english
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26 Seiten voll mit allem was man für das zentralabitur gk eng hessen 2011 braucht ;)TRANSCRIPT
English gk Hessen eat it.
Jan Oltmer
2011
Layouts
Sehr formal halten, anrede und verabschiedung beachten
Descriptive tasks
cartoon-‐description
comment
phrases, connections, useful verbs Verbindungswörter Hinzufügen: furthermore, above all, in addition, also, too, moreover, then, apart from that, another factor/problem is..., Vergleichen: compared to/with, equally, in comparison with, you can/can't compare it with, in the same way, as...as, both...and, either...or, but, despite/in spite of, in contrast to, whereas Verdeutlichen: in other words, to put it in another way Bedingung: if, besides, unless, (al)though, however, still Textstruktur / Textstil The author begins / starts with... (Der Autor beginnt / startet mit...) At first / At the beginning... (Zuerst / Am Anfang...) The text divides into two/three/four parts/paragraphs. (Der Text ist in zwei/drei/vier Abschnitte eingeteilt.) In the first/second/third/last part of the text the author... (Im ersten/zweiten/dritten/letzten Abschnitt des Textes...) The author uses short / long sentences in order to... (Der Autor gebraucht kurze/lange Sätze, um...) The author employs main clauses to... (Der Autor gebraucht Hauotsätze, um...) The text is written in a humorous / ironical way. (Der Text ist in einer humorvollen/ironischen Art und Weise geschrieben.) The author uses metaphors / metaphorical language to... (Der Autor verwendet Metaphern/macht Gebrauch einer Bildersprache, um...) The author makes use of... (Der Autor macht Gebrauch von...)
repetition (Wiederholung) anaphora (Anapher) comparison (Vergleich) parallelism (Parallelismus) hyperbole (Übertreibung) understatement (Untertreibung)
At the end of the text... (Am Ende des Textes...) Finally... (Schließlich/Letztendlich...) Eventually... (Schließlich/Letztendlich...) Position des Autors The author ...
suggests...(schlägt vor/ suggeriert...) states...(gibt an/legt dar...) refers to...(bezieht sich auf...) supports... (befürwortet...) sides with... (steht auf der Seite von...) sympathizes with (teilt seine Meinung mit...) alludes to... (spielt auf...an) deals with... (setzt sich mit...auseinander.) argues... (argumentiert/behauptet...) underlines... (betont/unterstreicht...) believes... (glaubt...) discusses... (diskutiert...) implies... (erweckt den Eindruck...) points out that... (betont/weist darauf hin/hebt hervor...) claims... (fordert...) illustrates his arguments... (veranschaulicht seine Argumente...) puts forward the thesis that... (stellt/legt die These auf...) presents/defends the thesis that...(präsentiert/verteidigt die These,
dass...) criticizes sb. for... (kritisiert... für...) expresses his point of view... (stellt seine Ansicht...dar.) emphasizes... (betont...) highlights... (hebt hervor...) stresses... (betont...) holds the view that... (vertritt die Ansicht, dass...) agrees to/with... (stimmt mit...überein./teilt die Meinung von...) approves (of)... (stimmt zu...) is in favour of...(ist für...) gives an objective account of... (stellt eine objektive Ansicht von...vor.) draws the conclusion that... (zieht den Schluss, dass...)
Schlussfolgern As a result... (Infolgedessen/Demzufolge/Dementsprechend...) Consequently... (Infolgedessen/Demzufolge/Dementsprechend...) Thus... (Dadurch/Demnach...) Accordingly... (Infolgedessen/Demzufolge/Dementsprechend...) I have come to the conclusion that... (Ich bin zu dem Schluss gekommen, dass...) To sum up... (Um es zusammenzufassen...) Therefore I would say / can agree with... (Deswegen würde ich sagen.../ stimme ich mit...überein.) That is why I would support his/her point of view... (Deswegen würde ich seine/ihre Ansicht über...vertreten.) On the whole... (Im Großen und Ganzen...) All in all... (Alles in allem...) Bildbeschreibung The photo / cartoon by ... is published in... It presents / shows / deals with... In the foreground /background / centre ... can be seen. On the left / right / at the top / bottom ... is shown / depicted. The photo / cartoon expresses ... The intention / aim behind the photo / cartoon is... The message / purpose of the photo / cartoon is... In my opinion the photo / cartoon is convincing / funny / impressive ... because Verben Wunsch / Bitte / Befehl: auffordern to invite beabsichtigen to intend befehlen to order, to command beschließen to decide bitten to ask, to request drängen to urge einwilligen to agree erlauben to allow fordern to demand verbieten to forbid wünschen to wish, to desire
Argumentation / Stellungnahme In my opinion... / In my point of view... I agree with... / I cannot agree with... I would (not) say... I am doubtful whether... I (don't) think... I (don't) believe... secondly / thirdly / finally... Another argument is... One reason is that... With regard to the author’s opinion I think... On the one hand...on the other hand... Possibly, obviously, certainly... Although... Due to... It should be pointed out that... Nevertheless... I am convincend that...because... What I mean is... To my mind... It should be mentioned that... First and foremost... Undoubtedly... In the former case... In the latter case... The next point I want to mention is... The next point to be considered is... We should consider that... I would like to point out that... Another argument to be taken into account is that... Above all I think that...
