ENGLISH FOR STUDENTS OF BIOLOGY

Raluca Bonta

ACTIVITY BOOK

UNIVERSITY OF BACAU2006

CONTENTS

Unit 1 The Present Tense Simple

Unit 2 Biology: The Science of Our Lives

Unit 3 The Present Tense Continuous/Progressive Unit 4 How to Know the Trees Unit 5 The Past Tense Simple Unit 6 Animals and Man Unit 7 The Past Tense Continuous/Progressive

Unit 8 Birds and Their Peculiarities

Unit 9 Revision of Present and Past (Exercises)

Unit 10 Adaptation Bibliography

UNIT 1

The Present Simple

I. Form

We use the infinitive of the verb. In the 3rd person Singular (he, she, it - or a name) we put an -s at the end of the infinitive.

infinitive - 3rd person Singular (he, she, it) infinitive + -s

a) Affirmative sentences:

I/we/you/they play football.He/she/it plays football.

NOTE: he, she, it - Do not forget the -s.

Spelling

Be careful with some words when using the 3rd person singular.

1) verbs ending in a sibilant [s] [z] [] [] [] [] or verbs ending in -o preceded by a consonant

We add -es to the infinitive.

Examples:I watch - he watchesI pass - he passesI go - he goesI do - he does

2) verbs ending in -y

verbs ending in 'y' preceded by a vowel (a, e, i, o, u): Add -s.

Example: I play - he plays

verbs ending in 'y' preceded by a consonant: Change 'y' to 'ies'.

Example: I hurry - he hurries

b) Negative sentences:

We use the auxiliary do.I/we/you/they do not play football.He/she/it does not play football.

NOTE: We often use short forms in negative sentences in the Simple Present:I/we/you/they don't play football. He/she/it doesn't play football.

c) Questions:

Do I/we/you/they play football?Does he/she/it play football?

For the Simple Present there are some adverbs of frequency:

alwaysoftenusuallysometimesseldomnever

Other phrases of time can occur, like:every dayevery weekevery yearon Mondays

II. Use

The Simple Present is frequently used in English to denote:

1) repeated actions (every day, always, often, sometimes or never)

My friend often draws nice posters. I never drink milk.

2) things in general

The sun rises in the East.

3) fixed arrangements, scheduled events (e.g. timetable)

The plane flies to London every Monday.

4) after special verbs, which are normally not used with the Present Progressive (These verbs express states, possessions, feelings etc.)be, believe, belong, hate, hear, like, love, mean, prefer, remain, realize, see, seem, smell, think, understand, want, wish

I understand English.He doesn't like fish.

Exercises

1. Put the verbs at Present Simple interrogative and negative:

1. I love my brother. 2. She talks too much. 3. I understand you. 4. You play the piano very well. 5. I always believe you. 6. He remembers my phone number. 7. They live in Bucharest. 8. He has a hot bath every day. 9. I trust my friend. 10. I have lunch at one oclock.

2. Complete the following sentences using the Present Simple:

1. You always .....

2. We only .... occasionally.

3. Whenever she comes to see us, she ....

4. Nobody ever .... nowadays.

5. Those girls never ...

6. You usually ....

7. His brother often ....

8. These birds always ....

3. Turn the following sentences into the interrogative:

1. We live in a big house.

2. Albert jumps high.

3. I work har dat my office.

4. You got o bed late.

5. This boy greets me in the morning.

6. We like detective books.

7. You cook in the evening.

8. I know many jokes.

9. We help her in the garden.

10. Susan dresses beautifully on Sundays.

4. Turn the following sentences into the negative:

1. You plant potatoes in the garden.

2. It rains heavily in the mountains.

3. I leave home very late.

4. We read many books.

5. The girls walk in the forest.

6. The sun rises early.

7. You quarrel with them every day.

8. I repair cars.

9. We water the flowers every day.

10. Harris plays chess very well.

UNIT 2

Biology: The Science of Our Lives

Biology literally means "the study of life". Biology is such a broad field, covering the minute workings of chemical machines inside our cells, to broad scale concepts of ecosystems and global climate change. Biologists study intimate details of the human brain, the composition of our genes, and even the functioning of our reproductive system. Biologists recently all but completed the deciphering of the human genome, the sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) bases that may determine much of our innate capabilities and predispositions to certain forms of behavior and illnesses.

Modern biology is based on several great ideas, or theories:

1. The Cell Theory 2. The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection 3. Gene Theory 4. Homeostasis

Robert Hooke (1635-1703), one of the first scientists to use a microscope to examine pond water, cork and other things, referred to the cavities he saw in cork as "cells", Latin for chambers. Mattias Schleiden (in 1838) concluded all plant tissues consisted of cells. In 1839, Theodore Schwann came to a similar conclusion for animal tissues. Rudolf Virchow, in 1858, combined the two ideas and added that all cells come from pre-existing cells, formulating the Cell Theory. Thus there is a chain-of-existence extending from your cells back to the earliest cells, over 3.5 billion years ago. The cell theory states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, and that those cells have arisen from pre-existing cells.

In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick developed the model for deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a chemical that had (then) recently been deduced to be the physical carrier of inheritance. Crick hypothesized the mechanism for DNA replication and further linked DNA to proteins, an idea since referred to as the central dogma. Information from DNA "language" is converted into RNA (ribonucleic acid) "language" and then to the "language" of proteins. The central dogma explains the influence of heredity (DNA) on the organism (proteins).

Homeostasis is the maintainence of a dynamic range of conditions within which the organism can function. Temperature, pH, and energy are major components of this concept.

These first three theories are very accepted by scientists and the general public. The theory of evolution is well accepted by scientists and most of the general public.

Evolutionary theory and the cell theory provide us with a basis for the interrelation of all living things. We also utilize Linneus' hierarchical classification system, adopting (generally) five kingdoms of living organisms.

http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossR.html#ribonucleic acid (RNA)http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossPQ.html#proteinshttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossD.html#deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossD.html#deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossO.html#organismhttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossC.html#cell theoryhttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossC.html#cellshttp://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/hooke.html

KingdomMethods of Nutrition

Organization Environmental Significance Examples

Monera

(in the broadest sense, including organisms usually placed in the Domain Archaea).

Photosynthesis, chemosynthesis, decomposer, parasitic.

Single-celled, filament, or colony of cells; all prokaryotic.

Monerans play various roles in almost all food chains, including producer,consumer, and decomposer.

Cyanobacteria are important oxygen producers.

Many Monerans also produce nitrogen, vitamins, antibiotics, and are important compoents in human and animal intestines.

Bacteria (E. coli), cyanobacteria (Oscillatoria), methanogens, and thermacidophiles.

Protista

Photosynthesis, absorb food from environment, or trap/engulf smaller organisms.

Single-celled, filamentous, colonial, and multicelled; all eukaryotic.

Important producers in ocean/pond food chain.

Source of food in some human cultures.

Phytoplankton component that is one of the major producers of oxygen

Plankton (both phytoplankton and zooplankton), algae (kelp, diatoms, dinoflagellates),and Protozoa (Amoeba, Paramecium).

Fungi

Absorb food from a host or from their environment.

All heterotrophic.

Single-celled, filamentous, to multicelled; all eukaryotic.

Decomposer, parasite, and consumer.

