COURSE CODE: ENGLO2 COURSE TITLE: RESEARCH WRITING

COURSE CONTENT:

1. ORIENTATION 2. REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH a. DEFINITION OF RESEARCH b. TYPES OF RESEARCH i. EXPLORATORY ii.DESCRIPTIVE iii.ANALYTICAL iv.PREDICTIVE c. RESEARCH APPROCAHES i. QUANTITATIVE V QUALITATIVE ii.APPLIED V BASIC iii.DEDUCTIVE V INDUCTIVE d. RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES i. POSITIVISTIC ii.PHENOMENOLOGICAL e. RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES i. SURVEY ii.EXPERIMENTAL iii.LONGITUDINAL iv.CROSS-SECTIONAL v.CASE STUDIES vi.ACTION RESEARCH vii.ETHNOGRAPHY viii.PARTICIPATIVE INQUIRY ix.FEMISNIST x.GROUNDED f. STAGES OF RESEARCH PROCESS 4. PRINCIPLES OF STYLE a. CLARITY, ACCURACY AND VARIETY b. APPROPRIATENESS, CONCRETENESS AND VIVIDNESS c. FRESHNESS, DIRECTNESS AND CONCISENESS d. IDIOMS AND IDIOMATI EXPRESSIONS e. FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES

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5. GROUNDWORK FOR EFFECTIVE COMPARISON a. TOPIC AND THEME SELECTION b. CONCEPT PAPER WRITING 6. DESCRIPTIVE WRITING a. DEFINITION b. THINGS TO CONSIDER c. CONVENTIONS i. APPEALING TO THE SENSES ii.SPATIAL-ORDER RELATIONS d. SENSORY DESCRIPTION e. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE f. PRECISION g. ORGANIZATION 7. NARRATIVE WRITING a. DEFINITION b. PURPOSE c. TYPES d. CONVENTIONS e. INGREDIENTS FOR EFFECTIVE NARRATION f. LANGUAGE 8. EXPOSITORY WRITING a. DEFINITION b. PURPOSE c. BASIC STEPS d. GUIDELINES e. FORMAT 9. ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING a. DEFINITION b. PURPOSE c. FORMAT d. SUPPORTING IDEAS e. REFUTING OPPOSING ARGUMENTS f. LANGUAGE g. GUIDELINES 10.PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT a. 5 STEPS b. UNITY, COHERENCE AND ADEQUATE DEVELOPMENT c. MODES OF DEVELOPMENT

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TOPIC 1: INTORDUCTION TO RESEARCH 1. 1. What is Research? Literally to search again A process of enquiry and investigation; it is systematic, methodical and ethical Finding out what you dont already know Purposes of Research To contribute to the general body of knowledge in a particular area of interest Review or synthesize existing knowledge Investigate existing situations or problems Provide solutions to existing problems Explore and analyze more general issues Construct or create new procedures or systems Explain a phenomenon Generate new knowledge Combination of any

1. Types of Research a. Exploratory Undertaken when few or no previous studies exist Aim is to look for patterns, hypotheses or ides that can be tested and will form the basis for further research Breakthrough research a. Descriptive Used to identify and classify the elements or characteristics of the subject (e.g.: number of days lost because of industrial action/strike) Often used to collect, analyze and summarize data a. Analytical Extends the descriptive approach to suggest or explain why or how something is happening (eg: causes of a phenomenon/action) Feature: locating and identifying the different factors involved a. Predictive Aim is to speculate intelligently on future possibilities, based on close analysis of available evidence of cause and effect (eg: predicting when and where future industrial action might take place) 1. Research Approaches a. Quantitative v Qualitative

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Quantitative Emphasis is on collecting and analyzing numerical data Concentrates on measuring the scale, range, frequency etc of a phenomena Presented statistically Qualitative More subjective in nature Involves examining and reflecting on the less tangible aspects of research subject (eg: values, perceptions, attitudes) Often difficult to interpret and present the findings Findings can be challenged more easily

a. Applied v Basic Applied Designed from the start to apply its findings to a particular situation. Basic Aim is to improve knowledge without any particular applied purpose in mind at the outset a. Deductive v Inductive Deductive Moves from general ideas/theories to specific particular and situations Broad theories Inductive Moves from particular situations to make or infer broad general ideas/theories 1. Research Philosophies a. Positivistic Based on research methodologies commonly used in science Systematic way Seek to identify, measure and evaluate any phenomena and to provide rational explanation for it Surveys, Experimental studies, Longitudinal studies, Cross-sectional studies

a. Phenomenological From the perspective that human behavior is not as easily measured as phenomena in natural sciences Assumes that people will often influence events and act in unpredictable ways that upset any construed rules or identifiable norms Particularly concerned with understanding behavior from the participants own subjective frames of reference Case studies, action research, ethnography, participative enquiry Feminist perspectives, grounded theory 1. Research Methodologies

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a. Survey Surveys involve selecting a representative and unbiased sample of subjects drawn from the group you wish to study. The main methods of asking questions are by face-to-face or telephone interviews, by using questionnaires or a mixture of the two. There are two main types of survey: a descriptive survey: concerned with identifying & counting the frequency of a particular response among the survey group, or an analytical survey: to analyze the relationship between different elements (variables) in a sample group.

a. Experimental studies Experimental studies are done in carefully controlled and structured environments and enable the causal relationships of phenomena to be identified and analyzed. The variables can be manipulated or controlled to observe the effects on the subjects studied. For example, sound, light, heat, volume of work levels etc can be managed to observe the effects.

a. Longitudinal studies These are studies over an extended period to observe the effect that time has on the situation under observation and to collect primary data (data collected at first hand) of these changes. Longitudinal studies are often conducted over several years, which make them unsuitable for most relatively short taught post-graduate courses.

a. Cross-sectional studies This is a study involving different organizations or groups of people to look at similarities or differences between them at any one particular time, e.g. a survey of the IT skills of managers in one or a number of organizations at any particular time. It involves a close analysis of a situation at one particular point in time to give a snap-shot result.

a. Case studies A case study offers an opportunity to study a particular subject, e.g. one organization, in depth, or a group of people, and usually involves gathering and analyzing information; information that may be both qualitative and quantitative.

a. Action research Action research involves an intervention by a researcher to influence change in any given situation and to monitor and evaluate the results. The researcher enters into the situation, e.g. by introducing new techniques, and monitors the results.