literature fahrenheit 451 (1953) dystopian novell /science fiction/ fictional/ futuristic Ray Bradburry Key Facts full title · Fahrenheit 451 author · Ray Bradbury type of work · Novel genre · Science fiction language · English time and place written · 1950–1953, Los Angeles, California date of first publication · 1953 (a shorter version entitled “The Fireman” was published in 1951 in Galaxy Science Fiction) publisher · Ballantine Books narrator · Third-‐person, limited omniscient; follows Montag’s point of view, often articulating his interior monologues climax · Montag’s murder of Beatty protagonist · Montag antagonist · Beatty, but also society in general setting (time) · Sometime in the twenty-‐fourth century; there have been two atomic wars since 1990 setting (place) · In and around an unspecified city point of view · Montag’s falling action · Montag’s trip out of the city into the country tense · Past, with occasional transitions into present tense during Montag’s interior monologues and stream-‐of-‐consciousness passages foreshadowing · Montag’s uncanny feelings of prescience; early descriptions of the Mechanical Hound; Montag’s nervous glances toward the ventilator shaft where he has hidden his books; discussion of the qualities of fire tone · Foreboding and menacing, disoriented, poetic, bitterly satirical themes · Censorship, knowledge versus ignorance motifs · Paradoxes, animals and nature, religion, television and radio symbols · Fire, blood, the Electric-‐Eyed Snake, the hearth, the salamander, the phoenix, the sieve and the sand, Denham’s Dentifrice, the dandelion, mirrors
A raisin in the sun (1959) Novel Lorraine Hansberry full title · A Raisin in the Sun author · Lorraine Hansberry type of work · Play genre · Realist drama language · English time and place written · 1950s, New York date of first performance · 1959 date of first publication · 1959 publisher · Random House tone · Realistic setting (time) · Between 1945 and 1959 setting (place) · The South Side of Chicago protagonist · Walter Lee Younger major conflict · The Youngers, a working-‐class black family, struggle against economic hardship and racial prejudice. rising action · Ruth discovers that she is pregnant; Mama makes a down payment on a house; Mama gives Walter the remaining insurance money; Walter invests the money in the liquor store venture. climax · Bobo tells the Youngers that Willy has run off with all of Walter’s invested insurance money; Asagai makes Beneatha realize that she is not as independent as she thinks. falling action · Walter refuses Mr. Lindner’s offer to not move; the Youngers move out of the apartment to their new house in the white neighborhood; Beneatha finds new strength in Asagai. themes · The value and purpose of dreams, the need to fight racial discrimination, the importance of family motifs · Racial identity, the home symbols · “Eat your eggs,” Mama’s plant, Beneatha’s hair foreshadowing · Mrs. Johnson’s news that a black family’s house has been bombed foreshadows the objections that the Clybourne Park Improvement Association will raise to the idea of the Youngers moving in; Walter’s hints to Travis that he is investing the insurance money foreshadow the disappearance of the money
The American Dream then and now The term American Dream was first used by the historian James Truslow Adams in 1931 to explain what had at-‐ tracted millions of people of all nations to settle in America. The concept itself is, of course, much older. The early settlers in America hoped for a better life than the one they had left behind in Europe. Their main reasons for leaving Europe were religious persecution, political oppression and poverty. They dreamt: • the personal dream of freedom, self-‐fulfilment, dignity and happiness, • the economic dream of prosperity and success, the dream of rising from poverty to
fame and fortune i.e. from rags to riches, • the social dream of equality (of opportunity) and a classless society, • the religious dream of religious freedom in a “prom-‐ ised land” in which they were
God’s chosen people, • the political dream of democracy. This American Dream is reflected in basic beliefs and values. In spite of America’s regional and cultural diver-‐ sity, these give the nation its character and are still shared by most Americans today: – freedom
Americans commonly regard their society as the freest and best in the world, superior to every other nation. They like to think of their country as a welcoming haven for those longing for individual freedom and opportunity. Ameri-‐ cans’ understanding of freedom is shaped by the Founding Fathers’ belief that all people are equal and that the role of government is to protect each person’s unalienable rights, including freedom of speech, press and religion.
– individualism
In the early days, the success of most Americans depended on their ability to confront the hardships and challenges of the wilderness on their own. Today, the idealization of the self-‐reliant, self-‐sufficient, independent individual is still alive. Government regulation is often resisted, and it is seen as the individual’s responsibility to make a living and suc-‐ ceed in a competitive society.