Produce antibiotics,help make bread and alcohol.

Crop parasites (Dutch Elm Disease, Karnal Bunt, Corn Smut, etc.).

Mushrooms (Agaricus campestris, the commercial mushroom), molds, mildews, rusts and smuts (plant parasites), yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisae, the brewer's yeast).

Plantae

Almost all photosynthetic, although a few parasitic plants are known.

All multicelled, photosynthetic, autotrophs..

Food source, medicines and drugs, dyes, building material, fuel.

Producer in most food chains.

Angiosperms (oaks, tulips, cacti),gymnosperms (pines, spuce, fir), mosses, ferns,liverworts, horsetails (Equisetum, the scouring rush)

Animalia All heterotrophic.

Multicelled heterotrophs capable of movement at some stage during their

Consumer level in most food chains (herbivores,carnivores,omnivores).

Food source, beasts of burden

Sponges, worms,molluscs, insects, starfish,mammals, amphibians,fish, birds, reptiles, and

life history (even couch potatoes).

and transportation, recreation, and companionship.

dinosaurs, and people.

Table 1. The Five Kingdoms.

Monera, the most primitive kingdom, contain living organisms remarkably similar to ancient fossils. Organisms in this group lack membrane-bound organelles associated with higher forms of life. Such organisms are known as prokaryotes. Bacteria (technically the Eubacteria) and blue-green bacteria (sometimes called blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria) are the major forms of life in this kingdom. The most primitive group, the archaebacteria, are today restricted to marginal habitats such as hot springs or areas of low oxygen concentration.

Protista were the first of the eukaryotic kingdoms, these organisms and all others have membrane-bound organelles, which allow for compartmentalization and dedication of specific areas for specific functions. The chief importance of Protista is their role as a stem group for the remaining Kingdoms: Plants, Animals, and Fungi. Major groups within the Protista include the algae, euglenoids, ciliates, protozoa, and flagellates.

Fungi are almost entirely multicellular (with yeast, Saccharomyces cerviseae, being a prominent unicellular fungus), heterotrophic (deriving their energy from another organism, whether alive or dead), and usually having some cells with two nuclei (multinucleate, as opposed to the more common one, or uninucleate) per cell. Ecologically this kingdom is important (along with certain bacteria) as decomposers and recyclers of nutrients. Economically, the Fungi provide us with food (mushrooms; Bleu cheese/Roquefort cheese; baking and brewing), antibiotics (the first of the wonder drugs, Penicillin, was isolated from a fungus Penicillium), and crop parasites (doing several billion dollars per year of damage).

Plantae include multicelled organisms that are all autotrophic (capable of making their own food by the process of photosynthesis, the conversion of sunlight energy into chemical energy). Ecologically, this kingdom is generally (along with photosynthetic organisms in Monera and Protista) termed the producers, and rest at the base of all food webs. A food web is an ecological concept to trace energy flow through an ecosystem. Economically, this kingdom is unparalleled, with agriculture providing billions of dollars to the economy (as well as the foundation of "civilization"). Food, building materials, paper, drugs (both legal and illegal), and roses, are plants or plant-derived products.

Animalia consists entirely of multicelluar heterotrophs that are all capable (at some point during their life history) of mobility. Ecologically, this kingdom occupies the level of consumers, which can be subdivided into herbivore (eaters of plants) and carnivores (eaters of other animals). Humans, along with some other organisms, are omnivores (capable of functioning as herbivores or carnivores). Economically, animals provide meat, hides, beasts of burden, pleasure (pets), transportation, and scents (as used in some perfumes).

http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossC.html#consumershttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossA.html#Animaliahttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossE.html#ecosystemhttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossF.html#food webhttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossPQ.html#producershttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossPQ.html#photosynthesishttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossA.html#autotrophichttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossPQ.html#Plantaehttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossPQ.html#parasiteshttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossA.html#antibioticshttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossU.html#uninucleatehttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossM.html#multinucleatehttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossH.html#heterotrophichttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossU.html#unicellularhttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossM.html#multicellularhttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossF.html#Fungihttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossPQ.html#protozoahttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossE.html#Euglenoidshttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossE.html#eukaryotehttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossPQ.html#Protistahttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossA.html#Archaebacteriahttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossC.html#cyanobacteriahttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossE.html#Eubacteriahttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossPQ.html#prokaryotehttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossO.html#organelleshttp://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookglossM.html#Monera

UNIT 3

The Present Continuous/Progressive

I. Form

We use the present tense simple of to be (am, are or is), the infinitive of the verb and the ending ing.

to be (am, are, is) + infinitive + -ing

a) Affirmative sentences:

I am playing volleyball.He/she/it is playing volleyball. We/you/they are playing volleyball.

NOTE: Use am with I, is with he, she, it and with all other pronouns are.

b) Negative sentences:

I am not playing volleyball.He/she/it is not playing volleyball. We/you/they are not playing volleyball.

c) Questions:

In the Present Progressive we put the auxiliary (am, are or is) before the subject (Auxiliary - Subject - Verb - Rest).

Am I playing volleyball?Is he/she/it playing volleyball? Are we/you/they playing volleyball?

Spelling

Be careful with some words when adding -ing to the infinitive.

1) consonant after a short, stressed vowel at the end of the word

Double the consonant.

sit he is sittingput - he is putting

If the consonant is not stressed, we do not double it:benefit - benefiting (Here we stress the first 'e', not the 'i'.)

In British English we double one -l at the end of the word:travel - travelling

2) one -e at the end of the word

Leave out the -e.write he is writingtake he is taking

BUT:double e: add -ing see he is seeing

3) verbs ending in -ie

Change 'ie' to 'y'.lie - he is lying

4) verbs ending in -c

Change 'c' to 'ck'.picnic - he is picnicking

Special verbs in the Present Progressive

There are verbs which are normally not used in the Present Progressive, like:be, believe, belong, hate, hear, like, love, mean, prefer, remain, realize, see, seem, smell, think, understand, want, wish

We sometimes use these words in the Present Progressive in the following situations:

He's seeing his father tomorrow. (fixed date)

The group is seeing the sights of Paris. (see in connection with tourists)

They are having a great time in Kapstadt. (have as an activity verb)

What's the matter with you? What are you thinking? - (to be worried about sth.)

II. Use

The Present Progressive is used to show:

1) actions happening at the moment of speaking (now, at the moment)

Peter is reading a book now.Shes listening to the radio.

2) fixed plan in the near future

She is going to Basel on Saturday.

3) temporary actions

His father is working in Rome this month.

4) repeated actions which are irritating to the speaker (with always, constantly, forever)

Andrew is always coming in late. (I don't like it.)

Exercises

1. Put the verbs at Present Continuous negative and interogative:

1. It is raining. 2. I am having a walk. 3. He is telling the truth. 4. You are typing a letter. 5. They are swimming in the river. 6. My friend is wearing a new dress. 7. My mother is resting. 8. We are studying English. 9. Ann is knitting. 10. The child is learning to play the piano.

2. Put the verbs in brackets at Present Simple or Present Continuous:

1. I (not go) shopping because it (rain). 2. What you (do) on Sundays? 3. He usually (drink) coffee but now he (drink) tea. 4. In England it often (rain). 5. I (not like) that boy. 6. He usually (speak) so quickly that I (not understand) him. 7. You (like) this book? 8. You (dream) at night?