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a. Ethnography

Ethnography is more usually described as participant observation, and this is where the researcher becomes a working member of the group or situation to be observed. The aim is to understand the situation from the inside: from the viewpoints of the people in the situation. The researcher shares the same experiences as the subjects, and this form of research

a. Participative enquiry This is about research within ones own group or organization and involves the active involvement and co-operation of people who you would normally work and associate with on a daily basis. The whole group may be involved in the research and the emphasis is on sharing, agreeing, cooperating and making the research process as open and equal as possible.

a. Feminist perspectives Research, from a feminist perspective, focuses on knowledge grounded in female experiences and is of benefit to everyone, but particularly women.

a. Grounded Theory

Grounded theory reverses approaches in research that collected data in order to test the validity of theoretical propositions, in favor of an approach that emphasizes the generation of theory from data. Theory is generated from observations made, rather than being decided before the study. This approach seeks to challenge research approaches that unwittingly or wittingly look for evidence in the data to confirm or deny established theories or practices

1. Stages of Research Process a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Establishing a general field of interest Undertake preliminary and background reading Narrow ideas to a workable topic Identifying key question to answer Preparation of information gathering tools Collation, analyze and interpretation of data First draft

TOPIC 2: PRINCIPLES OF STYLE 1. Clarity, accuracy, and variety a. Clarity

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Refers to ease of understanding To accomplish these, observe the following: 1. Choose pithy (condensed), short, familiar and conversational words. 2. Proper punctuations make the writing Clear. 3. Insert examples, illustrations, tables, graphs, and other visual aids, if necessary. 4. Make the message readable and understandable. 5. Make correct sentences, and divide the message in properly sized paragraphs. Stylistic clarity is promoted by simple, direct language. Simplicity in language is obtained. Word choice is a factor in stylistic clarity: use simple language wherever possible Contextual clarity refers to the clarity of the entire document are your readers getting your whole point?

a. Accuracy

Definition: implies more than mere grammatical correctness. Accuracy means the spirit as well as the letter of the truth. Three main aspects:

Document accuracy refers to the proper coverage of your topics in

appropriate detail. Often an accurate document needs to focus clearly on a problem. Document accuracy is generally cultivated by a clear problem statement and by a preliminary outline. Stylistic accuracy concerns the careful use of language to express meaning. It is also a matter of using words precisely. Technical accuracy depends on the writers conceptual mastery of the subject and its vocabulary, as well as on his or her ability to analyze and shape data with a minimum of distortion. a. Variety Definition: means presence of diversity and not being monotonous Writing that lacks variety is boring and soon become irritating. Even good techniques will bore a reader if overused. The following are danger signs that suggest that your work lacks variety, prose with: Too many short sentences Too many very long sentences Too many sentences of the same length Too many loose sentences Too many coordinating conjunctions Too many short paragraphs Too many very long paragraphs Too many paragraphs of the same length Overuse of inductive order is boring.

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1. Appropriateness, concreteness, and vividness a. Appropriateness Appropriate make sure you use the words, concepts and terms in their proper contexts/meanings Avoid using jargons and colloquial words

a. Concreteness

Definition: refers to being more specific, definite, and vivid rather than and general and repetitive. The main benefit of being concrete is obvious that the receiver knows exactly what is required or desired. The other benefit of being concrete is that the reply might be in the same way that may be interrupted by you as the receiver. The following guidelines should help you compose concrete, convincing messages. 1. Use specific facts and figures. 2. Put action in your verbs. use active voice Active verbs help make your sentences more: 1. Specific. "The dean decided" is more explicit than "A decision has been made." 2. Personal. "You will note" is both personal and specific; "It will be noted" is impersonal." 3. Concise. The passive requires more words and thus slows both writing and reading. Compare "Figures show" with "It is shown by figures." 4. Emphatic. Passive verbs dull action. Compare "The students held a contest" with "A contest was held by the students." When passive voice is justified: When the receiver of the action is more important than the doer. Example: Three announcements have been made or The President was killed.

a. Vividness Definition: Ideas are clear, striking (easily catches the attention of the reader) Using five senses to describe a thing, event, phenomenon, etc. Making the description realistic or easier for the readers to visualize or imagine.

