engaging with sustainability issues in metropolitan chennai

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CITY REPORT APRIL 2014 Engaging with Sustainability Issues in Metropolitan Chennai By Loraine Kennedy, Aurélie Varrel, Eric Denis, Véronique Dupont, R. Dhanalakshmi, Samuel Roumeau, Isa Baud, Karin Pfeffer, N. Sridharan, M. Vijayabaskar, M. Suresh Babu, Aicha Seifelislam, Hortense Rouanet, Tara Saharan. 5

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Page 1: Engaging with Sustainability Issues in Metropolitan Chennai

CITY REPORT

APRIL 2014

Engaging with Sustainability Issues in Metropolitan Chennai

By Loraine Kennedy, Aurélie Varrel, Eric Denis, Véronique Dupont, R. Dhanalakshmi, Samuel Roumeau, Isa Baud, Karin Pfeffer, N. Sridharan, M. Vijayabaskar, M. Suresh Babu, Aicha Seifelislam, Hortense Rouanet, Tara Saharan.

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Page 2: Engaging with Sustainability Issues in Metropolitan Chennai

Engaging with Sustainability Issues in Metropolitan Chennai

City Report

By Loraine Kennedy, Aurélie Varrel, Eric Denis, Véronique Dupont, R. Dhanalakshmi, Samuel Roumeau,

Isa Baud, Karin Pfeffer, N. Sridharan, M. Vijayabaskar, M. Suresh Babu, Aicha Seifelislam,

Hortense Rouanet, Tara Saharan.

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Table of Contents

1. Background on Chennai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.1.IntroducingChennai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.2.History . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 51.3.Populationgrowthandspatialexpansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.4.Levelsofgovernmentandterritorialjurisdictionsinthemetropolitanregion . . . . . . . . . 7

2. Mega-projects as an Expression of Economic Growth Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.1.VisionsforChennai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

2.2.MegaprojectdevelopmentforpromotingtheIT-BPOsector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.3.Consolidatingthevision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132.4.Assessingtheroleoflarge-scaleinfrastructureprojectsintheurbaneconomy . . . . . . . . . 162.5.Actorsandstakeholders–competingstrategiesandinterestsshapingsocialand

spatialpatternsinthecity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172.6.Socio-economiceffectsoftheITCorridor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

3. Addressing Urban Inequality: Focus on Sub-standard Settlements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253.1.Shortageofdecenthousingandsocio-spatialsegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253.2.Socialhousingandpoliciestowardsslums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263.3.Socialmobilizationandparticipationinsub-standardsettlements................28

4. Water Governance and Climate Change Issues in Chennai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324.1.Majorwaterrelatedissuesandvulnerabilitiesandtheirspatialdistribution . .. .. .. ..324.2.WaterGovernancealongtheITCorridor . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 344.3.Policyandspecificprojectsforwatersupply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364.4.Vulnerabilitytoclimatechangeimpacts . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..404.5.Producingvulnerabilityanalysesandscenarios;spatialperspectivesandparticipation . .43

5. Spatial Knowledge Management in the City: Spatial Perspectives and Participation in Knowledge Production, Exchange and Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465.1.DiscoursesandrationalesforintroducingICT-GIS-basedknowledgemanagement

inurbangovernance;boundaries,workprocesses,mappingneeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465.2.KnowledgeconstructioninChennaiurbanplanningandmanagement:

actorsandnetworks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475.3.Spatialknowledgeinurbanandregionalplanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495.4.Mappingslumsforredevelopment:theprocessofRAYinChennai. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525.5.Spatialknowledgeproducedthroughcitizenparticipationprocesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

6. Fiscal Decentralisation, Participatory Processes and Inclusive Development . . . . . . . . . . 55

7. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

8. Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

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1.1.IntroducingChennai1

ChennaiisthelargestmetropolitancityinSouthIndia(8.7millionin2011)andtheprovincialcapitalofthelargestateofTamilNadu(population72millionin2011).Beforethat, under British rule, the citywas the capital of theMadrasPresidency,andwasknownasMadrasuntil1996,whenthenamewasofficiallychangedtoChennai.LocatedontheeastcoastofIndia,ontheBayofBengal,seatradehasbeenan importantaspectof the regionaleconomysince at least the colonial period. Still today, the citycombines political functions with economic commandfunctionsforbothmanufacturingandservices,reflectingthe region’s diversified economy. The Chennaimetropolitanareahaswitnessedstronggrowthoverthelast 20 years in automobile manufacturing, softwareservices, hardware manufacturing, healthcare andfinancialservices(CDP2009).However,itshouldbenotedthatonly30%oftotalemploymentinthecitytakesplaceintheformalsectori.e.,iscoveredbycontractsandlabourlaws,theremaining70%fallsintheinformalsector.Thisunderscorestheimportanceofsmallandmicroenterprisesand self-employment for providing goods, services andlivelihoodsinthelocaleconomy.Itisindicativeofalargelylow-incomeeconomy,likemostotherIndiancities,whichcan also be inferred from statistics on housing(approximately 23% of Chennai’s inhabitants reside ininformal settlements) and from maps of socio-spatialinequalitiesinaccesstoamenities,alsocalled“hotspots”ofdeprivation(seeBaudetal.2009).ComparedtoDelhiand Kalyan, the two other Indian cities in theChance2Sustain study, Chennai has some distinctcharacteristics.LikeDelhiitcombinesadministrativeandeconomiccommandfunctions,butthepublicsectortendsto be less predominant in some important respects,notably land planning and regulation, leaving relativelymoreroomforprivatesectoractors.2Inabsoluteterms,Chennai’surbanregion(includingtheadjoiningdistrictsof Tiruvallur and Kanchipuram) is one of India’s most

1 This section draws on material from the India Country Report, provided mainly by A. Varrel, E. Denis and L. Kennedy.

2 During the period 1995-2010, the share of private capital (Indian and foreign combined) in total investments was considerably higher in Chennai than in Delhi: approximately 59% compared to 36%) (Shaw 2012, table 7, p 42).

dynamicregions,registeringatotalinvestmentofRs522659crores (approx.62billioneuros)3during theperiod1995-2010(Shaw2012:37-8).Intermsofrisks,Chennaiappears more vulnerable in many respects than bothKalyanandDelhi;ithasthelowestpercapitaavailabilityofwateramongIndia’slargecitiesanditslocationonthecoastexposesittotheeffectsofclimatechange.

ThefollowingquotefromtheSecondMasterPlanforChennai Metropolitan Area suggests that planners inChennaihavetakencognisanceoftheserisksandhaveenvisioned a future that explicitly engages with thesustainablecitiesagenda.Itexpressestheaimtopromoteamoresustainablecitybyputting intoplacestrategiesthat integrate economic, social and environmentalfactors. At least rhetorically then, the Master Planembraces the core concepts of the sustainable citiesagenda,whichhavecirculatedwidelywithininternationalpolicyanddonornetworks.

“The vision of ChennaiMetropolitan DevelopmentAreaistomakeChennaia prime metropoliswhichwillbecome more livable, economically vibrant,environmentallysustainableandwithbetterassetsforthefuturegenerations”(CMDA2008:17,italicsadded).

UsingexpertknowledgeforcityplanningandborrowinginternationalmodelsforurbandevelopmentarenotnewpracticesinChennai.Forinstance,GandhinagarwasbuiltonthesouthernbanksoftheAdyarriverin1947bytheMadras Cooperative House construction Society andmodeledonagardencity.“Thislayout,asthegovernmentliterature portrayed, was modeled on the modernneighborhood ideawhichwas amost popular form ofdevelopmentadoptedby the townplanners inwesterncountries then” (Srivathsan (2012: 5, citing Sitalakshmi2007).Atthattime,Gandhinagarwaslocatedjustoutsidethe city limits. This example is particularly compellinggiventhatthemaincasestudyanalysedinChennai,theIT expressway, was also built just outside Chennaicorporationlimits,untiltheboundarieswereexpandedin2011 to encompass it. Instead of housing, the ITexpressway is a project that promotes economicdevelopment, and it drew its inspiration from othernationalandinternationalexamples.

3 Compared to Rs 1 060 234 crores for Delhi (with Faridabad, Gurgaon, Ghaziabad and Noida) (Shaw 2012: 37-8).

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Background on Chennai1

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AgreaterfocusongrowthandonstrategicplanningisevidentinboththeMasterPlanandtheCity(Comprehensive)Development Plan elaborated in the framework of theNationalUrbanRenewalMission(JNNURM).Thistrendcanbe interpretedwithin a “competitive cities” frameworkwherein political leaders, often working in closecollaboration with private sector actors, includinginternationalconsultingagencies,engageincitymarketingin order to position their cities on the global scale andattractinvestment.4

In 2012, Tamil Nadu’s Chief Minister Jayalalithaainaugurated ‘Vision TamilNadu 2023’, a document thatoutlinestheState’splanforinfrastructuredevelopmenttobe achieved in the next decade.5 Included among thedesiredoutcomesareanincreaseofpercapitaincomeofpeopleofthestatetoUSD10000,themedianincomeofuppermiddleincomecountries,theattainmentofahighstandard of social development, with the HumanDevelopment Index of the State matching those ofdeveloped countries, and the provision of high qualityinfrastructure.6Thedocument is clearly informedby the‘infrastructure-ledgrowth’model,wherebyinvestmentsininfrastructure constitute the key for achieving highereconomic growth. The document announces thepreparationof investmentplans for sevenbroad sectorsincluding‘urbaninfrastructure’,inwhichoneoftheprojectsis to develop Chennai into a ‘megapolis’ (megalopolis)(Vision Tamil Nadu 20232012:61).Thevisiondocument,preparedwiththesupportoftheAsianDevelopmentBank,drawsinspirationfromcurrentdebatesonresilience,asthisextractdemonstrates:

Theworldhasbecomemore complex, volatile andunpredictableinthepastfewdecadesthanithaseverbeen in history, and it is likely to remain so in thefuture. Therefore, any visioning exercise has tocontendwiththeuncertaintiesthatwillaffectusinthe future. Accordingly, contingency plans andalternativeshavetobethoughtthroughandthatcallsforaresponsiveandcapablegovernmentatthehelmof the state at all times. Vision 2023 accordingly,addresses the differential requirements of variousstakeholdersinthestatewithaviewtoenablinghigh

4 See the WP2 Literature Review: http://www.chance2sustain.eu/26.0.html

5 The document is available on the government website, http://www.tn.gov.in/ last consulted 17 July 2013.

6 The seven sectors are energy, transport, industrial and commercial, urban infrastructure, agriculture and human development (health and education). See “Jayalalithaa envisages high growth trajectory”, The Hindu, Chennai edition, March 23, 2012.

ratesofgrowthandeconomicdevelopment that ishighlyinclusiveandsensitivetopotentialdownsidesby conferring resilience to the state’s economic and social fabric. (Vision Tamil Nadu 2023 2012: 10,emphasisadded)

1.2. HistoryChennai (knownasMadrasuntil1996) is theoldest

municipal corporation in India, created in1688by theBritish. The area hosted several localities dottedwithHindu temples and a port allegedly existed there andwasactiveinthe1stcenturyB.C.ThePortuguesesettleddown in1522andcreateda fort (SanThomearea); in1639theBritishEastIndiaCompanyacquiredlandwhereFortSt.Georgewasbuilt.ItwasanoutpostandaportintheGulfofBengalatatimewhenSouthIndiaremaineddisputedbytheFrench,theDutch,thePortugueseandtheBritish.

DuringthelongperiodofdominationundertheBritishempireMadrasbecametheadministrativecapitalof theMadrasPresidency,aterritoryofBritishIndiathatextendedover themajor part of South India.Madras developedeconomicallyduringthecolonialperiodasanindustrialcitycentredontheport.The‘tradingposteconomy’7consistedinexporting rawand semi-finishedgoodsand importingmanufactured goods from Britain. As an administrativecapital,theinfluenceofthemetropolisextendedfarbeyondthebordersofwhatwouldbecomeMadrasStatein1956,after the large-scale reorganisation of State boundariesalonglinguisticlines.MadrasbecamethecapitalofMadrasState,althoughthisdecisionwasdisputedbymanypeopleinAndhraPradesh,especially those fromareas thathadbelonged to the Madras Presidency. Madras State, farsmaller than the Presidency, was renamed Tamil Nadu(LandoftheTamils)in1968.TheofficialnameofMadraswaschangedtoChennaiin1996.

1.3. Population growth and spatial expansion

Chennai is the fourth largestmetropolis after Delhi,Mumbai and Kolkata. Chennai’s population has grownsteadily since Independence but at a slower pace thanDelhiandMumbai.Somefactorsthatmightexplainthisgrowthtrajectoryinclude:

7 The term économie de comptoirs is from Durand-Dastès 1995.

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• the proximity to other large cities especiallyBangaloreandHyderabad,respectively5thand6thcitiesbysizeinthecountry,locatedatadistanceof330kmand700km;

• thefillingoutoftheurbanhierarchyatintermediatelevelsinSouthIndia,namelyinTamilNaduandAndhraPradesh.TamilNadu is India’smosturbanisedstate(48%ofitspopulation,accordingto2011Census);

• after1956, regionalpoliticaldynamics led thecityto look inward toward the State, and itmay havelost some ground as a national-scalemetropolis.Regaining a national status has become achallenge for the State’s political leadership, asneighboursBangaloreandHyderabadarechallengingChennai’shistoricalsupremacyinthesouthernpartofthecountry.

Table1showsthegrowthrateofpopulationbetween1971and2011forbothChennaicity(i.e.Chennaimunicipalcorporation) and Chennai metropolitan area, which

reached8.7million inhabitants in the 2011Census. ThegrowthratehasbeenslowingdownforbothChennaicityand Chennai Metropolitan Area, within the officialadministrative boundaries, as per the Census. One canobserve the spill over of demographic growth from thelimitsofChennaicity(176km2)intothemetropolitanareaoutsidecitylimits,whichisalmostseventimeslarger.

Table2showsthedeclineinthecontributionofmigrationto thismoderate growth rate. It turns out to bemostlymigration from the Stateof TamilNadu itself, this trendreinforcingovertime.Ethnographicmaterialindicatesalsomuchmigration from the neighbouring State of AndhraPradesh(Kamble1982).

AsforthespatialexpansionofChennai,thepresenceoftheseaontheEasthasforcedexpansioninotherdirections.Chennai’slocationisalsomarkedbythreemajorriversbedsandbackwaters.TheIndiapolisdatabaseevaluatesthetotalsurfaceofChennaibuilt-upareacurrentlyat588km2,with

Population Annual AREA

1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 1971-1981

1981-1991

1991-2001

2001-2011

(km2)

Chennai city 2,642,000 3,285,000 3,843,000 4,343,000 4,681,087 2.2 1.58 1.23 0.75 176

Chennai 3,504,000 4,601,000 5,818,000 7,041,000 8,696,010 2.76 2.37 1.93 2.11 1189

Year

Tota

l Pop

ulat

ion

Total migrants to the City from

% o

f Tot

al M

igra

nts

to to

tal p

opul

atio

n

Other parts of Tamil Nadu

Other parts of India (Excluding

Tamil Nadu)

Other Countries

Un-

clas

sifie

d

Tota

l mig

rant

s in

lakh

s

No. in lakhs

%No. in lakhs

%No. in lakhs

%

1961 17.29 4.47 69.45 1.71 26.60 0.25 3.90 -- 6.44 37.24

1971 24.69 5.51 70.61 2.00 25.63 0.29 3.76 -- 7.80 31.59

1981 32.84 7.19 71.28 2.55 25.31 0.34 3.41 -- 10.08 30.70

1991 38.43 6.44 70.51 2.42 26.47 0.28 3.01 0.04 9.18 23.90

2001 43.44 6.98 74.49 2.23 23.80 0.16 1.71 9.37 21.57

Table 1: Chennaipopulationandpopulationgrowth(1971-2011)

Table 2: MigrationtoChennai(1961-2001)(inLakhs)

Source: Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority, 2008 based on Census, 2001; Census 2011.

Source: Adapted from Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority, 2008, based on Census data. NB 1 lakh = 100 000.

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a population of approximately 7million people (source:e-Geopolis, Indiapolis database, 2010),which coincidesquitewellwiththeofficialfiguresofTable1(CMDA2008).

1.4. Levels of government and territorial jurisdictions in the metropolitan region

ChennaiMunicipalCorporation(CMC),alsoknownbyits official name, the Corporation of Chennai, wasexpanded in2011,merging42 localbodies, including9municipalities, 8 town panchayats and 25 villagepanchayats(cf.Map1onpage8).TheCorporationisnowmadeupof200wards,groupedinto15wardcommittees.The newly annexed areas, which include some of thelocalitieswhere in-depthcasestudiesarebeingcarriedoutfortheC2Sproject,weredividedinto93wards,andtheremaining107wardswerecreatedoutoftheoriginal155within theoldcity limits.MunicipalelectionswereheldjustaftertheexpansioninOctober2011,wherethecouncillorselectthemayoranddeputymayorwhopresideoversixstandingcommittees.

To cope with demographic growth, the ChennaiMetropolitanArea(CMA)wasfirstdrawnin1967,andhasnot changed since 1974. It is the fourth largestmetropolitanareainIndia,designedataveryearlystage.TheMadrasMetropolitanDevelopmentAuthority (nowtheChennaiMetropolitanDevelopmentAuthority;CMDA)wassetupasanadhocbodyin1972andbecamestatutoryin1975(undertheTamilNaduTownandCountryPlanningAct,1971).

Itiscomprisedof3districts:

– thetotalityofChennaidistrict(176km²)

– a portion of Thiruvallur District (637 km²) to theNorthandNorth-West

– aportionofKancheepuramDistrict(376km²)totheSouthandSouth-West

WhereasChennaiCorporationhasanelectedbodytheCMDAisonlyanadministrativestructure.ThelocalbodiesoutsideofChennaiCorporationareamixof304ruralandurbanlocalpanchayats(villages),plusmunicipalitieswithelected bodies (last elections were held in 2011). Themanagement of these two overlapping areas, theCorporation and the Metropolitan, comprising of localbodies with four different administrative statuses, hasbecomeextremelycomplicated.

GiventhattheCMDAdoesnothaveanelectedboard,State-levelpoliticiansandcivilservantsconsiderthisareato be under their jurisdiction. For basic services, thecorporationandlocalbodieswithinthemetropolitanarea(municipalities,townpanchayats,villagepanchayats)shareresponsibility for maintaining roads, pedestrian ways,streetlights,solidwastecollectionandmanagement,micro-drainage,parksundertheirjurisdiction,totheextentthatagencies appointed by the State or the MetropolitanAuthoritydonottakechargeofthem.

This omnipresence of the State government in localservice delivery has been recently reinforced by theburgeoningofnewparastatalagenciesandspecialpurposevehicles, which can on occasion bypass pre-existingagencies.Examplesinclude:

• TamilNaduRoadDevelopmentCorporation(TNRDC),incorporated in1998was set-up toattractprivateinvestments for road infrastructure and to buildroads under Public-Private Partnership (PPP)framework8;

• Chennai Rivers Restoration Trust, bypasses theChennaiMetropolitanWatersanitationandSewageBoard, TN Slum Clearance Board, Public WorksDepartment.

The then newly appointed CMDAdeveloped the firstMadras Urban Development Plan (1974) and then theMadrasMetropolitanPlan(1975),settingupmid-termandlong-termdevelopmentgoalsandlanduserules.Itseemsthattherewerenumerousplansdrawnupovertime,some

8 As of 2009, TNRDC is a 50:50 joint venture company of TIDCO and TIDEL Park Ltd. Cf. http://www.tnrdc.com

Table 3: SelectedagenciesoperatinginChennaiMetropolitanArea.

Source: Field research and official documents.

CMCandCMAagencies

– MetropolitanBusCorporation

– ChennaiMetropolitanWatersanita-tionandSewageBoard(itservesonlyChennaiCorporationandsomeareas,includingtheITCorridor,etc)

TamilNaduStategovernmentagencies

– TamilNaduHousingBoard

– TamilNaduElectricityBoard

– TamilNaduSlumClearanceBoard

– PublicWorksDepartment

– HighwaysDepartment

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1BackgroundonChennai

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Map 1: AdministrativedivisionsintheMunicipalCorporationofChennaiandthe2011expansion

Source: Municipal Corporation of Chennai website

S.NoWard Committee

Name of the Zone

No of Ward

Ward Number

1 I Thiruvottiyur 14 1to14

2 II Manali 7 15to21

3 III Madhavaram 12 22to33

4 IV Tondiarpet 15 34to48

5 V Royapuram 15 49to63

6 VI Thiru-Vi-Kanagar 15 64to78

7 VII Ambattur 15 79to93

8 VIII Annanagar 15 94to108

9 IX Teynampet 18 109to126

10 X Kodambakkam 16 127to142

11 XI Valasaravakkam 13 143to155

12 XII Alandur 12 156to167

13 XIII Adyar 13 170to182

14 XIV Perungudi 11 168,169183to191

15 XV Shozhinganallur 9 192to200

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with the support of foreign consulting firms (1980), butthere was no newMetropolitan Plan until the SecondMasterPlan forChennaiMetropolitanArea2026,whichwassubmittedin2005andapprovedafteraconsultationphasein2007.9

TherearepresentlylivelydebatesabouttheextensionofCMDAandtherepositioningoftheareavis-à-vistheregionaleconomy,given the importantpolitical stakes.Aplan for

9 It was published at the end of 2008 and is available online: http://www.cmdachennai.gov.in/SMP_main.html .

“ChennaiMega-Region”submitted inApril2012 includesSriperumbudur, Kelambakkam, Tiruvallur andMaraimalaiNagarinacomprehensiveplanthatcouldexpandtocoverthewholeofKancheepuramandTiruvallurdistrictsaswellasArakkonamtalukinVelloredistrict.Ofthetwooptionscurrentlyunderconsideration,oneadvocatesanextensionupto4400km2andtheother8800km²(cf.diagrambelow).Chennai could become the thirdmetropolitan region ofIndiaintermofpopulationandthebiggestinarea.10

10 See A. Srivathsan, Chennai to push its boundaries, but how far? The Hindu, June 6, 2013

Diagram:Planfor“ChennaiMega-Region”

Source: A. Srivathsan, Chennai to push its boundaries, but how far? The Hindu, June 6, 2013.

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2.1. Visions for Chennai 11

ThemaincityvisiondocumentforChennai isthefirstvolumeoftheSecondMasterPlanforChennaiMetropolitanArea2026 thatwasmadepublic in 2008, called ‘Vision,StrategiesandactionPlans’.ThefirststatementonChennaieconomyinthisdocumentreadsasfollows:

TheeconomicbaseofChennaiCityhadshiftedfromtradeandcommercetoadministrationandservicesby the early part of the 20thCentury. In thepost-Independence period, manufacturing became animportantsectorandCMAcontinuestobethemostimportantindustrialareaintheState.Recenttrendshows that the economic structure of the City istertiarisedwithgrowingcontributionbyInformationTechnology/InformationTechnologyEnablingService/Business Process Outsourcing Industries (IT-BPO)(2008,p.13).

Taken as awhole, the document presents Chennai’seconomyasmixed,withabalancebetweensecondaryandtertiaryactivities.ItplacesemphasisonIT-BPOactivities.

ThisdiversityaswellascertainsectorsofactivityareputforwardintherevisedComprehensiveDevelopmentPlan(CDP) –which only covers the CMC area - prepared forJNNURMin200912:“Chennaihasadiversifiedformalsectoreconomic base driven by the automobile, software development and business outsourcing, hardwaremanufacturing, healthcare, and financial services industries.”(2009,p.35,emphasisadded).Asforitsnationalandinternationalpositioning,itstates:

Chennai is thecapitalofTamilNaduand India’s4thlargestmetropolitanareawithastrategicpositionininternational trade of both goods and services.Chennai is an important centre for theautomobileindustry producing for both domestic and export

11 This section draws on research conducted under WP2, mainly research conducted by Aurélie Varrel, M. Vijayabaskar and M. Suresh Babu.

12 Chennai CDP 2009 followed the initial 2006 CDP document, which was rejected by JNNURM and subsequently reworked by a consortium of high profile activists with the support of an international consultancy firm. It mostly points at avenues for infrastructure investment under the JNNNURM scheme.

markets,anexpandingITindustryrelyingextensivelyonglobaloutsourcing,andoneofIndia’slargestports[…] All of these factors suggest that Chennaimustthinkglobally,andstriveforinternationallyrecognizedstandardsofdevelopmentinordertofurtherpromoteChennaiintheworld.Atthesametimeitmusttakeadiversifiedapproachtoeconomicdevelopmenttosmooththeimpactsofuncontrollableglobalshiftsindemand(2009,p.25).