Yes, I (dream) every night. 9. I cant answer the phone now because I (cook). 10. How you usually (get) to work?

I usually (go) by bus, but now I (take) a taxi because I am late. 11. The manager cant receive you now as he (have) an interview. 12. You (write) to John now?

Yes, I (be). I always (write) to him on his birthday. 13. Where you (hurry)?

To the theatre, as I (not want) to miss the first act. 14. She always (borrow) books from me and never (remember) to

give them back. 15. You (go) to work every day?

Yes, of course, except Saturdays and Sundays.

16. Why you (smoke) so much? 17. Who you (wait) for?

I (wait) for John, but he is late, as usual. 18. I always (have) a rest after lunch. 19. What you (think) of?

I (think) of my mother just now. 20. You (know) what time is it?

3. Translate into English::

1. Iarna ninge. 2. Duminica el nu se scoala devreme. 3. Eu nu studiez seara. 4. Ce faci? Citesti sau privesti la televizor? 5. Secretara tocmai bate la masina un referat. 6. Ea merge la cumparaturi smbata. 7. Acum imi fac temele la engleza. 8. Nu-mi place cafeaua. 9. Ce carte citesti? 10. La ce ora se scoala John dimineata? 11. Ce faci tu in zilele libere? 12. Cui ii telefonezi? 13. El nu merge la scoala cu metroul, merge pe jos. 14. De ce deschizi fereastra? 15. Adesea citesc carti englezesti. 16. Ea isi face bagajul. 17. Ct de des le scrii parintilor tai? 18. Cnd merg la mare imi place sa inot mult. 19. Clientul tocmai isi alege o pereche de pantofi.

UNIT 4

How to Know the Trees

Everyone loves trees, for they give pleasure to the eye at every season of the year. In

summer you enjoy their rich green foliage and may rest under the cool shade of their branches. Even in winter the bare branches are attractive and spectacular against a stormy sky. The bursting buds of spring are heralds of sunny days.

Trees grow in much the same way as we do; but they live a great deal longer and grow much bigger. Like all living things, they breathe and need food. All over the surfaces of the leaves and twigs there are millions of minute pores or mouths, called stomata. Through these small mouths passes the oxigen which the trees need to keep them alive. When the tree is active a watery solution called sap is continually drawn up to the leaves from the roots along tiny cells in the woody stem of the trunk and branches. The leaves keep what they want, and the excess of water is sent out into the air in the form of water vapour.

The leaves are the places where, during daylight hours, the food which the tree needs is manufactured. The tree gets its food from two sources. The roots obtain moisture and mineral salts from the earth, whilst the tiny mouths on the leaves take in a gas called carbon dioxide from the air. By the aid of energy from the sun and a green substance in the leaves known as chlorophyll, the materials from the earth and air are changed into substances which make the tree grow. The tree needs only the carbon of the carbon dioxide, therefore, the oxygen which it contains is returned to the air.

When we breathe and when fires burn, the oxygen of the air is used up and carbon dioxide is made. Trees therefore perform a useful purpose by taking this poisonous gas from the air and restoring the oxygen. The more trees and green plants we have in our towns the purer will be the air we breathe.

Trees, as a general rule, do not like soot and dust, as it blocks up the tiny pores on their leaves and prevents them from breathing. A good heavy rain that washes the leaves clean is welcome to them.

If you cut through the trunk you will see that the wood is made up of a number of concentric circles. Each year a ring of new wood is added to the growth of the trunk, so that by counting the number of rings you can tell its age. The wood in the centre of the the tree is hard and dead. The living part of the tree, where a new layer of soft wood is being made, is just under the bark or outer skin. The bark protects the living cells from severe weather, and if you peel off the bark and cut into the soft wood, the tree will die.

Trees provide shelter and a source of food for birds and insects, they afford a retreat for cattle from the wind and the sun, and they have a great influence on the climate and the air we breathe. They help too in making a fertile soil for the farmer to grow his crops.

A walk in a park or in the country is all the more interesting if you can tell the names of the common trees. In summer the easiest way of recognizing them is by the leaves, whilst flowers, if any, and the bark may help. In winter and spring the twigs with their buds are your gide for recognizing trees, whilst the flowers, the general shape and arrangement of the bare branches are different for each tree.

It is well known that apples, plums, cherries, nuts, and seeds of all sorts grow on trees. These all come from flowers. In spring you may have seen an orchard in full blossom and have admired the beautiful white and pinkish petals of the flowers. On many trees the flowers appear very early in the year, before the leaves. They are very small, and grow in bunches or on tassels known as catkins. It is common for the catkins to dangle downward, but some stand erect. On some trees you will find perfect flowers with sepals, petals, stamens, and seed-boxes. An interesting thing about the flowers of trees is that there are two kinds. One kind contains only seed-boxes, whilst the other kind is made up entirely of stamens. The stamen-flowers with their bags of pollen are called males. When they have shed their pollen the flowers fall off. The seed-flowers are females. When they have been fertilized they grow

bigger and produce seeds. Sometimes you will find male and female catkins close together on the same twig, as in the case of the oak tree.

Among the flowering trees which shed their leaves annually there are a few exceptions which retain their leaves through the winter; these trees are called evergreens. If you examine their leaves you will find that they are smooth, tough, and leathery, to resist the cold weather. The surface, too, has a waxy covering which makes them waterproof, so that snow or rain does not stay on to rot them.

Vocabularyanther: anter (the pollen-bearing part of a stamen) axillary: axilarbleat: a behi; behit blossom: floare, flori; (d. pomi) a nflori, a mbobociblow (blew, blown): a nflori, a da n floarebud: mugur, boboc

in bud: n mugureburst (burst, burst): a plesni, a crpa, a se desface

to burst into leaf: a infrunzicalyx: caliciucatkin: mior caw: a croncni cluster: mnunchi, buchet (de flori); ciorchine (de struguri); grup, plc (d. pomi);

mulime, grmad; roi (de albine)dangle: a (se) legna, a atrna (to) darken: a se intunecadraw up: a atrage n sus, a trage spre sine, a atrage elm: ulmembrio: embrion, germene evergreen: plant perenfoliage/leafage: frunzi gnat [nt]: nar Hark!: Ascult! hum: (d. albine) a bzilark: ciocrlie leathery: ca pieleamossy: acoperit cu muchi offshoot: mldi, vlstarpink: roz, trandafiriu; garoaf

pinkish: trandafiriu, rozpour: a turna (n); (fig.) a se revrsa primrose:ciuboica cucului, primulrestore: to bring back to a former, or normal condition, to reestablishretreat: to withdraw, to retire, to draw back [a se retrage; retragere, repliere, refugiu]rook: cioar de cmp rot: a putrezi, a se strica, a se descompunesap: sevshed (shed, shed): (d. frunze etc.) a cdea; (d. un animal) a nprli; opron, urshoot: mldi, vlstar; mugure, boboc shrub: arbust, tufslender: zvelt, subire, suplusoar: a zbura sus, a se avnta/ridica n zbor; a plana, a plutitassel: ciucure, panicul terminal, mtase (la porumb)tell: to distingush (to) turn yellow: a se nglbenito be on the wing: (d. psri) a fi n zbor; (fig) a voiaja, a hoinritwig: rmuric wax: cearwheel: to perform a movement in a circular or curving direction