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1. Freshness, directness, and conciseness a. Freshness Your ideas must be fresh and avoid using old English or non-existent words anymore When you have raised a point already, do not repeat it again unless you are going to explain it further

a. Directness Straight to the point Be selective in your use of words Be on your guard against redundant words and phrases, dead words, and irrelevant material Aim to convey your meaning as clearly and concisely as possible Do not use any more words than are necessary to communicate your ideas The aim is not brevity (i.e. a few words) but conciseness (no unnecessary words) and clarity (clearness of expression).

a. Conciseness

Concise writing is generally free of repetition and needless details It means that all the words you used in a sentence are necessary. Guidelines: Avoid using intensifiers like: Very, Really, Truly, So, Completely, Totally, Positively, and Perfectly. Use proper words: example: instead of very hungry use famished, for so mad use irate, and for very tired use exhausted. Consider parallelism of phrases, words: Don't mix elements in a phrase or series. He enjoys books, movies and driving his car. (NO He enjoys reading books, watching movies and driving his car. (YES) Don't mix verbals (e.g., gerunds and infinitives). He believes in using force and then to resort to diplomacy only if all else fails. (NO) He believes in using force and then resorting to diplomacy only if all else fails. (YES) Don't mix tenses or voice. Workers who were consulted regularly feel more committed to the company and had lower rates of absenteeism. (NO) Workers who are consulted regularly feel more committed to the company and have lower rates of absenteeism. (NO) Don't mix singular and plural subjects. One should study; students should know that. (NO) Students should know that they should study. (YES)

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Don't use a dependent clause inappropriately. The professor explained the theory of relativity, Newtonian Physics and that critical thinking is at the heart of scientific study. (NO) The professor explained the theory of relativity, Newtonian physics and the importance of critical thinking in scientific study. (YES)

Avoid run-on sentences: Lacks proper punctuation e.g, Comma Splice: The professor dismissed the class, the students cheered.

Options to fix run-ons: 1) Create two sentences 2) Use a semicolon 3) Use a coordinating conjunction

1. Idioms and Idiomatic Expressions Idiom (Latin: idioma, "special property", f. Greek: idima, "special feature, special phrasing", f. Greek: idios, "ones own") is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning or definition of the words of which it is made.

TOPIC 3: GROUNDOWRK FOR EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 1. Topic and Theme Selection a. Suggestion when choosing a topic: i. Not from personal experience ii.Does not develop from a single source iii.Based on the availability of reading materials for which satisfactory evidence are available iv.Limited in scope v.Not highly controversial vi.Of your interest vii.Falls within the range of your competency viii.Useful to the people in a particular field ix.New and timely x.Can be finished within a given time frame b. Finding a topic i. Brainstorming writing down as many words and phrases that come to mind ii.Clustering advantage: one may not only find a topic but supporting points as well. (example: one topic in the middle and then writing down related words by connecting them with arrows) iii.Freewriting write down anything and everything that comes to mind

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2. Concept Paper Writing

a. Definition: Concept papers are summaries of projects or issues that reflect the

interests, experience and expertise of the writer or organization. Concept papers generally serve the purpose of providing in-depth discussion of a topic that the writer has a strong position on, usually with the intent of obtaining funding for that project from donors.

b. Developing a Concept Paper i. What are you curious about? List a few areas of curiosity ii.Choose one of the areas of curiosity and develop some specific questions (question framing) What is Portland's racial breakdown?

This is a descriptive question. Why has Portland's racial makeup developed as it has? This is general enough to be considered exploratory.

iii.Do any of your questions lend themselves to a research hypothesis? If so, write out any hypotheses. iv.Identify the ideal evidence (data) and how will you probably try to gather that evidence. c. Writing a Concept Paper i. Give a very direct and explicit statement of your area of interest and your research question ii.State your research hypotheses, thesis statement, goals, purpose and objectives. iii.Finally, conclude with a discussion of your proposed methodology, timeline and things that your adviser/professor will expect from your actual research paper. 3. Preliminary Data Collection a. Definition: Data that indicates that the study is doable or feasible; the first few pieces of data that you get; the work that is put into a paper to convince a panel/professor that the proposed paper is worth doing. b. Sources: Guidelines: i. Consider the qualifications of the author ii.Date of publication and other materials iii.Obsolete materials iv.Type of materials c. Possible Sources: i. Internet ii.References iii.Journals iv.Books 4. Data Organization and Outline Writing

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a. Definition: Framework or guideline for a writer to follow. b. Purpose: to organize and systematize the way of working; will help the writer direct the topic and avoid waste of time in rewriting c. Guidelines: i. Have notes ii.Classify subject groups iii.Divide and subdivide the information according to the relationship of ideas iv.Make a preliminary outline to see the vital and unnecessary details v.Make the final outline based on the complete information 5. Introduction to Methods of Citation a. APA Style American Psychological Association b. Chicago Manual of Style style guide for American English developed by the University of Chicago c. Bluebook compiled by Harvard Law Review legal citation d. Vancouver system also known as the author-number system e. ASA American Sociological Association widely accepted for writing university research papers f. ALWD Association of Legal Writing Directors legal citation g. MLA Modern Language Association most commonly used to write papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities

TOPIC 4: DESCRIPTIVE WRITING Descriptive writing portrays people, places, things, moments and theories with enough vivid detail to help the reader create a mental picture of what is being written about. Descriptive writing is an art form. It's painting a word picture so that the reader "sees" exactly what you are describing. The purpose of descriptive writing is to make our readers see, feel, and hear what we have seen, felt, and heard. Whether we're describing a person, a place, or a thing, our aim is to reveal a subject through vivid and carefully selected details. Descriptive essay is a wide-spread paper type that is intended to describe an object, a topic, a place, a building, a person or an event. When you start writing you should think about your descriptive essay topic and a place, event or a process you are going to describe. A good thesis statement is an important part of any essay and descriptive paper is not an exception. The thesis statement should be in a form of a question the answer to which you give in the body part of an essay. A good descriptive essay, for instance, has the ability to arouse the readers senses and create a lasting impact on his or her mind. This effect can be achieved not through statistics and facts, but by detailed descriptions and observations.