– mobility; optimism; flexibility
The pragmatism of Americans and their belief in limitless resources is related to the American tradition of mobility. Settling the West (“going west”) meant making a fresh start in a land of spaciousness (geographical mobility). Today with the same sense of optimism about their chances to succeed, Americans are still prepared to move great dis-‐ tances to improve their lives through a better job or a more pleasant climate. They also accept a high degree of social mobility (upward and downward) on the “ladder of success” as a fact of life, and relate this success primarily to individ-‐ ual achievement and their own flexibility when looking for new opportunities.
– hard work According to the Puritan work ethic, it was the individual’s duty to work hard and to show self-‐discipline. Material success through hard work was seen as a sign of God’s favour and a good education as the key to prosperity.
– progress
From the very beginning, the belief in progress – and the desire to progress personally by making use of opportuni-‐ ties – has been very important to Americans. On a different level, Americans argue that the nation’s progress is re-‐ flected in its growing prosperity, economic strength and political power. Americans have always regarded them-‐ selves as a nation with a mission. Settling the West in the 19th century for example was seen as the nation’s “Mani-‐ fest Destiny” i.e. a manifestation of God’s will that his chosen people spread divine principles. In international terms, Americans tend to see themselves as playing a simi-‐ lar role, i.e. spreading democracy and the Western way of life across the world, and claiming to make progress in this field as well.
– patriotism:
Foreign visitors to America are quick to observe numerous patriotic symbols. American flags are omnipresent, and stickers announce “I’m proud to be an American”. National holidays such as Thanksgiving and Independence Day (4th of July) intensify the sense of national pride.
Historical landmarks of the American Dream 1776: The Declaration of Independence, as the legal foun-‐ dation of the American Dream, states that “all men are cre-‐ ated equal” and that every citizen has “a right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”, thus reinforcing the impor-‐ tance of equal opportunities, freedom and self-‐realisation. 1789: The Constitution establishes the principles of demo-‐ cratic government. 1791: The Bill of Rights restricts the powers of the central, federal government and reinforces the freedom and equality of all American citizens. 1790-‐1890: After the Revolutionary War (1776-‐1783) Americans start to move westward and to settle the vast North American continent. The furthest point of white settlement set up by American pioneer families becomes known as the “frontier”. Surviving in solitude and tough conditions requires the so-‐called frontier spirit, i.e. a strongng sense of self-‐reliance and pragmatism. In 1890, this great historic movement westward finishes with the end of the Indian wars. The historically unique existence of a huge, thinly populated area of free and mostly fertile land, its gradual recession and the advance of civilisation are essen-‐ tial to the American character. 1865: Slavery is legally abolished at the end of the Civil War, under the presidency of Abraham Lincoln. 1869: Full voting rights are given to women in the state of Wyoming. Not until 1920 do all American women get the right to vote. 1870: Voting rights are extended to all adult males of all races. 1933: Franklin D. Roosevelt aims to overcome the extreme poverty and inequalities that resulted from the Great De-‐ pression of the 1920s. His legislation includes work crea-‐ tion programmes, direct relief to the unemployed and a basic national system of social security.
1964: As a result of Martin Luther King’s Civil Rights Movement and his dream of a colour-‐blind society, racial segregation in public places, schools, etc. and job discrimi-‐ nation are banned. Legal discrimination is hereby abolished. 1960s/1970s: The younger generation of Americans in-‐ creasingly rejects the traditional values of their parents and the government. They follow their own dream of individual freedom and the pursuit of pleasure. The American Dream today Critics see the American Dream as a clever political and economic marketing strategy. They want people to get away from selfish individualism and materialism, and to return to community spirit and social responsibility. The huge gap between the rich and the poor in America is obvi-‐ ous, but at the same time the role of state welfare and po-‐ litical intervention in helping weaker members of society remains controversial. “Affirmative action”, however, is a widely practised policy of supporting blacks and single parents, especially in education and work schemes.. In social terms, the concept of a classless society has never really become reality because of the existence of an underclass of people who refuse to join the “rat race” of a competitive, success-‐oriented society. This lower class sees mainstream America as an uncaring dog-‐eat-‐dog society, and themselves as losers in the race for success. In a society marked by a huge diversity in income and lifestyles, the middle class often works long hours, taking on several jobs with hardly any holidays in order to be able to live the American way. The rich enjoy the benefits of material success. In ethnic terms, the various minority groups cope differ-‐ ently with the pressure on the individual in a society which is marked by the ambition to succeed. The Native American population (two per cent of the population) has, to a large extent, never fully adapted to the white lifestyle and system of values. The African-‐American minority (twelve per cent) has split into a small prosperous black middle class and an impoverished underclass. A rapidly growing Hispanic community (13 per cent) largely consists of Mexican-‐ Americans who have illegally immigrated and are often exploited as cheap workers on farms and in private households. A small but growing Asian-‐American commu-‐ nity (five per cent) is mainly made up of academically edu-‐ cated, highly qualified, ambitious professionals who earn a salary far above the national average. The vision of America as a “melting pot of nations” (cf. the Latin motto “e pluribus unum” – one from many – which still today appears on all American coins), in which the foreign immigrants give up their national identity, way of life, culture and language and form a new nation, has never become reality. In the 1960s, the growing self-‐confi-‐ dence of the minorities, their fight against discrimination, and the influx of new ethnic groups who refused to be cul-‐ turally absorbed by American society, has made America look for a new image for this concept. The concept of the “salad bowl” was suggested as more accurate, accepting America as diverse, multi-‐cultural and pluralistic.