Hence it appears that the emphasis in this visiondocumentismoreonempoweringChennaitocompeteat the international level than at the national level.Interestingly,neitherofthesedocumentsdrawsanysortof comparison with the other three ten million-pluscitiesofIndia–i.e.,Delhi,MumbaiandKolkata.ItisalsostrikingtoseehowmuchimportanceisgiventotheIT-BPOsector.ItwasinpartforthisreasonthattheWP2casestudy,selectedintheframeworkoftheC2Sproject,concentratesonmegaprojectdevelopmentinrelationtothissectorofactivity.

2.2. Megaproject development for promoting the IT-BPO sector

ThemostrecentgenerationofmegaprojectsenvisagedforChennaiaretheEnnoredeepport,theelevatedhighwayfromMaduravoyaltoKoyambedu(designedtoservetheport),theNemelidesalinationplant,theOuterRingRoad(peripheralbelt)andthemetro.Itisobviousthatmostofthese projects correspond to international templates ofmetropolitan infrastructuresmeant to enhance the cityregion functioning, but they are not necessarily welladaptedtolocalconditions.13TheycontributetoprojectingtheStateandmetropolitaneconomyattheinternationallevel:theelevatedhighwayisintendedtoimproveaccessto the port area for trucks, especially those carryingautomobilesproduced in thewesternpart of themetroregion,whilethedeepportcaterstotheneedsofanexport-oriented sector. These infrastructure projects aim totransformChennaiintoaglobalcityregion,byprovidingit

13 For example, the costs for running the desalination plant are such that the treated water is much more expensive than average, in addition to requiring large amounts of electricity in a State prone to power scarcity.

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Mega-projects as an Expression of Economic Growth Strategies2

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with the attributes of a ‘world class city’, notably thecapacity of the economic sectors to compete at theinternationallevel,forinstancebyturningChennaiintoaregional hub for the automobile industry. Of equalimportance,asweshallsee,hasbeenthedrivetodeveloptheITindustry.

The development of the export-oriented IT and ITEnabledServices(ITESorBPO)sectorhasbecomeasalientfeatureofIndia’sgrowthstoryandiswidelyconsideredtobeagrowthengineforthecountry.Indeed,foroverthreedecades now, the IT sector has been given attention byIndia’s political elites, as is reflected in various visiondocuments. The State of Tamil Nadu has been at theforefrontofthistrend,byintroducingoneofthefirstState-levelITpoliciesasearlyas1997,thesameyearasKarnataka(ofwhichBangaloreisthecapital).OnestrikingexampleofTamilNadu’sproactiveattitudetowardstheITsectoristhedesignation of one growth corridor especially for the ITsector14,i.e.,the‘SouthITCorridor’(CDP2009,p.26).

The idea of a corridor dedicated to the IT industryemerged in theearly2000sat the timewhen several ITcompanies started locating premises along the OldMahabalipuram Road. The term “IT Corridor” wasapparentlyborrowedfromaprojectthatwasdevelopedbyaSingaporeanurbanplanningconsultantattheendofthe1990s forBangalore, referringtoan integratedtownshipincludingservicesandresidentialareas.ItwasintendedtobedevelopedintheeasternsuburbsofBangalore,butaftera long debate on its possible inclusion in the BangaloreMasterPlanof2007,itwasruledoutanddoesnotappearin the document. The transposition of that model toChennaihasbyandlargeconsistedinupgradingtheexistingOldMahabalipuramRoad [OMR] into an IT Expressway(ITEL)toconnectITparkssituatedonthisroadway,aswellasnumerousprivatecompanies.ParastatalagencieswereputinchargeofdevelopingtheITCorridorandprovidinghigh quality services along the road (power,water) andallowingextraFloorSpaceIndexforITactivitiesalongtheroad.ThemegaprojectperseistheITExpresswayLimited(as it isa specialpurposevehicle). It corresponds to theupgradedOMR,butthewholeareaisknowninplanningdocuments,andincreasinglyinthepublicatlarge,asthe“ITCorridor”15.Itisparticularlyinterestingthatthemodelcomes from Bangalore, the city that is more or less

14 The Second Master Plan for Chennai Metropolitan Area 2026 developed a vision of urban development along corridors of circulation coupled with economic specialization, e.g., East Coast Road as ‘Entertainment Corridor’, the NH4 as ‘Automative Corridor’, and Old Mahabalipuram Road as ‘IT Corridor’.

15 The road is also officially named: Rajiv Gandhi Salai.

considered as the capital of IT in India, and that itwasdevelopedbya foreign, Singapore-basedconsultancy,asSingapore is largely considered a reference in terms ofeconomicandurbandevelopment inSouthIndia(Ghosh2008;Yahay2008).

Thecentralroleoftheroadasawaytodeveloptheareacan be seen as a reflection of the importance given totransport infrastructure in India since Independence. Itbuilds indeed on older projects: the widening of OldMahabalipuramRoadfroma2-lanetoa4-laneroadwasinitiallyincludedinamoregeneralplanofroadupgradingundertakenbytheGoTNHighwaysDepartment,theRadialRoad Scheme (1997). In 2001 a new set of prioritiesincludedworkontheroad; inadditiontothechangeofgovernmentbroughtinasaresultofelectionsin2001,thestart of operations at TIDEL Park, situated just on thesouthern edge of the city, brought to light the pitifulconditionofexistingroads.Arecentlycreatedparastatalagency, Tamil Nadu Road Development Corporation(TNRDC),wasassignedtotakechargeoftheproject,withhighambitions:“Theproject,inaway,exemplifiestheIT/ITES prowess of Tamil Nadu, and the commitment ofsuccessivegovernmentstocreateandnurtureworld class infrastructure to preserve the State’s position as one amongst the most favoured investment destinations in the country.” (Malmarugan and Narayan 2006 ; emphasisadded).TheobjectivewastocreateabenchmarkintermsofroaddevelopmentinIndia.Althoughtherevampingoftheprojectgovernanceafter2006(completionofPhase1andinternalreorganizationatTNRDC)and2009(TNRDCfully under control of GoTN) gave way to less loftyambitions,i.e.,mainlyjustcompletingtheroad,therehasnonetheless been a remarkable focus on the road as acatalystforfosteringsectorialdevelopment.Theresultisa6 lane-Expresswayapproximately20km long,withallaccessestolled.

Inresearchingthismegaproject,oneofmaingoalswastounderstandtheeconomiceffectsproducedthroughitsimplementation in terms of both service provision andcapital allocation (e.g. through the construction sectorboom).Toaddressthisquestion,itisusefultosituatetheimportanceoftheITindustryinthelocaleconomy.

OveralltheIT-BPOsectorgeneratesroughly6%ofGDPinIndia,withaggregaterevenueofUS$101billionforthefiscalyear2011-12(GoI,2012,p.1).TamilNaduiscurrentlythethirdorfourthrankedStateforITindustryinthecountry,in terms of IT export value. It comes after Karnataka(Bangalore-Mysore)andMaharashtra(MumbaiandPune),aheadoftheNationalCapitalRegionandothercities,with46 crores rupees (i.e.more than 7.5 billion US dollars)export in the fiscal years 2012 and 2013. Chennai

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Map 2: IndustrialandITCorridorsinChennai(2010)

Source: Kamala Marius-Gnanou, 2010

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accommodatesmore than 90%of TamilNadu’s 350 000employeesintheITandITESsectorandconcentratesalmostall export-oriented activities in Tamil Nadu IT sector(Nasscom, interview, 2011). In this sense, Chennaicontributes largelytothepre-eminenceofSouthIndia intheIndianITsector.Fromresearchconductedinthisproject,theITCorridorturnsouttohostabouttwothirdsofthisworkforce,thusitcanbeconsideredasforming,tosomeextentatleast,anITcluster.Forinstance,CTS/Cognizant,thebiggestChennai-basedITcompany,haslocatedasmanyas12outof14ofitsChennaiofficesalongtheITroadinvariouspremises.Concretely,theITCorridorismadeupofthe expressway and the adjacent roads; key landmarksincludethreeITparks,developedbyState-levelparastatalagencies, hosting various companies within their largecompounds,inofficebuildingsprovidedbytheagenciesorinpremisesbuiltbytheindividualcompanies.Inadditionthere has been a mushrooming of various companycampuses(e.g.Cognizantowncampus-cum-headquarters)andprivately-runITbuildingsandspecialeconomiczones(SEZ). The attractiveness of the area was enhanced byvarioustaxandfinancialincentivesforcompaniessettlingdowninthearea(listedinthenextpoint).

Thedailypresenceofnearly200000ITemployeesinthearea,plustheconsiderablerevampingofwhatwasformerlya semi-rural fringe, has triggered considerable indirectemploymentopportunities inretail services (shops, foodstalls,restaurants),supportservices(securityandcleaning)and transport, which are further detailed in the nextsection.Additionallythedemandforhousingforemployeeshasintroducedanothermajorchangeofthelandscapeandlocaleconomy,whichcanbesummarizedbyfourtypesofdevelopment. First, theboom inhousing (for rental andpurchase)hastranslatedintoaconstantincreaseindensityandhasraised landvaluesalongtheroadand innearbylocalities, with the general development of residential houses on the one hand, and ofapartment buildings inselectedlocationsontheotherhand,especiallyatthetwoextremitiesoftheCorridorsuchastheaffluentsuburbsofAdyarandintheonce-ruralEgatturandKazipatturareasinthesouthernpartoftheCorridor(cf.imagesnos.3and4).Densificationisapparent,asshowninimageno.1,takeninthenorthernhalfof thearea.Furthermore,manyhouseowners in thepreviouslyrural localitieshavebuiltmulti-storey housesincludingsingleroomsrentedouttobachelors(who are overrepresented in the software industry, (cf.below).Therehasalsobeenaconsiderablemushroomingofwomen’s(‘ladies’)andmen’s(‘gents’)hostels,whichrentsingleorsharedroomsonamonthlybasis.

Meanwhile,waterandpowerprovisionhavenotkeptpacewiththeremarkableincreaseofdailycommutersandnew residents, contrary to initial projections of the IT

Expressway mega-project (see further section 4). Thesituationhasdeterioratedtothepointwhereittakesatolloncompanies’profitstorunmostlyonwatertankersanduninterruptible power supply (UPS) generators, whichmakestheareaincreasinglylessattractivethaninthefirsthalfofthe2000s,whenmostcompaniessettledhere.16Tosummarize,theroadinfrastructurehashelpedtodevelopthe area economically turning it into a buoyant newsuburbanextensionofChennaitotheSouth,butthelackofsufficientwaterandpowerinfrastructurehavebecomemajordrawbacks.For this reason,andalsobecause thehousingprovisionlagsbehinddemand,mostITemployeesstill commute from the city and from along the coast,which results in major traffic congestion along theExpressway.Theoveralldevelopmentofthearea isalsonot yet up to the level of IT employees’ middle-classrequirementsandaspirations.17

2.3. Consolidating the vision18

AsfarastheITExpresswaymegaprojectisconcerned,its implementation and the consolidation of the visionunderpinningiti.e.,anITclusterbuiltaround‘worldclass’infrastructure,were facilitated by a series of supportinglawsandnotifications,includingthefollowing:

• The landacquisitionprocesswasconductedundertheTamilNaduHighwayAct2001,whicheffectivelyreplaced the Land Acquisition Act of 1894 andallowed the State to use a fast-track, takingpossessionof the landwithin30days afterpublicnotification, without waiting for compensationpaymentnorforcourtdecisionincaseoflitigation.Acquisition was conducted by a special teambelongingtotheTNRDC,sothattheentireprocesstooklessthantwoyears.

• In addition to the IT Expressway,other large-scaleundertakings have been developed by parastatalagenciesoverthelastdecadetoattractITcompaniesand support the development of the sector inChennai.Inparticular,threeITparkswerebuiltalongtheExpressway,eachonelocatedapproximately10kmfromtheotherones(seeMap2).Theseclusters

16 This analysis is based on interviews conducted by Aurélie Varrel with company representatives, November 2011 - March 2012, Chennai.

17 Source: interviews conducted by A. Varrel with real estate salespersons, Chennai, March 2012.

18 IT Corridor and IT Expressway are used interchangeably in the text.

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Image 1: Residentialandcommercialbuilt-upareasbetweentheITExpresswayandPallikanaraimarshland(OkkyiamThoraipakkam). The competition for space between individual houses, residential townships and officebuildings(thenunderconstruction)isapparent.

Image 2: Housewithadditionalupperstoreysofferingroomsforrent.TheverticalizationofwhatusedtobevillagehousesisanoticeabletrendinallvillagesneartheITExpressway.

Source: A. Varrel, Padur, August 2010

Source: A. Varrel, O.T., March 2012

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Image 3: Hiranandanitownship,inEgattur,atthesouthernexitoftheexpressway.ThispictureillustratesthemushroomingofupscaleresidentialbuildingsinEgatturandfurther,aroundthesoutherntollandbeyondCMAlimits.

Image 4: Panoramaoftherapidlychangingresidentiallandscape,southofthetollgatealongMuttukadulaguna.

Source: A. Varrel, Chennai area, August 2010

Source: A. Varrel, Chennai area, November 2011

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orenclavesofferspecialisedinfrastructurerequiredbyITcompaniestostarttheiroperations:

• TIDCO (Tamil Nadu Industrial DevelopmentCorporation)developedTIDELparkatTaramani,on the southern edge of Chennai city (thenorthernextremity/entranceoftheExpressway)in1998-2002;

• The Electronics Corporation of Tamil Nadu builtELCOTParkinSholinganallur,atmid-distancefromthe tolls, along the road connecting the ITExpresswaytotheairport.Theprojectwaslaunchedin2005,buthasmovedataslowpace,dueinlargeparttothefactthatitislocatedonamarshland,andisbeingbuiltasapolder.

• SIPCOT(StateIndustriesPromotionCorporationof Tamil Nadu) Park in Siruseri, was officiallylaunchedin2005.However,developmentdidnotgetfullyunderwayuntil2009,probablybecauseofitsremotelocationfromthecity.

Eachof theseparkscanbeconsideredasamega-project per se that was developed by distinct(competing?) para-statal agencies under slightlydifferentdispositions.TheITExpresswaylinksthembothwitheachotherandwiththecentralpartofthemetropolis.Itistobenotedthatthesethreefacilitieshavebeenconverted intoSpecialEconomicZones,asperthenationalSEZAct,2005.

• Change in CMA boundaries. The extension of theCMCboundariesinJune2011(seeMap1onpage8)to include the area between Perungudi andSemmencheri reflects the will to streamline themanagementofthisarea.Intheoryitshouldenablemorestringentenforcementofrulesandregulationsby the Corporation and by ChennaiMetropolitanDevelopmentAuthority(urbanplanningbody).

• ITEL phase 2. Even though the ITExpressway is insomeimportantrespectsnotyetcompleted(missingservicelanes,sidewalks),especiallyinthesouthernpartfurthestfromthecity,thedecisiontoextenditwasmade in 2009. Phase 2 aims to link Siruseri,locatedatthesouthernedgeoftheCorridor,tothetownofMamallapuram,alengthof26km.Theinitial2to4-laneprojectwasupgradedtoa6-lanefacility,whichwillrequireconsiderablelandacquisition.Theapproval of a second phase effectively sanctionsPhase1,despitetheshortcomingsinimplementationcompared to initial ambitions, but it resembles inmany respects a more classical project of roadwideningandupgradingwithaviewtoturningitintoan expressway. As yet, no incentives have beenannouncedtoattracttheITsectororanyothertypeofeconomicactivity.

2.4. Assessing the role of large-scale infrastructure projects in the urban economy

Asstatedabove,theITCorridorhasbecomethemajorITlocationinthecity.Notwithstanding,threeobservationsareinorder:(1)insomecasescompaniesstillchoosetomaintaintheirheadquartersandmarketingactivities inthecentralpartofthecity;(2)attractivealternativelocationscompetewiththeITCorridor,notablytheDLFandOlympiaSEZs,twolargeprivately-developedITparksthatareclosertothecitylimitsandtotheinternationalairport;(3)thedensityofITactivities decreases as the distance from the Guindyeducationhubandtheairportincreases,accountingforthelowerdensityandsuccessrateofITparksandbuildingsinthe southern half of the Corridor. Yet the buoyantdevelopmentofactivitiesintheSiruseriSIPCOTITPark(attheextremesouthernendoftheCorridor),manifestedononehandbytherecentrelocationofIndia’sn°1ITcompany,whichhasregroupedallitsChennaiactivitiesthere,andthemushroomingofmorethanadozenlargescaleresidentialcomplexesinthesameareaontheotherhand,seemtohintat a discontinuous pattern of nodal development in thesouthern part of theCorridor. This specific area displayssomesimilaritieswiththemodelof‘edgecity’definedbyJoelGarreau(1991)asaspatialtemplateofmetropolitanregionsinthepost-fordistera:ahighconcentrationofofficeandresidentialspacecateringtotheservicessector,builtina metropolitan peripheral location with no previousurbanization,connectedbyroadonly.Hencethislarge-scaleroad infrastructure turnsout tohavebecomeoneof thestructuresguiding theurbanization front in the southernfringeof themetropolitan region. Thedevelopmentof anodeconcentratingactivitiesandresidentialfacilitiesfartotheSouthisofparticularinterest,asitparallelstheMahindraWorld City experience taking place in the southwest ofChennai (see Map 2), which is a privately developedintegratedindustrialtownship.Thesenewpolaritieshintatemergingformsofperipheraldevelopments.

WP2researchinvolvedquestioninghowmegaprojectsfit with the planning schemes and city visions. In theparticular case of Chennaimostmegaprojectswere notannouncedintheMasterPlans.Itshouldbenotedhoweverthat the process of planning in Chennai has sufferedconsiderabledelay, contestationanddisruptionover theyears19.Furthermore,cityvisiondocumentsarescarce(cf.

19 Between the First Master Plan (1976) and 2007, there was no official vision document guiding Chennai’s development. The 2nd Master Plan, initially submitted in 1995, was suspended by court order and was revamped before being published in 2008. See Srivathsan 2012.

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supra).Besidesthislocalspecificity,thetransportrelatedmegaprojects,suchastheMRTS-citytrain,theforthcomingmetroandtheprojectedmonorailhaveallbeeninitiatedanddevelopedbytheGovernmentofTamilNadu(GoTN).Thepoliticaldecisionmakingwithregardtotheseprojectshas been disconnected from the planning exercise. Ingeneral,suchhighprofileprojectsare indeedverymuchlinkedtotherulingpoliticalpartiesandturnouttobeadhocprojects,theyarethenoftenincorporatedaposterioriin planning and vision documents. The IT Expresswaydescribedaboveisagoodexampleofsuchaprocess.Itwasactually developed during the revision exercise for theSecondMasterPlan.Itwasduringtheadjournmentofthedocumentinitiallyproposed(post-1995),around2000,thatthe government commissioned the CMDA planners toelaboratetheideaofanITCorridoralongtheOMR.20

Our research suggests that one of the reasons the(regional) State government promotes transportinfrastructuremegaprojectsinChennaiisthevisibilityandappeal tomodernisation that are encapsulated in suchprojects. Such projects are usually associatedwith oneprominent politician, who thereby proves his/hercommitmenttoChennaiconstituencieswithapetproject.Suchprojectsalsohelp toproject thecityasamodernmetropolis,bothatthenationalandinternationalscales:intra-city train, tolled intra-urban highway, metro, allthese projects correspond to successive generations of‘modern’ forms of urban transport. Secondly, suchprojectsservetheinterestsofwell-documentedcollusionbetween politicians, bureaucrats and contractors byfuelling the cash machine embedded in large-scaleroadworks.Last,itisrelativelyeasytohavethemfunded:large-scaletransportprojectsattractinternationalfundingfrom various foreign or transnational organizations, astheycanbe labelledbothas“developmentdriven”butalso involve foreign private companieswhomay comewithfundingfromtheirrespectivenationalgovernments21.ThusStatesareabletomaintaincontroloversuchprojectswhilereceivingamplefunding.

20 This document, which was not released in the public domain could not be located for the study, suggested various planning decisions to facilitate this upgrading. For instance, in the first draft (1995) the road between Perungudi and Pallavaran had already been designated for this purpose.

21 This conjunction of public and private interests and co-funding is exemplified by the recent plan of investments of the Japan International Cooperation Agency signed with GoTN for road infrastructure development in Chennai area, with special focus on developing the outer ring road and the “automotive Corridor” area (National Highway 4), where Japanese companies own numerous production units.

However, since these projects are dependent on theruling party at the regional scale (GoTN), they can beshelvedafterelections,whichdoesnot fitwiththetimescaleoffulldevelopmentandimplementationrequiredforlarge scale projects, nor with planning/visioning timespan.22HencethedifficultiesobservedincompletingtheITExpressway are a reminder of the non-completion andneglect faced by several previous transport projects inChennaioncetheirpoliticalpromoterswereremovedfrompowere.g.,MRTSanditshugestations,whichwerenearlyabandoneduntil201223andthemonorailprojectthatwasshelvedin2006andrevivedafter2011,whentheADMKChiefMinisterreturnedtopower.Importantly,itshouldbenotedthatthePPPmodelthatwaspromotedtodeveloptheITExpresswaydidnotpreventitfrombeingvulnerabletothispatternofpoliticalinfluence.

2.5. Actors and stakeholders – competing strategies and interests shaping social and spatial patterns in the city

TowhatextentcanthedevelopmentoftheITExpressway,a road infrastructure meant to help develop a highlyspecialized economic zone, be seen as the result of agrowth coalition? Here we will analyze the relationsbetweenpublicactors likeGoTNandparastatalagenciesengagedinthemakingofthearea,aswellasprivatesectoractors such as IT companies and real estate companies.Withrespecttothepublicsector,theITsectorhasreceivedcontinuous support from the ruling parties at the Stategovernmentlevelthroughvariouspoliciesandthroughtheactions of various parastatal agencies, depending ondifferentministries.

Therewereseveralinstanceswhenthesedifferentactorsformallycametogethertobuildupcollaborationinorderto develop the area. Asmentioned, the government’sinterestindevelopinganITCorridorstartedtakingshapein the early 2000s at a timewhen IT companies startedlocatingtheirpremisesalongtheOMR,andthistriggeredthe government’s request for a preliminary report (cf. infra).AmeetingwasconvenedbyTNRDCandELCOTattheendof2004,withallmajorrealestatecompaniesinChennai

22 In the last decades, the two main parties in Tamil Nadu generally alternate at each election.

23 After 2012, work in these stations has either been funded by the private sector – ex Thiruvanmyur station that serves Tidel Park, or by Southern railways, motivated by safety reasons.

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invited.ELCOTpresentedprojectionsofITgrowth,TNRDCpresentedtheroadprojectandbothagenciesencourageddeveloperstobuildITbuildingsandparksalongtheOMRto meet future demand for office space. They wererequestedto‘accompany’inthiswaytheroadupgradingprocess, turning it into an expressway, in exchange forrelaxationonbuildingrules,notablyfloorspaceindex(FSI).The response looks extremely positive, judging by thenumerous recentbuildings along the road. Yet the2008crisis,thentheuncertaintysurroundingtheexpiryoftheSTPIscheme(CentralgovernmentschemeofferingvarioustaxandcustomsrelaxationstotheITindustry)underwhichmostofthesebuildingswereregistered(withnopossibilitytotransfertoSEZ)resultedinlongdelaysbeforeoccupancyformanyofthesebuildings.

AsecondinstancewastheinitiativeofanITgroupunderSteering Committee of the State Planning Commission(includinghighrankedofficialsandITsectorrepresentatives)in2011-2012.Inthisdiscussionspace,ITcompaniesraiseddemands to the government, (e.g., for completingroadworks,improvingbustransport,providingpower),andPPPstyleprojectswereconsideredwhereinITcompanieswould fund some secondary infrastructures and foroperatingpublictransportalongtheITExpressway,etc.Yetthisgroupwasashort-livedone.Henceitisdifficulttotalkaboutagrowthcoalition,basedonpublicandprivateactorscomingtogethertodevelopthearea,asitlacksstabilityandalsoanodalpointofcoordination. TheextensionofCMCboundaries up to Semmencheri in June 2011 shouldcontributetostreamliningthemanagementofthearea,byenforcingastrongercontrolbytheCorporationandbytheCMDA (for enforcing planning rules). But as muchdevelopmenthasalreadyoccurred,itmayinvolvemostlyregularizationofexistingdevelopments.

AsfortheITindustry,itmustbenotedthatitsagendaisputforwardinotherarenasthanmerelyattheState-level,throughitsinfluentialnational-levelorganizationNasscom,which conveys to the central government the demandsraisedbythemajoractorsofthesector.

TheITExpresswaymegaprojecthasshapedurbanisationpatterns by channelling investments (by real estatecompanies and by IT companies) to this part of themetropolitanarea,creatingafast-developingcorridor.Itistobenoted that thismegaprojectdidnot involvemajorpopulation displacements, contrary tomany large-scaleprojects.Butdevelopmentoftheareacreatespressureonlandpricesandoccupancy.Ittranslatesintoindirecteffectsonlower-incomeresidents,forinstanceforvillagers,whoarebeingdisplacedfromagricultureandfishingoccupations,andforworking-classresidents,whoarebeingpricedoutofthenewresidentialdevelopments.