Additional Vocabulary:arar: maple (tree) brad: fir (tree)cais: apricot tree cais: apricotcarpen: hornbeam cire: cherry tree

cirea dulce: sweet cherrycirea amar: bitter/wild cherry

lmi: lemon tree mr: apple treemslin: olive (tree) mesteacn: birchnuc: nut (tree) pr: pear treepin: pine (tree) piersic: peatch treeplop: poplar (tree) portocal: orange treesalcie: willow (tree); salcie plngtoare: weeping willowsmochin: fig (tree); smochin: figstejar:oak (tree)a nmuguri: to bud (forth/out/up); to put forth buds; to burst into budsa nflori:

(d. flori): to bloom; (d. pomi) to blossom, to be in blossom

Exercise:

Match the following words with their appropriate definitions:1. tree a. a part of a body of a plant which, tipically, develops from the

radicle and grows downward into the soil fixing the plant and absorbing nutrient and moisture

2. pollen b. the pollen-bearing organ of a flower, consisting of the filament and the anther

3. trunk c. a small axillary or terminal protuberance on a plant, containing the rudimentary foliage, the rudimentary inflorescence or both

4. root d. a perrenial plant having a permanent, woody, self-supporting main stem or trunk, ordinarily growing to a considerable height, and usually developing branches at some distance from the ground

5. branch e. one of the individual leaves or parts of the calyx of a flower6. twig f. the lower part of the axis of an embrio; the primary root7. bud g. the fertizing element of flowering plants, consisting of fine,

powdery, yellowish grains or spores8. petal h. the main stem of a tree, as distinct from the branches and

roots9. sepal i. one of the often coloured segments of the corrola of a flower10. stamen j. a division or subdivision of the stem or axis of a tree, shrub, or

other plant11. radicle k. a small offshoot from a branch or stem

UNIT 5

The Past Tense Simple

I. Form

We form the Simple Past:- with regular verbs: infinitive + -ed - with irregular verbs: 2nd column of the table of the irregular verbs

a) Affirmative sentences:

We use the the same form of the verb every time regardless the subject.

regular verbs irregular verbs

I played football. I went to the supermarket.

b) Negative sentences:

We use the auxiliary did (Simple Past of do) every time regardless the subject.

regular verbs irregular verbs

I did not play football. I did not go to the supermarket.

regular verbs irregular verbs

I didn't play football. I didn't go to the supermarket.

c) Questions:

We use the auxiliary did (Simple Past of do) every time regardless the subject.

regular verbs irregular verbs

Did you play football? Did I go to the supermarket?

English Grammar - Irregular verbs (most common)

infinitive simple past past participle

be was/were Been

beat beat Beaten

become became Become

begin began Begun

bet* bet Bet

blow blew Blown

break broke Broken

bring brought Brought

build built Built

burst burst Burst

buy bought Bought

catch caught Caught

choose chose Chosen

come came Come

cost cost Cost

cut cut Cut

deal dealt Dealt

do did Done

draw drew Drawn

drink drank Drunk

drive drove Driven

eat ate Eaten

fall fell Fallen

feed fed Fed

feel felt Felt

fight fought Fought

find found Found

fly flew Flown

forget forgot Forgotten

freeze froze Frozen

get got got, gotten (AE)

give gave Given

go went Gone

grow grew Grown

hang hung Hung

have had Had

hear heard Heard

hide hid Hidden

hit hit Hit

hold held Held

hurt hurt Hurt

keep kept Kept

know knew Known

lay laid Laid

lead led Led

leave left Left

lend lent Lent

let let Let

lie lay Lain

light* lit Lit

lose lost Lost

make made Made

mean meant Meant

meet met Met

pay paid Paid

put put Put

read read Read

ride rode Ridden

ring rang Rung

rise rose Risen

run ran Run

say said Said

see saw Seen

sell sold Sold

send sent Sent

set set Set

shake shook Shaken

steal stole Stolen

shine shone Shone

shoot shot Shot

show* showed Shown

shut shut Shut

sing sang Sung

sink sank Sunk

sit sat Sat

sleep slept Slept

slide slid Slid

speak spoke Spoken

spend spent Spent

spring sprang Sprung

stand stood Stood

stick stuck Stuck

swear swore Sworn

sweep swept Swept

swim swam Swum

swing swung Swung

take took Taken

teach taught Taught

tear tore Torn

tell told Told

think thought Thought

throw threw Thrown

understand understood Understood

wake* woke Woken

wear wore Worn

weave wove Woven

win won Won

write wrote Written

II. Use

The Simple Past is used to denote:

1) action finished in the past (single or repeated)

I visited Berlin last week.Andrew watched TV yesterday.

2) series of completed actions in the past

First I got up, then I had breakfast.

3) together with the Past Progressive/Continuous - The Simple Past interrupted an action which was in progress in the past.

They were playing cards when the telephone rang.1st action: Past Progressive were playing2nd action: Simple Past rang

Exercises

1. Put the verbs at Past Tense Simple:

1. I sleep until 9 oclock every day. 2. He meets John on Sundays. 3. You speak English well. 4. You drink too much. 5. You ask too many questions. 6. I play football. 7. I own two umbrellas. 8. I like to have a coffee in the morning. 9. That sounds interesting. 10. I always make cakes on Sundays.

2. Put the verb sat Past Tense Simple negative and interrogative:

1. He thought about you. 2. They drank all the wine. 3. I hated him. 4. He changed his library book every day. 5. I sold my car. 6. We worked very hard. 7. He came home late. 8. I enjoyed travelling. 9. He translated the text. 10. He forbade her to do this.

3. Put the verb in brackets at Past Tense Simple:1. I (to speak) English last week.2. The boys (to play) football yesterday.3. I (to eat) a good cake yesterday.4. They (to swim) in the sea last summer.5. He (to meet) hi sold friend last month.6. You (to buy) very good apples then.7. Father (to catch) a big fish last week.8. The kid (to choose) another toy.9. You (to remember) the name of this man at last.10. We (to get up) at eight oclock last Sunday.

UNIT 6

Animals and Man

In the zoological sense, all living things which are not plants are animals, so, strictly

speaking, the fly, the fish, the snake and the sparrow are animals every bit as much as the horse or the cow. In popular language, the word animal has come to be used more and more for those creatures with four legs and warm blood which are more properly known as mammals. But mammals are, in fact, merely a group of animals.

In everyday life man affects animals in a thousand ways, and is affected by them in a thousand ways. And, in the first instance, his attitude to them is determined by purely practical considerations. Ethical, or moral considerations come afterwards.

Everyone can understand why man should wage war on the rat. Why? Because the rat spreads diseases that affict both animals and human beings, it destroys mans food supplies, and it contaminates food in warehouses and shops.

In the same way, everyone can understand why the lapwing should be held in such high esteem in the countryside. It is one of the best friends the farmer has, it is entirely useful, and harms no one. From this you will gather that mans first attitude to animals is the result of their effect on his own survival, or what he considers to be their effect on his survival. His secondary attitude arises from his pursuit of amusement , sport, companianship etc.