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Things to Consider as You Write Your Descriptive Essay Think of an instance that you want to describe. Why is this particular instance important? What were you doing? What other things were happening around you? Is there anything specific that stands out in your mind? Where were objects located in relation to where you were? How did the surroundings remind you of other places you have been? What sights, smells, sounds, and tastes were in the air? Did the sights, smells, sounds, and tastes remind you of anything? What were you feeling at that time? Has there been an instance in which you have felt this way before? What do you want the reader to feel after reading the paper? What types of words and images can convey this feeling? Can you think of another situation that was similar to the one you are writing about? How can it help explain what you are writing about? Is there enough detail in your essay to create a mental image for the reader? Conventions of Descriptive Essays Illustrated by Sample Paragraphs Appealing-to-the-Senses Description: Let the reader see, smell, hear, taste, and feel what you write in your essay. The thick, burnt scent of roasted coffee tickled the tip of my nose just seconds before the old, faithful alarm blared a distorted top-forty through its tiny top speaker. Wiping away the grit of last night's sleep, the starch white sunlight blinded me momentarily as I slung my arm like an elephant trunk along the top of the alarm, searching for the snooze button. While stretching hands and feet to the four posts of my bed, my eyes opened after several watery blinks. I crawled out of the comforter, edging awkwardly like a butterfly from a cocoon, swinging my legs over the side of the bed. The dusty pebbles on the chilled, wood floor sent ripples spiraling from my ankles to the nape of my neck when my feet hit the floor. Grabbing the apricot, terri-cloth robe, recently bathed in fabric softener and October wind, I knotted it tightly at my waist like a prestigious coat of armor and headed downstairs to battle the morning. Spatial-Order Description: Show the reader where things are located from your perspective. Billy Ray's Pawn Shop and Lawn Mower Repair looked like a burial ground for country auction rejects. The blazing, red, diesel fuel tanks beamed in front of the station, looking like cheap lipstick against the pallid, wrinkled texture of the parking lot sand. The yard, not much larger than the end zone at General G. Patton High School on the north end of town, was framed with a rusted metallic hedge of lawn mowers, banana seat bicycles, and corroded oil drums. It wasn't a calico frame of rusted parts, but rather an orchestra of unwanted machinery that Billy Ray had arranged into sections. The yellowtanked mowers rested silently at the right of the diesel fuel. Once red, now faded orange, mowers stood at attention to the left. The oil barrels, jaded and pierced with holes, bellared like chimes when the wind was right. The bikes

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rested sporadically throughout the lot. In the middle of it all was the office, a faded, steel roof supported by cheap two-by-fours and zebra paneling. Billy Ray was at home, usually, five blocks east of town on Kennel Road.

Sensory Description Descriptive writing uses the five senses to draw readers into the experiences of the characters. Often, descriptive writing will use several senses to describe the characters, setting, or props within a story. For instance, an author that uses descriptive detail may describe a log cabin by first describing the wood that makes the cabin, the setting surrounding it and then continue to describe the smell of being inside, or the sounds around it at night. The idea of using sensory description is to "show" all the details of a story to the reader rather than "tell". Figurative Language Figurative language is often used in descriptive writing to compare something to another thing. It's another way to create "imagery" within a reader's mind by comparing a setting, object, or person in the story to something known to the reader. There are many ways to use figurative language. Metaphors connect objects equally, "That angel helped me figure out what went wrong". While similes compare two things, but also keep them separate at the same time, "She is as sweet as an angel when she helped me figure out what to do". Similes use "like" or "as" to describe similarities. Hyperbole compares two objects with exaggeration added, "I could eat a whale right now". Personification is when a person represents an abstract idea, "Dream lifts his arms around me, and carries me off in slumber." Precision Descriptive writing uses active verbs rather than passive. Active verbs make the reader feel as if the action is happening "right now", as they're watching. Precise modifiers, nouns, and adjectives are also used in the language. Specific nouns are chosen to describe characters, settings, and objects rather than general nouns. Adjectives and adverbs are chosen carefully. Organization Organization is important in descriptive writing. The writing may be organized based on the order of importance, spatial relations, or chronologically. A writer may begin by describing a character's outer appearance, continue to describe the thoughts passing through the character's mind, and proceed to describe what the character does. Descriptive writing may be organized by the who, what, when, where, and why or by each sense; see, hear, taste, touch, and smell.

Things to remember about descriptive writing: Be specific, not vague Elaborate add more details and expand your ideas Use vivid vocabulary (strong nouns, verbs, and adjectives) Include details that relate to your five senses/KNRLOFRANCO

TOPIC 6: NARRATIVE WRITING 1. Definition a. Narrative writing focuses on telling a story. This may mean telling a fictional story one that is made up or it may mean telling a real-life story in such a way that the author follows a plot structure. Narrative writing can also take the form of an essay, in which the author will use a personal story to prove a point or state an argument. The forms of narrative writing vary greatly because it is largely a creative endeavor; novels, short stories, poems, blog posts, and essays can all take the form of a narrative, and while the form of the writing may change, the function of telling a story remains the same.

2. Purpose The basic purpose of narrative is to entertain, to gain and hold a

readers interest. However, narratives can also be written to teach or inform, to change attitudes/social opinions that are used to raise topical issues.