Furthermore, the strong political support to theeconomicdevelopmentofthisareawasnotaccompaniedbypublicinvestmentinbasicservices,asillustratedbythependingissueofpowerandwaterscarcity.Last,thisisanecologically-sensitivearea,asitisalowlyingarea,borderedby a canal-cum-laguna to the East (Buckingham Canal,MuttukaduLaguna)andbyamajorwaterbodytotheWest(PallikanaraiMarshland) (more in Section 4 below). Theareaisalsoclassifiedaspronetotsunami.Thistranslatesintoseasonalfloodsandinstableground,whichjeopardizesthesustainabilityofthemassiveinvestmentsinlargeandhighbuildings.

2.6. Socio-economic effects of the IT Corridor24

A pilot study, built around a primary survey, wasconducted to examine the local economic linkagesgenerated by the development of IT activities in the ITCorridortounderstandthelinksbetweenthecreationofnewmega-infrastructuresandtheevolutionoftheurbaneconomy.Inparticular,thestudysoughttogeneratedataabout the patterns of direct and indirect employmentcreatedintheITCorridor,andtogaininsightsintothenewconsumptionandmobilitypatternsofthoseemployedintheITfirms.25

InthecaseoftechnologyorITparks,economiclinkagescanbeclassifiedintodirect, indirectandspin-offeffects.Thefirstsetofdirectlinkagesmayrefertotheimmediateoutcomes like employment and its incomeeffect arisingfrom construction of infrastructure. The second set ofdirectlinkagesemanatefromemploymentandprofitsandthe consequent income effects generated from firmsmovingtobenefitfromtheinfrastructurecreated.Indirectlinkagesincludesupplementaryemploymentandincomegeneratedthroughnewservicesthatcatertothedemandemanating from direct effects. Transport services, foodsupply,securityandgardeningservices,housing,bankingand other commercial services are someof the indirectlinkages that can be generated. Spin-offs refer to thepossible productive linkages that are generated due todemandfornewinputs.SoftwaredevelopmentforITfirms,computermaintenanceandhardwaresupplyaresomeofthepossiblespin-offsthatcanbeenvisaged.

24 Funded by the CNRS partner, and coordinated by Eric Denis at the French Institute of Pondicherry, this study was designed and supervised by M. Vijayabaskar (MIDS) and M. Suresh Babu (IIT-Madras).

25 With regard to the latter, the analysis is limited here to the consumption of housing due to space constraints.

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Sincethe ITparkswerealreadybuiltatthetimeofthesurvey,itwasnotpossibletocapturethelinkagescreatedbythe construction of the parks. Hence, the analysis wasconfinedtolinkagescreatedbytheemploymentgeneratedthrough the functioning of these parks, both directemployment in the IT firms and indirect employmentgenerated within the two parks like security, food andgardening services. The emphasis was on the nature ofemploymentgenerated,patternsinsourcingoflabour,extentoflabourdrawnfromwithinthecityandimportantlyonthenatureofsegmentationgeneratedbasedonaccesstoformaleducation,familybackground,skilllevels,genderandcaste.Thisprovidedinsightsintotheimmediatebutdifferentiatedlinkagesthathavebeencreatedbythenewmegaproject.

AlthoughtheaimhadbeentostudyasamplebasedonemployeesinoneoftheITparks,thefirmsmanagingtheparksalongtheITCorridordidnotgrantpermissionforthestudy. Consequently, the samplewas compiled throughcontactsinindividualfirmslocatedintwoITparks,namelytheAscendasITparkatTaramaniandtheSIPCOTparkatSiruseri.26 The surveywas conducted using a structuredquestionnairewith a fewopen-ended questions on theperceptionsoftheemployeesaboutworkingandlivingontheITCorridor.Thedatawascollectedpartlybydistributingquestionnaires among the employees of the respectivecompaniesandpartlythroughdirectinterviews.Thechoiceof respondentswas guided largely by access and hencedoneprimarilythroughsnow-ballingtechniques.Atotalof154employeesinthetwoparksweresurveyed.Asfarastheirtypeofemployment,mostrespondentswereengagedintheITsector(88),followedbyservicesintheBPOsector

26 Some of the major companies selected randomly were Tata Consultancy firm (Siruseri), Cognizant Technology solutions (Siruseri and OMR Navalur), Polaris (OMR Navalur) Nokia, and Siemens.

(10)andothersbelongedtosectorssuchasmanagementengineering,researchanalysis,banking,accounting,etc.

The respondents consistedof 99male and 55 femaleemployees,aratiothatreflectstosomeextentthegenderbiasinIT-relatedemployment,althoughdatageneratedatamacro level tends to reveal an even smaller share ofwomenemployeesinthesoftwareservicessector.Theageprofile of the respondents too conforms tomacro-scaleobservationswithmostfallinginthe20-30agegroup(Graph1),andmorethan50%areunmarried.Thepredominanceofyouthintheworkforcedefinitelyhasimplicationsforthenatureofconsumptionandmobilitythatwillbediscussedlater.Regardingthegeographicaloriginsoftheemployees,an important observation is the fact that most of therespondents are fromoutside Chennai and have in factmovedtoChennaitoworkintheITfirms(Table4).Thoughthere are variations across gender on this point, a largeshareofthetotaloriginatesfromoutsidethecity.27

27 A few of those interviewed have moved to Chennai to study in colleges in the city after which they have found placements in these IT firms.

Table 4: Summaryofeconomiclinkages

Graph 1: AgeGroupoftheRespondents

Type Direct Linkages: Indirect linkages Spin-off effects

Description Immediateoutcomesincludeincomeandemploymentfromnewfirms(start-ups,relocation)andfromconstructionofinfrastructure

Incomeandemploymentgeneratedfromservicescateringtonewsdemandsfortransport,foodsupply,gardening,commercialservices

Incomeandemploymentgeneratedthroughdemandfornewinputs,e.g.,softwaredevelopment

TimeFrame Shortterm Shorttomediumterm Longterm

Example(s) Constructionofinfrastructure,employmentatITfirms

Employmentatfirmsservicingnewactivities,transportservicesetc.

Softwaredevelopment,computersmaintenance

Source: Vijayabaskar, Suresh Babu (2013).

40-45

35-40

30-35

26-30

20-25

4

3

4

119

Frequency

23

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

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Notsurprisingly,thelabourmarketforemploymentintheITsectorischaracterisedbyahighlevelofeducationalqualifications, which naturally restricts access. All therespondents have undergone at least undergraduateeducation,accesstowhichisconfinedtoonly10to13%of the population in that age group in the country (thevariationintheestimatecomesfromthedifferencesinthedatasetsusedtocalculatethegrossenrolmentratio).Thisexclusivity also implies that the benefits of the hugesubsidies given to private capital to promote thedevelopment of IT parks tend to accrue only to a smallsegmentofthelabourmarket.ItshouldbenotedthatthisexclusivityisinfactlessinastatelikeTamilNadu,whichhasfollowed a policy of affirmative action (reservation) inhighereducationinfavourofcandidatesfrombackward,most backward and scheduled caste households. This ispartlyapparentinthesurveyfromthefactthatasignificantnumberofrespondentscomefromsmalltownsandevenfromruralareasinsomecases.InDelhiorBangalore,theexclusivityislikelytobeevenhigher.

Indirect employment effects

The study also examined indirect employmentopportunitiesgeneratedthroughnewservicesthatcatertothe demand emanating from direct employment andincomeeffects.Obviouslyitisnotpossibletomapallthelinkagesthatareformedduetothismegaproject,duetoitsscaleanditsnature,butnonethelesssomecleareffectscanbeobservedforinstanceintransportservices,foodsupply,security,housekeepingandhousing.InterviewsforthispartofthestudytookplaceinandaroundtheSiruseriITParkaswellasIITMResearchPark,AscendasITParkandTIDELPark. They consisted in detailed and semi-structuredinterviewswithcab,busandautorickshawdrivers,securityguards, restaurant, grocery and shop owners andemployees, hawkers andmanagers ofworkingwomen’shostels.28Due to space limitationsonly selected findings

28 IT Parks have strict measures against the presence of outsiders and consequently it was difficult to conduct the interviews; there was also unwillingness among the

aboutthetransportsectorarepresentedhere(driversofprivatecars,cabs,buses).

Though Chennai has one of the country’s better busnetworks,commutersindicatedthattherearenotenoughtransport services to the outlying hubs. It is evident toanyonetravellingalongtheITCorridorthattherehasbeeninsufficientplanningfortransportinfrastructuretoaccessITfirmsandparksontheITCorridor.Massivetrafficjamsareaneverydayoccurrenceduringthepeakhours.Thesejamsareparticularlyvisibleattwojunctionsthatintersectwithtwoarterialroadsandatthethreetollbooths.Tankerstransportingwater,autorickshawstransportingpassengerstoandfromlocationsontheITCorridortoolderresidentialneighbourhoods and villages locatedoff the IT Corridor,sharedautorickshawsand vans runbyprivateoperators,private cars of middle and higher ranked IT employeesdriven more often by paid drivers than by the ownersthemselves(cf.imageno.5),publictransportbusescarryingpassengerswho are predominantlyworking in themanynon-IT jobs (with lowerwages than those paid to the ITsector employees) in this area or long term residentsreturningfromwork inotherpartsofthecity,privateairconditioned buses carrying IT employees, private cabsengagedbyITfirmsforseniorstaffandforthoseemployeesprivatevansandcabscarryingcallcentreandbackofficeprocessing employees (cf. image no. 6), heavy vehiclescarryingconstructionmaterialforthevariousongoingworksonthisroad,inadditiontothelargenumberoftwowheelers(motorcycles, scooters) divided between IT and non IT-employeesallvieforspaceonthiswhathasbeenincreasinglyrecognized as a traffic hotspot in the city. Although thepublic transport service run by the para-statal MadrasMetropolitanTransportCorporation(MMTC)runs400tripstotheITCorridordaily,theseareservicesthatonlytouchtheroadatvariouspoints.RajaniSeshadri,avice-presidentatTataConsultancyServices,oneofthemajorfirmspresentin Chennai stated: “We need a service that runs from

people approached. Finally, interviews were conducted with 20 cab drivers, 15 bus drivers, 30 security personnel, and a few owners each of restaurants, hostels and small commercial shops.

Table 5: Summaryofeconomiclinkages

Gender Marital Status (%) Place Of Origin (%)

Married Unmarried Rural Small Town MetroAdjoining Chennai

Chennai

Male 43 56 12 49 5 13 20

Female 19 35 4 26 3 4 18

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Image 5: Private cars and taxisparking outside TdielPark,withdriverswaiting

Source: A. Varrel, Chennai, March 2012

Image 6: Company buses outsideAscendas Park and sideactivity for drivers andpassengers: sugar canecrusher

Source: A. Varrel, Chennai, March 2012

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Image 7: FleetsofcompanybusestransportingITemployeesrequireparkingspaceduringshifts,occupyanysparespaceintheareaSource: A. Varrel, Chennai, April 2012

Image 8: Side activities: street vendors gathered on the sidewalk opposite to Ascendas Park main entranceSource: A. Varrel, Chennai, March 2012

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Madhya Kailash to Siruseri. A bus is safer than sendingemployeesalone incabsatnight.Doingthiswouldbringrevenuetothegovernment”.Thecompany,withfiveofficesonthestretch,has15,000employeeswhotravel incabs,companybusesorprivatevehicles(cf.imageno.7).29

Regarding private cars, there are a large number ofdrivers employed directly by upper middle classprofessionalsandupperincomesegmentsinthecity.Manyof these professionals are employees of IT firms whoengagedriversnotonlytodropthemoffandbringthemback,butalsotoundertakearangeofhouseholdchoreslikepickinguptheirchildrenfromschool,takingthemtoclasses, shopping forhousehold requirements,payingofbills, etc. Salary levels for this segment have increasedconsiderablyinthelast6-8yearswithagrowingdemandemanating primarily from the boom in the IT sector.StartingwithasalaryofRs5000in2006,adriverrespondentinthiscategoryreceivesatpresentasalaryofRs11,000.Thisdoublingofsalaryinaspanof6yearsis,accordingtohim,primarilyduetotheinabilityofsupplytokeeppacewiththegrowingdemandfordrivers.Animportantreasonhasbeenthatmostofthedriversinthissegmentaredrawnfromneighbourhoodsthatarelocatedclosetotheplaceswhere the employers reside. Since employers do notprovideaccommodationtotheirdrivers,theentrantsintothissegmenttendtobethosewhohaveaccesstohousingincloseproximity to theemployers’ residences. Inareaslike Tiruvanmiyur, Adyar and Velacheri, wheremany ITprofessionalsemployedontheITCorridorlive,driversarerecruited fromnearby poorer neighbourhoods/slums. Asignificant number of them also come from Taramani,whichisclosetoallthethreeareas.Theycommuteintwowheelerstotheiremployers’houses.

Another segmentwhich has grown in large numbersalongwiththegrowthoftheITsectorinthecityaredriversemployedwith private cab firmsworking exclusively orlargely for IT sector firms.30 According to a cab driverworkingforTataConsultancyServices,nearly500cabsareprovidedtoSiruseriSIPCOT,onadailybasis.

Theagegroupofthe20cabdriversinterviewed,allmale,wasbetween19yearsto45years,withmostfallinginthe

29 See “Wanted: Shuttles on IT way to ease travel”, Times of India, 12 April 2010. URL

http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-04-12/chennai/28125459_1_bus-corridor-bus-rapid-transport-system-madhya-kailash accessed on 17 July 2013.

30 Some of the main companies that cater to the IT parks/firms are Aristo logistics, SAM, Mahindra, AP Travels. Other vendors include Praveen travels, OMR travels, i-gate, SRS and B-R Travels.

below30category.Morethan50%ofthemhavemigratedfromdifferentpartsofTamilNadu.Whilealargesharecomefromneighbouringdistricts likeThiruvannamalai,Vellore,VillupuramandCuddalore, a substantial proportion alsocomefromthesoutherndistrictsofthestate,particularlythesemi-aridregions.Amajorityofthemareunmarried.The attractionof higher salaries for drivers inChennai isreportedtobeamajorincentiveintheirdecisiontomigrate.

ManyoftherespondentsreportthattheyarehappywiththedevelopmentoftheITCorridorastheybelieveithasimprovedtheiremploymentprospects.Tosomehowever,problems like traffic congestion, late night pick-ups anddropsandproblemsposedbystagnantwateranddrainageoverflowsduringtherainyseasonsbecauseofpoorsewagesystemsinthisareaaresourcesofconcern.Manyofthemalsofeelthatoncetheyaremarriedandhavechildren,itwillbedifficultforthemtokeepsuchworkhours.Intermsofupwardmobilityinthisprofession,therearetworoutes.SomeofthemwhoarelongtermresidentsofChennaiwithhousing located close to elite neighbourhoods prefer totakeupemploymentwithwealthyhouseholds,asitoffersthem more steady work hours and the possibility ofreturning home in the evenings. But in general, amajorrouteofmobilityistosaveandtobuyasecondhandoranew car of their own. Once they buy a car, they seethemselvesasbeinganentrepreneurwheretheyhavethefreedomtooffertheirservicestothecabcompanyoftheirchoice.Theyneedtopayasmallshareoftheirearningsasacommissiontotheparentfirmwhereaswhateverworkthe parent firm gets, they get a small proportion. Theadvantageofbeinglinkedtoalargerfirmistheaccesstothecarrentalmarketopenedupby largeITfirms,whichtheyasindividualswouldfindithardtoaccess.

In terms of salaries reported, there is a substantialdifferencebetween cabowners and thosedriving for thelocal travel agents, who in turn pay them the monthlysalaries.CabOwnersreportearningsofnearly40,000permonth whereas cab drivers report an income of hardly10,000permonth.Clearly,thereareincentivesfordriverstoinvestinacaroftheirown.However,therearealsosignificantrisksinvolved,suchasindebtednessorcaraccidents.

The lastmajor segmentofdriversare thebusdriversworkingforprivatebusoperatorswhoareengagedbyITfirms on the Corridor to transport IT employees fromdifferent parts of the city. Given the fact that manyemployeesresideveryfarfromtheITparks,andthepaucityofpublictransport,thereisacompellingneedforITfirmstoprovidetransportfacilitiesfortheiremployees.Evenuseofprivatetransporttendstobeexhaustingforlongdistancecommuters given the traffic, not to mention the costsinvolved.Thereareafewdominantbusoperatorscatering

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toITfirmsontheITCorridor.Forthisstudy12busdriversemployedinthreeofthesefirmswereinterviewed.

In the case of bus drivers, the proportion ofmigrantworkers is higher compared to that of cabdrivers.Onceagain,thebusdriversweremaleandmainlybelongedtotheagegroupof22-45.Whilesomeofthemhavestudiedtill10th,wealsofindthattheireducationalqualificationsaregenerallylessthanthoseofthecabdrivers.AnimportantfindingwasthatnoneofthemisdirectlyemployedbytheITfirms.DespitethefactthatallofthemdriveexclusivelyforspecificITfirms,allofthemareemployeesofthebusoperators.Thisgivesanideaofprevailinglabourrelationsandtheubiquitoususeofsub-contractingbyITfirms.SomeofthetransportfirmsdonotprovidesocialsecuritybenefitslikeESIorProvidentFund,whileothersdo.ParveenTravelsisthemajorcontributortothebusserviceintheSIPCOTITpark.Itrunsmorethan200busestotheparkoutofwhich110busesrunonlyforTataConsultingServices,followedby30 for Cognizant Technology Solutions Corporation. ThebasicmonthlysalaryearnedbyabusdriverisRs7500withacompulsoryandannualincrementofRs250.Itwasfoundthatanelementoftightnessinthelabourmarketallowsbusdriversadegreeofbargainingpower.

Othereconomicactivitiesanalysedinthestudyincluded:

– private security services (for IT firms, residentialcomplexes, gated communities, etc), which hasbecomeoneofthefastestgrowingsegmentsoflow-endservicesectoremploymentinIndia’slargecities;31

– housekeepingandmaintenancestaff,whichareanintegralpartofanyITPark;

– foodvending:ITparksprovidefoodcourts,someofwhichareopentothepublicandincludeglobalfoodretailchains;privateeatingestablishmentsalongtheITCorridorcateringtomanydifferentincomegroupsfromhigh-endtoverycheap32;

– hostelsprovidingrentalhousingformenandwomenemployedintheITfirms.

31 As Vijay K. Nagaraj points out, India is home to one of the largest private security industry in the world, employing anywhere between 5 and 6 million guards in about 15,000 odd firms (2012: 10). Industry bodies have pointed out the potential for this industry in future. Over a period of time, this sector has also witnessed the rise of large domestic firms and the entry of foreign firms through takeover and mergers. G4S, a leading firm in this segment, for example, is a multinational firm with operations in 125 countries.

32 It was observed that most restaurants within food courts and along the IT Corridor are branches of existing restaurants. There are hardly any stand-alone restaurants on the IT Corridor.

Housing and Residential Patterns

Theentryoflargenumbersofunmarriedmenandwomenfromoutsidethecitygeneratesdemandforhousing,whichhasledtoshiftsinrentalpatternsinpartsofthecity.Earlier,therewasreluctanceonthepartofpropertyownerstooffertheirhousesforrenttounmarriedmenandwomenastheywereperceivedasincapableofmaintainingthevalueofthepremises.Howeverwith the demand from this segmentbackedbyrelativelyhighsalaries,therehasbeenagrowingpreferenceforsuchtenantsastheycanaffordtopaymorethanthepreviouslyprevailingrates,especiallywhentwoormoretakeasingleapartmentforrent.RentaladvertisementsintheresidentialneighbourhoodsborderingtheITCorridorclearly reflect this trend. On the one hand, there is anexplicitlystatedpreferencefor‘bachelors’.Significantly,thisdemandfromhighpaidsoftwareemployeeshasalsoledtotremendous increase in thepriceof housing rentals andland/apartment values in these neighbourhoods.33Employeeswhoarerentingpremisesindicatedapreferencefor neighbourhoods bordering on the IT Corridor likeTiruvanmiyur,Velachery,TaramaniandNavalur.WhereasthefirstthreeareveryclosetotheITCorridor,Navalurisavillagelocateddirectlyon the ITCorridorand iswitnessing largescalecommercialization,realestateboom,andriseofseveralapartmentcomplexes.Other localitieswhererespondentsreportedlivingarelocatedfurtheraway,inthecitycentre,likeMylapore,T.NagarandNungambakkam.Insuchcases,respondentstendtolivewithothermembersofthefamilyandarelong-termresidents.

Giventhatmigrantsaccountforthebulkoftheworkforce,mostdonotownthehousesorapartmentswheretheyarestaying.107ofthe154respondentslivedinrentedpremises.Interestingly, this also includes someof themarriedmalerespondentswhose familiesareoften left in theiror theirspouses’nativeplace.Only34marriedrespondentswerelivingwiththeirfamilyandtherestofthem(i.e.,28)stayedwithfriends,aspayingguestsorinrentedplaces.Forthosewithchildren,theneedtotravelfrequentlytoclients’sitestendstodisrupttheschoolingschedules,leadingmanyofthemtoleavetheir children in theirnativeplaces toensurecontinuity inschooling.Orelse,thespousestooareemployedinothercitiesandbothofthemtrytoseekjobstomoveintogether.

Ofthe107respondentswhodonotownahouseinChennai,manyspendagoodamountoftheirincomeonrent.ThiscanbebetterunderstoodwiththehelpoftheTable5below,whichshowsthat49oftherespondentsspendupto5000rupeespermonthonrent,followedby20employeeswhospendRs7500-

33 See “Property values in an unequal city”, The Hindu, 2 June 2007. URL: http://www.hindu.com/pp/2007/06/02/stories/2007060250620100.htm last accessed on 18 July 2012.

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10,000permonth.ThreerespondentspayaboveRs.15,000forrent.At thesametime,83of therespondentsreportasalaryoflessthanRs.30,000permonth.Thus,goingbythesalaryreported,manyofthemspendanywherebetween20-30percentoftheirsalariesonrents.Thosewhoarepayinglesstendtobethosesharingaccommodationwithsomeoftheir friendsand colleagues. Thisdemand forhousingaspointedoutearlierhasledtotremendousincreaseinrentsintheneighbourhoodsclosetotheITCorridor.

Importantly, this growth in rental income implies twopossible tendencies. One, the income generated throughemploymentintheITparkstendstobesharedwithpropertyownersinthevicinityoftheCorridor.Theincomeaccruingtopropertyownersisthereforenotadditionalincomebutashareoftheincomeofthesoftwareemployeesappropriatedthroughpropertyownership.Importantly,thisincreaseinrentalsislikelytohaveanegativeimpactonthosewhodonothaveaccesstoeitherpropertyorincomesofthemagnitudeofferedbytheITsector.Thisleadstoaseriouscrowdingouteffect,sincethisinequityinaccesstohousingtendstobeaggravatedbythelackofstateinvestmentsinaffordablehousinginthecity.

EventhoughthebulkoftherespondentsstayinproximitytotheITCorridor,amajorityindicatedthattheytravelmorethan10kmtoreachtheirworkplace.Onlyasmallproportionofthemtravel less than5kmto theirworkplace.TheSIPCOTSEZ inSiruseriislocatedattheSouthernendoftheCorridor,andhence

even living in neighbourhoods in theNorthern part of theCorridorlikeAdyarorTiruvanmiyurimpliesatraveldistanceofmorethan10kms.Interestingly,manyindicatethattheyareunwillingtoshifttosomeofthenewresidentialcomplexesthathavecomeupontheITCorridoratthisstage.Accessingotheramenitiesofurbanlifeappearstobeoneimportantfactor.Forsomeofthefemalerespondents,safetywasoneoftheprimaryreasonsforchoosingaparticularlocality.

Table 6: Amountspentonrentbytherespondents(permonth)

Rupees (per month) Rent

0-2500 7

2500-5000 49

5000-7500 19

7500-10,000 20

10,000-12,500 5

12,500-15,000 4

Above15,000 3

NA 47

Total 154

Addressing Urban Inequality: Focus on Sub-standard Settlements3

3.1. Shortage of decent housing and socio-spatial segregation

34 As per the Census data, 19% of the population of

Chennai Municipal Corporation lived in so-called‘slums’ in 2001 and 28.5% in 201135. However, thedefinitionofaslumusedbytheCensusofIndiaincludesheterogeneoustypesofsettlements,andexcludesthesmall slum clusterswith less than 300people,which

34 This section is primarily based on inputs from Véronique Dupont and R. Dhanalakshmi, on the basis of research conducted in the framework of WP3.

35 This increase in the percentage of slum population would require further investigation and analysis when more detailed census data are available.

are likely tobe themostprecariousandunderserved(seeBoxbelow).Therefore, thispercentagedoesnotcaptureproperlytheextentofhousingpoverty.