The extermination of pests. If you were a fruit grower, you would be engaged in a form of large-scale food production of prime importance. You would, naturally, take every posible step to protect your fruit trees and fruit from the ravages of all sort of pests. You would kill them by fumigants, poison, sprays and so on. And, as a result, you would kill vast numbers of insects at all stages of their growth. Your sole concern would be the growing of good, sound marketable fruit. But besides looking around for man-made ways of killing pests you would encourage every kind of natural ally. Naturalists would show that the ladybird beetle is a great killer of aphids. So you would cherish the ladybird. In the same way, you would give your protection to all insect-eating birds that preyed upon the pests attacking your fruit. The farmer approaches his work in the same way, and makes the same kind of distinctions. The arable farmer, who grows crops for food, knows that such animals as voles attack his grown corn, so he looks with a friendly eye on all things that attack voles owls and kestrels for example. He knows that the rodents generally voles, mice and rats are a menace to his crops, growing or in stack, so he encourages most of their enemies, and keeps cats at the farm to help in the war. He wages war on foxes because they will kill hens or lambs from time to time.

As a result of experience he has come to realise that most birds are useful, and that only a few are harmful or, at worst, neutral. Into the first category fall all the so-called songbirds, of which we are all so fond. Yet, if you consider the status of songbirds in different countries you soon realise that the outlook is not the same everywhere; there are countries in which peasants eat singing birds. We think it is simply a question of ethics. But it isnt. We dont need to eat singing birds nowadays; we have a standard of living that makes it unnecessary. But a certain peasant, living in a mud hut, and half-starved for most of his life, eats what he can get. We, on the other hand, can afford to be ethical about songbirds, because our ethics are based on a higher standard of living.

When a farmer takes a piece of rough ground, where curlews and redshanks nested, and cultivates it, he makes it unsuitable for these birds, so they vanish from that neighbourhood. Every new act in land-use causes just such changes as these, and they are, of course, unavoidable. The change is even more marked when man drives a new road through an area, or drains a marsh, or builds a new town. A new town means the virtual destruction of vast areas of farmland, or woodland. Bricks and concrete take the place of grass and

ploughland and trees and hedgerows, and every form of life to which such things were necessary disappears from the scene. In this case, you have the destruction of entire habitats. It follows, therefore, that every new form of human activity upsets or changes the wild life complex unceasingly and unavoidably. Where man is culpable, is when he destroys certain forms of life deliberately for no reasonable purpose, or when a small section of the community destroys something of general interest and narrow, selfish ends.

Pronunciationculpable [k lpbl] fumigants [fjumignts]zoo [zu:] zoological [,zoulodikl]

Vocabularyafflict: a chinui, a tulbura profund; affliction, afflictive, afflictedally[lai]: a (se) alia; [lai]: aliat; alliance [lains] (with); allied [laid] (with)aphid [fid]: (plant louse pduchele plantei): insect (larv) din familia homeoptere

care suge seva din tulpina/frunzele plantelor

arable [rbl]: arabil; teren arabilcherish: a-i fi drag, a iubi, a preui; a ngriji, a cultiva cu grijcorn: grne, cereale; gru; (AE) porumbcow: vac; ox (pl. oxen): bou, taur, bivol, bizon curlew [k:lju:]: corldrain: drenaj, golire, uscare; canal de scurgere; a drena; drainage, drainless

(nesecat, inepuizabil) esteem: favourable opinion, respect [stim, consideraie; a respecta, a stima]harm: vtmare, atingere, ru; a duna, a face un ru, a strica, a rni; harmful,

harmfully, harmfulness, harmless, harmlessness hedge: gard viu; a mprejmui cu un gard viu

hedgerow: ir de arbuti/tufiurihen: gin; cock: coco; rooster: coco domestichorse: cal; stallion, stud(horse): armsar; mare: iaphut: colib, barac, adpost, opron; a caza n barci; a locui ntr-o baracin the countryside: la ar kestrel: vindereu, vnturellady bird / lady fly (beetle): buburuz lamb: miellapwing: nag marsh: inut/pmnt mltinos, mlatin, mocirlmenace [menis]: ameninare, pericol, primejdie; a ameninamouse (pl. mice): oarece mud: noroi, ml, nmolnest: cuib; a face cuiboutlook: perspectiv, privelite, vedere; punct de vedere, concepieowl [aul]: bufni; owlet: pui de bufnipest: duntor, parazit; plag, npast, pacosteprey upon: a prda, a jefui, a chinui; prad (a bird of pray pasre de prad)pursuit: urmrire, cutare (in pursuit of ... n cutarea ...); preocupare, ndeletnicire

(daily pursuits treburi zilnice); scop, int, el rat: obolan redshank: (un fel de) fluierar de ru cu piciorue roii

rodent [roudnt]: roztor rough ground: pmnt neafectat de mna omuluiscene: privelite, peisaj snake: arpe(in) stack: depozitate, adunate grmad; stog, cpi, claie sparrow: vrabievanish: a disprea, a se terge, a se estompa; upset: a rsturna, a ntoarce cu susul n jos, a tulbura, a nelinitivole: oarece de cmpwage: a duce / a purta (rzboi mpotriva), a duce (o campanie mpotriva)warehouse: magazie, depozit

Additional Vocabularybovin: ox; vac: cow; bou: bull / ox bursuc: badgercapr: (she) goat; ap: he-goatcine: dog; (masc): male dog; cea: female dog, bitchcprioar: deer, doe, roe(deer); cerb: stag, buck, hartciocnitoare: wood-pecker ciocrlie: (sky)lark curcan: turkey (cock); curc: turkey henfazan: pheasant; (masc) cock ...; (fem): hen ...gsc: goose; gnsac: gander [gnd]iepure: hare; (de cas) rabbit; (fam): bunny; iepuroaic: doe/female hare /rabbit;

iepuroi: buck/male hare /rabbit leu: lion; leoaic: lionesslup: wolf (pl. wolves); (masc) dog wolf; (fem) bitch wolf; hait de lupi: pack of wolves

oaie: sheep; (fem) ewe [ju:]; berbec: rampdure: wood(s); forest (mai mare, mai btrn); ... de foioase: leafbearing wood /

forest; ... de conifere: coniferous wood/forest pisic: cat; (fem) : she / female cat; motan: tomcat (tom cat) / he cat / male catporc: pig, swine; vier: boar [b ;], hog; scroaf: sow [su];... mistre: wild boarporumbel: pigeon; (poetic) dove; (fem): hen pigeon; (masc): cock pigeonprivighetoare: nightingalepui:

- de pasre domestic: chicken, pullet- de pasre: chick, nestling- de curcan, fazan: poult- de animal slbatic: cub - de cine, leu, tigru, urs, lup, etc.: whelp

ra: duck; roi: drake tigru: tiger; tigroaic: tigressurs: bear; ... alb: polar bear; ...brun: brown bear; ursoaic: she / female bear; (masc):

he / male bearvulpe: fox; vulpoi: dog / he fox; (fem): bitch / she fox, vixen

Exercises:

1. Give the feminine or masculin, as required, of the following animals:

bull - - - hen - - c -; - - o - - - -pussy-cat - - - c - - - lion - - - - - - sduck - - - - e ram - - efox - - - - n boar - o -goose - - - d - - stallion - - - e

2. Which is the odd man out?1. Which of these is not a mammal? bat; snail; whale, wild pig.2. Which of these is not a roddent? hedgehog; mouse, rat; squirrel3. Which of these is not a reptile? alligator; frog; lizard; turtle4. Which of these is not a bird? sparrow; spider; stork; swan5. Which of these has spots rather than stripes? leopard; skunk; tiger; zebra6. Which of these doesnt sting? ant; bee; butterfly; scorpion7. Which of these cannot fly? hawk; ostrich; pigeon; swallow8. Which of these is not a fresh-water fish? carp; herring; salmon; trout

UNIT 7

The Past Tense Continuous/Progressive

I. Form

We use the Past Tense Simple of to be (was or were), the infinitive of the verb and the ending ing.

to be (was, were) + infinitive + -ing

a) Affirmative sentences:

I/he/she/it was playing football.We/you/they were playing football.