3. Types

a. Personal Narrative - The narrative writing is known as personal narrative when a person writes about himself or about his experiences. In this style of narrative writing, the writer already has a plot. However, he has to narrate the experiences in such a way that it will capture the interest of the reader. A personal narrative writer has to pay attention to the flow of story; the dialog (if any) and he should also include the description wherever necessary. On reading, the reader should experience the same feeling that the writer experienced in reality. b. Imaginative Narrative Writing - When a narrative writer writes a fiction or creates a story it is known as imaginative narrative writing. For an imaginative narrative writer, creativity is a must. Here the narrative writer can go beyond the reality. He can create unusual situations and events that could never happen in real life. Here the writer has to create a plot and make it sound convincing to the reader c. Narrative Essay - Always written from a defined point of view. The point of view would be none other than that of the author's. The narrative essay should have a central theme and points to support and elaborate the theme. A narrative essay includes vivid verbs and modifiers and is very precise in description of the characters. The narrative essays may or may not use dialogs. However, it can use conflicts and sequences like any story.

4. Conventions a. Narratives can be written using third person - he, she and it. But generally, it is written in the first person, using the word "I". b. Narrative of any of the three types should have a concrete theme, settings and characters, a climax and a good ending. c. In narrative writing, the writer has to provide all the essential details to create a unified and dominant impression on the reader.

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5. Ingredients for an effective narration a. Supply all significant details or events. They are important in building up and supporting your main idea or story. b. Flush out insignificant details. Don't start talking about how expensive your cousin's lipstick is if you're narrating her job interview disaster. c. Narrate in a logical and organized way. Don't go from one detail to the next without providing any obvious transitions to aid comprehension. d. Pace your narration. Don't let it drag. Otherwise, you'll risk boring your readers. e. Make a point or lead to a conclusion. 6. Language a. Action verbs: Action verbs provide interest to the writing. For example, instead The old woman was in his way try The old woman barred his path. Instead of She laughed try She cackled. Written in the first person (I, we) or the third person (he, she, they) Usually past tense Connectives: linking words to do with time Specific nouns: strong nouns have more specific meanings: oak as opposed to tree Active nouns: make nouns actually do something (eg It was raining could become Rain splashed down or There was large cabinet in the lounge could become A large cabinet seemed to fill the lounge). Careful use of adjectives and adverbs: writing needs judicious use of adjectives and adverbs to bring it alive, qualify the action and provide description and information for the reader Use of the senses: where appropriate, the senses can be used to describe and develop the experience, setting and character: What does it smell like? What can be heard? What can be seen details? What does it taste like? What does it feel like? b. Imagery Variety in sentence beginnings: There are several ways to do this by using: Participles: Jumping with joy I ran home to tell mum my good news. Adverbs: Silently the cat crept toward the bird. Adjectives: Brilliant sunlight shone through the window. Nouns: Thunder claps filled the air. Adverbial phrase: Along the street may be used as one opener. This may be done through a series of short or one-word sentences or as one long complex sentence. Personal Voice: It may be described as writing which is honest and convincing. The author is able to put the reader there. The writer invests something of him/her self in the writing. The writing makes an impact on the reader. It reaches out and touches the reader. A connection is made.

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TOPIC 7: EXPOSITORY WRITING 1. Definition a. It is a type of written discourse that is used to explain, describe or inform. The creator of the expository writing cannot assume that the reader or listener has prior knowledge or prior understanding of the topic that is being discussed. b. The expository essay is a genre of essay that requires the student to investigate an idea, evaluate evidence, expound on the idea, and set forth an argument concerning that idea in a clear and concise manner. This can be accomplished through comparison and contrast, definition, example, the analysis of cause and effect, etc. 2. Purpose a. The purpose of an expository essay is to present, completely and fairly, other people's views or to report about an event or a situation. Expository writing, or exposition, presents a subject in detail, apart from criticism, argument, or development; i.e., the writer elucidates a subject by analyzing it. Such writing is discourse designed to convey information or explain what is difficult to understand. Exposition usually proceeds by the orderly analysis of parts and the use of familiar illustrations or analogies. 3. Basic Steps in Writing an Expository Essay

a. Select a topic: Be sure the topic is narrow enough to make it manageable

within the space of an essay b. Write a thesis sentence: Be sure the thesis statement(or sentence) expresses a controlling idea that is neither too broad nor too specific to be developed effectively c. Select a method of development: Check through all the methods before you finally settle on the one which will best serve your thesis: definition | example | compare and contrast | cause and effect | classification | process analysis Definition - This may be the most straightforward of the developmental patterns. As its name suggests, you will simply use the expository essay to thoroughly define a topic. Example - In this developmental pattern, you will provide and describe an example of a particular subject or group. Cause and Effect - With this developmental pattern, you will illustrate the relationship between to variables, one dependent on the other. Describe the many ways in which this particular variable affects the other, and explain why it does so. Classification - This developmental pattern is used to categorize multiple subjects into separate or distinct groups by certain criteria. Compare and Contrast - With this developmental pattern, the writer will examine both the similarities and the differences between two or more distinct subjects.

d. Organize the essay: Begin by listing the major divisions which the bodyparagraphs in your essay will discuss; then fill in the primary supports that each body paragraph of the essay will contain

