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[EH37] prefixes and suffixes

Prexes and sufxes

1. PrexesA prex is a group of letters at the beginningof a word which changes the word’s meaning.Here is a list of the most common prexes andexamples of how those prexes are used.

Anglo- relating to the UK or Englandan Anglophile (= someone who loves England)

ante- before or in front ofantedate • antenatalanti- 1 opposed to or against anti-racist laws

2 preventing or destroying an anti-aircraft missile auto- 1 operating without being controlled by humans

autopilot (= a computer that directs an aircraft)2 selfan autobiography (= a book that someone writesabout their own life)

bi- two bilingual (= speaking two languages)• bimonthly (= happening twice in a month or onceevery two months)

centi- , cent- hundred a centimetre • a centuryco- with or together a co-author • to coexist contra- against or opposite to contradict (= say the

opposite) • contraception (= something that is used

to prevent pregnancy)counter- opposing or as a reaction toa counter-attack

(= an attack on someone who has attacked you)cross- 1 across cross-border 2 including different

groups or subjects a cross-party committee (= oneformed from many political parties) •cross-cultural

cyber- involving, using or relating to computers,especially the Internetcybercrime • cyberculture

de- to take something awaydeforestation (= when thetrees in an area are cut down)

dis- not or the opposite of dishonest • to disagreee- electronic, usually relating to the Internetemail

• e-commerce. Note: ‘e-’ is usally joined onto a wordwith a hyphen (as ine-commerce) but email is usuallywritten without a hyphen

eco- relating to the environmenteco-friendly tourism(= tourism that does not damage the environment)

en- 1 used to form verbs that mean to put into or ontosomething encase • encircle 2 used to form verbs thatmean to cause to be somethingenable • endear

Euro- relating to Europe Europop(= modern, youngpeople’s music from Europe)

ex- from before anex-boyfriend • an ex-bossextra- outside of or in addition toextracurricular

activities (= activities that are in addition to the usual

school work)geo- of or relating to the Earth geophysics • geologyhyper- having a lot of or too much of a quality

hyperactive • hypersensitive(= more than normallysensitive)

ill- in a way that is bad or not suitableill-prepared• an ill-judged remark

in-, il-, im-, ir- not incorrect • illegal • impossible• irregular

inter- between or among international

• an interdepartmental meeting intra- within an intranet kilo- a thousand a kilometre • a kilogrammega- 1 informal extremelymegarich

(= extremely rich) 2 one million40 megabytesmicro- very smalla microchip • microscopic(= extremely small)mid- in the middle ofmid-July. • a man in his

mid-forties • mid-afternoon/-morning milli- a thousandth a millisecond mini- smalla miniskirt (= very short skirt) •a minibusmis- not or badly mistrust • to misbehavemono- one or singlemonolingual • a monologuemulti- manya multi-millionaire • a multi-storey car parkneo- new neo-fascistsnon- not, or the opposite ofnon-alcoholic drinks

• non-smokersomni- everywhere or everythingomnipresent

• omniscient out- more than or better than to outgrow • to outnumber

• to outdo someone (= to show that you are better thansomeone)

over- too much to overeat • overpopulated photo- connected with or produced by light photosensitive • photosynthesis

poly- many polygamy (= having more than one husband

or wife at the same time) •a polygon (= shape with a lotof sides)post- after or later than postwar • a postgraduatepre- before or earlier than pre-tax prots • pre-school pro- supporting pro-democracy demonstrationspseudo- falsea pseudonym (= false name used

especially by a writer) • pseudo-academic psycho- of the mind or mental processes psychologyquasi- partly quasi-religious ideasre- again to remarry • a reusable container retro- looking at or copying the pastretrograde

• retrospective

self- of or by yourself or itself self-doubt • self-critical semi- half or partlya semicircle • semi-frozensocio- relating to society socio-economic sub- 1 under or below subzero temperatures

2 less important or a smaller part of a larger wholea subsection

super- extremely or more than usuala supermodel• super-rich

tele- over a long distance, done by phone, or on or fortelevision the telecommunications industry

thermo- relating to heat or temperature athermostat (= piece of equipment that controls temperature)• a thermometer

trans- 1 across transatlantic ights 2 showinga change to transform • to translate

tri- three a triangle • a tripod ultra- extremelyultra-modern architecture

• ultra-carefulun- not or the opposite of unhappy • unfair under- 1 not enough undercooked potatoes