The 2003-04 survey of slums undertaken by aprivateconsultant fortheTamilNaduSlumClearanceBoard and the Tamil Nadu Urban InfrastructureFinancial Services limited (TNUIFSL)36 listed 242

36 Source: TNSCB & TNUIFS. Pre-feasibility study for identification of environmental infrastructure in slums in Chennai Metropolitan Area [Indian Resources Information & Management Technologies, Ltd, Hyderabad in association with Community Consulting Indian Pvt Ltd (TGC India), Chennai]. Final Report- Chennai Corporation Area (September 2005) & Final Report- Chennai Metropolitan Area (excluding CMC) (April 2006).

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‘undeveloped’38 slums within the limits of ChennaiMunicipalCorporation,housingaround72,000familiesor330,000people,accountingfor lessthan10%ofthecitypopulation. A largemajority (65%) of these settlementswere located on government land. Noteworthy, out ofthese 242 identified slums, 122 (41,683 families) werecategorizedas‘objectionable’slums39,whichcompriseda

37 Cf. Census of India 2011: http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ last consulted on 17 July 2013.

38 ‘Undeveloped’ slums are differentiated from ‘developed’ slums, i.e. slums identified in a previous survey conducted in 1986-87, and which were since then developed and/or improved through development schemes and initiatives However, no clear definition of “undeveloped slums” is provided in the report beyond this distinction..

39 As per the Chennai Metropolitan Authority, “the slums situated on river margins, road margins, seashore and places required for public purposes are categorized as objectionable slums”. Source: Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority, “Shelter”, p. 147. URL: http://www.cmdachennai.gov.in/Volume3_English_PDF/Vol3_Chapter06_Shelter.pdf (last accessed 20-11-2012).

majorityofsquattersettlementslocatedalongwaterways(73slumshousing29,144families),therestbeinglocatedalongroadmargins,railways,andtheseashore.Withinthemetropolitan area (but outside Chennai MunicipalCorporation),202undevelopedslumswereidentified,outofwhich90locatedinobjectionableareas,mostlysquattersettlements along waterways and informal settlementsalongtheseashore.However,thissurveyunderestimatedtheactualnumberofundevelopedslums:duringfieldworkconducted in 2011 and 2012, we identified in themetropolitan area thirty-year-old objectionable squattersettlementsalongtheBuckinghamCanal(suchasArignarAnnaNagar–CanalBankRoad,selectedforourcasestudy),whichwerenotlistedandmappedinthe2003-04survey.

Baudetal.’sstudyofdeprivationmappinginChennai,basedon2001censusdatawithinthelimitsofthethenMunicipal Corporation, showed that the hotspots ofpoverty were found at that time in the old industrialnorthernareasofthecity,builtbetween1900and1940(Baud & al., 2009: 9). These areas had also a highpercentageofpeoplelivinginslums(Map3).Asexplainedbelow,newclustersofpovertyhavebeencreatedinthe2000sby theconstruction in thesouthernperipheryoflarge-scale resettlement colonies for displaced slumdwellers,whichgainedthereputationofbeing‘ghetto[s]ofpoverty,crimeandsqualor’(Coelho&al.,2012:53;seealsoArabindoo,2011b).

3.2. Social housing and policies towards slums

TheTamilNaduSlumAreas(ImprovementandClearance)Act, 1971 was modelled on the national Slum Areas(ImprovementandClearance)Actof1956,whichwasfirstimplemented inDelhi.However, thepoliciesof theDMK(DravidaMunnetraKazhagam)party,whichwonAssemblyelectionsinTamilNaduin1967,‘sharplydivergedfromthenational housing policy. While the central governmenthousingpolicybegantoemphasisetheroleofthestateasa facilitator of housing rather than a builder, the DMKhousingpoliciesfocusedonstateconstructionofhousing,explicitlylimitedevictions,andcreatedapublicdiscoursethat allowed groups of political adept squatters toconsolidatetheirholdonpublicland’(Raman,2011:75).ThestatedgoalsoftheTamilNaduSlumClearanceBoard(TNSCB)atthetimeofitsinceptionin1971were‘tofullyclearthecityofslumwithinsevenyears,topreventnewslumsfromtakingshape,andtoprovidebasicamenitiesforslum-dwellersuntiltheirhutscouldbeclearedandreplacedwith tenements’ (ibid: 76). Threemain broad strategieshavebeenimplementedbytheTNSCB:

Box 1: Definition of slums as per the Census of India

TheCensusdefinesslumsinthefollowingterms:“(…)residentialareaswheredwellingsareunfit forhumanhabitation by reasons of dilapidation, overcrowding,faulty arrangements and design of such buildings,narrowness or faulty arrangement of street, lack ofventilation, light, or sanitation facilities or anycombinationofthesefactorswhicharedetrimentaltothesafetyandhealth. (…)ForthepurposeofCensus,slums have been categorized and defined as of thefollowingthreetypes:

– NotifiedSlums:Allnotifiedareasinatownorcitynotified as ‘Slum’ by State, Union TerritoryAdministrationorLocalGovernmentunderanyActincludinga‘SlumAct’,

– RecognizedSlums:Allareasrecognisedas‘Slum’byState, UT Administration or Local Government,Housing and Slum Boards,whichmay have notbeenformallynotifiedasslumunderanyact,

– Identified Slums: A compact area of at least 300populationorabout60-70householdsofpoorlybuiltcongested tenements, in unhygienic environmentusuallywithinadequateinfrastructureandlackinginpropersanitaryanddrinkingwaterfacilities.”37

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Map 3: IndexofmultipledeprivationsandpercentageofslumpopulationintheMunicipalCorporationofChennaiin2001

Source: Karin Pfeffer + I.Baud et al. 2009

Source data: Census of India 2001 Map conception: Baud et al. 2009; map design: Karin Pfeffer Projection: WGS 1984 - UTM Zone 44 N

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1. In situ development – consists in providing basicinfrastructure/amenitiessuchaswatersupply,roadandsanitationfacilitiesintheslumsonsite;

2. In situ reconstruction – consists in constructingmulti-storiedtenementsatthesamelocationfortheslumdwellers;

3. Rehabilitation and resettlement –consists inproviding dwelling units in blocks of flats atalternative locations along with (in principle)infrastructureandservices.

‘TNSCBhasbeenoneofthepioneeragenciestoconstructin situ housesfortheslumdwellers.However,intherecentpast,TNSCBstatesthatitisfacingissuesinimplementingin situ developmentaswellasreconstructionschemesbecauseof lack of adequate open space in the urban areas forplannedhousinginitiatives’(PUCL,2010:12).

TheinterventionoftheWorldBankinChennaihasinfactstronglyimpactedtheimplementationofpoliciestowardslumsinthecity,asanalysedbyNityaRamaninherpaper‘The board and the bank’ (2011), that provides a goodsummaryofthechangingscenario40:

Arguing that the initial years of the Tamil NaduSlum Clearance Board were dominated by thepriorities of the then ruling party, the DravidaMunnetraKazhagam,whosegovernment createditin1971,thispaperpointsoutthatshelterpoliciesin the state had a formal orientation away fromeviction and resettlement and towards in situtenement construction, alongside an informaltendency to protect and reward those groups oftheurbanpoorthatthepartywastryingtocourtfor votes. This arrangementwas affected by theWorldBank’sentryintothedomainofurban-sectorfunding in 1975, which, despite stiff resistancefrom the implementing agencies, eventuallymanagedtochangethefocusoflocalpoliciesandtoa greatextentdelink theTNSCB frompoliticalinfluence. The effects of this can be seen in theTNSCB’s current housing policies. (…) [Thus,] by2000,theTNSCBwasalmostexclusivelyinvolvedinbuilding large-scale tenement clusters on theoutskirtsofChennaitohouseslum-dwellersevictedand relocated from central areas of the city. (Raman2011:74).

40 Some observers contest this interpretation of the World Bank’s influence, arguing that local political compulsions have continued to shape policy decisions taken by TNSCB.

Thetwolargeresettlementcomplexesestablishedinthe2000s inthesouthernperipheryofChennai,outsidethelimitsof theMunicipalCorporationat that time,namelyKannagiNagarandSemmenchery resettlementcolonies,areanillustrationoftheabovepolicyshift(Map4).Theyprovide shelter currently to around 16,000 and 6,800householdsrespectively.Anotherresettlementcomplexinmulti-storied buildings, the Perumbakkam scheme (nearSemmenchery), isunderconstruction,withfundingfromtheJawaharlalNehruNationalUrbanRenewalMission.Thislarge-scalecomplexwasinitiallyplannedforatotalcapacityof20,000tenements,inordertoresettleresidentsofslumslocatedonobjectionable land.The firstphaseofaround6000tenementsisnearingcompletion.

Slum evictions and population displacement gainedmomentuminthe2000s,asaresultoftheconstructionofurbantransportinfrastructure,aswellasseveralrestorationprojects of waterways, canals and riverbanks and thebeautificationoftheMarinabeach(Coelho&Raman,2010;Arabindoo,2011a).41

3.3. Social mobilization and participation in sub-standard settlements42

Howdo civil society organisations (CSOs)mobilize toaddress the issues of sub-standard settlements?Whichkinds of ‘spaces’ does the government provide forparticipation, i.e., ‘invited spaces’ (Cornwall, 2002) orclaimedbytheresidents,i.e.,‘inventedspaces’(Miraftab,2004) with regard to public action affecting thesesettlements?Thesequestionswereaddressedbyanalysingtwointerlinkedsettlementcasestudies,bothlocatedintheITCorridorarea(Maps1&4).

3.3.1. Introduction of the settlement case studies

The IT Corridor is an interesting site for examiningissues pertaining to sub-standard settlements, as thedevelopmentof this Corridorhasbeenassociatedwith

41 For further details, see Dupont and Dhanalaskhmi (2013).

42 This section draws on Dupont and Dhanalakshmi (2013). Details on the methodology, source of data and further developments regarding the case studies are available in that report. For details regarding the conceptual and analytical framework, see Braathen et al. (2011).

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Map 4: LocationofcasestudiesintheITCorridorareaofChennai

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3.3.2. Social mobilization in the settlements in response to critical issues

In the Arignar Ana Nagar squatter settlement, theresidentshavecontinuouslystruggledtogetmorepublicamenities,especiallythroughrepeatedrepresentationstothe local authorities (Panchayat and now theMunicipalCouncillors).ThelocalmembersoftheDemocraticYouthFederationofIndia(DYFI)playedanactiveroleinaddressingsomeoftheseissues,althoughtheirimpactprovedtobelimitedmainlytoonestreet.Nevertheless,theycollectedfinancial contributions from the residents to build apedestrianbridgeoverthecanal,showingthatresidentscouldorganizethemselvesattimesofnecessityandachieveresults.Intheirendeavourtoimprovethelivingconditionsintheirsettlement,theDYFImembersgotsupportfromtheCommunistPartyofIndia(Marxist)–CPI(M).Thepatronageofthispoliticalpartyisalsoawayfortheorganisationtoscale-uptheirdemands.

Themostcritical issue inAAN,as inall ‘objectionable’slums, is the lack of security of tenure and the risk ofeviction.InJuly-August2002,alargedemolitiondrivewascarriedoutalongtheBuckinghamCanaltofacilitatedesiltingandwideningofthecanal.IntheITCorridorarea,around2300 familieswere evicted from the first rowof houseslocatedalongthecanal,including500familiesinAAN.TheevictedfamilieswereresettledinKannagiNagar,althoughthe flatswerenot ready forhabitation.Theevictionwasdescribed in a newspaper as ‘a swift, low-resistanceoperation’43.Yet,thelackofresistanceinthesettlementsatthetimeofevictiondidnotmeanthelackofpriorcollectiveaction to oppose it: a signature campaign against theevictions,aroadblockageandarallytotheSecretariat(theseatoftheStategovernment)hadbeenorganizedbytheCPI(M).Themaindemandsincluded:noeviction,provisionofallcivicamenities,andownershiprightswithproperlandtitles.However,theprotesthadnoeffectandironically,andtragically, the bulldozers arrived on the site to start thedemolition in AAN at the verymomentwhen the slumdwellersweredemonstratinginthecity.

SeveraldevelopmentscurrentlyunderwayalongtheITCorridorpresentnewthreatsofdemolitionforthesquattersettlements along the BuckinghamCanal. These includeplansforthebeautificationofthecanalaspartofITCorridorproject,andtorevivethiscanalasanavigationchannelforefficientandcost-effectivetransportation.Theconstructionof awall along both sides of the canal started in 2011,

43 See “Evicted slum dwellers shifted to Okkiyam Thoraipakkam”, The Hindu, 31 July 2002.

risinglandvaluesandconcomitantlandspeculation,theextension of the MRTS, and various ‘beautification’operations,especiallyalong theBuckinghamCanal thatflowsparalleltotheITCorridor,inshort,transformationsthatusuallyentailslumevictions. Inaddition,thelargerresettlementcoloniesbuiltforevictedslumfamiliessincethe2000sarelocatedintheITCorridorzone.Consequently,we selected for in-depth study a squatter settlementalongtheBuckinghamCanal,namelyArignarAnnaNagar,which is part of the ‘objectionable’ slums of the CanalBankRoad,and the resettlementcolonyKannagiNagar(towheremanyfamiliesevictedfromArignarAnnaNagarwererelocated).Theselectionofthesetwocasesallowedustoarticulateissuesrelatingbothtosquattersettlementsandresettlementcolonies.

Arignar Anna Nagar (AAN) stretchesalong1.5kmonbothsidesoftheBuckinghamCanal,onlandbelongingtothePublicWorksDepartment. It is locatedintheformerNeelankaraipanchayat,andwasincludedintheMunicipalCorporationAreainNovember2011followingtheextensionofthecorporationboundaries(seeMaps1&4).Thefirstsettlersarrived30-35yearsago,andtodayaround1500–2000householdsarelivinginthislocality.Theareaispronetoflooding,andthesettlementischaracterisedbyanacutedeficitinbasicurbanservicesaswellasphysicalandsocialinfrastructure.Thelackofdrainageandseweragesystem,andtillveryrecentlyofgarbagecollection,contributedtomakethelocalityhighlyunsanitary.However,thelastfieldvisitsin2013,subsequenttoitsinclusionintheMunicipalCorporation area, revealed notable improvements. Thisindicatesthatbeing‘inthecity’(asperitsadministrativedelimitations)oroutside,onitsmargins,doesmatterforslumdwellers.

Kannagi Nagar resettlement colony islocatedatabout25 km from the city centre, in the former OkkiyamThoraipakkam panchayat, now included in the samemunicipalzoneasAAN,namelySholinganallurorZoneXV(Maps1&4).Thislargehousingcomplexof16,000one-room tenements in two or three-storied buildings wasdevelopedby the TNSCB for slumdwellers evicted fromdifferentplacesinthecity,tomakewayforinfrastructureprojectsorduetotheirlocationonobjectionablesites.ItalsoaccommodatedmanyvictimsoftheDecember2004tsunami. The first relocated families arrived in 2000,followedbyseveralwavesofresettlement.Lackofadequatefacilitiesinthecolonyandlimitedaccesstourbanresourceshave been critical issues. Yet, without solving theseinfrastructuralproblems, theTNSCB isconstructing8000additionalflats(PUCL,2010).

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officially for flood control,with nevertheless a possiblehidden agenda to protect the banks from newencroachments. Lastly, in March 2012, there was anannouncementoftheremovalofallsquattersettlementslocatedalongwaterways,includingtheBuckinghamCanal.Facedwiththependingthreatofeviction,mostresidentsinAANseemtoacceptthefactthat,beingongovernmentland, their future relocation is inevitable, although theyremain very critical of the living conditions in the bigresettlement complexes. There is indeed a discrepancybetween the slum dwellers’ general acceptance andpragmaticvision(asexplainedbelow),andthemoreradicalstanceoftheCPI(M)activists.

Thiscasestudyallowedustoidentifyacombinationoffactorslimitingsocialmobilization.Somemaybespecificto the Canal Bank Road squatter settlements and theirgeographicalmarginalization,onthefringeofthecity,asaresultofwhich they remainedoutof the reachof somemajorsocialmovementsforworkersandslumdwellersinthecity.Further,thelocationofthesesettlements,inthesamezoneasKannagiNagar resettlementcolony,wouldmakerelocationtothelattercomparativelylessdisruptiveandthusmoreacceptablethanforpeoplefrominnercityslums.InAAN,anadditionalobstaclestemsfromtheweaksocial organizational structure in this settlement.Otherobservedfactorshaveabroadersignificancetounderstandlowresistancetoevictioninsquattersettlements.Oneisthelackofaccurateinformationinadvanceregardingthedateofeviction.Accordingtosomeresidents,withholdingsuchinformationisadeliberatestrategyonthepartofthegovernment,toavoidtheorganizationofprotests.Anotherfactor is thedividebetweenhouseowners and tenants,with diverging interests in case of demolition andresettlement.Athirdhinderingfactor,alsoobservedintheslumsofDelhi,iseconomicprecariousness,aspoorpeoplecannotaffordtospendtimeandlosemoneyinlong-lastingcollectiveaction.Inaddition,oneshouldalsoconsiderthecopingstrategiesandrationaleoftheaffectedhouseholds,inthehighlyconstrainedcontextofremovalofobjectionableslums.Iftheevictionisseenasinevitable,effortsarebetterfocussedongettingsomecompensationintheformofaresettlement flat, which is an asset and a prospectiveprofitable good that they may rent out or resell formonetary benefit. Finally, the weakening of socialmobilization observed in the Canal Bank Road squattersettlements would also appear to reflects the trendobserved since the 1990s described as the ‘gradualweakeningandeventualcollapseofslum-based,struggle-oriented collective action against evictions’ (Coelho &Raman,2010:23;seealsoCoehlo&Venkat,2009).

Kannagi Nagar (KN) resettlement colony provides asignificantexampleofmobilizationcampaignforbetter

amenities. The residents formed the Kannagi NagarWelfareAssociationand,withthestrategicsupportofarights-focusedNGO, theyorganised in2008apostcardcampaign demanding adequate basic amenities andpublicservices,whichwerestilllackingeightyearsafterthe establishment of the colony (PUCL, 2010). About50,000postcardswereaddressedtothethenMinisterforSlumClearanceandAccommodationControl.Importantly,the media were invited to follow this campaign andpoliticised the issue.According to a recent study, ‘ThegovernmentrespondedbyarrangingagrievancedayinKNinwhichseveralgovernmentministerscametolistentotheresettledpeople.Afterthemeetingsomeimportantimprovementsweremade,suchasapolicestationbeingestablished, but recurrent problems with the watersupply and drainage were only solved temporarily’(Cummings, 2012: 31). Moreover, public socialinfrastructureremainsgrosslyinadequate,withespeciallyno public health centre for a colony of around 70,000people. Othermodes of engagement of the residentswiththestateinordertoimprovetheirlivingconditionsincludeprotests (suchasblockingthenearbyhighway)and,morefrequently,addressingcollectivecomplaintstogovernment officers (mostly to the local TNSCBoffice)and local politicians. Overall, ‘while the TNSCB doessometimes respond to protests and complaints, it hasonly provided permanent improvements to KN over along period of time’ (Ibid: 25). The decision taken bymany resettled families who eventually left KN,sometimes returning to their previous localities (asobserved in AAN) after selling or renting out theirtenements,furtherhighlightsaformofindividualprotestto unsustainable living conditions in the resettlementcolony.Althoughsuchtransactionsareirregular,i.e.,notallowed under the conditions of resettlement, theyconcernabout45%ofthetenements.

Onthewhole,mobilizationhasproventobedifficultinKNresettlementcolonyduetothelackofsolidarityamongresidents.Thedivisionsstemfromthefactthatdifferentgroupsofresettledpeoplecamefromdifferentlocationsinthe city, sometimes under distinct schemes, and thusreceiveddifferenttreatmentfromthestate,e.g.,regardingdistinct financial modalities to access a tenement44;moreover,thequalityofservicesindifferentsectionsofthecolonyvaries.TheoperatingmodeofsomewelfareNGOsworkinginKN,wheretheyprovidesocialservicestosmallsectionsofthecolonywithoutcooperatingwitheachother,

44 Priti Narayan, “A first hand look at resettlement : Kannagi Nagar”, blog, Transparent Chennai, 15.11.2012 [URL: http://www.transparentchennai.com/a-first-hand-look-at-resettlement-kannagi-nagar/ ], last accessed 20 January 2014.

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creates further divisions in the community and curbscollectiveaction.Fieldworksurveyssuggestthattheimpactof theNGOs’ actions on the people’s empowerment isquestionable.Finally,otherfactorshinderingmobilizationin KN include ‘the resettled people’s lack of knowledgeabouttheirentitlementsandgovernmentprocesses’,thefearofgettingintotroubleiftheyconfrontthegovernment,and(asobservedinsquattersettlements)thelackoftimeandresources(Cummings,2012:26).

3.3.3. Issues of governance: knowledge gaps, and lack of consultation and participation

Our investigations intothe implementationprocessofeviction and resettlement indicated the absence of asystematicandproperprocedureforinformationsharingprior to the relocation, not only regarding the date ofeviction, but also the financial modalities of theresettlement.Moreover,thedeplorablestateofhousinginKNatthetimeofrelocationin2002fromtheCanalBankRoad(soiledtenements,cloggedtoilets,nopowerorwatersupply)demonstratesthatthebasicneedsoftheresettledfamilieswerenottakenintoconsideration.Moregenerally,

asshownbythecasestudyofKN,‘slumresettlementandrehabilitation is planned and carried out without theparticipationoftheslumdwellersintheplanningprocess,[and] slum dwellers are not consulted on their needs’(Cummings,2012:45).TheTNSCBconsultedonlytheNGOsworkinginKNregardingtheprovisionofwelfareservices,specificallyNGOs co-opted by the government, and thiswas only after the resettlement colony had beenconstructedandthefamiliesrelocated.Consequently,theissueofknowledgeistwofold:(1)theslumdwellersarenotproperlyinformedabouttheimpendingdramaticchangesintheirlifeimposedonthem,norabouttheirentitlements,and(2)thegovernmenthasnotsoughttoobtainproperknowledge about the needs and priorities of the slumdwellerstoberesettled.Withrespecttothequestionofknowledge,theinitiativesofsomeactivistsgroupssuchasthePeople’sUnionforCivilLibertiesandtheCitizens’RightsForumdeservemention:throughtheircampaignsandfactfindingsreports(PUCL,2010),theseactivistscontribute‘tobridgetheknowledgegapbetweentheslumdwellersandthegovernment’(Cummings,2012:33).

Overall, the planning and implementation process ofslum resettlement in millennial Chennai is state-ledaccording to the government’s own interests, reflectingasymmetricalpowerrelations,andfollowingapro-growthagendaratherthanapro-pooragenda.

Water Governance and Climate Change Issues in Chennai4

4.1. Major water related issues and vulnerabilities and their spatial distribution45

ChennaihasthelowestpercapitaavailabilityofwateramonglargecitiesinIndia,i.e.,108litrespercapitaperday (lpcd) compared to 270 lpcd in Delhi, 260 lpcd inMumbai,250lpcdinCalcutta,and140lpcdinBangalore.46However, thisaveragesupply figure saysnothingaboutthewidedifferentialsinaccesstowatersupplybetween

45 This section is primarily based on research carried out by Samuel Roumeau, conducted in the framework of WP4. (Cf. Roumeau 2012). With regard to the Pallikaranai Marshland, it draws on the study by Aicha Seifelislam (2013).

46 See Asian Development Bank (2007).

geographical zones in the city and between incomegroups.Thepoorestandleastconnectedresidentssuffermostfromthewatershortageinpartbecausetheyhaveless flexibility to find alternative affordable sources ofwater.InordertozoominonthekeywaterissuesfacingChennai, includingclimate-relatedwatervulnerabilities,acasestudywascarriedoutintheITCorridor,withanaimtobenefitfromandcontributetotheotherresearchbeingconductedtherewithintheC2Sproject.47

47 Cf. Roumeau 2012. The field research was conducted in Chennai from 6th October to 15th December 2011 as part of an internship at CEIAS (CNRS-EHESS) in the framework of the Chance2Sustain project and in partial fulfilment of Masters Degree in International Cooperation and Development & Risk Management in Emerging Countries at Institut d’Etudes Politiques de Bordeaux.

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TheITCorridorisamegaprojectthatgivesexpressionto Tamil Nadu’s economic growth strategy. As such, itrequiresqualityinfrastructureandahighlevelofpublicservices, includingwater supply and drainage. For thispurpose, theGovernmentofTamilNadumandated thewateragencyinchargeofChennai,ChennaiMetroWaterSupply and Sewerage Board (CMWSSB) – hereafter‘Metrowater’,toimplementaspecialadhocprojectforproviding constant ‘24/7’ water supply and efficientsewerageinfrastructurestotheITCorridor.Fieldsurveysinonegovernment-sponsoredITParkalongtheCorridorconfirmed that the government offers uninterruptedqualitypowersupplyfromdualsourceanduninterruptedsupplyofwaterandothersutilities,althoughthiscannotbe generalised for the entire Corridor (cf. infra).Meanwhile,mosthouseholdsinChennaiarelimitedto3-4hours of water a day, which underscores the severeinequalities of access to water prevailing in themetropolitanarea.Even if residentsareconnectedtoanetwork, theyare required todiversify their sourcesofwatertoensuresufficientsupply.