NOTE: Use was with I, he, she, it -and were with all other pronouns.

b) Negative sentences:

I/he/she/it was not playing football.We/you/they were not playing football.

We use short forms in the Past Progressive in negative sentences:

I/he/she/it wasn't playing football.We/you/they weren't playing football.

c) Questions:

In the Past Progressive we put the auxiliary (was or were) before the subject(Auxiliary - Subject - Verb - Rest).

Was I/he/she/it playing football?Were we/you/they playing football?

II. Use

The Past Progressive is used to show:

1) actions in progress at special time in the past

Peter was reading a book yesterday evening.She was listening to the radio.

2) two actions happening at the same time (the actions do not influence each other)

Anne was writing a letter while Steve was reading the New York Times.

3) together with the Simple Past

While we were sitting at the breakfast table, the telephone rang.

Note: Past Progressive: were sitting at the tableSimple Past: the telephone rang.

The action in the Simple Past interrupted the action in the Past Progressive.

4) repeated actions irritating the speaker (with always, constantly, forever)

Andrew was always coming in late. (I don't like it.)

Exercises

1. Put the verbs in brackets at Past Tense Simple or Continuous:

1. When you (come in), I talk on the phone. 2. When I first (meet) him, he (work) in a bank. 3. While he (learn) to drive, he (have) an accident. 4. As I (write), someone (ring up). 5. Where you (go) when I (meet) you? 6. What you (do) this time yesterday? 7. When I (enter) the classroom, the teacher (write) on the blackboard. 8. When I (arrive), she (have) dinner. 9. This time last Sunday, I (watch) a film on TV. 10. He suddenly (realize) that he (not wear) his glasses.

2. Translate into English::

1. Soarele nu a apus la ora 8 aseara. 2. Ai dormit bine noaptea trecuta? 3. Ieri nu am mers la bazinul de inot. 4. M-am sculat trziu ieri dimineata. 5. Duminica trecuta prietenii mei au jucat sah. 6. Ieri pe vremea asta ploua. 7. Ce faceai martea trecuta la ora 7 dimineata? 8. Ma pregateam sa merg la facultate. 9. In timp ce imi cautam pasaportul am gasit aceasta fotografie veche. 10. Baietii jucau carti cnd l-au auzit pe tatal lor intrnd in casa. 11. Ei au ascuns imediat cartile si si-au scos manualele de scoala. 12. Cnd te-ai intors de la munte? 13. Cnd ai cumparat acest televizor?

14. Ieri mi-am pierdut manusile. 15. Batea un vnt puternic cnd am iesit din casa. 16. Unde ti-ai petrecut concediul vara trecuta? 17. Ieri m-am sculat devreme, mi-am luat micul dejun si apoi am plecat la scola. 18. Acum doua zile a cazut si si-a rupt piciorul. 19. Saptamna trecuta am fost bolnav si nu am mers la scoala. 20. El a dat primul examen saptamna trecuta. 21. Cine a cstigat meciul alaltaieri? 22. In timp ce ploua, eu conduceam masina spre Sinaia.

3. Use the Past Simple or the Past Continuous of the verb given in brackets according to the meaning:

1. I (to go) to work yesterday when I (to see) a house on fire.

2. He (to meet) her as he (to cross) the bridge.

3. He (to run) in the street when he (to fall) and (to break) his leg.

4. When I (to get up) this morning it (to be) so late that the sun (to shine) high in the sky.

5. She (not to go out) because the rain (to fall).

6. Mike (to read) a letter when father (to open) the door.

7. What she (to wear) when you (to see) her?

8. I (to be) very surprised because nobody (to wait) for me.

9. We (to start) our conversation while we (to look) at the painting.

10. What they (to do) when they (to hear) that noise?

UNIT 8

Birds and Their Peculiarities

Birds have always interested mankind. Their songs have inspired poets, and for thousand of years their power of flight filled men with the desire to copy them. Few living creatures are more mobile or more widespread over the surface of the earth. At the same time few are more varied in form, colouring, and behaviour. Birds are, indeed, mans greatest allies in a war which he is always fighting and probably always will have to fight against the insect kingdom.

Theres an extremely large number of species of birds. To get to know even a little about birds one needs to watch them, to notice how they go about life, how they feed and what they eat, their nesting habits, and the places in which they prefer to live; for birds, just as human beings, have their likes and dislikes. Some must live near the sea, others in open country. Some prefer woodlands, while the other are found only on open moorlands or in the wilder mountain country. Several species attach themselves more or less to man and depend on mans activities for a great deal of the food they eat, while others seem to avoid human beings as much as possible.

Let us see some of the things that distinguish birds from all other creatures. If you were asked what it is that birds possess and which no other creatures have, you might well have to think for quite a time. Yet it is the very thing seen immediately you look at a bird namely, feathers. If anyone who has made a study of the subject were asked how the living cretures of the world have developed, he would say that birds have evolved from reptiles. At first sight that does not seem at all easy to believe, because those creatures, with their soft, filmy covering of feathers, are so different from a scale-covered reptile. Yet, it is a fact that feathers are nothing more than highly developed scales. Moreover, every bird still carries the mark of its reptile ancestors in the scales to be seen on its feet and in the very shape of its feet. Another interesting thing about birds is their blood temperature. They have blood which is much warmer than that of any other creature. This is due to many causes, and means that they have a tremendous amount of energy which can be used quickly and suddenly. You will have noticed that a bird is extremely quick it is almost explosively active. To have so much energy and such high blood temperature a bird requires a lot of fuel in the form of food and, as a result, birds have big appetites. Some of them eat more than their own weight of food every day. That is one reason why certain types of birds are always busy searching for food.

One of the most interesting features about bird life is migration. It means that creatures which indulge in the habit have two homes, which they use at different seasons of the year. They travel to and fro between those homes as the seasons change. They leave in the autumn and go off to the south of France, Spain, North Africa etc. Thus they never have to face the difficulties of a severe winter. Why do birds migrate? It is a hazardous undertaking, and thousands are killed on migration every year. Yet, because it is so dangerous, one is all the more puzzled by it. It is partly on account of food supply, because many birds feed on certain things which can be obtained only at certain seasons, but that does not answer all the questions. Let us have a look at swallows. They feed exclusively on insects, and there are always plenty in Africa all the year round. It cannot therefore be said that they leave Africa in spring because insects are scarce, so there must be another reason for it. Probably it is something like this. Young swallows have very rapid digestions and need large quantities of food and, indeed, it is well known that they will die of sheer starvation if kept without food for even as much as eight hours. Now, that means that swallows simply cannot rear their young in countries near the Equator. There would be a plentiful supply of food, but there would also be the long tropical nights, when there are about twelve hours of darkness, during which the babies could not be fed, and if they had not been fed for twelve hours they would all be dead by next morning. So to get over that difficulty swallows have to go to a country where in summer the days are long and the nights are short.