• underprivileged children 2 below underpass

Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 3rd edition



Homographs: words that are spelled the same

Homographs are words that have the same spelling but have different pronunciationand meaning. In the examples here, the pronunciation is shown at the end of each

example.

bowThe actors came back on stage and took abow . /baυ/

He learned to hunt with a bow and arrow.UK /bəυ/ US /boυ/

closeClose your eyes and count to ten.UK /kləυz/ US /kloυz/

Please keep close to the path, it’s easy to get lost.UK /kləυs/ US /kloυs/

contentSoft drinks have a high sugar content.UK / k n.tent/ US / k n.tent/

I was content just to stay at home and read. /kən tent/

contract

Your muscles will contract if you get cold./kən tr kt/The new export contract is worth £16 million.UK / k n.tr kt/ US / k n.tr kt/

desert He was planning to desert his family and go abroad. UK /d z t/ US /d z rt/ It hasn’t rained in this part of the desert

for years. / dez.ət/leadJust follow the signs and they will lead

you to the exit. /li d/Gold is heavier than lead. /led/

minuteCan I speak to you for a minute, Mr Trent? / m n t/We’ve got a small house with a minute

garden.UK /ma nju t/ US /ma nu t/

objectThis small stone object is over 5000 yearsold.UK / b.d kt/ US / b.d kt/

I strongly object to these cuts in public spending. /əb d ekt/

projectThe housing project will create 5000 newhomes.UK / pr d .ekt/ US / pr .d ekt/

He’s trying to project a more condent image. /prə d ekt/

refuse I won’t do it – I absolutely refuse ! /r fju z/ Put empty bottles here and other refuse inthe bin. / ref.ju s/

row I had a blazing row with my girlfriend last night. /raυ/

I looked quickly along the row of books.UK /rəυ/ US /roυ/

tearShe noticed a tear in the corner of his eye.UK /t ə r/ US /t r/To open the packet, tear along the dotted line. UK /teə r/ US /ter/

usedThere used to be a farm here, years ago./ju st/

Explosives were used to enter the building

/ju zd/windWind speeds reached 102mph last night./w nd/You have to wind the handle to the left./wa nd/

wound He wound the rope around his arm./waυnd/

In the ght, one young man received aknife wound. /wu nd/


© Cambridge University Press 2008



Homophones – words that sound the same

Homophones are words that sound the same but have a different meaning andspelling. For example:

My son is a doctorThe sun is really hot today.

The common homophones on this page are grouped according to the sound that isspelled differently. Words marked UK only sound similar in British English. If wordsare in dark type (e.g. grate – great ) they are common causes of mistakes for learners.

ibean – beenbe – bee

feat – feetea – eeheel – he’ll – healleak – leekmeat – meetpeace – piecepeak – peekpeal – peelreed – readsea – seeseam – seemseen – scenesteal – steelsuite – sweetweak – weekweave – we’ve

UK US rboard – boredcaught – court UK coarse – coursehoarse – horsesauce – source UK saw – soar UK sort – sought UK warn – worn

ebale – bailbrake – breakgrate – great

male – mailpain – panepair – pearpray – preyrain – reign – reinsale – sailslay – sleighstake – steakSunday – sundaetale – tailwail – whalewait – weightwaste – waist

way – weigh

UK aυ US oυgroan – grownhole – wholeknow – noloan – loneroad – rode – rowedrole – rollrow – roe

sew – sosole – soul

ə

altar – altercurrant – currentgorilla – guerrillaidol – idlemanner – manorminer – minor

aaisle – I’ll – isleaye – eye – I

buy – by – byedye – diehi – highhire – higherrye – wrysight – siteright – writetyre – tire

UK ea r US er

air – heirfair – farebare – bearpair – pearstair – starethere – they’re – theirware – wear – where

ublew – blue

ew – u – uethrew – throughto – too – two





Letter writing

A business letter Here is an example of a typical business letter, showing how you arrange the different parts onthe page. On the opposite page there is an example of a letter that you might write to a friend.

This is the letterhead . It cango on the left, right or in thecentre. In the US it is oftenon the left.

This is the name andaddress of the person youare sending the letter to.

This is the date.

This is the salutation .You do not need to put acomma here. In US lettersyou should use a colon afterthe name of the person.

This is the subject heading ,a summary of the contents ofthe letter. It helps the reader

to understand quickly whatthe letter is about.

There is no space here at thebegining of a new paragraph.In US letters you shouldindent the rst line of eachnew paragraph.