Giventhisstateofaffairs,itisparticularlyrelevanttoemphasizewater vulnerabilitieswhen examining urban

development in Chennai. Relatively little attention hasbeen paid to these vulnerabilities,which progressivelyaggravatetensionsbetweendifferentcategoriesofwaterusers. The development of the IT Corridor is built onfragilewetlands andwater bodies such as PallikaranaiMarshlandsandMuttukaduLaguna(cf.image4).Duetoencroachmentonthewetlandsandthedestructionofthewatercatchmentareas,heavyrainfallsfrequentlyresultin flooding on the IT Expressway, especially during themonsoon(cf. image9).Furthermore, thesite is locatedonly a few kilometres away from the Bay of Bengal, acoastal zone vulnerable to the rising sea level andtsunamis. The proximity to the ocean creates anotherproblem: the groundwater depletion is correlated tosalineintrusioninwatertables.Giventhesecharacteristics,watervulnerabilitiesalongtheITCorridorneedspecificattentioninordertoensurethatcurrentdevelopmentofthebuiltenvironmentissustainable.

Whereas thesevulnerabilitiesunderscore thecriticalneed to improvewater governance, the field researchindicates that thegovernance structure is complexandhighly fragmented, characterised by a large number ofstakeholders,bothpublicandprivate.

Image 9: FloodingsoflinkroadbetweenTaramaniandKandanchavadi,northoftheITcorridor

Source: A. Varrel, Chennai area, November 2011

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4.2. Water Governance along the IT Corridor

ThefragmentednatureofwatergovernancealongtheITCorridorcanbeillustratedbythefactthatthepublicagencyinchargeofwatersupply,Metrowater,wasnotgivenaclearmandatetoservicethisarea.TheCMDA’sSecondMasterPlanpublishedin2008indicatesthat‘thoughMetrowaterhasjurisdictionovertheCMAaspertheirAct[1978],theirareaofoperationforpipedwaterislimitedpresentlytotheCMCareaandafewadjoiningareassuchasMogappairandtheITCorridor’.48However,accordingtothesuperintendantengineerof the ITCorridorWaterProject (ITCWP)49,whowasevasiveonthispoint,MetrowaterwaswaitinguntiltheentireITCorridorwasincludedincitylimitstosupplypipedwatertotheITCorridor.Withtheextensionofmunicipalboundariesin2011,partoftheITCorridorisnowincludedin the CMC, i.e., the stretch from Kottivakkam toSemmencheri.ThestretchfromNavallurtoSiruseriisstilloutsideChennaiCorporationlimitsbutanotherextensionisplannedinthenearfuture.

The analysis of the various actors, their mandate,influence,andtheirpowerrelationshelpsustounderstandthedecision-makingprocessregardingwaterrelatedissues.The actors involved in water governance along the ITCorridor are extremely heterogeneous. They includepoliticalandpublicinstitutions,privatecompanies,farmers,NGOs,academics,scientificexperts,socioenvironmentalassociations,andkeyindividuals.Notalloftheseactorsareabletoparticipateinasignificantwaytothemanagementofwater and to environmental issues. TheGoTN is theoverarching authority that takes all major decisionsconcerningwatermanagement in Chennai, and there isrelativelylittlespaceforotheractorstoinfluenceitsvisionof urban development. However, as the public waterauthorities do not provide adequate water supply andinfrastructures,theprivatesectoralsoplaysacriticalroleinservicedelivery.Hence,thereisalackofaholisticvision,encompassingallaspectsofwatermanagementcrucialforasustainabledevelopment.Thevariousactorsarebrieflypresentedbelow:

State actors

Thevariousentitiesinchargeofthedecisionsoverwaterissues,fromthemacrotothelocalscale,include:

48 See CMDA (2008): chapter XIII (“Infrastructures investments for CMA”).

49 Samuel Roumeau’s interview with Mr Mannivannan, Superintendant engineer in charge of ITCWP at Metrowater, Chennai, October 28th 2011.

1. GovernmentofIndia,mainlyviaMinistryofWaterResources,MinistryofEnvironmentandForestsandMinistryofUrbanDevelopment.

2. Government of Tamil Nadu (GoTN), PublicWorkDepartment–Waterresourcesorganisation

3. ChennaiMetropolitanDevelopmentAuthority

4. ChennaiMetroWater Supply and Sewage Board(Metrowater)

5. GoTNDepartmentofMunicipalAdministrationandWaterSupply

6. GoTNDirectionofTownandCountryPlanning

As indicated above,GoTN is themost powerful actorinvolvedinwatergovernancealongtheITCorridor,andhasprecedencecomparedtoboththeCentralGovernmentandlocal governments. The state government has entrustedMetrowatertoimplementtheITCWP,anditpartlyfundstheproject50.

Parastatal agencies

Metrowaterwasformedasan independent institutionbyanActoftheLegislatureofTamilNaduin1978.Fromthisdate,thestatelevelutilityhastakenthetaskofconsolidationandisgraduallyexpandingthewatersupplyandseweragesystemsinsidethelimitsofChennaiCorporation.In2011,Metrowater supplied774million litresofwater aday toresidentsofthecityandthesuburbs,approximately87litresperperson.51Thisismorethanthepreviousyearwhenthedaily supplywas only 575Mld52. The StateGovernmentdirectsMetrowater to implementwater projects in theChennaiCorporationandsomespecialareassuchastheITCorridor.However,ourresearchindicatedthatMetrowaterappears to be overwhelmed by the magnitude of itsjurisdiction,anditssupplytotheITCorridorisinsufficienttomeettheneedsofpeoplelivingandworkingthere.

50 For some specific entities that intend to draw water from a lake or nearby water body, the authority in-charge of sanctioning approval is the Water Resources Organisation in Public Works Department (PWD). Major supply sources in the IT Corridor are Poondi reservoir, Cholavaram lake and Redhills lake, all of which are under the control of the State PWD (Irrigation); further the PWD (Ground Water Cell) is responsible for the investigation of ground water resources within Chennai Metropolitan Area (CMA) to augment supplies.

51 This rough calculation uses the 2011 census data for population of metropolitan area, i.e., 8,917,749.

52 Samuel Roumeau’s interview with Ms Madhavi, Managing Director of Pallippattu distribution station, Chennai, November 5th 2011.

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The Tamil NaduWater and Drainage Board (TWAD)caters to the area outside the limits of ChennaiCorporation, and it would normally be the agency inchargeofITCorridor,exceptforthefactthatMetrowaterwas assigned this special jurisdiction (including openwaterdrainage,sewerage,extensionofwatersupplyandseweragenetworks).

The Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB) isresponsible for setting,monitoring and enforcement ofenvironmental regulations and standards. It is in fact aweakbody,whosedecisionsarenotalwaysrespected.

AsmentionedinPart2above,therearethreeagenciespromotingindustrialdevelopmentintheformofITparksalong the IT Corridor: TIDEL in Taramani, ELCOT inSholinganallur, and SIPCOT in Siruseri. All of theseparkshavetheirownwaterregulationandmanagement.

Private agencies

The failureof thepublicutility to supplya sufficientquantity of water to the IT Corridor explains why theprivate sector has emerged as a critical actor inwatergovernance. Private companies supply water throughtankers to Chennai and its surroundings: Tamil Naducounts400licensedcompanies,which is 50% of the total in India,and220areoperating inandaroundChennai.Duringtheseverewatercrisisin2003-04,thepipedsupplyfortheentirecitywasvirtuallyshutdownfora12-monthperiod.Consumersbecamedependentonprivatetankersupplierstruckingingroundwaterfromperi-urbanareas.53Packagedwatervendors,sellingsachets,PETbottles,andcans,havealsomultiplied.

Farmers

Farmers are an important group of actors in thedistributionofwaterbecausetheysellgroundwaterdirectlyto private tankers. Many of them have shifted fromagriculturalactivitiestowaterproduction,asityieldsmoremoney than paddy cultivation.54 According to ProfessorJanakarajan, thewater-selling farmers align themselveswiththestateandurbanstakeholderstomakeashort-termprofit.Otherfarmersperceivethewatersellersasenemies,astheyareadverselyaffected;theirwellsbecomedryduetoround-the-clockpumping.Thelatterareavoicelessandpowerlessgroup,sufferingthebruntofwatertransportand

53 See Srinivasan (2008).

54 See Ruet, Saravanan and Zérah (2002).

otherdamages to the local environment.55Water sellersassociations exist and try to strengthen the relationbetweenfarmersgroups,butintheend,farmersarenotorganizedandnotwell informed.Privatewatersuppliersviatankersarebetterorganizedandmuchmoreinfluential,whichallowsthemtofixpricescollectivelyforcustomers.

Civil society

ThereisamultiplicityofNGOsdealingwithwaterandenvironmental issues inChennai.Eventhoughtheyraiseawareness about water governance, their influence ondecision-makingremainslimited.Civilsocietyorganizations,activists,researchersandmediaallplayaroleinfightingagainstthedepletionandpollutionofresourcesintheperi-urban areas but taken together, this set of stakeholderslackspoweranddoesnotrepresentaclearconstituency.56

AmongNGOsactiveinChennaiisSUSTAIN,anadvocacyandeducationalorganizationlinkedtoUN-Habitatworkingto promote sustainable development. The organizationseekstopromoteresourcesefficiency,particularlyenergyand water, organizes conferences and debates, andimplementsprojects suchasGreenSchool,Eco-Campus,Eco-Business.BothExNoRaInternational(Chennaibranch)and Madras Naturalist Society focus on environmentalproblems in and around Chennai, and engage debatesaround environmental issues at community level.OtherMedia’sCorporateAccountabilityDeskworks specificallyon environmental health and corporate accountabilityamong pollution-impacted communities. TransparentChennaidefinesitselfas‘anon-profitactionresearchthinktank focused on improving government systems andmarketscapacitytochannelfinanceintosustainableandholistic development’.57 Water Today is a knowledge-disseminating platform focused on the water and thewastewater industry and organised the internationalexhibitionWater Expo 2012inChennai.

Compared to NGOs, research and academic centresappeartohavemorecredibilityandinfluenceonbothpublicauthorities and citizens. CPR Environmental EducationalCentre is a centre of excellence of the Ministry ofEnvironmentandForeststhatstrivestoincreaseawarenessandknowledgeamongkeytargetgroups(schoolchildren,local communities, andwomen) about the environment.

55 Information collected during Samuel Roumeau’s interview with Professor Janakarajan, Madras Institue of Development Studies, Chennai, December 2nd 2011.

56 See Janakarajan et al. (2007).

57 See www.transparentchennai/research/water.com

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TheMadras InstituteofDevelopmentStudies (MIDS)hassome researchersworking on the cutting edgeofwatergovernance issues in Chennai. The Indian Institute ofTechnology Madras (IITM) is conducting a researchprogrammeonPublic Private Partnership (PPP) inUrbanInfrastructureswitha focusonwaterandsanitation.TheCentre forWater Resources, Anna University is also anacknowledged institution that produces reliable dataconcerningwater.

Limited perspectives for inclusive scenario building

Theoriesonwatergovernanceindicatethatinmanycasesactorsoperatecollectively(organizationsandinstitutions),butinothercasesparticipationoccursinamoreindividualfashion.Thatisthecaseof‘OpinionLeaders’whocountonrecognition, credibility and citizen support to ‘provokelearning and changes in attitudes and practices amongpeopleandinstitutions,inordertoencourageprocessesofreaching agreements around sustainabledevelopment’.58WhatisstrikinginChennaiistheabsenceofsuchopinionleaders.Eventhoughsomeactorscouldplaythisrole,theyarepresentlynotorganizedanddonotconstitute‘networksorcompetencygroups’.59Suchnetworkscanbeunderstoodasachangeinthepoliticalstructureofasocietymorethanas a newanalytical approach, representingnew formsofsocial organization in response to political problems ofcoordination.InChennai–andafortiorialongtheITCorridor

58 Hordijk, Miranda and Torres (2011).

59 Braun and Whatmore (2010).

–thischangehasnotoccurred.Inthatsense,theambitionofbuildingascenariobasedonpublicparticipationseemstobeseriouslyundermined.ItisnonethelessimportanttonotethatorganizationssuchasTransparentChennaiorSUSTAINcontributetomoreinformedpublicdebatesandstrengthencooperationinfavourofresearch.60

4.3. Policy and specific projects for water supply

Itcanberecalled,fromaglobalperspective,thatworldwaterrequirementsareprojectedtogrowfrom4,500billionm3todayto6,900billionm3by2030.This isafull40%abovecurrentaccessible,reliablesupply.One-thirdoftheworld’spopulation,concentratedindevelopingcountries,willliveinbasinswherethisdeficit is largerthan50%(Waterresourcesgroup2009).Accordingtoarecentstudy,thedemand-supplygapisexpectedtobearound300mldforthecityofChennaiintheyear2026.61

60 Both of them offered to assist in the organization of small conferences and debates for the Chance2Sustain project in Chennai.

61 The study is based on the following consumption of water: 150 lpcd for Chennai Corporation, 125 lpcd for Municipalities in Chennai Municipal Area (CMA), 100 for Town Panchayats, and 80 for village Panchayats. It would appear that the rates of water consumption used in this study are over-evaluated compared to many testimonials from residents. For an alternative perspective, see also the 2007 figures for India cities available here http://www.globalwaterintel.com/pinsent-masons-yearbook/2012-2013/part-ii/15/

Graph 2: Percapitalitresperdayvs.hoursofsupplyperday

Source: Data collected from the water boards or utilities; A. Amiraly 2009.

341332

240223

222220

190184

173150149

145133

123108

106105

8032

8 10 5 4 10 10 2.5 10 8 24 3 2 1.5 2.5 10 8 1.5 2.5 1.5

GoaChandigaMumbaiDelhiPatnaLudhianaJodhpurDasuyaDeraBassiParisJaipurAhmedabadBikanerBangaloreGurdaspurBathindaBharatpurUdaipurChennai

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Asmentioned,Chennai’spipedwatersupply isoneof theworstofallMunicipalcorporationsinIndiawithlessthan2hoursofsupplyperday,onaverage(seeGraph2).Notsurprisingly,thepoorest and most marginalised populations of ChennaiMetropolitanAreasufferthemostfromtheshortageofwater.Thewiderangeofwaterprices,dependingonthetypeofsupply,reinforcesinequalities.Asfaraspipedsupplyisconcerned,thegovernmentfixespricesforwatersoldbyMetrowater.Thepricesaredeterminedthroughataxof7%oftheannualrentalvaluecollectedbyMetrowater forwater supplyand sewerage. Toencouragewatersavings,themarginalcostofwaterincreaseswiththe levelofconsumption. Pricesarethusproportionallylowerforpeoplewhousesmalleramountsofwater,andtherearehighertaxratesforindustriesbecauseoftheirhigherwaterconsumption (and higher capacity to pay). Regardingwatercarriedtounconnectedhouseholdsbytankers,9000litrescostanaverageof600 rupees fordomesticuseand765 rupees forcommercialorindustrialuse.Residentsorganisethemselvestoshareonanequalbasisthecostsofusingthecollectivesourcesofsupply.Inlate2011,the25litresbubbletopscost25rupeesontheburgeoningmarketofpackageddrinkingwater.Oneofthefindingsofthisresearchisthatthelowestincomegroupsconsumethelowestquantitiesofwater,atthehighestpriceperlitre.

Atotalof1954millionlitresofwaterareconsumedeverydayinChennai.AccordingtotheCentreofWaterResourcesatAnnaUniversity,thethreemainsourcesofwatersupplytoChennaiaresurfacewater,groundwater,and‘otherminorsources’(SeeMap5).62Inaddition,therecentlybuiltdesalinationplantsatMinjurandNemmelitransformlargeamountsofseawaterintodrinkable water. This controversial source will be furtherdevelopedinthenextsection.

4.3.1. Projects for meeting water needs

Desalination plants

FollowingthefirstdesalinationplantbuiltatMinjur(25kmnorthofcentralChennai),theStateGovernmentdecided

62 For surface water, the main sources are the following: the reservoirs located at Pondi, Cholavaram, Red Hills and Chebarambakkam lakes (227 million litres per day - Mld); Krishna water through Kandaleru reservoir in Andhra Pradesh under Telugu Ganga project from 1996 (837 Mld); Veeranam lake located 228km South of Chennai, from September 2004 (180 Mld); and local sources including Palar river (32 Mld). For ground water: six well fields located in Araniyar & Koratalaiyar river basin adjoining the reservoirs around Chennai (68 Mld). Extractable quantity of local groundwater in the city for other purpose than drinking and cooking; and multiple wells, both owned and hired (240 Mld). For other small sources: Porur Eri, Madhavaram Rethai Eri, Southern coastal aquifer, and Brackish water treatment plants (5Mld).

toconstructasecondplantatNemmeli,totheSouthoftheITCorridor(45kmsouthofcentralChennai).Theprojectwasfinanced partly through a central government grant andpartly through theMetrowater budget. VA TechWabagexecuted the project on aDesign BuildOperate basis inpartnershipwithIDEtechnologies,Israel.Theplantcomprisesdiscfilters,ultrafiltrationmembranesandreverseosmosismembranes.63This100Mldplant,whichcost1,000crorerupees (approximately $1.6million), was inaugurated inFebruary2013.64Accordingtoofficialsources,itwillconsumearound16Mwofpowerperday,whichwillbesuppliedfromasub-stationthattheTamilNaduElectricityBoardwillsetup.Officially therewouldbeno sludge generated, as nochemicalswillbeusedduringthedesalinationprocess.Thewaterwithheavyconcentrationofsaltwillbedischargedintotheseaasperthespecifiednorms.65

The desalination plant in Nemmeli has the followingadvantages:itislocatedneartheseaonaflatarea,andthereisadequateavailabilityofelectricityforpumping.However,criticsfromenvironmentalnetworksandacademicshighlightthreedrawbacksofsuchaproject.First,thedrinkingwaterproducedwillbeexpensive;thissourceofsupplyisestimatedto be twice more expensive than the current rate forMetrowater supply. This goes against the objective ofintroducingaffordablestandardsandtargetingsubsidiestothepoor.Second,itisenvironmentallyunsustainablebecause(i)thedesalinationplant requiresa lotofenergy toproducewater (every litreofwaterproduceddemands7,5Kw/hofenergy)and(ii) theplantwill reject17kilolitresperdayofextremelysaltywaterinthesea.Third,itissociallydestructivebecausetheactivityoftheplantwilldeeplyaffectsurroundingfishermenvillageswhowillhavetogofurtherouttoseatocatchfish.Ascriticspointout,itmaymakesensetooptfordesalinationplantsincountriessuchasSouthAfrica,SingaporeandespeciallyQatarorUnitedArabEmirateswhererainfallisfarlessthan1200mmayear.HoweverinChennai,rainwater

63 Reverse osmosis is considered the most convenient and effective method of water filtration. It filters water by squeezing water through a semi-permeable membrane, which is rated at 0.0001 micron. It is also the only technology capable of desalinating seawater, making it into drinking water. Non-RO water filters are much less effective, and the pore size of these filter media are much bigger, generally 0,5-10 micron. As a result, water is far less clean and safe compared to reverse osmosis filtration.

64 See “Nemmeli plant: The desalination dilemma”, Live Mint & The Wall Street Journal, 23 May 2013. URL: http://www.livemint.com/Politics/FvpXSl7v5JClJIPjyDLejO/The-desalination-dilemma.html, last accessed 20 January 2014.

65 “Israel IDE seeks partners to tap Indian desal market” India Water Review, 23 February 2012. URL: http://www.indiawaterreview.in/Story/News/israels-ide-seeks-partners-to-tap-indian-desal-market/546/1 last accessed 20 January 2014.

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Map 5: SourcesofwaterinChennai

Source: Metrowater, 2010

SurfacewatersourcesRegionforextractionofgroundwaterRegionabandonedforgroundwaterextractionCanal

Fromgroundwater

Pumpingstations

Waterdistributionstation

Overheadtanks

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harvestingandmeasuresbasedonthedualqualityofwaterwouldappeartobebetter,moresustainableoptions.

SpecialprojectfortheITCorridor

InordertocatertofasturbandevelopmentlinkedtotheeconomicactivitiesoftheITCorridor,theStategovernmententrusted Metrowater to implement the special project‘Providingwatersupplyandsewerage infrastructuresalongtheITCorridorandtheRajivGandhiSalai’.ThispolicycanbeseentogivespecialtreatmenttothesouthernpartofChennai,withanaimtoofferguarantees(oratleastreassurance)topotential investors in terms of basic infrastructures. It ischaracteristic of the incentives put in place by the StateGovernmenttospureconomicgrowth.Atthesametime,itdeepensalreadyexistingsocialandspatialinequalities,sinceittargetsselectedgeographicalspacesandspecificeconomicactors.Theinabilityoftheauthoritiestoachieveanefficientand sustainablewater infrastructure systemhas led to theemergenceofadaptivepracticesthatareoutsidethecontrolof thepublic sphere. Both companies and residents havebecomeverydependentonprivatesourcesofdrinkingwater.66

66 A recent newspaper article evokes the importance of private water suppliers along the IT Corridor: ‘Recently, some of the offices had to shut down for a day when tanker owners went on a flash strike, protesting against the seizure of vehicles by revenue for illegal extraction of groundwater for commercial use’. See ‘Stalin vows nonstop water for OMR’, Times of India, April 24th 2010.

Metrowater has beenmandated to supplywater andsewerage facilities to the IT Corridor area at the cost of417.7millionrupees(approximately5.4millioneuros).TheworkcommencedinApril2007andwasalmostcompletein late2011 (about90%), at the timeof this study. Thisproject focuses on sewerageworks (five packages) andsupplyworks(twopackages).Itmainlyconsistsinbuildingsewerage treatment plants to improve the wastewatermanagementandlayingmainstoprovidepipedsupplytothis area. This strong state support in favour of a verylimited space while the entire city suffers from waterscarcityandpoorseweragesystemrevealstheparticularcommitmentoftheauthoritiestomaketheITCorridoranexceptionalspacewith‘world-class’ infrastructureaimedatattractingforeigninvestment.However,thegoalof24/7supplyremainsonpaperonlyandmanyresidentsremainunconnectedtosewerageandsupplynetworks.

An estimated 60%of thewater that Chennai’s publicusescomefromsourcesotherthanMetrowater.67ThetablebelowpresentstheaveragelitrepercapitaperdaybytypeofsourceforapersonlivingalongtheITCorridor.Theseestimatedfigureswerecompiledonthebasisofasurveyconducted with residents of villages located on the ITExpressway.Theyareanaverageforthewholesampleandshouldbeinterpretedaccordingly.

67 Transparent Chennai data: http://www.transparentchennai.com/research/water/background/

Image 10: TankerinsideAscendasTechPark

Source: A. Varrel, Chennai, November 2011

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4.4. Vulnerability to climate change impacts

TheITCorridorisacompellingcasestudytoillustratehowtheparticularnaturalhydrologicaltopographyofthisareahasbeenalmostcompletelyerasedbytheartificiallandscapeofwaterinfrastructure,‘urbanized’tosynchronizewiththemega-infrastructureprojectaswellasprivate-ledpropertydevelopment. Environmental ImpactAssessmentsarenotrequiredforITdevelopmentalthoughthoseprojectsarenotasgreenornon-pollutingasoftenclaimed.Climatechangeimpacts add to thepressure exertedonwater resources.EnvironmentalvulnerabilitiesalongtheITCorridorinChennaiarecharacterisedbygroundwaterdepletion,destructionofwaterbodies,extremeweatherevents,andtheproximityofthesea.Finally,beyondsuchrealandverifiablevulnerabilities,thebiasedperceptionandlackofawarenessamongactorsaboutthesevulnerabilitiesconstituteamajorfactorofrisk.

GroundwaterdepletionandtheinducedsalineintrusioningroundwatertablesmaybethemajorsourceofconcernintheITCorridorarea.Theoverexploitationofgroundwaterresourcescorrelatedtothenewdevelopmentofthisareais accelerating the depletion of aquifers and leading tosaline intrusion of seawater,making thewater unfit forconsumption. Toregulateandcontroltheextraction,useortransportofgroundwaterandtoconservegroundwater,

theChennaiMetropolitanAreaGroundWater(Regulation)Act,1987wasenacted.TheTamilNaduGroundwaterActimprovedthislegislationin2003.68EveniftheGroundwaterDepartmentismonitoringthegeneralstatusoftheaquifers,exploitationisnotmanagedinasustainableway.AccordingtoaleadingspecialistofwaterinChennai,thelegislationongroundwaterisnotrespectedandpracticallyanyonecanextractwaterfromgroundwaterwithoutpunishment.Thisobservationwascorroboratedbyfieldwork, for instance,for agencies thatmanage IT parks, for some towns andvillagesalongtheITCorridorsuchasSholinganallur69,andalsoattheindividuallevel.