Landmarks in British history: The monarchy The past 1066 The Norman Conquest after the Battle of Hastings William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, defeats the Anglo-‐Saxon King Harold and becomes King of England. 1215 The Magna Carta guarantees rights and liberties. It limits the power of the king because the monarch is considered subject to the rule of law, and the church is free from domination by the king. Clause 29 guarantees: “No person shall be [...] deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.” 1534 The Act of Supremacy After the conflict with the Pope in Rome about divorce, Henry VIII separates the English Church from the Roman Catholic Church and establishes the independent Church of England. 1533-‐1603 Queen Elizabeth I In the Elizabethan Age English power and influence increases. Shakespeare writes his plays and English colonisation in America starts. 1599 – 1658 Oliver Cromwell After the successful rebellion against the British monarchy, Oliver Cromwell rules as Lord Protector – the only time England is a republic. After a rebellion by Irish Catholics in 1641, almost all land owned by Irish Catholics is confiscated and given to British settlers in Ireland. 1688 The Glorious Revolution Mary and her Dutch, Protestant husband, William of Orange, are invited by Parliament to replace the Catholic, Stuart king, James II. At the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 William’s troops defeat King James. 1689 With passage of the Bill of Rights England becomes a constitutional monarchy where the king has to refer to Parliament. The document confirms rights such as – no taxation without the agreement of Parliament. – the freedom to bear arms. – the freedom of speech. Roman Catholics are excluded from becoming king or queen. landownership falls from around 14% in 1691 to around 5% in the course of the next century due to penal laws. The present The French-‐speaking Normans, the new ruling class, enriched the English language, especially with terms in the fields of law, administration, science and literature. In modern English, this influence can be seen clearly. The Magna Carta is still part of English law. Instead of a written (codified) constitution, English law relies on the Magna Carta, the Bill of Rights of 1689 and the so-‐called conventions. This fact might become an issue when/if there is a British referendum on the European Constitution. Today Queen Elizabeth is head of the Anglican Church in England, but not in Scotland, Wales or Ireland. The two Queens, Elizabeth I and Elisabeth II and their long reigns have been compared, e.g. rise and fall of the British empire, political and social changes. The statue of Oliver Cromwell is still outside the Palace of Westminster and he ranks 10th in a BBC poll of “Great Britons”. The conflict in Northern Ireland between Protestants and Roman Catholics has a long history. Injustice suffered in the past still influences today’s conflicts in Northern Ireland. The Orange Order, a Protestant organisation in Northern Ireland and Scotland, still marches on the 12th of July to celebrate the Battle of the Boyne. The marches often cause problems because the men march through areas where many Catholics live. The Constitution of the USA relies on a different Bill of Rights (1791). The second amendment of the American Bill of Rights guarantees the current right to bear arms and is an issue in the current discussion about gun laws. “No taxation without
representation” is the slogan used by the settlers in the American colonies. Even today Roman Catholics are explicitly excluded from succeeding to the throne, but since 1828 they are allowed to become Members of Parliament. Catholic1 1707 United Kingdom of Great Britain (= Scotland, England, Wales) 1801 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland 1922 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 1997 After a referendum, the Labour government creates regional parliaments in Scotland and Wales (the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh Assembly) with limited powers of legislation. This process is called devolution. 1819 – 1901 Queen Victoria During her long reign the British empire expands and the Industrial Revolution brings about social, economic and technological changes. Britain becomes the dominant industrial and maritime power of the 19th century. 1931 British Empire → Commonwealth With more and more states claiming independence, the British Empire is replaced by the Commonwealth, which is headed by the British monarch. 1948 Since there are no restrictions for citizens from countries of the Commonwealth, more and more immigrants enter Britain in search of a better life. The ship Windrush sails from Jamaica with almost 500 West Indian immigrants. 1971 The Immigration Act restricts immigration. 1972 Britain accepts 30,000 Asians of Indian origin who were driven from Uganda by its ruler. 1973 The United Kingdom joins the European Union. 1994 The Channel Tunnel connects Britain with Europe. 2002 The United Kingdom chooses not to introduce the Euro. 2006 Britain postpones its referendum on the European Constitution after the French and the Dutch rejected it
Science, technology and the environment: Utopia and dystopia The development of human civilisation The history of science and technology is as old as mankind. Since human beings are naturally curious, they have always tried to comprehend the natural and physical world around them. One of the earliest examples of this is the observation of the stars, the planets and the moon. Man has always used tools to change and manipulate the environment. In this respect gaining the mastery of fire marked an early turning point in the evolution of mankind, because of its many different uses: It provided heat, was used for the preparation of food and made it possible to shape raw materials. The next milestone was the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture, which took place during the latter part of the Stone Age (around the year 8000 BC). The so-‐ cial changes which came with this Agricultural Revolution were enormous. Social groups settled down and became larger, calling for more governmental organisation. Since farming provided a reliable supply of food, not everybody had to collect food any more and some people could become specialised craftsmen. At about the same time, the wheel was invented, which enabled the development of new means of transport and, what was probably more important, helped