You do not need to put

commas afterDear Siror Madam orYoursfaithfully . But if you chooseto put a comma afterDearSir or Madam , you shouldput one after Yoursfaithfully as well. US letters

Manesty Clothes Ltd15 Clifton Court

Manchester MR3 5PYEngland, UK

Tel: +44 (0)161 932 2628Fax: +44 (0)161 932 2884

Email: [email protected]

Production ManagerSuntrek FabricsBox 167Brown Street POSingapore

2nd January 2008

Dear Sir or Madam

Re: Visit to Singapore

I am now planning my ne x t trip to Southeast Asia, and would be very pleased if wecould meet to discuss our production requirments for next year.

I hope to be in Singapore on May 3 or 4. Would it be convenient to visit you on May3 at 10.30am? I would be grateful if you could tell me exactly where your ofces arelocated.

I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours faithfully

Christine Burrows

C. BurrowsSenior Buyer




word families

Common phrases used in formal and informal letters

Formal Informal

Thank you for your letter of22 Januaryconcerning…

Just a quick note to say…

I am writing to inquire about… I just wanted to say…I am writing to inform you that… I thought I’d drop you a line to say…

I am pleased to inform you that… (It was) lovely to get your letter.

I regret to inform you that… Thank you / thanks so much for your letter.

I hope this information has been of use. Give my love to Peter.

Please give my regards to Peter Hogan. Say hi / hello to Peter from me.

Thank you for all you have done. It would be nice to meet up in the summer.

I look forward to hearing from you soon. We’d love to see you again soon.

Thanks once again for the delicious lunch.

Hope to hear from you soon.

Hope to see you before long.

4 t h F e b 20 0 8

D e a r J o ,

J u s t a q u i c k w o r d t o t h a n k y o u f o r a b r i l l i a n t

w e e k e n d . I t w a s l o v e l y t o s e e y o u a g a i n a n d

t h e k i d s r e a l l y e n j o y e d g o i n g r o u n d L o n d o n –

h o p e w e d i d n ’ t t i r e y o u o u t t o o m u c h !

I t w o u l d b e g r e a t t o s e e y o u u p i n L i v e r p o o l

s o m e t i m e – i t ’s a g e s s i n c e y o u ’ v e b e e n . W e ’ l l

b e c e l e b r a t i n g J i m ’ s f o r t i e t h ( ! ) i n S e p t e m b e r ,

a n d i t w o u l d b e g r e a t i f y o u c o u l d c o m e . An y w a y , l e t m e k n o w n e a r e r t h e t i m e i f y o u

c a n m a k e i t .

T a k e c a r e , h o p e t o s e e y o u s o o n .

L o v e ,

C l a r e x x x

An informal letter

Notes:In an informal letteryou do not usually write

your address but you writethe date.

The style is much closer tospeech than in a formalletter. You can use shortforms such asdidn’t and I’m. In a formal letter youwould not use these.




Units of measurement

The international system of metric units of measurement is not used in the US. It is used in Britain,but many people also still use the older system of imperial units such as pounds, feet and gallons.

Some units have the same name but mean different amounts in Britain and the US. Somespellings are different in UK and US English too. For instance words that end in ‘metre / litre, etc.’in UK English end ‘meter / liter, etc.’ in US English.

Imperial Metric

Length & Distance 1 inch 2.5 centimetres

1 foot (= 12 inches) 30 centimetres

1 yard (= 3 feet) 90 centimetres

5 miles 8 kilometres (UK)8 kilometers (US)

Area 11 square feet 1 m2

5 acres 2 hectares

1 square mile 250 hectares

Weight & Volume 1 ounce 30 grams

1 pound (= 16 ounces) 450 grams

(UK) 1 stone (= 14 pounds) 6.5 kilograms

1 pint 0.6 litres (UK), 0.5 liters (US)

1 gallon (= 8 pints) 4.5 litres (UK), 3.5 liters (US)

Temperature Fahrenheit Celsius

Freezing point 32°F 0°C

Body temperature 98.6°F 37°C

Boiling point 212°F 100°C

Imperial Metric

Abbreviations inch in or " centimetre cm

foot ft or ' metre (UK) meter (US) m

mile m kilometre (UK) kilometer (US) kmounce oz hectare ha

pound lb gram g

pint pt kilogram kg

gallon gal litre (UK) liter (US) l




Uses Examples

Apostrophe •

for missing letters I’ll (I will), it’s (it is), don’t (do not)• for possessives Noah’s bikeNote:

1. words ending in ‘s’ don’t James’ houseneed another ‘s’ added

2. it’s can only be an It’s raining.abbreviation for it is or it Paris never loses its charm.has . There is no apostrophein the possessive form.

colon • to introduce a list or a You need the following: paint,quotation in a sentence brushes, water, cloths.