The State government has plans to address issues ofwaterqualityandavailabilityinChennaiMetropolitanareabyconstitutingacomprehensivegroundwaterregulatoryauthority.Theobjectiveistoweanthecity’sresidentsawayfromanunsustainabledependenceongroundwaterandimpose strict controls on the use of sub-surfacewater.AccordingtotheengineerinchiefattheWaterResourcesOrganisation,70 ‘a bill on groundwater is under theconsiderationof the government, andadecisionwill betakenshortly.Thepracticeofdiggingaholeanywhereanddrawingwatermuststop’.71Someofthemeasuresproposedforcurtailingtheoverexploitationofgroundwaterinclude:clarifying property rights, introducing extraction chargesandlimitations,andpromotingwaterconservationpolicies.Atatechnologicallevel,mappingandplanningoptimaluseof natural resources throughGIS can pave theway to amoresustainableconservationofgroundwater.

ThedevelopmentofITindustriesandresidentialpropertiesalongtheITExpresswayisthreateningtwolargewaterbodies:thePallikaranaiMarshlandandtheMuttukaduLaguna.

Inadditiontowaterandwasteissues,thePallikkaranaiMarshlandisbeingaffectedanditsbiodiversityharmfullydisturbed. It is being used for garbage disposal, sewagetreatment,aswellasfordrainage(cf.images12&13).

ThePerungudidumpsite,(seeimage11),hasexistedintheMarshland since 1987 (see image 12 for dumpsitelocation in theMarsh). According to a recent study, thedumpingstartedwith20hain1995andincreasedto44.75

68 A new law was announced in 2013.

69 See case study on Sholinganallur in Roumeau (2012).

70 S. Kumaresan is engineer in chief at Water Resources Organisation, Public Works Department. His testimonial was reported in the press. See “Groundwater regulatory authority soon”, The Hindu, 2 May 2011.

71 Some borewells operating without a license reach 100 to 200 metres depth.

Table 7: WaterconsumptionbysourcesontheITCorridor

Year 2011 Lpcd per

source

Publicsources

Metrowaterpipedsupply 5

Metrowaterindividualhandpumps 20

Publictaps 2

Metrowaterlorries 2

Privatesources

Ownwell 25

Privatelorries 18

Packagedwater 2

Total 74

Source: S. Roumeau (2012), adapted from V. Srinivasan (2008).

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hain2002.Atpresentthedumpingsiteoccupiesanareaof78hawithacurrentwastedumpingof2,450tonsperday(Seifelislam2013:14).BecausethePerungudidumpsiteispoorlydrained,lackssanitarydesign,andhasdirectcontactwith the underground (Parameswari et al 2012), it veryprobablycontributestogroundwatercontamination.

Moreover,treatedanduntreatedseweragepours intothemarshland.Accordingtoonesource,Metrowaterhasbeenlettingout32millionlitresofuntreatedsewagewaterevery year directly into the marshland and a sewagetreatmentstationlocatednexttothePallikaranireleasestreatedsludgeintothemarshland(Seifelislam2013:19).72Some localitieson theperipheryof thewetland suchasMylaiBalajiNagardirectlyreleaseuntreatedsewerage(seeimages13and14).

Naturallythesepollutionsourceshaveadverselyaffectedtheecologicalbalanceofthemarshland.Untilafewyearsago, the Pallikkaranai Marshland was a functioningpercolationsystem,akeyenvironmentfortherechargeofundergroundwater:takingtheflowofrainwaterfromtheupper catchment areas like St. ThomasMount and thePallavaram Hills. Now, the quality of the recharge isthreatenedbecausethemarshlandhasbeenpollutedandcannolongerbetappedfordrinkingwater.Fieldinterviewsandthelocalpressindicatethatasrecentas20yearsago,surface water could be consumed without treatment(Seifelislam 2013: 11). Today, various studies of waterqualityconfirmthatithashighconcentrationofTDS(TotalDissolved Solids). A study from theUniversity ofMadrasindicated that the concentration of the TDS in thePallikkaranaiMarshlandisgenerallyhigherthanthedesirablelimitof500mg/Lforsafedrinking,andthat inmorethan50%ofthesamplestheaconcentrationisevenhigherthan2000mg/L, the amount permissible for agricultural use(Vijayakumar,2011)(citedbySeifelislam2013:17).

One explanation for the waste dumping and rawsewerage inflow, as well as the unhindered propertydevelopmentinthearea,isthatmarshlandwasclassifieduntil recentlyas ‘wasteland’by thegovernment.Variousgroups,includingthe‘SavePallikkaranaiMarshlandForum’havebeenfightingtomaintainandprotectit.In2007,thesouthernpartofthemarshlandwasdeclared,asaReservedLand under the Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980 andbroughtunderthejurisdictionoftheDistrictForestOfficer(Seifelislam 2013: 27). The forest department is nowresponsibleforthemarshlandandarequesttoupgradeit

72 This was contested by a Metrowater officer working in the Pallikaranai sewage treatment plant who asserted that the treated water does not flow into the Marshland but into the Buckingham canal (Seifelislam 2013: 19).

into ahighly protectedarea is on the tableof theChiefMinisterofTamilNadu.73

TheITExpresswayisafloodpronearea.74Onthebasisofdiscussionswithvariousstakeholders,thereappeartobefivemaincausesoffloods.First,inadditiontomonsoonstwotimesayear(JuneandNovember),thereareextremerainfallevents,whichmaybecorrelatedwithclimatechange.Second, theincreasing level of urbanisation is often correlatedwith adecreaseinforestcoverandwatercatchmentareas.75(cf.Map6representingtheshrinkingofthePallikkaranaiMarshland,resultinginreducedcatchmentandgroundwaterrecharge).

Third,theexistingstormwaterdrainsystemisinadequateandinefficient.Fourth,thedumpingofwasteandgarbagerestrainstheflowofwater.Fifth,people’shabitssuchasparkingvehiclesonroadcontributetofloodsaswell.

At the same time, the city of Chennai is also hit bydroughts.In2003,theNorthEasternmonsoonfailed:intherecorded history of 54 years forwhich data is available,neverhadChennaiexperiencedsuchanacutedrought.Twoyearsafterthedrought,2005,unprecedentedfloodingtookplaceduringthemonsoons.TheseswingingcyclesoffloodanddroughtcomplicatethewatermanagementscenarioinacitylikeChennaiasstateinstitutionspreparefortwoextremescenariosyearafteryear.76

The sea level has been steadily rising, up to about1.3mm/yearonaverageontheeasterncoast.77Thishigherocean level is directly linked to salt water intrusion ingroundwatersupplies,threateningthequalityandquantityoffreshwateraccesstolargepopulation.TheDepartmentofOceanographyatAnnaUniversityassertsthatthesealevelhasrisenbyonemeterinthepast70yearsalongthecoastofChennai.Moreover,Chennaicityispronetohugewaves.Forinstance,thetsunamiin2004reachedtheshoreoftheBayofBengalkillingdozensofpeople.

73 One proposal, reported by the press, consists in converting the existing dumping yard into an ecopark. Cf. “A giant step towards preserving Pallikaranai marshland”, The Hindu, 10 Sept 2013, cited by Seifelislam (2013).

74 Floods kill people every year: for instance, over 170 persons died in 2010 in Chennai.

75 According to calculations realized by Aicha Seifelislam, the Pallikarnaai Marshland has diminished from 1339 ha in 2002 to 873 in 2007, and further to737 in 2010 and 605 in 2013 (represented in Map 6). The catchment area over the years was calculated using googlemaps pictures and the ARC Gis Programme. For the missing years an average amount, based on a constant shrinkage over the time, was used. Cf. Seifelislam (2013).

76 See Arabindoo (2011c).

77 Cf. India Network for Climate Change Assessment (2010).

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Map 6: ThechangesincatchmentareaofthePallikaranaiMarshlandinthepastyears

Source: A. Seifelislam, 2013.

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Image 11: ThePerungudiDumpsiteintheMarshland

Source: A. Seifelislam, 2013.

4.5. Producing vulnerability analyses and scenarios; spatial perspectives and participation

In thecourseofdiscussionswithresidents, itbecameevidentthatthereisacruciallackofawarenessregardingthe dangers related to climate change. It remains anabstract concept without any concrete application orconsequences in theminds of the residents. Awarenessamong city planners is not necessarily much better. Itbecameevidentfrominterviewsonthatspecifictopicthatmostplannersdonotrealizetheveryconcreteimpactsthatclimate change may have on their lives and on theenvironment.Theyperceiveitasavagueanddistantthreat.According to the former chiefplanner, an IASofficer, ‘InChennai,nooneofus,includingexperts,wasconsciousofthepotentialthreatsofclimatechangeforourcitybefore2008, date of the SecondMaster Plan. The process ofawareness is verynewandevolving slowly’.78 Two smallparagraphswerededicatedtoclimatechangeinthechapterontheEnvironmentintheSecondMasterPlanofChennai.79

78 Quote from the speech made at the Seminar on « Cities and Climate Change » organised in Chennai by the Madras Chamber of Commerce in collaboration with SUSTAIN and UN-Habitat, 9th November 2011.

79 ‘It is recognized now that climate change due to global warming is going to be an important threat to safety of

Theconferenceon‘Citiesandclimatechange’,organisedinNovember2011bytheMadrasChamberofCommerce& Industry in collaborationwith theCitizensAlliance forSustainableLiving(SUSTAIN),wasthefirstofitskindinthecity. It took place onWorld Habitat Day, and attractedexpertsfromacademics,aswellasparticipantsfromtheadministration, civil society and business groups. Thelaunchingof‘SustainableChennaiForum’thatoccurredthesamedayalso illustratesashift towards the inclusionofclimatechangeaspectsinthedebateonsustainability.Itismeanttobeaplatformforenhanceddialogandinformation.

During meetings with members of SUSTAIN andTransparentChennai,theideaoforganizingdebatesonfindings from the Chance2Sustain project emerged,withinthebroaderframeworkofclimate-relatedwater

millions of people not only living near the coastline but also in the interior because of its impact on changing rainfall patterns and cyclones. Chennai is a flat coastal city subject to regular cyclonic storms and extensive inundation during the northeast monsoon period. Hence it is necessary to take into account ways and means of tackling the effects of climate change in a planned manner. Knowledge on this subject is only gaining ground in recent times. We need to absorb latest information and technology in this discipline not only to cut down green house gas emissions from urban activities but also anticipate the effects of climate change on the economy and life of people to take timely remedial measures’. (CMDA 2008:105-106).

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Image 12: PallikaranaiLocationinsouthChennai

Source: A. Seifelislam, 2013.

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Image 13: SewagecanalinMylaiBaljiNagar:Outflowfromthelivingarea

Image 14: Sewagewaterinflowtothemarshland

Source: A. Seifelislam, 2013.

Source: A. Seifelislam, 2013.

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vulnerabilities.Thisprovesthatsucheventsarenotmerelya pipedream from the research project (e.g. scenariobuildingprocessesofWP4)butaresharedbyNGOsandotherenvironmentallycommittedpeople.80

To summarize, this study has shown the clearcommitment from the Government to provide water-related infrastructures along the IT Corridor, andmeetworld-classstandards.Inthissense,waterinfrastructuresare part of the overall incentive structure intended tosatisfytheexpectationsofforeigninvestors.However,thisspecialtreatmentisnotasefficientasexpected.Thusfarthe24/7supplyremainsonpaperandinthemeantimeboth firms and ordinary residents have to dealwith alimitedandunreliableaccesstowater.Thisrequiresthemtovarytheirsourcesofsupplyfromboththepublicutilityandtheprivatesector.InequalitiesarestrongwithintheITCorridorandhavealsoincreasedincomparisontotherestofthecity,wheremostareasarestilllimitedto3-4hours daily supply and poor level of sewerageinfrastructures.Thequestionofsocialjusticeinaccessto

80 The lack of time prevented this idea from moving forward but it could definitely be followed up in the near future.

waterremainslargelyignoredinthedebatearoundwaterissuesinChennai.

Thisanalysissupportstheideathatthealarmingwatersituation in Chennai is not primarily due to insufficienttechnicalorfinancialmeans.FundscanberaisedandChennaiisthecitythatcountsthemostengineeringschoolsinIndia,so there are sources of knowledge available locally. Thefragmented governance structure is theprimary causeofwater-relateddeficiencies.Amongthevariousstakeholders,theGovernmentof TamilNadu takes allmajor decisionsregardingurbandevelopmentandwaterinfrastructures,andgives directions to all parastatal agencies to execute theprojectsinthespecifiedarea.Atthesametime,theinfluenceofprivatesectoractorshasincreasedquicklytocompensatefordeficientwaternetworks:thesystemoftankersisoneofthemainwatersourcesforresidents.

MeanwhiletheroleofNGOsandusers’associationsinadvocacyremainslimited,andtheempowermentofcivilsocietywould be required to strengthen a participatoryprocess.Theparticipationofresidentsindecision-makingsupposesbroaderawarenesswith regard to climateandwaterrelatedissues.

Spatial Knowledge Management in the City: Spatial Perspectives and Participation in Knowledge Production, Exchange and Use

5

5.1. Discourses and rationales for introducing ICT-GIS-based knowledge management in urban governance; boundaries, work processes, mapping needs81

ThediscoursesonintroducingICT-GIS-basedknowledgemanagementvaryacrossorganisationsinChennai,focusingmainly on boundaries (individual properties, settlementboundaries,cityboundaries)relatedtoissuesofrevenuecollection, slumredevelopmentandmandatesandworkprocesses(CMDA,CMC,Metrowater),inwhichdigitization

81 This section draws on research conducted under WP5 and is based mainly on inputs from Isa Baud, Eric Denis, Karin Pfeffer, R. Dhanalakshmi, H. Rouanet and Tara Saharan.

andgeo-referencing isconsideredsupportivetoefficientand effective processes. Implicitly embedded in thesediscourses are the issues of better monitoring andsurveillance against tax avoidance and illicit tapping ofmunicipal services. With regard tomarginalizedgroups,mapping needs are being carried out through theparticipation of the Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board(TNSCB) inthenewRajivAwasYojana(RAY)programme,which incorporates slum mapping explicitly from anadministrativepointofview.Civilsocietyorganisationsalsomapneeds,acrossarangeofsocialgroups.UsingCensusdataorcitydataformappingneedsisnotdoneacrossthecityamongknowledgeproducersingeneral.

Spatialknowledgemanagementislinkedstronglytothemain mandates of organisations, with an emphasis onadministrativeclassificationsandinformation.Thistypeoftechnical organisational knowledge remains confinedwithin organisations,with no possibilities of knowledge

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exchangeacrossorganisationsdealingwiththecityarea.Initiatives to collaboratively develop and exchangeinformationamonggovernmentorganisationsatlocalandstatelevelarestillongoingwithlittleprogress.Community-basedtypesofknowledgefromlivedexperienceofsocialgroups do not seem to be recognized in governmentorganisations, and existing guidelines and rules cannotaccommodatethem.

5.2. Knowledge construction in Chennai urban planning and management: actors and networks

TheuseofinformatizationandspatializationinChennaiurban planning and management varies among theorganizations involved with planning and providingmunicipal services. This discussion focuses on strategicorganizationsrelatedtothemajordomainscoveredinthisresearchprojectandthemajorinstrumentssupportingsuchdomains(knowledgemanagementandlocalfinancialflows).A network ofmajor organizations dealingwith Chennaiurban issueswas constructed under the auspices of theDepartment forMunicipalAdministration; it includes theCMDA,theCMC,MetrowaterandtheregionalofficeoftheNationalInformationCentre(NIC).Althoughtalkswentonfor about twoyears about thepossibilitiesof integratingbasemapsandmakingdatabasescompatibleandaccessible,it was found difficult tomakemuch progress on eitherissue.82Atthemoment,variousorganizationshavecontinuedtheirowninitiativesinthisrespect(Figure1intheAppendix).

OrganizationsinChennaistartedinitiatinginformatizationfromthe1980sonwards,somewiththehelpofWB-fundedprojects(CMC).Metrowaterstartedinformatizationinthelate1980sandattemptedtointroduceintegratedenterprisecomputerization in the early 2000s. The CMC triedintroducingintegratedcomputerizedsystemsdirectlyinthelate 1990s, but abandoned this attempt in 2004 as toocomplex,goingbacktoinformatizationatthedepartmentlevel with the support of NIC. The CMDA has a longerhistoryof usingGIS andhas an in-houseGIS section formappinglanduseandtopographicinformation,howeverfocusinglessonanalyzingtrends(privatecommunicationbyCMDAplanner).Initiativeswhichcomeundernational

82 The issue of the base maps concerns the legality of maps; only those provided by the Survey of India have a legal status. However, the SOI is very slow in providing maps, and security issues prevent maps of coastal areas being provided. This is a major issue for all coastal cities.

programmesworkingthroughregionalofficesincludeNIC(regional office) which leads the shared basemapprogramme and is promoting digitization of cadastralinformationthroughCollabland(whichcoversareaswithinCMDA limits),andanational initiative for slummappingandresidentialclassificationand identificationasabasisforneedidentification,whichisbeingrolledoutregionallyineightMunicipalCorporationsofTamilNadu(RAY).

Twoothertypesofactorsareimportantininfluencingurbanplanningandmanagementdiscussions;theprivatesectorandcivilsocietyorganizations.Therealestatesectorappeared to be a major producer and user of spatialknowledge, especially on land-related information likeownership,landsize,landtenurestatus,althoughverylittleisknownabouthowthesecompanieswork(exceptionisRouanet,2013). In termsof community-based initiativesusing and producing ICT-GIS-based information andknowledge, Transparent Chennai is the best knownexample. It has crowd-sourced information on issuesimportanttocitizensinChennai(tosomeextentorientedtowardsthemiddleclass),hasmappedthem,andusestheinformationgainedinnegotiationswithlocal(government)organizationstoimprovethesituationsfound(cf.Pfefferetal2013).Theirworkisdiscussedinsection5.4.

Figure1. intheappendixprovidesanoverviewoftheorganisations included inthediscussionof ICT-GIS-basedinitiatives in Chennai, together with the main issuescovered.HerethefocusisonthemainICT-GISinitiativesbyorganisation,followedbyadiscussionofthemainissuesemergingfromtheearlierWP5FieldworkReport.83

WithintheCMC,severalDepartmentshaveintroducedinformatizationinitiatives,e.g.,birthanddeathregistration,property tax assessment, and solidwastemanagement(SWM).Forbirthanddeathregistrations,anexternalauditfrom2006showedthatthesedatabaseshadseriousgaps,makinganyanalysisofpopulationtrendsinChennaiinvalid(CAG,2006);thisincludedashortfallof21%inbirthdataand33%indeathdatainthecity(Audit2006,Paragraph2.1.11.1).Itisnotknowntowhatextentthissituationhasimprovedsincethen,especiallywiththeexpansionofthecitybordersin2011.

In the property tax assessment department, an auditwasheldin2006aswell(CAG,2006).Thistax,animportantsourceofrevenue,accountedfor82%ofCMC’stotaltaxrevenue in 2004-05 (CAG, 2006). Computerization existssince1998,butseveraldatabasesexistwhoseinformationdonotmatcheachother.Whenthedatabasesonpropertyuse(residentialorcommercial)arecomparedwiththose

83 See http://www.chance2sustain.eu/50.0.html

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oftheMetrowaterandotherdatabaseswithintheCMC,large-scale differenceswere found. Also updates in themainRegisterofthepropertytaxdepartment(DCB)laggedbehindsubstantiallyintheperiod1998-2006leadingtoashortfallintaxpropertycollectionofmorethanRs52crore(slightlymorethan6.9millionEuro)84.Missingassessmentsled toanotherRs. 34 crore. (4.5millionEuro)notbeingcollectedinthatperiod(CAG,2006).ThecombinedRs86crore hasmeant that the CMC did not receive 31% ofcollectedrevenuetaxesand13%oftotalrevenuesforthatfiscal year. In 2012, a combination of different channels(digital and non-digital) for paying property taxes hadimprovedthesituation,sothattheCorporationexpectedto reach its target of 558 crore Rs. in property taxes.85Becauseoftheexpansionofcityborders,digitizedpaymentsystems had not yet been extended to the new zonesincluded. Internal validation and process controlsweremuchlessofaproblem.

In the SolidWasteManagement (SWM)Department,earlyexperienceswithsubcontractingareasofChennaitoprivatewastecollectinganddisposalcompanies(Onyx)ledtheDepartment to provide carefully crafted areamapsindicatingroutesofwastecollection,intermediaryandfinaldisposal descriptions as integral parts of the contractnegotiations. These maps are complemented by dailyreporting of actual collection and monitoring systemsbasedonmobilephonepicturecollectionbyinspectorsandGPStrackingofitinerariesofgarbagetrucks,whicharethenreported to thecentraloffice.Themajoreffectof thesedirective information systems and process controls hasbeenthattroubleshootingisdelegatedtozonalandwardlevel, leaving the central SWM department time forstrategicplanningofSWM(personalcommunication2012).

Metrowater provides forwater supply and sewerageneeds of about 651,000 properties in the old Chennaimetropolitanarea.Itsmainsourcesofrevenuearewatertaxandwatercharges.Asmentionedinsection4,watertaxis calculated at 7% of a property’s Annual Value forpropertieswithoutawatermeter,andcollectedfromallthe properties under Metrowater’s jurisdiction. Waterchargesarecollectedonly fromsuchproperties thatareprovidedwith awater connection, at different rates fordomesticandnon-domesticconsumers(CAGTN,2010).

DigitizationoftheinternalinformationofMetrowaterstartedin1986infunctionalandadministrativeactivities,using stand-alone systems. These activitieswere to beintegratedthroughanERP(EnterpriseResourcePlanning)

84 DCB is Demand, Collection and Balance register. The Rs. calculation was done at 75 INR for 1 euro

85 Times of India, Chennai, October 14, 2012.

system procured from Oracle Corporation andimplemented through Tata Consultancy Services (TCS).The process commencedwith a pilot study conductedfromMarch2003toOctober2004andwasrolledoutinearly2007,afterestablishingthenecessaryinfrastructureandconnectivity.86TheERPsystemworksonawideareanetwork(WAN)connectingHeadquartersofficewithall161depotsand10Areaoffices.Theentiredatawasstoredin a set of central servers placed at the Headquartersoffice. Computerized activities include ‘Billing andCollection’, ‘Material Management’, ‘ComplaintsMonitoring’, ‘Payroll’, ‘Provident Fund’, ‘Pensions’ and‘FinancialAccounting’(CAGTN,2010).

TheCAGAuditof2010foundthattwoareasofactivitieshadnotyetbeenincludedintheERPsystem,namely,thenew water connections that are a major activity ofMetrowater, and the complaints registration system,becausedataentrywasdonemanuallyandtimelagsfromone day to one month. The complaints system nowdesigned to be an online system for both users and forMetrowater employees, was planned with insufficientmanpowertomaintaintheonlinecomplaintsregistrationandtorespondtocomplaintswithinthetimelimitsset.Thegeo-referencing(CMCnumber)ofcomplaintsreceivedwasonanoptionalbasis,sothattheresultingdatabasecouldnotprovideeffective spatiallydisaggregated informationoncomplaint‘hotspots’,noranalyzethetypeofcomplaintsforspatial insightintoproblemswiththewaternetwork.Thismeans that internalmonitoring using this databasewasnotpossible.

Actualcomplaintsfromresidentswentupfrom50,090in2011-12toaround78,000in2012-13,ofwhichthevastmajority in both years concerned complaints aboutsewerageblockageandcontaminationofdrinkingwater.87

IntermsoftheactivitiesincludedintheERP,functioningwas not yet optimal in preparing the accounts,makinginventories of stock, and in billing and collectiontransactions. The stand-alone digitalmodules already inuse earlier continue to be used instead. The result is a

86 In 2002-06 a GIS was established and a pilot zone experimented for meter with technical assistance from Veolia and support from the WB. Indeed in 2006 the assistance was not renewed and meter tax collection appeared not a success at the pilot level. See Amiraly (2009). Veolia is since very much present with Doshion in 5 BOT and O&M projects for Chennai’s water supply, desalinisation and wastewater plant.

87 See ‘Sewage tops Chennai’s crib list’, Times of India, June 13, 2013. There is a status of the complaint tool on the website of Metrowater.

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substantiallossofrevenueforMetrowaterwiththemainissuesbeingasfollows;

– Billing at domestic rates for more than 7,000commercialproperties ledtoashortfallofRs7.67crore;

– UsingalowerannualvalueratethantheCorporationfor calculating water taxes for more than 6,000propertiesledtoashortfallofRs8.84crore;

– 13,017propertieswerenotbroughtunder thetaxnetofMetrowater,althoughtheCorporationhadthenecessaryinformation,resultinginashortfallofRs.21.35crore.