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e. Write topic sentences for the body paragraphs of the essay: For eachbody paragraph, furnish a topic sentence that directly relates to the thesis sentence f. Write the body paragraphs of the essay: Each body paragraph should develop the primary support covered in that paragraph's topic sentence g. Furnish a paragraph of introduction: An introductory paragraph should state the thesis of the essay, introduce the divisions in the body paragraphs of the essay, and gain the interest of the reader h. Write a paragraph of conclusion: Restate the thesis and divisions of the essay Bring the essay to an appropriate and effective close Avoid digressing into new issues 4. Guidelines

a. A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

paragraph of the essay. It is essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in the assignment. If the student does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an effective or persuasive essay. Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and conclusion. Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical progression of thought, the reader is unable to follow the essays argument, and the structure will collapse. Body paragraphs that include evidential support. Each paragraph should be limited to the exposition of one general idea. This will allow for clarity and direction throughout the essay. What is more, such conciseness creates an ease of readability for ones audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph. Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal). Often times, students are required to write expository essays with little or no preparation; therefore, such essays do not typically allow for a great deal of statistical or factual evidence. A bit of creativity! Though creativity and artfulness are not always associated with essay writing, it is an art form nonetheless. Try not to get stuck on the formulaic nature of expository writing at the expense of writing something interesting. Remember, though you may not be crafting the next great novel, you are attempting to leave a lasting impression on the people evaluating your essay. A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence provided. It is at this point of the essay that students will inevitably begin to struggle. This is the portion of the essay that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it must be effective and logical. Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion; rather, synthesize and come to a conclusion concerning the information presented in the body of the essay.

5. Format

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a. The expository essay follows the standard essay format of Introduction, Body, and Conclusion. b. Introduction a statement of the essays thesis and the sub-topics that will be developed within the essay body. c. Body must have a dominant point that directly relates to the essay thesis. d. Transitions confirm the organization and the logic of your composition as they allow the reader to move smoothly from point to point in your essay. e. Conclusion a restatement of your thesis and summary of points that lead to your conclusion.

TOPIC 8: ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY 1. Definition a. In this kind of essay, we not only give information but also present an argument with the PROS (supporting ideas) and CONS (opposing ideas) of an argumentative issue. b. In an argumentative essay you give your own opinion and then try to convince other people you are right with your reasons and examples. 2. Purpose a. The function of an argumentative essay is to show that your assertion (opinion, theory, and hypothesis) about some phenomenon or phenomena is correct or more truthful than others'. 3. Format Example 1: Claim/Counter Claim Introduce the topic and state or I. Introduction (Claim and counter claim explain the question. State both the statement) claim (your position) and the counter II. Body Part I claim (the opposing position). A. First counter point and refuting Start building a strong case by information refuting or disproving the opposing B. Second counter point and refuting position. information Use one paragraph to state each C. Third counter point and refuting counter point, following your statement information with related evidence that refutes the III Body Part II point. A. First point and supporting Present your case in the second information section of the body. B. Second point and supporting Use one paragraph to state each of information your points, following your statement C. Third point and supporting with the evidence that proves or information supports your point. IV Conclusion Restatement of claim The conclusion of this format is a and summary of the main ideas restatement of your claim and a

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summary of supports it.

the

information

that

Example 1: Claim/Counter Claim Introduce the topic and state or I. Introduction (Claim and counter claim explain the question. State both the statement) claim (your position) and the counter II. Body Part I claim (the opposing position). A. First counter point and refuting Start building a strong case by information refuting or disproving the opposing B. Second counter point and refuting position. information Use one paragraph to state each C. Third counter point and refuting counter point, following your statement information with related evidence that refutes the III Body Part II point. A. First point and supporting Present your case in the second information section of the body. B. Second point and supporting Use one paragraph to state each of information your points, following your statement C. Third point and supporting with the evidence that proves or information supports your point. IV Conclusion Restatement of claim The conclusion of this format is a and summary of the main ideas restatement of your claim and a summary of the information that supports it.

Example 3: The Alternating Format Introduce the topic and state or I. Introduction (Claim and counter claim explain the question. statement) Start the body with your statement II. Body of claim or position. A. Statement of the claim In this format, you begin by stating B. First point and supporting and supporting your points. Use one information paragraph to state each of your points, C. First point opposition and refuting following your statement with the evidence evidence that proves or supports your D. First rebuttal and supporting point. information Follow each point with an opposing E. Second point and supporting view related to that point and evidence information that supports the objection. Use one F. Second point opposition and paragraph for each counter point and refuting evidence its evidence. G. Second rebuttal and supporting Follow each objection with your information rebuttal. Use one paragraph to rebut III Conclusion

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each counter claim. The conclusion of this format is a restatement of your claim, a summary of supporting information and an assessment of rebuttals.

4. Supporting our ideas: This is the most important part when persuading

others. We are asking some people to change their beliefs or actions. We should be supporting our ideas with such facts, statistics and/or authorities that there should not be room for any doubts. Here are some faulty supports we should avoid: Thesis: Leaving the university and starting to work is good for the adolescent because Feelings, emotional arguments ( it makes one feel much better.) Irrelevant examples (wandering off the topic) ( he would then be able to take his girlfriend to expensive restaurants.) Oversimplification ( only then would he understand what it means to be an adult.) Hasty generalizations (... it is a widely known fact that all adolescents look forward to earning money.) Unreliable, even false outside sources ( according to www.doubtme.com, 80% of working men wish they quit school when they were at university and started working at an earlier age.)

1. Refuting opposing arguments: Before we start saying that the opponents are

wrong, we should specify their opposing ideas. Otherwise, it would be like hitting the other person with eyes closed. We should see clearly what we are hitting and be prepared beforehand so that he cannot hit us back. We can do this by knowing what we are refuting. e.g. X Some people may say that adolescents should not leave university education; however, they are wrong. (what they say is not wrong. Maybe their supporting idea is wrong /irrelevant /insufficient. We should state their supporting idea specifically to be able to refute it.) Some people may say that adolescents should not leave university education because they are not physically and psychologically mature enough to cope with the problems of the real world. However, they forget one fact: adolescents can vote or start driving at the age of 18 (in some countries even before that age!), which proves that they are considered physically and psychologically mature at that age.