to harvest energy (e.g. water wheels, windmills). The next major change – the Industrial Revolution – did not take place until the middle of the 18th century, but several inventions and progress in science had prepared the way: the development of the modern printing press by Jo-‐ hannes Gutenberg in the middle of the 15th century, pro-‐ gress in mathematics and chemistry and the discovery of atmospheric pressure, which led to the invention of the steam engine. The relationship between science and tech-‐ nology came closer than ever before. The pace of techno-‐ logical progress on the basis of systematic scientific re-‐ search was increased by the foundation of new colleges for engineering. The changes in society were dramatic. People no longer worked on the land or at home, but in factories built near the coal mines. Towns grew around the factories. Patterns of work changed as manufacturing processes were broken down into smaller parts to make better use of the new production lines. The standard working week was introduced. Steam engines gave working people the oppor-‐ tunity to travel by train to work from dormitory towns. In countries like Britain the Industrial Revolution was com-‐ pleted by the end of the 19th century. The final push into the modern era came with the discovery of electricity, the invention of the automobile and the production of the first synthetics. The most recent dramatic change began in the 1950s. It is sometimes referred to as the Technological Revolution. Our age is sometimes called the Computer Age or the Information Age. Miniaturisation made it possible for the computer to become an everyday object. The power of computers to store and process information has put them at the centre of the new technological age. Another technol-‐ ogy that is changing or could change our lives dramatically is biotechnology. Its three branches, genetics, embryology and microbiology, are considered to be the most important – maybe also the most dangerous – development from the second half of the 20th century.
Controversial attitudes – blessing or curse? Although the majority of the population was still enchanted with technological advances in the 19th century, due to their beneficial effect on the standard of living and on life expectancy, there were already a few warnings. Most tech-‐ nological processes produce unwanted by-‐products (waste and pollution) in addition to the desired products. More-‐ over, new technologies seem to create a set of waste prod-‐ ucts which were previously unknown e.g. radioactive or electronic waste. It is impossible to forecast long-‐term effects of these. Negative effects on the environment (e.g. the greenhouse effect) have become major global challenges today. However, there are also some new technologies designed specifically with the environment in mind (e.g. recycling). But not only the environment has been affected by technological progress. There have been fundamental changes in society, too, e.g. the loss of jobs due to automatic production lines. At the same time the moral and ethical foundations of our society are affected by the con-‐ troversy over progress in biotechnology. The question is whether we have the right to play God. Literary reactions to social and technological changes: Utopia and dystopia The term ‘utopia’ makes a play on two Greek words: eu-‐ topos (good place) – denoting a region of happiness and perfection, as well as ou-‐topos (no place) – naming a region that does not exist anywhere. Sometimes the societies de-‐ scribed are meant to represent the perfect society, and sometimes they are created to satirise existing societies. The term ‘dystopia’ (bad place) has come to be applied to works of fiction which present a very negative imaginary world, thus replacing the older term ‘anti-‐utopia’. Dysto-‐ pian stories project current negative tendencies in society and politics into the future. They are usually meant as a warning. The history of utopian/dystopian fiction The first utopia was Plato’s Republic. Written in 400 BC, it presents in dialogue form the idea of an ideal common-‐ wealth. In 1516 Thomas More, an Englishman, wrote a book in Latin about a perfect society on an imaginary is-‐ land. The book was called Utopia, which is also the first time this term was used. The society he describes can be re-‐ garded as a primitive form of communism where private property has been abolished, education is available to eve-‐ ryone, men and women are equal and religion can be prac-‐ tised freely. The second half of the 19th century saw another in-‐ crease in utopian fiction. Most of the works were triggered by the harsh economic conditions brought about by the Industrial Revolution and the development of commercial-‐ ism and capitalism. This also led to pessimistic visions of the future beginning to show up in literature. The 20th century with its opportunity for a planned society was dominated by bitterly anti-‐utopian, or dysto-‐ pian, fiction. The most prominent novels were Huxley’s Brave New World and Orwell’s 1984. Huxley describes a society which at first sight is perfect: people in the Brave New World enjoy a high standard of living and there is political and economic stability. The standard of living in Orwell’s 1984, however, is much lower than the one enjoyed by most protagonists in his contemporaries’ works. An elaborate system of instruments and strategies helps to control and manipulate the population. The dystopian so-‐ cieties described in these two and other later novels have certain common traits: there is a lack of democracy; the individual is suppressed; there is a strict conformity among citizens; social mobility is non-‐existent. Furthermore, mod-‐ ern dystopian fiction has another typical characteristic: The societies depicted seem familiar to the reader, who can identify trends or patterns in his world that would lead to the dystopia. For example, George Orwell’s 1984 shows a society where privacy does not exist and citizens are con-‐ stantly watched by Big Brother. It was intended as a warn-‐ ing against totalitarian regimes. Another trend in the second half of the 20th century was the popularity of science fic-‐ tion and fantasy promoted by the possibilities which mod-‐ ern forms of media e.g. film, offered. The dividing lines between these two genres and between utopia/dystopia are blurry. Occasionally utopian and dystopian fiction is re-‐ garded as one branch of ‘speculative fiction’, which also includes science fiction and fantasy.