ThetotalresultinglossesoftheBoardwerecalculatedat42.69croreRs.bytheaudit(CAGTN,2010).

Metrowatermakesuseofspatialrepresentationsofthewaterinfrastructure,inparticularthelocationofpipelinesand associated infrastructure aswell as the location ofthosewateruserswithwatermeters.CurrentlythesemapsaremainlydrawninAutocad,althoughsomeinformationisavailablewithinaGIS.ThereisamovetowardsusingGISmoreeffectivelyinproducingknowledgeonwaterprovisionanduse.PresentlyonepersonatMetrowaterisqualifiedforGISprocessing,butotherofficershavealsofolloweda4-dayGIStrainingatIIHSinBangaloreacquiringbasicGISskillssuchas locatinggeographicalcoordinates,mappingandqueryingtheinformationusingopensourceandfreelyavailable GIS software. One officer at Metrowater ismotivatedtouseGISinhisdailyworkbecausehethinksitcan support spatial information and knowledge buildingcurrentlyonlyavailableintacitformamonglineworkers:‘Ifthisinformationisnotlaiddowninmaps,thatknowledgewill be lost’. He also thinks that GIS can help to locatecomplaints and analyse the spatial concentration ofdifferenttypesofcomplaints(sewerblockagesandwaterpollution).GIScouldalsohelpidentifyareaswherepipelinescome together to avoid accidents in repair works, asupdatesarecurrentlyproblematic.TherearealsoplanstoincorporateGPSintheroutesofwatertankersfortrackingthem inorder tomonitorwaterprovisionandmakethismeansofwatersupplymoreefficient.88

The TNSCB is currently the nodal agency for the RAYprogramme,which introduces a combination of spatialmappingofslums(inGIS)withuniqueidentifyingsystemsfor household members89. The main goals of RAY are

88 See ‘Soon, GPS to track Metrowater tankers’, The Hindu, March 10, 2013.

89 It is not clear however whether household numbering is associated with a precise geo-reference information.

defined as making a situational analysis, and devisingcurative and preventive strategies for slums, includingdevelopment plans, investment requirements andinstitutionalarrangements. It isbeingrolledoutacrossalarge number of Indian cities, including Chennai,whereseveral zoneshavealreadybeenmappedandzone-levelPlansofActionsarebeingprepared.Coordinationiscarriedoutbyprivatesectorconsultantsintheprocess,withthehelp of councillors fromeach electoralward in order toidentifywhichslumsexist,theirconditions,andwhethertheywanttobeincludedintheprogramme.Theprocessinpractice ismuch fuzzier than the programme goals andplansstate,anditisstillratherprematuretodrawfurtherconclusions at themoment (fieldwork still ongoing; seefurthersection5.4).

Important actors in the private sector producing andprovidingspatialinformationtoinvestorsarethelocalandregionalrealestatedevelopersandinternationalpropertyconsultants.90 They produce spatial and land-relatedinformationthatisnecessaryforcompaniesthatwanttoinvestinrealestateinthecity.Suchrealestatedevelopersdosurveysoflandownership,tenureanddisputesinordertoidentifyareaswhereinvestmentscanbemade.Thereisstilllittleuseofcartography,unlesstherealestateprojectisquitelarge,whenpartneringisdonewithGIScompaniesinordertoproducetheadvisoryreportsgiventocompanies.Theinformationprovidedbytherealestatedevelopersandinternationalpropertyconsultantsisaknowledgenetworkindependent of government-led urban planning andmanagement. It producesmaps of the city that activelypromoteanewimaginedurbanspace,moreinconformitywith a transactional vision of the city, e.g., identifyingbusiness districts, attractive middle-class and eliteresidential areas, and attractive areas for companiesseekingtolocate.Thesemapsleaveouttheexistingurbanfabricofsmall-scaleeconomicunits,localshoppingmarketsandlessupscalehousingareas(foranexample,seemap7).

5.3. Spatial knowledge in urban and regional planning

Change in Boundaries and protected areas within extension area

Asmentionedabove,theChennaiCorporationareawasextended in2011from174sqkmto426sqkmandthemetropolitanareawillmostlikelybeextendedto8,878sq

90 This description is based on a contribution and recent research by Rouanet (2013).

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Map 7: Anexampleofhowpropertydevelopersrepresenturbanspaceandproducespatialknowledge.

Source: Rouanet 2013, based on the map of Chennai, Jones Lang Lasalle, Affordable Housing, 2008, p.4.

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kminthenearfuture.ThemainpurposeofthischangeinboundarieswastoaccommodatethegrowingpopulationandexpandedITCorridortotheSouthofthecity.Thishasmeant that part of the IT Corridor now falls under theCorporationjurisdiction,includingrevenuesandcostsforprovidinginfrastructure.Newstructuresofrepresentationthroughward councillors rather than local governmentshavereducedthestrengthoflocalpopulationstonegotiatewithlocalgovernment.Withintheextendedareaseverallakesexist,whichcurrentlyareprotectedfromdevelopment,atleastofficially.91ThecatchmentofthemarshyareaintheSouthconnectedtotheBuckinghamcanalandprovidingalinkwiththeseais‘protected’.However,expandingbuildingdevelopments in the area show that this protection islimitedinpractice.

TheChennaimetropolitanareadisplaystwodevelopmentlines,aredone(current)andablueone(future).Withinthe blue line land use change from agricultural area tourban areawill take place; as rain-fed agriculture is nolongerprofitableunder theprevailingclimateconditions(e.g.lackofperennialrivers),itisexpectedthatfarmerswillagreetoselltheirland.

Use of ICT-GIS based systems in urban and regional planning

TheCMDAusesseveralplanningproductsandinstrumentsincorporating spatial information for urban and regionalplanning,amongwhichthemasterplan,alandinformationsystem(LIS), thecoastalzoneregulationact (CZR)andthefloorspaceindex(FSI).Since2008the2ndMasterPlanisinplace,followingthatof1974andprojectingdevelopmentsupto2026.TheMasterPlanisaguideforauthoritiesresponsiblefor urban and regional development and infrastructureplanning.Thesectiononspatialknowledgeconstructiononthenextpageelaborateson thedesignandparticipatoryprocessesconcerningtheMasterPlandevelopment.TheLISisaGIS-basedlandmanagementsystemdevelopedbytheNIC,whichcoversonlythelayoutoftheChennaiPortTrustareaandprovidesinformationaboutplots,e.g.whethertheyarevacant,occupiedortowhomplotsareallotted.TheCZR,defined by the National Institute for Oceanography andnotifiedin2011,takescareofthecoastalzoneprotectionandstatesthatdevelopmentsareallowedupto500mfromcoast.WithrespecttotheFSI,theCMDAexpandeditsFSItoincludeapremiumFSI in2009,whichmakeshigher constructionpossible(GOorder163/2009).

91 In the 1970-80s many lakes were reclaimed in favour of housing schemes, established with World Bank funding. Source: personal communication, CMDA planner.

AnotherGIS-ICT based initiative is the utilitymappingprojectoftheUnionPlanningCommission.Itconcernsthedevelopmentofadigitalbasemaponascaleof1:1,000tosupportgovernmentdepartmentsinformulatingschemesandtheplanningofinfrastructureandintegrationofphysicalinformation derived fromaerial photographs for greaterChennai from 2007, provided by the National RemoteSensingAgency(NRSA)inHyderabadandhandedovertotheSurveyof India,which is in chargeof thedigitizationprocess including attribute information. The CMDAcombinesthiswithdetailedfieldsurveystoupdateandtoprovideinformationonbasicservicesaswellasinformationwithrespecttopoliceandfire.However,theutility-mappingproject linking various departments and authorities hasbeenindiscussionforovertwoyearswithoutmuchprogress.Itsusefulnesswouldlieinstrategicplanning,forinstance,forcarryingoutanewtransportationplan.

TherelationsbetweentheCMDAandCMCrevealsometensionsintheircooperation.TheCMChadlimitedinterestinparticipatingindiscussionsonpreparingtheMasterPlan,as its mandate focuses more on daily operations andmaintenanceofbasicservicesandlesswithfuturevisioning.Regarding GIS-based mapping activities, collaborationbetweenthetwoentitiesisnotalwayssmooth.PropertyinformationisnotsharedbetweentheCMCandtheCMDA,whichhastorelyoncadastralinformationforitswork.TheCMChasdigitizedlandownershipdata(pattas),buthasnotlinkedthesetodigitizedbasemaps.CMDAhasscannedanddigitizedexistingpapercadastermapsandhasusedthemfor detailedMaster Plan land use information. Propertymapping is also done by the RevenueDepartment andSurvey Office within the district collector’s office inKancheepuramandTiruvallur.ItusestheCollabLandtooldevelopedbyNICatUnionlevel,92withabasemapvalidatedby theGovernment of India (GOI/SOI). CMC cooperateswith the NIC. NIC for instance prepared the aerialphotographsforChennaicity,whichshouldserveasabasisforthedigitizationofutilities,linefeatures,etc.WhileCMCreliesonthesupportoftheSOIintermsofthebasemaps,CMDAdevelopseverythingin-house,includingthetrainingof planning assistants. Employees received GIS trainingfromESRIIndia.Thereisrealizationoftheimportanceofmovingtowardsacommondatabasewithgeo-referencingand common base maps within the CMDA,93 but theorganisationalnetworks,competenciesandmandatesarestill posing barriers. The issue of unwillingness to shareknowledgeisawiderproblemintheIndiancontext.

92 Collabland is a software for digitization and mosaicing of survey maps.

93 Interview conducted by Baud, Pfeffer, Dhanalakshmi with CMDA planners and GIS section Chennai, March 24, 2013.

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Spatial knowledge construction in preparing the second Master Plan

TheconstructionoftheSecondMasterPlanbyCMDAwasstronglybasedondigitizedinformation(inbothAutocadandGIS),andtraininginGISwasprovidedtoseniorplannersattheGeographyDepartmentofMadrasUniversity.Inordertomake the spatial knowledge construction manageable,technicallyspeaking, theCMDAarea isdivided into3,500blocks;thespatialinformationonlandusehasbeenextractedfromsatelliteimages(i.e.anIkonosimage),wherethelanduseclassificationwasassignedbytheseniorplannersbasedon their professional knowledge and experience. Asmentionedearlier,forthetopography,cadastralmapshavealsobeenscannedanddigitizedinAutocadshowingmajorroads,villagesettlements,etc.IntheGISdepartmentwithintheCMDAplanningassistantsprefertodrawmapsinAutocadbecause,accordingtothem,itiseasier.However,thedetaileddevelopment plans are further processed in an ArcGISplatform (after being imported from Autocad). For thedetaileddevelopmentplansadetailedphysicalsurveywascarriedoutwithrespecttolanduse.ThatinformationwasthenintegratedintheattributetableoftheArcGISmap.TheSurveyandSettlementDepartment(statelevel)providedthecadastralmapsandolderlandusemaps,wherethelatterarepaper maps, which have been re-drawn in Autocad tosupporttrendanalysisoflandusechange.

Participation in the construction of the Master Plan

In thepreparation for the2ndMasterPlan, theCMDAintroducedconsultationsonlocalareasplanslinkedtotheMaster Plan, in conformity with recent legislation. OnSundays,meetingswereorganized in the local language,Tamil, inwhich theMaster Planwas presented to localresidents,invitedthroughnewspaperannouncements.Theorganisationofmeetingswasdoneinteamstocoverthedifferentgeographicareasandspreadoversevenmonths.Intotal,morethan1,500objectionsweresubmitted.Eachwrittenobjectionhasbeendiscussedanddealtwithbyacommittee.Theoutcomesarevisibleinthefinalversionofthe Master Plan. The mains concerns expressed wereregardingtraffic,parksandplaygrounds.

5.4. Mapping slums for redevelopment: the process of RAY in Chennai

Slummapping and preparation of action plans forslum redevelopment are major dimensions of the

national RAY programme. In practice, these are verylabour-intensive processes, and the purpose of slummappingisnotentirelyclear,ifrelatedtothesubsequentactivities outlined in the programme description. InChennai, Darashaw, a private consultant,94 has beengiventhetaskofpreparingzonalmapsofslumsandtherelated Plans of Action for selected zones in Chennai.Preparingthesemapsconsistsof:enumeratingslumsineachzoneoftheCMCarea,conductingasocio-economicsurvey,preparingmanualtopographicbasemapsofthesettlement, with geo-referenced coordinates forsettlement boundaries, entering the data into aMIS95andGIS.Subsequently,dataanalysisiscarriedout,usinga deficiency matrix to prepare development optionsshowingprioritiesandphasing,investmentrequirementsand financial planning. Consultation with electedcouncillorsatzonallevelmeetings,approvaloftheslum-free zonal Plan of Action from the State-level ReviewCommitteeandfinalsanctionfromtheCentralReviewCommitteefollowthisprocess.AsofSeptember2013,zonalmapshadbeencompletedfor13outof15zonesoftheCMC.

Acritical analysisof theguidelinedocument forRAYshows that leading NGO/CBOs should be engaged incommunitymobilization,slumsurveyandpreparationofslum level redevelopment plans. In Chennai, an NGOcalledJevaJyotiwasengagedinitiallyfortheslumsurvey,but later called off. For the decision-making process ofpreferreddevelopmentmodels,consultationislimitedtozonalmeetingsheldwithlocalcouncillorsandresearchers.LeadingNGOsofthecitysuchasAshaNiwas,Arunodhya,NivedanWomen’sDevelopmentTrust,CommunityServiceEducational Society, Action Aid,World Vision, are notawareoftheRAYprogrammeinChennai.

Theprivateconsultant,Darashaw,isinchargeofmostofthework,fromdatacollectiontoanalysis,withsomemonitoringbytheStateLevelCoordinator,whogoestothefieldtoinspecttheprocess.Therewassomecapacity

94 Darashaw is a leading investment and banking house from Mumbai, which provides advisory services in City developmental projects and urban infrastructure. Investment planning is the core competence of the consultant, not participation and in situ development.

95 MIS for Management Information System: It refers originally to Online Monitoring System for Slum / Household / Livelihood Surveys, which was implemented before RAY for ULBs under Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation with the support of the Centre for Good Governance. Cf. http://surveys.cgg.gov.in

Apparently, a new MIS is used in Chennai to incorporate biometric information collected. It was developed by Gritsys Technology, a leader in pharmaceutical software solutions.

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buildingforTNSCBstaffgoingon,butgiventhatitistheleadagencyforthestateinRAY,trainingforTNSCBstaffdidnotappeartoreceiveadequateattention.Thepolicyguidelines of RAY mandate the use of total stationsurvey formapping slum infrastructure, but this wasabandonedafterthefirstfieldexperiencesinChennai.Residents opposed the consultants’ use of theinstrumentsinmappingsluminfrastructure,duetotheresidents’ lack of knowledge about the project, andtheir fear of eviction. Thereafter, the consultantsprepared a manual topographic base map of thesettlements comprising of housing (by blocks, noindividual units mapped or numbered-geo-localized)andrelated infrastructures.TheypreparedabasemapforCMCusingQuickbirdimageryprovidedbytheNRSA(whichisnotvalidatedbytheSOI).

In Chennai, the choice of development model andresettlementforeachlocationsurveyedisbasedontheanalysis done by Darashaw and comments from thereviewcommitteeofTNSCB.Thereisnoparticipationbythe residents for selecting the developmentmodel. Insomeinstances,theresultofthesurveywaspresentedtoslumresidents,althoughthemajorityareunawareofRAYpolicy.Thisputslocalleadersandcouncillorsinapowerfulpositionbecausetheyhavetheaccesstoknowledgeaswellasenumeratorswhocomefordatacollection.

The present survey being conducted for RAY iscomparabletotheTCGDevelopments(TCG)studyontheslumssettlementsofChennaiin2005(seealsosection3).Bothweredonebyprivateconsultantsusingspatialdata analysis and investment planning for futuredevelopmentofidentifiedslums.TheRAYsurveyinvolvesa unique identity number for each household in theslum,whichisintegratedintotheanalysisforpreparingthe slum free development plan. Household levelanalysisisdoneforRAY,whereasinthestudyconductedbyTCG,thesettlementwastheunitfordatacollectionaswellasanalysis.Atotalof1,473slumswerecoveredintheTCGstudyofwhich242slumswereidentifiedasundeveloped.IntheRAYsurvey935undevelopedslumsettlementshavebeenreportedsofarinthe13zonesofCMC.ManyofthekeyconceptsthatfigureinthepolicyguidelinesofRAYaremissingfromthewaythepolicyisbeing implemented inChennai.These includeresidentparticipationindecision-making,engagementwithlocalNGO/CBOs and capacity buildingof local government.Regardingthelatterpoint,asnotedabove,aState-levelagency, theTNSCB, is in chargeofoverseeing theRAYprogramme,andnottheCMC.Inthisrespect,thelocalgovernment isbypassed in the implementationof thisnationalslumpolicy,andisnotinapositiontobuilditscapacityinthisfield.

Categorization, in-situ redevelopment, land titling and resettlement

InthecoreprinciplesofRAYprogramme,theslumsurveyisviewedasapreliminarysteptowardsecurityoftenure,regularizationandfreedeliveryofownershiptitles(patta).In situ rehabilitation and infrastructure developmentshouldbeprivileged:“bringingallexistingslums,notifiedor non-notified within the formal system and enablingthemtoavailofthesamelevelofbasicamenitiesastherestofthetown”.ThisinclusivevisionissupportedbytheDraftModelPropertyRightstoSlumDwellersAct(2011),notyetpassedbyParliament.However,intheexistingdraftzone report consulted for Chennai, nopriority has beengiventoregularization.Mapcategoriesdonotreferclearlytotitlingpossibilitiesforsquatters,althoughlandownershipisdetailedforeachsettlement.Secureandunsecurelandtenuresarealsocriteriaofclassification.

The Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board continues toconsider relocation as the core strategy of its policy forChennai.Landvaluesofsquattedareashouldbevalorizedand inhabitants reallocated in peripheries in blockapartments where conditional free pattas apply, like inSemmenchery.Forinstance,thepreliminaryreportfortheRAYsurveyinzone13statedthat35%oftheslumhouseholds(13,551families)fallunderobjectionablelocationcategoryandhavetoberelocated.NGOslikeTransparentChennaiandinhabitantsarecontestingthesestatements.

RAY’sguidelineenvisionsthe“Preparationoflegislationfor the assignment of property rights to slumdwellers”goinghandinhandwiththeSlumSurveyinthepreparatorystage,butthereisnoapparentcoordinationwithRevenueDepartment or Survey Department and ongoing digitalpropertymapping.

The release of funds under RAY does not take intoaccountthefunctionoftheSlumSurveyandPlanofActionreport,whichissupposedtoberatifiedbyinhabitantsonthe premise that in situ redevelopment should receivepriority. In practice, the report is requested as anadministrativestep,likethesurveyandconsultationsstep.The reporting hasmuchmore to dowith land portfoliomanagementthanparticipativedevelopment.

Ineffect,thechoicebetweeninsituredevelopmentandrelocationismadebytheconsultantwhendistinguishingbetweentenableandnon-tenableslums(orpartofslum?),basedonthepresenceofenvironmentalhazards,riskslikeflooding and stagnant water, and secondly, on theencroachment close to infrastructure such as roads,metrolineorwaterbodies.Coastalzoneregulation(CRZ)alsosetslimits.

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Residents’ eligibility for in situ rehabilitation orrelocation is limited to “owners” of house structures;tenantsarenotentitledtoRAY.Residentsarerequiredtoshow their ration cardas abasicproofof residence forenrolmentinthelist.Onlyhutdwellers(“owners”)couldbeenrolledinthescheme,notthoselivingunderatileorconcreteroof(20hutsormore).TheuniversalenrolmentinvokedforaSlumFreeCityandatthefoundationofRAYVision is limited inpractice to theprocessof listingandentitlementofplaces,constructionsandhouseholds.

From the Zonal Survey a plan of action based on adeficiencymatrixisprepared-SlumFreeCityPlanofAction(SFCPoA).Itisfollowedbyayearlyphasing,includingpilotprojectsandafinancialplandividedbetweeninfrastructureandhousingcosts.Firstcomestheclassificationbetweentenable and untenable slums based on environmentalparameters, land ownership, land value, dwelling unitdensityandtenurestatus.Spatialanalysisiscentralduringthisinitialstep.Thenslumsaresituatedonamatrixwithaxesindicatinglevelofinfrastructure(%oftapconnection,individual toilet, road less than 3meterswide, sewageconnection) and vulnerability (% kutcha houses, BPLhouseholds,SC/SThouseholds).Underthisframework,in-situ development should occur in tenable slums. Spatialanalysis combinedwith thematrix leads to four broadapproaches:slumimprovement,slumup-gradation,slumredevelopmentandslumresettlement.Delistingisalsoanoption when minimal infrastructure investments arerequired. Emphasis has beenput on the redevelopmentoptionwithdensificationandremunerativeuseofland.Itmeanspublic-privatepartnershipsfortheredevelopmentoftheareawithinsiture-housingofpresentinhabitantsafterdenseblockconstructionspartlysoldatmarketprices.

Biometricregistrationisdoneathouseholdlevelwithinthe survey. These biometric camps and householdregistration are not coordinated with the Unique IDprogrammeAadhaar.It’sacompletelyseparatecampaignof identification.At somepoint in thegray literaturewefound the intention tomergeAadhaar andRAY,but thisdoesnotappeartobethecaseinChennai.

InthecaseofRAYimplementationinChennai,mapping,digitaldatacollection,recordingandidentificationappearasasetoftoolsprovidingascientific/technicalrationalefordecision-makingonupgradingorresettlement.However,thefieldresearchsuggestsitismuchmoreaninstrumentforprofilingandcontrolling than forsharedconsultationanddecision–making,andparticipation fromNGOsandCBOshasbeenverylimited.

TheRAYprogrammeinChennaiisviewedbytheTNSCBasanopportunitytobuildnewstructures,concretehouses

(pucca)of270sq. ft. (24meters)andobtaina“hut freecity”(interview).However,thereisconfusiononwhetheritoverlapsormergeswithamajorprogrammeforhouseimprovement promoted by the current Chief MinisterJayalalithaaforallofTamilNadu,throughtheTNSCB(viaagrantforhouseimprovementwithpattaof2to4lakhsperhousehold supported by GoTN and GOI). Evidently theUnion programme (RAY) has to be adjusted to existingschemes and legal provisions for the urban poor, houseprovision and slum rehabilitation in Tamil Nadu. ZonalReportsbyDarashawreflecttheireffortstomatchregionalschemesandthenationalRAYprogramme.Thispointraisesthe crucial question of regional and local (municipal)implementation of Union Schemes; the three tiersdecentralizationimpliesseveralnegotiation/adaptationsofthenationalprojectanddiscussionsonmandateswithintheframeofUnion,State,andConcurrentlists.Forinstance,landandlandtenureareontheListIIorStatelist,sameforLocalgovernments,Landrevenueandlandrecords,butfortransferofpropertyotherthanagriculturalland,thedeedregistrationisontheConcurrentlistandSurveyofIndiaontheUnionList(ListI).RAYcanapplyonlytocertaintypesofPoramboke (common land) where legal mechanismsalready exist to convert them in Natham and deliverindividual freepattas or site pattas. RAY scheme cannotescapethelegalprocedureoflanddeliveryandlegalizationasapreliminarysteptoanyin-situredevelopment.Housescannotbeconstructedwithoutachievingtheprerequisiteofclearpropertytitle.Duetosuchoverlappingcompetencieson land titling, grantingproperty to squatters remains avery long process,which does not fit into the frameofredevelopmentprogrammeworkingtoprovideimprovedhousingonamoreurgentbasis.

5.5. Spatial knowledge produced through citizen participation processes

Transparent Chennai (TC) is a leading localNGO thatcollects and disseminates data and research on urbanplanning,governanceandcivicissues.Ithasfourmainfieldsof work involving public participation and advocacy: 1)participativeandvoluntaryweb-mappingwherecitizenscanintroduceinformationlikegrievancesorwherecommunitycollectedinformationcanbediffused;2)reportingonpublichearings, planning activities, organising communitymeetingsandconferenceandadvocatingamoreinclusive,pro-poorandparticipativecityinthepress;3)conducting,withanetworkofNGOsandvolunteers,itsownsurveysoncivic issues (garbage collection, sanitation, public toilets,right towalk, neighbourhoodplanning...); and4) leading

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Fiscal Decentralisation, Participatory Processes and Inclusive Development6

participatory mapping in low-income neighbourhoodsconcernedbyupgradingorresettlement,includingthroughtheconceptionofatoolkitforslumcommunitymapping96.

TC works with a network of local NGOs and largerintercity alliances and is supported by the Centre forDevelopmentResearch,InstituteforFinancialManagementandResearch (IFMR)ofChennai.97 Its surveycampaignshave succeeded in mobilizing a large community ofvolunteers(youngengineers,upto200)andinprovidingarichsetofgeo-referenceddataonbusroad,publictoilets,andhomelessnesshotspots. Theyaremobilized throughvarioussocialmedia.