2. Language: Signposts gain importance in the argumentative essay. They enablethe readers to follow our arguments easily.

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When pointing out opposing arguments (CONs): Opponents of this idea claim / maintain that Those who disagree / are against these ideas may say / assert that Some people may disagree with this idea. When stating specifically why they think like that: The put forward this idea because They claim that since Reaching the turning point: However, but On the other hand,

When refuting the opposing idea, we may use the following strategies: compromise but prove that their argument is not powerful enough: They have a point in thinking like that. To a certain extent they are right. completely disagree: After seeing this evidence, there is no way we can agree with what they say. say that their argument is irrelevant to the topic: What we are discussing here is not what they are trying to prove. Their argument is irrelevant.

GUIDELINES: 1) Choose your topiccarefully. Check your ideas against the following three criteria before finalizing your topic:

Your topic must be arguable. The phrase everythings an argument is not quite truemost things are, but not everything. Take the common high school editorial topic of cliques are bad: its a common opinion, sure, but who really disagrees? Your topic needs to be debatable; there has to be a clear opposing argument that others support. Ask yourself: who would oppose me? Why? Your topic must be contemporary and relevant. Arguments do not exist in a vacuum; they arise because people of varied beliefs interact with one another every day (or just bump heads). Your essay, even if it is about the past, should connect to values and ideas of the present. Look to current events or issues for inspirationwhats going on in the world thats inspiring discussion and/or disagreement? Ask yourself: does my topic matter to people right now? Why? Your topic must have value to you. Given the hours youll need to invest in the paper, your topic needs to be more than interesting; it has to be knowledge you want to pursue for your own personal benefit, not just a grade. However fascinating cloning may be, for example, if youre not interested in science or

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ethicstwo fundamental sub-issues of the cloning debateyour essay will be a chore to write. Choose a topic you care about and are invested in. Youll write better and research deeper because of your personal investment. 2) Narrow and focus your topic. Many popular topics, such as abortion or euthanasia, are too broad for even 100- to 200-page books, let alone your 3- to 5page essay. Focus on a specific aspect of your topic: a specific method (e.g., a lateterm abortion procedure), a specific policy (e.g., No Child Left Behind), or a specific perspective (e.g., evangelical Christians and the environment). Doing so not only makes your topic (and life) manageable, it should help you develop very specific search terms when you go to gather evidence. 3) Analyze your audience. Review your assignment sheet to check whether youve been assigned a specific audience to address in your response. If no audience is assigned, you can assume your audience is your teacher, a knowledgeable and experienced reader in the subject area. But dont skip this step just yet. Your understanding of your audienceyes, even your teacheris integral in determining the development and organization of your argument, as well as the stylistic techniques you can utilize in your writing. For example, if you are writing to your instructor, consider what he/she expects from students on such an assignment a formal tone, large amounts of evidence integrated into the paper, analysis of these ideas, right? On the other hand, if youre writing for an audience of peers, youll want to lean heavily on your connection with them: use personal pronouns (I or we), express sympathy or understanding for their feelings, and address shared concerns. 4) Research wisely. Google is quick and easy; everybody uses it. So does your professor, who is rather justified in his/her skepticism of website credibilitylots of the readily accessible data via Google is inaccurate and risky. Make sure your online sources are from established educational/professional sites (like eNotes). Also use your librarys subject-specific databases to find professional journals covering your topic. With a narrow and focused topic, searching should be a breeze. And use the snowball research technique: once you find a helpful source, look at its references/bibliography to get new leads on evidence for your paper. Wash. Rinse. Repeat. 5) Utilize a variety of evidence types. Statistics can be sexy, but they cant do all the work for you. In addition to quantitative research, utilize expert opinionsin the form of quotations or paraphrasesand historical examples to provide varied and insightful support. And dont be afraid to examine a sometimes overlooked source: you. Include your own personal experience or observations if they help illuminate the topic for your audience. 6) Express your judgment, not your opinion. In middle school they call it "persuasion"; in college they call it "argumentation"so whats the difference? Expectation. Your instructor is less interested in what side you take than in how you take that side, how you analyze the issue and organize your response. Forget about whether youre right and someone else is wrong; writing a good paper is not a competition. Instead, focus on your line of argumenthow you develop your paper by meeting your audiences needs, integrating solid evidence, and

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demonstrating a solid understanding of the topic. Steps 7 and 8 will help you get there. 7) Dig deeper. A meaningful topic will tap into underlying values and issues of modern society. Look for the themes or big ideas of your issue. For example, consider whether or not cities should limit or ban national chain stores from expanding in their respective communities. On one hand, yes, a paper might address the positives and negatives of Wal-Mart or Subway. Yet an excellent argument will also discuss the bigger conflicts at play: convenience vs. community identity, job creation vs. environmental damage. Seeing the big picture adds depth to your argument. 8) Complexify your argument. There are several rhetorical moves or patterns writers can utilize to enhance their argument and demonstrate critical thinking about their topic. Here are short summaries of six of them: Cause and effect: discuss what has led to your topic becoming an issue and why the issue is affecting people. Qualification: qualification here means to limit your position to specific contexts or situations, a yes, but perspective. Qualifying not only can demonstrate that you understand the complexity of an issue but can show you have a unique perspective on it. Examination of the opposing argument: know thy enemy. Analyzing other perspectives on your topic has three key advantages: you demonstrate a broad understanding of the issue; you can strengthen your position by comparing it to others; and youve given yourself plenty more to write about. Concede a little, as necessary: its perfectly okay to admit your position is not perfect; in fact, breaking down what works and what doesnt about your topic can enhance your analysis. Anticipating and alleviating your readers concerns can be incredibly persuasive. Propose a solution: a logical and feasible solution to your issue provides authority and credibility, and it can make for a strong conclusion. Examine the implications: what effect will this issue have on individuals and/or the world? Discussing what lies ahead for your topic also makes for a strong approach to a conclusion. Note: there is no correct strategy about how to integrate these techniques into your writing, nor is there a desired amount or limit to how many can be used. Use your best judgment. 9) Revise, revise, revise. Talk is cheapand so are papers littered with clichs, illogical arguments, and grammar mistakes. Find a peer who disagrees with your position and have him/her read your paper. Discuss your ideas, your approaches, and your writing style with this naysayer; take the feedback and advice seriously. Read your paper out loud to yourself during later revisions. Be sure to check if youve cited your sources correctly. Edit for grammar and spelling only after you are comfortable with what youve you written and how youve written it.