One of the most fascinating studies one can make is that of nests and eggs. Few things in the world have the perfection of form of a birds egg, and few things, except maybe flowers and butterflies, show such variety of lovely colourings and markings. To study nests, the way in which they are put together and the material used, is to learn a great deal about the birds which build them. Some of the sea-birds lay their single egg on the bare rock of a ledge, without making any attempt at a nest; some others merely make a slight depression in the sand. The point is that young birds hatch from eggs in varying stages of development. Some species hatch out in a very advanced state and can run within a few minutes.

Pronunciationhazardous [hzds] equator [ikweitr]

Vocabulary

ancestor: forefather, progenitor [strmo, strbun]attempt: to try, to undertake, to make an effort [a ncerca; ncercare, tentativ]bare rock: stnc neacoperitfeather: arip filmy: ceos, neclar, transparenthatch: a cloci, a scoate pui; a urzi, a pune la caleindulge: a rsfa, a face pe plac; a tolera, a rbda, a suportaledge: ieitur, proeminen markings: semne, petemoorland: teren mltinos nest: cuib; a face un cuibon account of: by reason of, because of [din cauza/pricina, datorit]puzzle: a nedumeri, a pune n ncurctur, a zpcirear: a crete, a educa scale-covered: acoperit cu solzi

scarce: rar, puin sheer: complet, total; diafan, pur, curatundertake: a ntreprinde, a iniia, a face, a ncerca

UNIT 9

Revision of Present Tense and Past Tense

1. Use the correct present tense:1. Everybody (to know) that the Danube (to flow) into the Black Sea.2. Why you (to walk) so fast today? You usually (to walk) quite slowly.3. Grandmother (to cook) in the kitchen now. She always (to cook) in the afternoons.4. That little boy who (to walk) past our garden (to live) next door.5. Mary (not to be) here because she just (to have) a bath.6. Whenever Cathy (to go) to London, she (to stay) with her cousin who (to be)

married to an Englishman.7. My brother and I (to go) to the concert every Friday, but this Friday we (to go) to

some friends.8. Where they (to spend) their week-ends?9. They say that Richard (to play) the piano very well now.10. I (to smoke) a lot these days because I (to study) for my exams. I always (to

smoke) much when I (study).

2. Choose the correct form of the verb:1. How many cups of coffee ... every day?

a) you drink; b) you do drink; c) do you drink2. Even if Phil is a serious person, he ... comedy.

a) doesnt like; b) is liking; c) likes3. ... true that Julia speaks four languages fluently?

a) It is; b) Does it; c) Is it4. It is well known that rice ... in Britain, but in China.

a) grows; b) is growing; c) doesnt grow

3. Ask questions about the underlined parts of the following sentences:1. I have my English lessons at school.2. You feel thirsty on a hot day.3. I brush my teeth three times a day.4. We clean our car before leaving for a picnic.5. I am free this afternoon because I dont have to work on holidays.

4. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences:1. Does his brother knows that he is in prison?2. Are you liking coffee or tea?3. I am having two brothers.4. Christmas is coming in December.

5. You cook lunch right now.5. Translate into English:

1. Avem nevoie de o umbrela pentru ca afara ploua.2. Azi nu merg cu masina la servici.3. Tatal meu se uita de obicei la televizor duminica.4. Ne plimbam adesea prin parc.5. Intotdeauna imi da telefon tarziu noaptea!

6. Put the verb in brackets into the Past Simple or Past Continuous:1. He (to write) his essay when somebody (to knock) at the door.2. When the doorbell (to ring) she (to sleep).3. When the train (to arrive) many travelers (to wait) on the platform.4. As he (to cross) the street he (to step) on a banana skin and (to fall) down.5. I (to have) a bath when the phone (to ring).

7. Correct the mistakes:1. When I was getting to the museum he waited for me.2. When I was at the seaside I have long walks on the beach.3. I watched TV while my sister read the magazine.4. What did you do when he was coming home?5. We visited the States this time last year.

8. Translate into English:1. Cnd am intrat n muzeu am vzut multe tablouri impresionante.2. Preai foarte ocupat cnd te-am ntlnit asear. Ce fceai?3. Cnd am sosit, Ana tocmai pleca, aa c nu am vorbit dect foarte puin.4. n timp ce musafirii se distrau, hoii au intrat n cas i le-au furat hainele de blan.5. ntotdeauna purta o serviet cnd mergea la birou.

UNIT 10

Adaptation

Adaptation, apparently designed feature of an organism, that has evolved by natural selection over numerous generations to solve the problems of survival and reproduction faced by the organism's ancestors.

The Nature of Adaptations. Intuitively, adaptations are familiar to us as those striking aspects of the living world that, as Darwin aptly put it, most justly excite our admiration. Organisms and all their parts have a pervasive air of purpose about them, a highly organized complexity, a precision and efficiency, an ingenious utility.A favourite example of Darwin's was the woodpecker's beak and tongue, finely engineered for excavating insects buried in tree barks; and there is no less impressive engineering of brain and behaviour, ensuring that the hard-won prey is to the woodpecker's taste. There are many other examples, such as the warning calls of vervet monkeys, differentiated according to whether the predator is a python, martial eagle, or leopardand to which the hearers respond differentially by looking down, looking up, or running to trees; the gentle mottling of a camouflaged insect contrasted with the vibrant warning colours of a closely related species that mimics the livery of a noxious animal; the female sage grouse, which fastidiously rejects suitors that bear visible parasite scars; the air conditioning of termite mounds, maintaining a constant temperature in spite of the savannah's extremes of climate; and orchids luring pollinators by their likeness to female bees, clamping their pollen on the deceived visitor's back.

How Adaptations Come About: Natural Selection. Darwin viewed adaptation as the central problem that any theory of evolution had to solve. And his theory of natural selection triumphantly solved it, for it is through natural selection that adaptations come aboutgradually, cumulatively, incrementally honed by selective forces in changing environments over millions of years.Genes and Phenotypes. Natural selection works on genes and the properties that they give rise to. Genes do not present themselves naked to the scrutiny of natural selection. They present tails, fur, muscles, shells; they present the ability to run fast, to be well camouflaged, to attract a mate, to build a good nest. These properties are

called phenotypes or the phenotypic effects of genes. Differences in genes give rise to differences in phenotypic effects. Natural selection acts on genes via phenotypes: genes are perpetuated insofar as they give rise to phenotypes that have selective advantages over competing phenotypes. Thus genes come to be represented in successive generations in proportion to the selective value of their phenotypic effectsthat is, by virtue of the design features, the adaptations, to which they give rise. So adaptations can be thought of as phenotypes that promote the replication of the genes that give rise to those phenotypesas mechanisms that solve design problems and thereby enhance the replication of the genes that give rise to those mechanisms.