• in the US following the Dear Customer:greeting in a business Dear Mr Stein:letter

semi-colon • to separate two parts of I spoke to Linda on Monday;a sentence she can’t come to the meeting

tomorrow.hyphen • to join two words blue-black

together• to show that a word has Everyone in the room was

been divided and struck by his air of sadness.continues on the next line

dash • to separate parts of The car – the one with thesentences broken window – was parked

outside our house.• to mean to The London – Edinburgh train

leaves every morning at eight.

quotation • to show that words are ‘I’m tired,’ she said.marks/ spoken “Let’s go,” he suggested.UK also • to show that someone else She had described the school inverted originally wrote the words as ‘not attracting the best commas Note: Single quotation marks pupils’.

are more usual in UK English,and double quotation marksare more usual in US English.

,

:

;

-

–

‘ ’“ ”





Symbols

These two pages shows you the names for some of the common symbols that you will see inwriting. They also show you how to describe types of printing, symbols from other languages,and the commonest mathematical symbols.

Common symbols

& ampersand. This symbol is read as ‘and’

© copyright symbol

• bullet point

UK tick , US check

@ This symbol is read as ‘at’ and is used inemail addresses.

" This symbol is read as ‘ditto’ and is used in alist to avoid writing a word if the same wordis written immediately above it.

* asterisk

™ trademark symbol

® registered trademark

cross

Accents

é e acute è e grave ô o circumex

ä a umlaut ñ n tilde ç c cedilla

Different forms of print

underlined text italic text UPPER CASE

bold text highlighted text lower case




+ 1 + 2 = 3 1 plus 2 = 3 or 1and 2 is 3

− 3 − 1 = 2 3minus 1 = 2 or 3take away 1 is 2 or 1from 3 = 2

× 2 × 3 = 6 2multiplied by 3 = 6 or 2times 3 = 6 or two threes are six

÷ 6 ÷ 2 = 3 6divided by 2 = 3 or 2into 6 is 3

= 2 + 2 = 4 2 + 2equal(s) 4 or 2 + 2make(s) 4

≠ x ≠ 2 x is not equal to 2 or x does not equal 2

≈ x ≈ 2 x is approximately equal to 2

> x > 2 x is greater than 2

≥ x ≥ 2 x is greater than or equal to 2

< x < 2 x is less than 2

≤ x ≤ 2 x is less than or equal to 2

2 22 = 4 2 squared is 4

√ √4 = 2 the (square) root of 4 is 2

3

23

= 8 2 cubed is 83√ 3√8 = 2 the cube root of 8 is 2

4 24 = 16 2 to the power of 4 is 16

± ± 4 plus or minus 4

¼ a quarter or one quarter

½ a half or one half ¾ three quarters

5 ¾ ve and three quarters

0.1 nought point one (UK), zero point one (US)

3.15 three point one ve

% 25% 25 per cent

° 90° 90 degrees

Mathematical symbols



Telephoning

These are some of the words that you will need if you phone (or telephone ) someone:

Parts of a phone numberIf you phone a number such as 00 44 (0)181 8379292 there are three parts to thenumber.

The numbers in a phone number are usually pronounced separately: 90233 ispronounced “nine oh two double three”.

If you don’t know the number you can look it up in the phone book/telephonedirectory , or dial directory enquiries (UK ) / directory assistance (US ) and askthe operator . The operator works for the phone company, giving you informationand connecting your call if necessary. Usually all phone calls can be made withouttalking to the operator.

If you phone a large company or organization you may speak to someone in a callcentre . This is a large ofce where hundreds of people work answering phone calls.

A reverse charge call (UK ) / collect call (US ) is paid for by the person who receivesit, not by the person who makes the call.

Some people have an answerphone (MAINLY UK )/ answering machine(MAINLY US ) which plays a recorded message to you if nobody is able to answerwhen you phone. In a company or ofce many people have an electronic systemcalled voicemail .

Notice the following uses of through :Can I call Japan direct from here, or do I have to go through the operator?The lines were really busy and I couldn’t get through to the airport.Can you put me through to Miss Shaw on extension 342, please?

