromit: Curse of

the Were-Rabbit

(G)

Nick Park 2005 In the animationgenre, culturalvalues are oftendistilled for youngaudiences.

First few minutes In what ways isthe film, includingthe maker’s tech-nique, used topoke fun at beliefin the power oftechnology?

*Beliefs—As we watch films, we can consciously unearth our own belief systems and better understand how beliefs are communicated in film.

1 4 9

1 5 0 A p p e n d i x G


D E F I N I T I O N S *

Defining artist Frida (R) Julie Taymor 2002 In the social com-mentary genre,relationships areoften an impor-tant aspect.

Frida Kahlo takesher paintings toDiego Rivera.

How does Fridadefine herself?What is the powerrelationshipbetween Fridaand Diego?

Defining socialstatus

City Lights Charles Chaplin 1931 Romanticcomedy/socialcommentary

The Little Trampmeets a blind girl.

How do youunderstand thedifferences insocial status with-out any spokenwords?

Defining filmgreatness

Citizen Kane Orson Wells 1941 The film noir

genre uses deepshade and shadowto contribute tothe film’s mean-ing. (See The Big

Sleep, HowardHawks.)

First scene Can you seeindications as towhy this film isconsidered bymany film expertsto be among thebest movies evermade?

*Definitions—Viewing is enhanced by defining in general (e. g., articulating our sense of its purpose) and articulating ideas presented in a film.

1 5 1A Model for Discussing Films as Visual Culture


P R O C E S S E S *

Filmmakingprocesses—movement

Sylvia (R) Christine Jeffs 2004 Social commentary

First scene (3:45 minutes)

How does thebeginning of thefilm cue us thatthe point of viewwill be uniquelyfemale?

Filmmakingprocesses—shottaking

Jaws (PG)(Spielberg’s firstbig-budget filmfollowed by ET,

Close Encounters

of the Third Kind,

Schindler’s List,

Minority Report)

StephenSpielberg

1984 The thriller genreis one in whichPOV, shot selec-tion, and pacingare critical tocreating a psycho-logical thrill ride.

Rare, quiet sceneat town meetingwhere Quint tellsshark stories

How are thespeakers’ headsframed andreframed tointensify mean-ings throughoutthe scene?

Filmmakingprocesses—POV,camera place-ment, andediting

Psycho AlfredHitchcock(Considered amaster of storyboarding shotsthat make theviewer feelunbalanced;e.g., The Birds,

Vertigo.)

1960 Thriller Shower scene What technicalprocesses (cameraplacement,editing, etc.)contribute tomaking this scenefrightening?

*Processes—Films involve a complex set of creative processes (screenwriting, editing, sound, etc.) and critical viewing processes (consideringtext, maker, viewer, context).Note: Asking and answering these questions and promoting discussion represents the viewing/critiquing process as described in this book.

1 5 2 A p p e n d i x G


O R I G I N S *

Autobiographyas origin

Antwone Fisher

(PG)DenzelWashington

2002 Socialcommentary

First scene: A fantasy familygathering thattransitions intoreality.

How does thescene contrastwith both thechild character’sand the screen-writer’s reality?

Cowboyarchetype, an original U.S. invention,deeplyengrained in Americanculture

Unforgiven (R) Clint Eastwood 1992 Anti-Western is a sub-genre inwhich the valuesof traditionalWesterns areturned inside-out.[See The Wild

Bunch (SamPeckinpaw), Butch

Cassidy and the

Sundance Kid

(George Roy Hill)]

Last scene What values areespoused in thisscene that arein conflict withthe traditionallypositive valuesassociated withWesterns and U.S. society (e.g., attitudesabout violence)?

Where we comefrom affectshow we seeand understandfamily conflict

Bend It Like

Beckham (PG13)GurinderChadha

2002 Socialcommentary

First scene How might thecultural and socialpressures at theheart of this storydiffer from yourown?

What is similar to your ownexperience?

*Origins—We may consider how the film originated (e.g., from a pre-existing genre of story) or how our own origins (e.g., life experiences)affect viewing.