Post-colonialism and migration: UK A brief look at history From Empire to Commonwealth Between 1945 and 1965 most of the former colonies of the British Empire, which had a population of 500 million, became independent. In 1947, when the British left India, it was divided into a Hindu state (India) and a smaller Muslim state (Pakistan). Most of the former colonies remained in the Commonwealth. After the Second World War The largest number of immigrants to Britain after the Sec-‐ ond World War were inhabitants of the British Empire and the Commonwealth. During the war they came from all over the world to serve in the armed forces or on merchant ships. When the war ended some remained in Britain. Asylum seekers Later groups of immigrants came from African countries, Sri Lanka, the Middle East and more recently former Yugo-‐ slavia and Rumania. They were asylum seekers, and people who were refugees from war or seeking employment in Britain to escape the poverty in their home countries. The influx of asylum seekers has continued up to today Immigrants from the Commonwealth At the end of the Second World War there was a labour shortage in Britain. Being inhabitants of the British Empire and later the Commonwealth, the first people who were free to settle in Britain were from the Caribbean and the Indian subcontinent. In 1948 the British Nationality Act gave all Commonwealth citizens the right to enter Britain, work and vote. Hospitals, transport and the postal services recruited immigrants to build up their labour force. Immigration and growing racism in the 1960s From the beginning of the 1960s onwards there was a mas-‐ sive rise in immigration. Political campaigns called for immigration control. Racism among the population grew. The National Front, a right-‐wing political party with ex-‐ treme and reactionary views on immigration, was founded in 1967. Immigration and growing racial tensions in the 1970s In the 1970s racial tension and violence continued to grow in areas with a high concentration of people from ethnic minorities. ‘Skinheads’ attacked Pakistanis (‘Paki-‐bash-‐ ing’), and black youths clashed violently with the police. The Immigration Act of 1971 set out new rules restricting immigration. The 1976 Race Relations Act was imple-‐ mented to enforce racial equality and make discrimination illegal. Restrictions on immigration in the 1980s In the 1980s immigration became further restricted. In 1986 visa controls were introduced for visitors from African countries, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.
Efforts of integration in the 1990s In the 1990s efforts to integrate ethnic minorities were intensified. There were non-‐white Members of Parliament, and a first black trade union leader was elected. A ‘Muslim Parliament’ was opened in 1992. At the same time race-‐ related riots kept flaring up in places with large ethnic communities. Access for asylum seekers was restricted more and more. The present situation Ethnic minorities in Britain According to the 2001 census, the largest ethnic minority in Britain are people of Indian descent. The second-‐largest ethnic minority are people of Pakistani descent, followed by people of mixed ethnic descent, Black Caribbean, Black African and Bangladeshi descents. Together these groups make up 7.9 per cent of the UK population. About half of the members of these ethnic minorities were born in Brit-‐ ain. Most of them live in England, and about 45 per cent of the total population of ethnic minorities live in the London area. Attitudes toward immigration Most British citizens welcome or at least accept immi-‐ grants. As in some other European countries, Britain needs immigrants. Without them the workforce could diminish in a population in which the percentage of pensioners is increasing. For this reason a carefully managed migration policy is believed to hold economic advantages. Citizenship and language The government wants newly arrived immigrants seeking British citizenship to integrate and become active members of the society. Therefore it promotes the learning of lan-‐ guage skills and practical knowledge about the United Kingdom and the British way of life. Integration, not assimilation The government aims at improving the immigrants’ em-‐ ployment prospects and skills. The idea is that integration is important but does not mean complete assimilation (the “melting pot”). Immigrants are not expected to lose their national characteristics but to have shared identities. Their strongly held ethnic and religious identities can exist along-‐ side their British identity. In a multicultural society cultural diversity thrives in an atmosphere of mutual tolerance. Tolerance and the multicultural society Taking into account particular religious and ethnic habits, attitudes, behaviour and traditions is, without a doubt, a question of tolerance. However, this tolerance is limited by the basic laws and moral principles that govern the nation. In the western world sharia law, which gives women a permanent status of inferiority and men overwhelming power, is usually thought to be unacceptable or even offensive.