Common phrases meaning to phone someoneShe said she’d phone/telephone/call/ring (you) tomorrow.

I’ll give you a ring/call/phone call . I need to make a call/phone call (to Brazil).

Common phrases used when phoning someoneCould/Can I speak to Mr Carter, please?

Is that Karen? Hi, this is Barbara/Barbara here.

Phone problems I’ve been trying to get Sonia all morning but her line is always engaged ( UK)/ busy

(US). I think you’ve got a wrong number – this is 654731.The line’s busy – do you want to hold the line/hold (on) ?

It’s a bad/terrible line , I can hardly hear you. Can you speak a bit louder? Hello, can you connect me to Katie Moore again? We were cut off in the middle of our call.

I tried to use the public phone but it’s out of order .

00 44 is thecountry code

(0)181 is thearea code

8379292 is thephone number




[EH26]common mistakes

Writing essaysThe language that we use for writing essays

is often more formal than the language thatwe use in conversation. The next four pagesgive you help with the more formaltype of language that is usually used inwriting. They give words and phrasesthat will help you to write your ideasclearly and naturally, and in a way that issuitable for an essay.

An example essayYou could be asked to write many differenttypes of essays in English during the courseof your studies. These may include factualessays, descriptive essays or stories. You mayalso be asked to write letters, emails, reportsor pages from a diary as writing exercises.

The phrases below all relate to the languageyou might want to use in a discursive essay(= an essay in which you are asked to discusssomething). The title of the example essay is:‘Despite the increased availability of ‘healthy’ food and our greater knowledge of what makesa healthy diet, we are fatter and less healthythan ever before.’ Discuss.

Before you startMake sure you understand what you are

expected to do in writing the essay. If you donot understand some words, look them up inthis dictionary. It might help for you to putthe essay title into more simple language – theprocess of doing this will help you to be surethat you understand it. Another way of writingthis essay title might be: Although we knowmore about healthy food and healthy eatingthan ever before, we are fatter and less healthy

than ever before.In a discursive essay, you will have to writeabout the things you agree or disagree withabout the title of the essay, give your reasonsfor your opinions, and nally state what yourconclusions (= your nal opinions) are, basedon the things you have discussed

Saying what you agree with

You will rst need to read the essay titlecarefully, and decide what you agree ordisagree with about it or whether you thinkit is true. Use these words and phrases to saywhat you agree with or what you think is trueabout the statement:

Certainly . . .It is certainly true that . . .It is certainly the case (= true) that . . .

Examples:Certainly more people than ever before areoverweight.It is certainly the case that we know moreabout healthy eating than ever before.

Giving reasons for why you think some-thing is true

Use these phrases to give reasons why youthink something is true about the statement inthe essay title:

Perhaps this is because . . .This could be because . . .This could/may/might be a result of . . .This could/may/might be due to . . .This may be attributable to . . . ( formal )

Examples: Perhaps this is because people today eat thewrong kinds of food.This could be due tothe fact that peopletoday eat the wrong sort of food.

Giving additional reasonsUse these words and phrases when you wantto give another reason why you agree ordisagree with the statement:

Another reason (for this) might be . . .It is also true/the case that . . .In addition . . .Furthermore . . .M




word families

Examples: People often eat the wrong types of food.Furthermore , they exercise less. People often eat the wrong types of food andin addition they exercise less.

Adding a more important reasonUse these phrases to add a reason that youthink is more important than the one you have just given:

More importantly . . .More signicantly . . .What is more . . .

Examples:

People often eat the wrong types of food andwhat is more , they exercise less. People often eat the wrong types of food andmore importantly , they exercise less.

Saying what the result of something is:Use these phrases when you have just givenan example of a particular situation that existsand you now want to say what the effect of

this is:Thus . . .As a result . . .For this reason . . .Consequently . . .This has the effect of . . .Therefore . . .

Examples:

People these days take less exercise. As a result , they are overweight and less t. People these days take less exercise.Consequently , they are overweightand less t. People these days take less exercise.This hasthe effect of making them overweight andless t.

Giving a different opinionWhen you write a discursive essay, you willprobably want to mention more than one sideof an argument. Use these words and phrasesto write about fact or opinions that might notsupport or might be very different from those

you have just mentioned:However, . . .Nevertheless,/nonetheless, . . .On the other hand, . . .Even so . . .Yet ( formal ) . . .