96 http://www.transparentchennai.com/that-thing-called-community-participation/

97 A major bank, the Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India(ICICI) bank is associated to IFMR trust.

TC’s initiative called ‘Map Your Bus Route’, whichuses My Tracks Google Android platform, allowsvolunteerstoreportontheirphoneandprogressivelybuildamapofChennai’sbus lines,a facility thatwasnothithertoavailable.98

This approach of data, information and knowledgeproduction challenges the lack of accurate and updatedpublicinformationinthecity.ItmakesitpossibleforTCtocriticisethedataandmapsprovidedin-houseorthroughconsultant reports used currently by CMC and othersproducing geo-referenced information, who fail toincorporateanddisseminatetothegeneralpublicaccurateand up-to-date geospatial information. InformationproducedandmadeavailablebyTCcanalsobeused toevaluateandmonitorgovernmentactionsandinvestments.

98 http://www.transparentchennai.com/map-your-bus-route/

Fiscal decentralisation in Chennai99

Fiscaldecentralisationwasintroducedaspartofthe74thConstitutional Amendment in 1992,which provided formoresubstancetothethirdtierofgovernmentatthelocallevel.MorerecentintroductionsofmandatoryparticipatoryprocessesindeterminingCityDevelopmentPlansandLocalArea Plans are designed to contribute tomore inclusivedevelopmentprocesseswithincities.

Themethodologyadoptedforthecitycasestudyincludessecondarydatacollection:mappingtheinstitutionsassociatedwithvariousdevelopmentofthecity,fundflows,followedbyprimary surveys of officials, elected representatives, andwardcouncilandstandingcommitteemembers.

Chennaiistheforemostcorporationinthecountrysetupin1919bytheBritishundertheChennaiCityMunicipalCorporation Act, 1919. Chennai Municipal Corporation(CMC),functionsdirectlyunderthemunicipaladministrationandwatersupplydepartmentofthestateGovernmentofTamilNadu.UnlikeotherstatesinIndia(exceptinthecase

99 Extracted from the WP6 Combined Fieldwork Report, coordinated by N. Sridharan. Available online:

http://www.chance2sustain.eu/55.0.html

of Delhi – a city state), in Tamil Nadu each municipalcorporationhasitsownGoverningAct.

ThedecisiontoexpandtheareaofCMCwasenactedinthestateassemblyin2011(seeMap8).Thiswasbasedona three-member committee set up under thechairpersonshipoftheChennaiMetropolitanDevelopmentAuthority (CMDA) vice-chairperson in 2007. The areaincreasedfrom174sq.km.to424.45sq.km.ThedecisiontomergeadjoiningvillagesandmunicipalitieswastakeninaparticipatorywayasperthegovernmentnotificationofDecember2012.

Itexplainsthatexpansionwasneededtoprovidewater& sewerage system, solidwastemanagement aswell asroads, streetlights, etc. The resolutions by variousmunicipalitiessubmittedtothestategovernmentindicatedthatparticipatoryconsultationswereheldtoarriveatthemerger decision in which the general public, electedrepresentatives from various levels, administrative staffandcommissionersparticipated.

There have been efforts towards improving the FiscaldecentralisationpatternsintheCMC.ThesourcesoffundsforCMCareStateGovernmentreleasestotheCorporationbasedonrecommendationsoftheStateFinanceCommission

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Map 8: AdministrativedivisionsintheMunicipalCorporationofChennaiandthe2011expansion

Source: Municipal Corporation of Chennai website

S.NoWard Committee

Name of the Zone

No of Ward

Ward Number

1 I Thiruvottiyur 14 1to14

2 II Manali 7 15to21

3 III Madhavaram 12 22to33

4 IV Tondiarpet 15 34to48

5 V Royapuram 15 49to63

6 VI Thiru-Vi-Kanagar 15 64to78

7 VII Ambattur 15 79to93

8 VIII Annanagar 15 94to108

9 IX Teynampet 18 109to126

10 X Kodambakkam 16 127to142

11 XI Valasaravakkam 13 143to155

12 XII Alandur 12 156to167

13 XIII Adyar 13 170to182

14 XIV Perungudi 11 168,169183to191

15 XV Shozhinganallur 9 192to200

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(SFC).Loansandgrantsarereleasedforvariousschemes(Govt.ofIndiagrants)onthebasisofSFC’srecommendation,for implementing specific schemes, including povertyalleviation programmes. In addition, CMC receives theCollector’s development fund (2nd Finance Commission)since2007,andtheMLAs’constituencydevelopmentfund.Of the totalmoneyreceivedbyCMC,10%of themoneyallocatedforCMDAshouldgotoCMWSSB.

The3rdSFCoftheStateofTamilNadu(TN)providedthefollowingrecommendations:

1. Rural–urbansharingofrevenue(verticalsharing)intheratioof58:42.

2. Ahorizontal sharing in the followingproportions:30% for municipal corporations, 41% formunicipalities,and29%fortownpanchayats.

3. Anincentivefundof5%outofthetotaldevolutionunderpoolb(ownsourcefundingoftheTNGovt.).

4. Theloandeductionfromurbanlocalbodiesshouldnotexceed25%ofgrossdevolution.

5. ThestateshouldtakeupthematterofamendingArticle285oftheconstitutionforempoweringthelocalbodiesto levy service charges for the central governmentbuildingsinviewoftheSupremeCourtjudgement.

6. Using GIS for tax mapping, as in the case ofBangalore Municipal Corporation, to assess un-assessed and under assessed properties forimproved exploitation of available property taxresources(seefurthernextsection).

Knowledge Construction around the Budget

AsmentionedinthesectiononSFCrecommendations,the3rd SFC suggested computerisation ande-governance(PanrutiModel)fortaxadministrationwiththehelpoftheThirdTamilNaduUrbanDevelopmentProject (TNUDP III)assisted programme. It was suggested that the earlierabolishedtaxationappealtribunalbereincorporatedintheTamilNaduUrbanLocalBodiesAct,1998withtheprovisionoffullremittanceoftaxduespendingdisposaloftheappealbyindividuals.Italsoproposed,reintroductionofvacantlandtax.TheChennaimetropolitanwatersupplyandsewerageboardwasallowedtoincreaseitschargesby30%from2007onwardswithanincreaseof5to10%annually.Infact,theCMWSSBhasbeengivenblanketpowers to fix thewaterratesinsuchawaythatitcouldmeetnotonlyitsrevenueexpenditurebutalsocreatesurplusforinvestingincapitalrequirements. Hence there have been efforts towardsbridgingtherevenuedeficitswithincreasingtaxcollectionefficiencies(withInformationtechnologyplayingavitalrole).

Fiscal Responsibility, Audit mechanism and Community Participation

Thoughthere isaFiscalResponsibilityManagementActatthenationallevel,inTamilNaduthereisnosuchActtoregulatethepublicexpenditureprogramme.The3rd SFC suggested Fiscal Responsibility and BudgetManagement(FRBM)legislationforurbanlocalbodiestotakethestructuralreformsdowntothethirdtierofthe government. It suggested analysis of creditworthiness of the local body by reputed credit ratingagenciesandalsosuggestedfixingaceilingforborrowingbyurbanlocalbodies.Suggestionofconcurrentauditingthrough e-mode to reduce the burden on local fundauditDirectoratewasmadeby the SFC. Following theneighbouringstateofAndhraPradesh,theTamilNaduSFCsuggestedCommunityParticipationLawwithareasambasrepresentedbyResidentWelfareAssociations,(RWAs),self-helpgroups(SHGs)andNGOstomeettwiceayeartoreviewthebudgetandschemeimplementation.ItwentontosuggestprojectplanningtobedonebyareaSabhas.ThefinancialpowerdelegationbeingfollowedinCMCisasfollows:

Source: Local Fund Audit Department (2006), Audit report of the urban local bodies for the year ended March 2005. GoTN, Chennai.

Table 8: FinancialpowerdelegationinTN

Financial limit (in lakh rupees)

Sanctioning authority

<1 Wardcommittees(intotal15)

1-35 Commissioner

35-40 Standingcommittees(sc)exceptsctaxationandfinance

40-45 sctaxationandfinance

45-50 Council

>50 Government

Powersforissueoftechnicalsanctions

<2 Assistantexecutiveengineer

2-5 Executiveengineer

5-25 Superintendingengineer

>25 Chiefengineer

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6FiscalDecentralisation,ParticipatoryProcessesandInclusiveDevelopment

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TheThirdSFCstronglysuggestedconstitutionofChennaiMetropolitanPlanningCommittee(CMPC)andfunctioningof CMDAas a secretariat of CMPCand that thepresentsystemresourcesharingfromthelocalbodieswithinCMDAforCMDAshouldbedropped.Itadvised75%ofdevelopmentcharges tobepassedon to respectiveurban localbodieswithinCMDA,and0.25%ofcollectedrevenue incomeforCMDA should be abolished. The most important recommendation is to declare the entire CMDA area as an urban area by merging all the villages to nearby municipalities (emphasisadded). Tomakethebudgetmoreparticipatory,itsuggestedabolishingtheCollector’sDevelopmentFund.

MLA constituencydevelopment schemes should comefromtheprojectsidentifiedbytheurbanlocalbodiesandnotonadhocbasis,and30%ofthefundshouldbeforcorecivicservices.However,participationtookabackseatwhenthemergerofsurroundingmunicipalitiesandvillageswiththeCMCoccurred.AGovernmentOrder(GO(Ms.)No.136dated12th September 2011) came outwith setting up awardcommittee ineachof theZones combining severalwards,ranging from7 to 18wards in one committee. The totalnumberofwardsandzonesintheerstwhileCorporationareareducedtosevenzonesand107wardsagainst10zonesand155 wards earlier; thereby increasing the area undergovernanceperzoneandward(seeMap8onpage56).Inthenewlymergedareas,whichhadseparatemunicipalitieswiththeirownbudgetssuchasAmbattur,awholemunicipalareawasmergedintooneward,leavinglittlescopeforpoliticalparticipation in the budget-making process. In fact, thecommunity’sfiscalcapacityisrestrictedbythenewmunicipalstructure that allowsno incentives for spatial competition(Karuppusamy&Carr:2012).ErstwhilemunicipalitiessuchasAlandur had a history of participator community funding(nowbeingadvocatedbytheCentralGovernmentthroughitsCommunityParticipationFund),whichcannotnowbeusedbecauseofthenewmunicipalstructurewithinCMC100.

Ofthetotal200councillors30councillorsweresurveyedin Chennai to know their views on decentralisation,participationandalsoabout theMillenniumDevelopmentGoals (MDGs) and sustainability. In fact, none of theCouncillorsareawareoftheMDGsandtheyallrevealedthatthereisnowardlevelbudgetingprocessinCMC.Notmanyareawareof thenewCityDevelopmentPlan (CDP)whichsuggestedallocatingatotalamountofRs.123,207millionfortheyearending2026onvariousprojects.TheyarealsonotawareofthepercapitaexpenditureofRs.22,184/-suggestedbyCDP.Infact,theywerefuriousaboutthequestionofhowtheCMCwouldpaybackthisamountasthisismostlyfunded

100 see also Baud, I.S.A., Dhanalakshmi, R. (2007). Multi-actor arrangements in urban environmental Services: New forms of Governance in Indian Mega-cities, in: Cities, 42, 2, 133-147.

bytheCentralGovernment.Similarlymanyofthecouncillorsarenotawareoftheirownrolesandresponsibilities.

TC’sanalysisofparticipationbythe200councillorsshowsthatonanaveragethecouncillorsparticipatedandraisedissues only 16 times from 2007 to 2011 (TransparentChennai: 2012) bringing out low levels of ‘politicalparticipation’ inChennai’s budgetmakingprocess.UnderthenewStateregimethatcomesoutwithfrequentthreatsofdissolvingtheMunicipalCorporation(SeeTheHindu:June20, 2012) theCouncillorswere afraid todiscuss anythingopenly.ButtheyagreedwiththeChiefMinisteraboutthecorruptionandtransparencyissuesthatsheraised.

AnanalysisofCouncillorandMayorfundsbyTC(Meryl2011)showedthatoutofthetotalallottedamountofRs.108.5million,70%wasused.EachcouncillorwasallottedRs.0.7millionin2007whichwasincreasedtoRs.1.5millionin2008-9duringwhichperiodthetotalexpenditurewasreducedto63.5%.In2009-10,councillorfundswereincreasedtoRs.2.5millionandthespending fell to41%.However, thestudyobserved thatspendingincreasedto63%in2010-11,duetoelections.InthecaseofMayorFunds,thestudyobservedthatoutofRs.5million,onlyRs.1.84andRs.1.3millionwerespentduring2007-8and2008-9.ThisdecreasedtoRs.0.9millionwhentheactualallottedfundsincreasedtoRs.20millionin2010-2011(Ibid,2011).

AnanalysisoftheCMCbudgetshowsthatChennai’spercapita average capital expenditurewasRs.1204/- andpercapita revenueexpenditurewasRs.2461/-ascomparedtothatofMumbai’sRs.3433andRs.9888/-respectivelyduringtheperiod2007-2010(Sridhar,K:2012).Wagesthataccountedfor49%ofthetotalrevenueexpenditurein2003-4areslowlycomingdowntonear30%in2009-10(CMCBudget2011-12).Chennaireceivedaround21%ofcentrallysponsoredprojectfunds, and 19%of the State sponsored funds for variousinfrastructure projects during the same period. CentralFinanceCommission’sfund(13thCFC)tothetuneofRs.270.14millionwasallocated toCMCduring theyear2012.ThesewerebasedonCityDevelopmentPlan(CDP)projectsanddidnotemanatefromresidentsthroughparticipatoryprocessesasenvisagedinthe3rdStateFinanceCommission.

The city’s strategy of bringing larger areas under theCorporationmaynotleadtoefficientparticipationinthelong-runthough itmight increasetheoverall revenueoftheCorporationduetoanincreaseinthepropertytaxbase.WardCommitteesthatwereformedareyettobeeffectiveinplanningandmonitoringvariousprojects.Thecapacityof the councillors needs to be built around budgetformulationfromthegrass-rootlevelandtoaddressissuesof theMDGs.Considering the low resourcemobilisationcapacity of the CMC, future projects need to be self-sufficientbuttheelementofequitywillstillremain.

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Amiraly, Akil (2009), “Transposition et appropriation d’un outil degestiondanslecadredelamondialisation:lecompteurd’eauenInde”, PhD thesis, Ecole Polytechnique, Paris. Abstract availableonline:http://factsreports.revues.org/831.

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List of maps (cf. Appendix)Map 1. Administrative divisions in theMunicipal Corporation of

Chennaiandthe2011expansion[Source:MunicipalCorporationofChennaiwebsite]

Map 2.IndustrialandITCorridorsinChennai(2010)[Source:KamalaMarius-Gnanou,2010]

Map 3. Index of multiple deprivations and percentage of slumpopulation in the Municipal Corporation of Chennai in 2001[Source:KarinPfeffer+I.Baudetal.2009]

Map 4. Settlementcasestudies in the ITCorridorareaofChennai[Source:fieldworkdataChance2Sustain,Pfeffer2013]

Map 5.SourcesofwaterinChennai[Source:Metrowater,2010]

Map 6.ThechangesincatchmentareaofthePallikaranaiMarshlandinthepastyears[Source:Seifelislam,A.2013]

Map 7.Anexampleofhowpropertydevelopersrepresenturbanspaceandproducespatialknowledge.[Source:Rouanet2013,basedonthemapofChennai,JonesLangLasalle,AffordableHousing,2008,p.4.]

Map 8. Administrative divisions in theMunicipal Corporation ofChennaiandthe2011expansion[Source:MunicipalCorporationofChennaiwebsite]

List of images (cf. Appendix)Image 1. Residential and commercial urban sprawl between the IT

Expressway andPallikanaraimarshland (OkkyiamThoraipakkam).Heavypressureonlandandcompetitionforspacebetweenindividualhouses, residential townships and office buildings (then underconstruction)areobvious[Source:A.Varrel,O.T.,March2012].

Image 2.Housewithadditionalupperstoreysofferingroomsforrent.TheverticalizationofwhatusedtobevillagehousesisanoticeabletrendinallvillagesneartheITExpressway[Source:A.Varrel,Padur,August2010].

Image 3.Hiranandanitownship,inEgattur,atthesouthernexitoftheexpressway[Source:A.Varrel,Chennaiarea,November2011].ThispictureillustratesthemushroomingofupscaleresidentialbuildingsinEgatturandfurther,aroundthesoutherntollandbeyondCMAlimits.

Image 4.Panoramaoftherapidlybuildingnewresidentiallandscape,southtothetollandalongMuttukadulaguna[Source:A.Varrel,Chennaiarea,August2010]

Image 5.PrivatecarsandtaxisparkingoutsideTdielPark,withdriverswaiting[Source:A.Varrel,Chennai,March2012]

Image 6.CompanybusesoutsideAscendasParkandsideactivityfordrivers and passengers: sugar cane crusher [Source: A. Varrel,Chennai,March2012]

Image 7.FleetsofcompanybusestransportingITemployeesrequireparking spaceduring shifts, occupyany spare space in thearea[Source:A.Varrel,Chennai,April2012]

Image 8. Side activities: street vendors gathered on the sidewalkopposite to Ascendas Park main entrance [Source: A. Varrel,Chennai,March2012]

Image 9.FloodingsoflinkroadbetweenTaramaniandKandanchavadi,northoftheITcorridor[Source:A.Varrel,Chennaiarea,November2011]

Image 10. Tanker inside Ascendas Tech Park [Source: A. Varrel,Chennai,November2011]

Image 11. ThePerungudiDumpsite in theMarshland [Source:A .Seifelislam,2013]

Image 12. Pallikaranai Location in south Chennai [Source: A.Seifelislam,2013]

Image 13. SewagecanalinMylaiBaljiNagar:Outflowfromthelivingarea[Source:Seifelislam,A.2013]

Image 14. Sewage water inflow to the marshland [Source: A.Seifelislam,2013]

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List of abbreviationsCMWSSB –ChennaiMetroWaterSupplyandSewageBoard

CMC –ChennaiMunicipalCorporation

CDP –ChennaiCityDevelopmentPlan

CMDA –ChennaiMetropolitanDevelopmentAuthority

CTS –CognizantTechnologySolutionsCorporation

GIS –GeographicalInformationSystem

GoI –GovernmentofIndia

GoTN –GovernmentofTamilNadu.

ICICI –IndustrialCreditandInvestmentCorporationofIndia

ICFMR –InstituteforFinancialManagementandResearch

IIHS –IndianInstituteforHumanSettlements

IT-BPO –InformationTechnology-BusinessProcessOutsourcing

ITES –InformationTechnologyEnabledService

JNNURM –JawaharlalNehruNationalUrbanRenewalMission

MRTS –MassRapidTransitSystem

NRSA –NationalRemoteSensingAgency

OMR –OldMahabalipuramRoad

RAY –RajivAwasYojanaprogramme

SFCPoA –SlumFreeCitiesPlanofAction

SIPCOT –StateIndustriesPromotionCorporationofTamilNadu

SWM –SolidWasteManagement

TCS –TataConsultancyServices

TNRDC –TamilNaduRoadDevelopmentCompany

TNSCB –TamilNaduSlumClearanceBoard

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6References

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Appendix

Figure 1: ITinitiativesperorganisationinChennai

IT issues CMDA internal; utilities mapping project (nodal agency)

Corporation : SWM dept.

Corporation: Property tax assessment, collection *

Water Board 1) Slum Clearance Board, RAY survey

Community-based initiatives

Private sector

Revenue Dept., CoIIabland, property tax assessment

Discoursesandrationales

Strategicplanning;integratingdata

effectivemonitoringofpppsinSWM;processmonitoring

Efficiency,effectiveness;digitalregistrationofpropertywiththeirarchives(proof.pattas,etc.)

makeoperationmoreefficientandeffectiveintaxcollection

Curativeandpre-ventivestrategiesforslums;useofmappingforsituationalanalysis

Basisforstrongernegotiationwithotherorganisations;providingup-to-dateinfoforcitizens;generateacounter-expertiseonurbanplanning;maketheperspec-tivesofsubalterncommunityaudible.

Analysisofinterestingareasforinvestment

Moreefficientandeffectiverevenuecollec-tion,reducingcorruption:Thetoolforconclu-siveproperty

Knowledgeconstructionandmanage-mentActorsandnetworks

in-houseGISsection,withownCapabilities,forMasterPlanpreparation

pppinSWM,usingmapsandtrucktracking;photoandmobilephonereportingmethods

intendedintegratedsystemfor41functions,changedtostand-alonesystemsafter7yrs,lackofsoftwarecontrolstoIdentifyproperties,lackofPropertyTaxassessmentsless**

!

Modulesproducedforvariousprocesses,andanintegrationofmodulesprogramme(ERP);workedwithprivatesectorcompany

GISbasedslummapping;slumprofilesandhhssurveyswithidentifications;SCB,privateconsuItants,councillors,hhs

Identifyingissues:crowdsourcinginformationfromcitizens;Diffusionandanaly-sisofofficialpres-entationinurbanplanning;collectionofcom-munitybasedinfor-mationincollabora-tionwithNGOs;fieldsurveys

Realestatemapping

Technicaldifficultiesinthemapprojection;IssuesinthecoordinationbetweenRevenueofficeandSurveyoffice

Knowledgeuse,contestation,andexchanges

Databasewithinforesidentialorcom-mercialpropertyclassificationnotwithCMC,butotherorganisation.Cross-checkinglimited,soCMCdatabasenotuptodate,losingrevenuesbecauseofthis

ResistancetouseofdigitalmodulesandERP

Self-exclusion,slumqualityassessmentprocessbyconsuItants;lackofinformationonthegroundamongcouncillorsandhhsaboutRAY

Presenceinmeetingandpublichearinginurbanplanning,slumdevelopment...;reportingonweb-site;cooperationbetweenNGOs;organizationofpublicmeeting,Presscommunication

Spatialknowledgeproducedbycitizens

Onlynowincludedthroughlocalareadevelopmentdiscussionswithselectedcitizens(aspartofpreparingnewMP)

Propertyownersindicatewhethertheyhaveresidentialorcommercialproperties-butthisISnotcheckedsufficiently

Residentscancallinwithcomplaints;onlinecomplaintregistrationissupposedtobepossible,butin2010wasstillnotbeingregisteredproperlyattheWaterBoard,norbeingrespondedtobyemployeesthere

Hhshavetoproduceinfoontheirsituationforinclusioninclassification

Participatorymap-pingwithlocalcom-munitiesaffectedbydevelopmentproject(advocacy);generalpubliconlinecontributionthroughwebmapping

Interactionswithcitizensoccuratthetimeofthechainsurvey,onthefieldtodelineateproperty.

EffectsofICT_GISknowledgeproductionbeingintroduced

Althoughslumloca-tionsareknowninter-nally,notincludedonofficialmapswhenongov-ernmentland

Dptheadcanworkstrategicallyinsteadofconstanttroubleshooting;monitoringmoredirectondailybasis

IntegratedOn-lineInformationProcessingSysteminitiatedin1997couldnotbeimpIemented;abandonedin2004afterspendingRs1.60crore;Incorrectpropertyclassificationsledtoshort-assessmentPropertyTax;propertiesnotIncludedIndatabaseledtoshortfallintaxescollected

*databasenotuptodate,containswronginformation;*toolittlematchwithmanualdatabaseinorganisation*lackofdatatransferfromCMCtoWaterBoardledtoshortfallinreve-nuecollection(propertiesvaluedatdomesticlevelsratherthancom-mercial)

1. Source: CAG ]N, (2010), Audit Report (CIVil) for the year ended 31 March 2010 for Chennal Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board, Comptroller and Auditor General. Tamil Nadu, Chennai,

2. ** source: CAG, Audit Report (Local Bodies) for the year ended 31 March 2006, (2006), Comptroller and Auditor General. Delhi.3. * This concerns digitization of existing archival material, not digitized mapping,

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Kaiser-Friedrich-Strasse 11D-53113 BonnTel.: (+49) 228 . 2 61 81 [email protected]

City report (Chance2Sustain) ISSN 2309-8198

Chance2Sustain examines how governments and citizens in cities with differing patterns of economic growth and socio-spatial inequality make use of participatory (or integrated) spatial knowledge management to direct urban governance towards more sustainable development. Consortium partners: European Association of Development Research and Training Institutes (EADI, Germany), Governance for Inclusive Development (GID) at the Amsterdam Institute for Social Science Research (AISSR-UvA, Netherlands), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS, France), Centro Brasileiro de Análise e Planejamento (CEBRAP, Brazil), Cities for Life Forum (FORO, Peru), Norwegian Institute for Urban and Regional Research (NIBR, Norway), School of Planning and Architecture (SPA, India), University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN, South Africa)

EUROPEAN COMMISSIONEuropean Research Area

Funded under Socio-economic

Sciences & Humanities