Muslims in Britain In the light of conflicts in the Middle East, Kashmir and Afghanistan, British Muslims may feel a strong sense of solidarity with Muslims around the world. Especially since the events of September 11, 2001, a more critical spotlight has been turned on British Muslims. A growing number of Britons believe that the British Muslim community needs to do more to integrate itself into mainstream culture. Many Muslims, on the other hand, believe that the general public sees Muslims as separate and different from the rest of the population and even complain about a high level of Islamophobia. Integration and the younger generation of Muslims A majority of moderate Muslims think of themselves first and foremost as British Muslims, rather than only as Mus-‐ lims. This reflects the immigrant experience of the older generation for whom becoming British citizens was a major milestone in their lives. But there is some evidence that the younger generation of British Muslims, most of whom were born in Britain, are less willing to integrate or may reject the idea of integration altogether. A minority of them are even likely to say that their community is too integrated. These young radicals rebel not only against British society, but also against their own community and its more moder-‐ ate leaders. For them Islam has a strong appeal. Instead of following their parents’ path of job, integration and material prosperity, they turn to religion to give their life meaning. They feel as alienated from their parents’ culture as they do from secular British mainstream culture. They lead “parallel lives” in a separate community. Radicalised by fundamentalist imams, they reject Western culture and values as inferior and idealise Islamic culture, sharia law and jihad.
Globalisation and global challenges A. Globalisation Globalisation (or globalization) refers to the worldwide change on an economic, technological and cultural level. It also refers to the growing interaction between cultures and economies in what is often called a global village. This change is becoming visible in the increasing global mobil-‐ ity of people (including tourists, immigrants, refugees and business travellers), and in the global flows of money and goods between international markets and production sites. Globalisation also shows itself in the global spread (and clash) of ideas and values, and in the global distribution of information that appears on computer screens, in newspa-‐ pers, on television and on the radio. The process of globalisation after World World II has been made possible by technological progress, especially in communications and in production methods. This process has taken place against the background of a period of undis-‐ rupted peace and stability in the Western world. It has also been supported by the growing influence of international organisations. Effects on the industrialised countries Growing competition: With the constant pressure to cut costs in a free market economy, by simplifying hiring and firing or privatising state-‐owned companies, there is a clear priority for efficiency, speed and profits. Changes in working conditions and job opportunities: These often lead to things like longer working hours and fewer holidays, lower wages with poorer working condi-‐ tions, rising unemployment and early retirement, a demand for greater flexibility, higher mobility and better qualifica-‐ tions, or more part-‐time and temporary work instead of jobs for life. Advantages and hopes In the developing countries the population hopes for new jobs, for example in the local branches of multinational companies, and businessmen expect new opportunities and markets. The market economy is generally seen as a suc-‐ cessful economic system which will hopefully result in rising living standards and less poverty. Basic global trends In the industrial world the hope is that through inter-‐ 1. Economic globalisation: Signs of economic globalisa-‐ tion are, for example, the existence of global players, i.e. multinational companies that produce wherever labour and overhead costs are cheapest, and then sell throughout the global market, thus maximising their profits and expanding trade. The increase in mergers between international com-‐ panies, which create huge corporations operating world-‐ wide, has led to a rise in international trade and foreign direct investment, promoted, among others, by the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Capital flows around the world much more easily, a trend which is also encouraged by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) which give loans (often interest-‐free) to finance infrastructure projects and other development programmes. 2. Technological globalisation: Over the last 30 years we have observed rapid technological change. The microelec-‐ tronics revolution has changed human contact on earth for ever. Distances are shrinking, and information is spreading faster than ever before. The Internet, the World Wide Web and communications satellites have helped this process, making it possible for everybody to communicate more easily and efficiently across national boundaries.