Examples:There is no doubt that people are getting fatter. However , we are not unhealthier inevery way.There is no doubt that people are getting fatter. On the other hand , we are notunhealthier in every way.There is no doubt that people are getting fatter, but even so we are not unhealthier inevery way.

Making an argument stronger Often you will want to add facts to furthersupport an argument. Use these words andphrases to do this:

Indeed, . . .In fact/the fact is/in actual fact . . .*Actually . . .* Do not use this at the beginning

of a sentence in formal writing.Examples People are not less healthy in every way.Indeed , in some ways we are healthier. People are not less healthy in every way.In fact , in some ways we are healthier. People are not less healthy in every way. In some ways we areactually healthier.




Introducing facts to support your opinionIt makes your argument much stronger ifyou can use some proven facts or evidence tosupport your opinion. Use these phrases tomention research or other proof that supportsyour argument:

Recent research shows/suggests…A recent report/survey showed…There is evidence to suggest that . . .The latest/ most recent gures suggest

(that)…

Examples: A recent report/survey showed that onaverage we are living ten years longer than

our parents.There is evidence to suggest thatonaverage we are living longer than our parents.

Ending an essay At the end of your essay you will want tostate your conclusions (= your nal opinionsafter you have considered all the facts).

This usually involves summarizing themain arguments and facts that support youropinions. Use these phrases to write yourconclusions:

To conclude . . .To sum up . . .In summary . . .In conclusion. . .

Example:To conclude/In summary , while we are in some respects less healthy, in many ways weare healthier than ever before.

Other useful phrasesBelow are some other phrases that you maynd useful in your essay writing:

Saying that something is generally trueVery often in a discursive essay you may want

to say that something is true for most of thetime or on most occasions, even though it maynot be true in every case. Use these words andphrases to say that something is generally true:

Generally/in general . . .Generally speaking . . .As a (general rule) . . .In most cases . . .

On the whole . . .For the most part . . .

Example:On the wholewe are a fatter nation than wewere fty years ago.Generally speaking we are a fatter nationthan we were fty years ago.

Writing about the present,the past and the futurea. The present

Use these words and phrases to say thatsomething is true or something is happeningat the present time:

Today . . .Currently . . .Nowadays . . .These days . . .Recently . . .In this day and age . . .In recent years . . .In/over the past few years . . .

Examples: Nowadays it is quite normal to snack

between meals. It is quite normal to snack between mealsthese days.Over the past few years it has become quitenormal to snack between meals.




b. The past

Use these words and phrases to write aboutwhat happened or was true in the past:

In the past . . .In previous years . . .Previously/formerly . . .At one time/once . . .Then/at that time . . .

Examples:In previous years food was eaten only atmealtimes. At one time , food was only eaten atmealtimes.

Food was previously/formerly only eatenat mealtimes.

c. The future

Use these words and phrases to write aboutsomething that might happen or be true in thefuture:

In the future . . .One day/some day . . .

The day will come when . .In years to come . . .

Examples:One day/some day scientists may discover acure for obesity.Scientists may discover a cure for obesityinthe future .In years to come scientists may discover a

cure for obesity.Giving your opinionUse these words and phrases to write aboutwhat your opinion is:

I believe that…It is my feeling that . . .It is my opinion that…In my opinion/view . . .

Example:In my opinion/ view , far too muchadvertising of fast food is aimed at children.It is my opinion that far too muchadvertising is aimed at children.I believe that far too much advertising is

aimed at children.

Giving other people’s opinionsUse these words and phrases to say whatsomeone else’s opinion is:

According to x . . .

In x’s opinion /view . . .Many/some people argue (that) . . .As x says/writes . . .As x argues/claims/explains/points out . . .

Examples: According to Ian Thompson, the fast-foodindustry is partly to blame. As Ian Thompson points out , the fast-foodindustry is partly to blame.

Saying that something is certainly trueUse these words and phrases to say that youthink something is denitely true:

Undoubtedly/without a doubt . . .Denitely/certainly . . .Undeniably . . .

Unquestionably . . .Example:Children today areunquestionably/ undoubtedly less active than their parentswere as children.Children today aredenitely/certainly lessactive than their parents were as children.

Saying that something might not be trueUse these phrases to say that something mightnot be true:

It is not necessarily true (that) . . .It is not necessarily the case (that) . . .Not everyone agrees that . . .It seems unlikely that . . .It is not very likely (that) . . .

Example:It is not necessarily the case that fatter people are less healthy than thin people. Not everyone agrees that fatter people areless healthy than thin people.


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