C O D E S *

A moviescenario inwhich literaland metaphori-cal codes areembedded ingreat works of art

The Da Vinci Code

(PG-13)Ron Howard 2006 Mystery/thriller Choose a scene

that includes aknown art work.

What is conveyedabout the space in which art ishoused, and whatand who make art powerful,valuable, ormeaningful?

Questioningtraditionalcodes associ-ated withspirituality

Michael (PG) Nora Ephron 1996 Romance/fantasy Cynical reportersmeet Michael forthe first time.

What “codes”about the super-natural will thismovie challenge?

Food as a codefor meanings

Go Fish (R) Rose Troche 1994 Romance (Also part of a sub-genre,“food” films e.g., Babette’s

Feast (GabrielAxel), Like Water

for Chocolate

(Alfonso Arau),Chocolat (LasseHallström), Big

Night (CampbellScott/StanleyTucci).

Preparing food How does thefood preparationscene suggestaspects ofromance?

*Codes—Knowing how to decode visual symbols in a movie helps us better interpret meaning.

1 5 4 A p p e n d i x G


P O W E R *

A child’s sizemay disem-power, but achildlike mindcan createtransformativepower.

Big (PG) Penny Marshall 1988 The fantasy genreoften voices socialcommentaryabout powerrelationships.

Josh wakes up big.

How does this filmmake us laugh atbut think aboutsize and feelingsof powerlessness?

Size is notalways equatedwith power-lessness

The Station Agent

(PG13)Tom McCarthy 2003 Social

commentaryFin and Joe meet. What is the source

of Fin’s power,which is also a potentialweakness?

Gender andpower

Rambling Rose (R) MarthaCoolidge

1991 Social commentary(For additionalfilms regardinggender andpower, see GillianArmstrong’s My

Brilliant Career

and Little Women,1994 version.)

Mother confrontsDaddy about planto “fix” Rose.

What is Mother’ssource of powerand how does sheuse it to protectRose?

*Power—We can consider how power relationships are communicated in film. Who is powerful? Who is not? Why? How do the imagescommunicate this?



P O L I T I C S *

Politics, history,and the powerof individualleaders

The Great Dictator Charles Chaplin 1940 Social commen-tary/comedy—visual designqualities arecentral in black-and-white films,much like black-and-whitephotography.

Dictator danceswith globe.

What do you needto know aboutworld history toget the joke?

U.S. Politics Mr. Smith Goes

to Washington

Frank Capra 1939 Comedy/drama The filibusterscene

How do powerfulinstitutions failMr. Smith? Coulda Mr. Smith go toWashington, DC,and be successfultoday?

Politics of race Do the Right

Thing (R)Spike Lee 1989 Social

commentaryTossing a garbagecan into formerfriend’s window.

How does thescene change yourinterpretation ofthe film’s title?What is the“right” thing?

*Politics—In film we see how institutions impose their power in ways that may not be valued or meaningful to all.

1 5 6 A p p e n d i x G


S T O R I E S *

Of past placesand times

Titanic (PG 13)(A least sevenversions of Titanicpreceding thisone, includingMelissa Peltier’sacclaimed 1994documentary.)

James Cameron 1997 The historical epic genre viewshistory throughthe lens of thetime in which thefilm is made. [SeeGandhi (RichardAttenborough),Gangs of New

York (MartinScorsese),Lawrence of

Arabia (DavidLean)].

First scene How is the time-honored tech-nique of flashbackstorytelling usedto pull modernviewers into anunfamiliar pastand its valuesystems?

Of unfamiliarplaces andtimes

Seven Samurai Akira Kurosawa 1954 Action/adventure Scene beginningwith wood chopping

How is POV usedto facilitate story-telling? Where areyou in the scenes?

Of peoples’strengths,weaknesses,courage, andcowardice.

Stagecoach John Ford 1939 In the westerngenre, clearlydrawn charactersand concreteaction provide a foundation for story andcommunication of values.

First fifteenminutes

How does thisscene tell you thatthis will be a storyof “good” and“not so good”people? Why is somuch time spentintroducing thesecharacters?

*Stories—Film stories take place within a constructed place that reflects the values of the story maker.

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