3. Cultural globalisation: The new channels of communi-‐ cation have also helped to spread a largely commercial culture. Hollywood and Bollywood movies and American-‐ style youth culture attract millions of people worldwide. Another sign of cultural globalisation is the spread of fast-‐ food chains and ethnic restaurants all over the world. national trade and new business opportunities, they will be able to preserve national social standards and income lev-‐ els. In addition, the spread of freedom, democracy and human rights makes people hope for fewer wars and other conflicts worldwide. For humankind as a whole the increasing opportunities for exchange on a personal level may ideally lead to a greater understanding and friendship among “world citizens”. Ideally, this could lead to a peaceful, borderless world of shared universal values and general economic prosperity. Criticism and fears In the developing countries a lot of people fear an increasing dependence on foreign support, investment and credits, or they warn against the danger of foreign investors suddenly pulling out their capital. Some see political danger in the strenghtening of corrupt governments, others point out negative cultural influences or even manipulation through the mass media. In the industrial world experts predict both the erosion of national cultures in Europe and massive illegal immigration. In economic terms, the increasing power of multinational companies is problematic because they can no longer be controlled by elected governments. For humankind as a whole there is the fear that the ma-‐ jority of people will not profit from globalisation. Largely uncontrolled economic activities are expected to produce increasing inequality as well as a growth in regional and ethnic tensions, or in pollution. According to the critics, the “survival of the fittest” could become the slogan of an in-‐ human, competitive global world. They warn against re-‐ duced cultural diversity and the destruction of local cul-‐ tures. This so-‐called Westernisation/Americanisation of the world is predicted to widen the gap between rich and poor. It might also encourage suspicion, resentment and xeno-‐ phobia in less powerful nations which feel overrun by strong global economies. B. Global challenges Poverty Today one of the greatest challenges for mankind is bridg-‐ ing the gap between the rich and the poor. Poor people often do not have access to employment, basic health care, education and essential commodities such as food, clothing, shelter and water. Possible ways to narrow this gap are debt relief, economic development and fair trading conditions for developing countries. Ecological issues Pollution: The industrialised nations cause most of the environmental problems which the world faces. These include air pollution (through industrial emissions and exhaust gases), water pollution (through chemical waste produced by factories and private households), soil pollu-‐ tion (through the use of herbicides, pesticides and fertilisers in intensive farming), and the production of waste that is neither recyclable nor biodegradable.
Global warming: Greenhouse gases prevent a natural process which keeps the Earth’s average surface tempera-‐ ture at about 15 degrees centigrade. These gases allow solar radiation to pass through the Earth’s atmosphere. At the same time they stop most of the Earth’s infrared radiation from escaping into outer space. This ‘greenhouse effect’ is intensified by increasing global economic activity. More heat-‐trapping gases (i.e. emissions produced by industry, the burning of fossil fuels, transport and deforestation) are released into the atmosphere and these increase global warming. One possible consequence of global warming is that polar ice will melt, causing sea levels to rise, and flooding coastal areas. Another is that the climate will change. New deserts will be formed and “freak” weather conditions like hurricanes, heatwaves and droughts will occur more frequently. Towards ‘sustainable development’ – international conferences In 1992, a UN conference called the Earth Summit ’92, considered the urgent need for development in Third World countries. In Agenda 21 it laid down the principles of sus-‐ tainable development (i.e. development that meets the needs of the present without destroying the ability of future generations to meet their own needs): “Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent and indi-‐ visible.” The sustainable development of a country means building markets and creating jobs, including everybody in this process and giving everybody a choice in deciding about their own future. In September 2000, 147 world leaders met at the Millennium Summit to discuss ways of reducing poverty and improving people’s lives. They drew up a list of goals to be met by 2015. They promised to fight extreme poverty and hunger, to achieve basic schooling for all children, to promote gender equality and support women, to reduce child mortality, to fight HIV/AIDS, malaria and other dis-‐ eases, to ensure environmental sustainability and to develop a global partnership. Global political players America’s global role in the 21st century: With the col-‐ lapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, the US became the only political superpower in the world. As a result, it took on the role of ‘global policeman’, starting with the Gulf War (1991). Following the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Centre in New York and the Pentagon on 11th September 2001, President Bush declared war on terrorism. The unstable Middle East region with its explosive mix of poverty, oil interests, nuclear capacity, radical followers of Islam and international terrorism is America’s area of chief concern at the beginning of the 21st century. The US have tried to control these various dangers and to build up democratic and free societies in unstable areas by using diplomacy, treaties, trade contracts, economic pressure and military interventions. By intervening militarily in Afghani-‐ stan and Iraq, the US has also demonstrated that they are prepared to use their military power in their own self-‐ interest. The United Nations was founded after the end of World War II by the victorious world powers who hoped that it would act to prevent conflicts between nations and to make future wars impossible. The UN aims to promote peace, justice, human rights and economic development. It pro-‐ vides a framework for cooperation in international security through peace-‐keeping forces and humanitarian assistance. Non-‐government organisations: Greenpeace is known for its use of nonviolent, direct action campaigns to stop things like nuclear testing, high seas whaling, global warming and genetic engineering. Amnesty International is an international, non-‐ governmental organisation which aims to promote human rights, i.e. to free all prisoners of conscience, to ensure fair and prompt trials for political prisoners, to abolish the death penalty, torture and other ways of treating prisoners which it regards as cruel, and to end political killings and forced disappearances.
Australia Keinen boock