Extended Phenotypes. A gene's phenotypic effects do not end with the body, behaviour, brain, or mind of the organism that houses the gene. They can extend beyond that organism, as in, for example, the frozen behaviour of a bird's nest or spider's web; genes in cuckoos manipulating the cuckoo's duped parents; parasitized amphipods (shrimp-like creatures) making themselves dramatically conspicuous to predators who form the next link in their parasites' life-cyclebehaviour fatal to them but good for the parasite.

How design comes about: Darwinian Selection. Natural selection involves random changes (copying errors during replication) acted on differentially by environmental forces, such that replicators flourish or perish down the generations depending on how well they can fare in the environment. This process of random variation, selection, and differential replication is not confined to natural selection. Indeed, it is known to be the only process by which design can come about in the absence of a designer, the only process by which functional organization can emerge naturally without intelligent intervention. Darwin (and his codiscoverer Wallace) made pioneering use of what is now recognized to be a standard solution to the problem of explaining any outcome that simulates deliberate planning.Chance does play a role in evolution, however, in the form of the random element in mutations, and the happenstance of accidents. And, according to the neutral theory of molecular evolution, chance rules many changes at the molecular and genetic level (though without giving rise to phenotypic effects). But, however far chance shapes organisms, it cannot account for adaptations, for the design features of living things.

Pronunciationadaptation [,dptein] camouflage [km,fla:]cumulatively [kju:mjultivli] fastidiously [fstidisli]gene [di:n] intuitively [intju:itivli]leopard [lepd] parasitism [prsai,tizm]phenotype [fintaip] predator [predtr]python [pain]

Vocabulary

(to) account for: to give an explanation beak: cioc, plisc(to)clamp: to fasten with or fix in a clamp [clem]; (to)come about: to happenconspicuous: easily seen or noticed; attracting special attention(to) deceive: to mislead by a false appearance

(to) design: to form or conceive in the mind dupe [dju:p]: to deceive

(to)fare: to eat; to get on [a o duce, a-i merge] happenstance: chance, accident

(to)hone: to sharpen; to enlarge [a largi]

increment [inkrimnt]: profit, gain; act or process of incresing; growth

insofar: to such an extent

livery [livri]: characteristic dress, outward appearance

lure [lur]: to attract, tempt, invite [a atrage, a momi, ademeni, a ispiti] martial eagle: vulturul rzboinicmottle [m tl] : to diversify with spots of a different colour or shademound: an elevation formed of earth, sand, stones etc.; a natural elevation of earthorchid [:kid]: orhidee outcome: that which results from something; the consequence; a conclusionpervade: to extend its presence, activities, influence etc. throughout

- pervasion (n), pervasive (adj) pollinate [p li,neit] : to convey pollen to the stigma of sage grouse [graus]: cocoul de munte nelept scar: the mark left by a healed wound, burnscrutinity: a searching examination or investigation; minute inquiry shell: a hard outer covering of an animal shrimp: [creveta]suitor: one who courts or woos [a face curte, a peti] a womanvervet [v:vit] monkey: maimu sud african

Exercise:

Give the corresponding verbs of the following nouns: selection, adaptation,pollinator, scrutinity, replication, change

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Gleanu, G. Gramatica Limbii Engleze, Bucureti, 19822. Levichi, l . Gramatica Limbii Engleze, Bucureti, 19953. Paidos, C. Gramatica Limbii Engleze, Iai, 19934. Leech, G. English Grammar and Usage, China, 1998 5. Quirk, R. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Languge, London,

19716. Thomson, A.J. A Practical English Grammar. Combined Exercices, vol. 1, 2,

London, 19767. Pawlowska, B. Teste de Limb Englez, Teora, 19998. Pter, M. Teste de Limb Englez, Teora, 19999. Danil, V. Engleza pentru medici, Bucureti, 198110. Roberts, M. B. V. Biology. A Funtional Approach, London, 197111. Armstrong, K. Aids to Anatomy and Physiology, London12. Dobrovici, V. English in Medicine, POLIROM, 199913. Misztal, M. Test Your Vocabulary, TEORA, 199914. Cmeciu, D., Bonta, E. Essential English Topics, PRO HUMANITAS, 1997

ENGLISH FOR STUDENTS OF BIOLOGY Raluca BontaACTIVITY BOOKUNIVERSITY OF BACAU2006

CONTENTSUnit 1The Present Tense SimpleUnit 2Biology: The Science of Our LivesUnit 3The Present Tense Continuous/Progressive Unit 4How to Know the TreesThe Present SimpleI. Form a) Affirmative sentences:Spelling1) verbs ending in a sibilant [s] [z] [] [] [] [] or verbs ending in -o preceded by a consonant2) verbs ending in -y

b) Negative sentences:c) Questions:II. Use1) repeated actions (every day, always, often, sometimes or never)2) things in general3) fixed arrangements, scheduled events (e.g. timetable)4) after special verbs, which are normally not used with the Present Progressive (These verbs express states, possessions, feelings etc.)be, believe, belong, hate, hear, like, love, mean, prefer, remain, realize, see, seem, smell, think, understand, want, wish

The Present Continuous/ProgressiveI. Form a) Affirmative sentences:b) Negative sentences:c) Questions:Spelling1) consonant after a short, stressed vowel at the end of the word2) one -e at the end of the word3) verbs ending in -ie4) verbs ending in -c

Special verbs in the Present Progressive II. Use1) actions happening at the moment of speaking (now, at the moment)2) fixed plan in the near future3) temporary actions4) repeated actions which are irritating to the speaker (with always, constantly, forever)

How to Know the TreesI. Form a) Affirmative sentences:b) Negative sentences:c) Questions:

English Grammar - Irregular verbs (most common)II. Use1) action finished in the past (single or repeated)2) series of completed actions in the past3) together with the Past Progressive/Continuous - The Simple Past interrupted an action which was in progress in the past.Animals and ManPronunciationVocabularyAdditional VocabularyExercises:

The Past Tense Continuous/ProgressiveI. Form a) Affirmative sentences:b) Negative sentences:c) Questions:II. Use1) actions in progress at special time in the past2) two actions happening at the same time (the actions do not influence each other)3) together with the Simple Past4) repeated actions irritating the speaker (with always, constantly, forever)PronunciationVocabularyancestor: forefather, progenitor [strmo, strbun]AdaptationThe Nature of Adaptations. Intuitively, adaptations are familiar to us as those striking aspects of the living world that, as Darwin aptly put it, most justly excite our admiration. Organisms and all their parts have a pervasive air of purpose about them, a highly organized complexity, a precision and efficiency, an ingenious utility.How Adaptations Come About: Natural Selection. Darwin viewed adaptation as the central problem that any theory of evolution had to solve. And his theory of natural selection triumphantly solved it, for it is through natural selection that adaptations come aboutgradually, cumulatively, incrementally honed by selective forces in changing environments over millions of years.PronunciationVocabulary(to) account for: to give an explanationbeak: cioc, plisc(to) design: to form or conceive in the minddupe [dju:p]: to deceive(to)fare: to eat; to get on [a o duce, a-i merge]happenstance: chance, accident(to)hone: to sharpen; to enlarge [a largi] increment [inkrimnt]: profit, gain; act or process of incresing; growthinsofar: to such an extentlivery [livri]: characteristic dress, outward appearancelure [lur]: to attract, tempt, invite [a atrage, a momi, ademeni, a ispiti]