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TOPIC 9: PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT A paragraph is a group of sentences that work together to develop an idea. The beginning of a paragraph should be indented, like the beginning of this one. A paragraph usually includes a topic sentence, a body, and a conclusion. The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. The body is made up of sentences that support and/or develop the main idea. If a conclusion is necessary, it will summarize the information presented in the paragraph, state the solution to the problem introduced in the paragraph, or state a conclusion drawn from the information presented in the paragraph. The following are the general steps to take when planning and writing a paragraph: 5-step process to paragraph development Step 1. Decide on a controlling idea and create a topic sentence Paragraph development begins with the formulation of the controlling idea. This idea directs the paragraph's development. Often, the controlling idea of a paragraph will appear in the form of a topic sentence. In some cases, you may need more than one sentence to express a paragraph's controlling idea. Here is the controlling idea for our "model paragraph," expressed in a topic sentence. Step 2. Explain the controlling idea Paragraph development continues with an expression of the rationale or the explanation that the writer gives for how the reader should interpret the information presented in the idea statement or topic sentence of the paragraph. The writer explains his/her thinking about the main topic, idea, or focus of the paragraph. Here's the sentence that would follow the controlling idea about slave spirituals: Step 3. Give an example (or multiple examples Paragraph development progresses with the expression of some type of support or evidence for the idea and the explanation that came before it. The example serves as a sign or representation of the relationship established in the idea and explanation portions of the paragraph. Here are two examples that we could use to illustrate the double meanings in slave spirituals: Step 4. Explain the example(s) The next movement in paragraph development is an explanation of each example and its relevance to the topic sentence and rationale that were stated at the beginning of the paragraph. This explanation shows readers why you chose to use this/or these particular examples as evidence to support the major claim, or focus, in your paragraph. Continue the pattern of giving examples and explaining them until all points/examples that the writer deems necessary have been made and explained. NONE of your examples should be left unexplained. You might be able to explain the relationship between the example and the topic sentence in the same sentence which introduced the example. More often, however, you will need to explain that relationship in a separate sentence. Look at these explanations for the two examples in the slave spirituals paragraph:

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Step 5. Complete the paragraph's idea or transition into the next paragraph The final movement in paragraph development involves tying up the loose ends of the paragraph and reminding the reader of the relevance of the information in this paragraph to the main or controlling idea of the paper. At this point, you can remind your reader about the relevance of the information that you just discussed in the paragraph. You might feel more comfortable, however, simply transitioning your reader to the next development in the next paragraph. Here's an example of a sentence that completes the slave spirituals paragraph. Unity Unity refers to the extent to which all of the ideas contained within a given paragraph "hang together" in a way that is easy for the reader to understand. When the writer changes to a new idea -- one which is not consistent with the topic sentence of the paragraph -- the writer should begin a new paragraph. Unity is important because it aids the reader in following along with the writer's ideas. The reader can expect that a given paragraph will deal only with one main topic; when a new paragraph begins, this signals that the writer is moving on to a new topic. Coherence Coherence refers to the extent to which the flow of ideas in a paragraph is easily understood by the reader. For this reason, coherence is closely related to unity. When a writer changes main ideas or topics within a paragraph, confusion often results. To achieve coherence, then, a writer should show how all of the ideas contained in a paragraph are relevant to the main topic. Adequate Development A paragraph is adequately developed when it describes, explains and supports the topic sentence. If the "promise" of the topic sentence is not fulfilled, or if the reader is left with questions after reading the paragraph, the paragraph has not been adequately developed. Generally speaking, a paragraph which consists of only two or three sentences is under-developed. A good rule of thumb to follow is to make sure that a paragraph contains at least four sentences which explain and elaborate on the topic sentence. Topic Sentences Beginning a paragraph with a topic sentence is one of the best ways to achieve clarity and unity in one's writing. The function of a topic sentence is to describe what the paragraph will be about, such that the reader has clear expectations about what will follow. An effective topic sentence typically contains only one main idea. The remainder of the paragraph then develops that idea more fully, offering supporting points and examples. After reading a topic sentence, one should be able to anticipate the type of information contained in the rest of the paragraph. If the remainder of the paragraph does not fulfill the "promise" of the topic sentence, the paragraph will lack unity, coherence and adequate development.

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MODES OF DEVELOPMENT Enumeration

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Use enumeration in paragraphs when you want to itemize or list a set of topics or a series of some kind. Enumeration is a powerful way to establish a series of observations and to emphasize each element. In the following paragraph, the items are enumerated in a series of itemized recommendations. Analysis Analysis examines a subject by evaluating one of its aspects--weighing evidence and possible causal linkages. It resembles other forms of development, especially classification and division. The object of analysis, however, is to get to the center of how something works. The following paragraph considers the link between cancer, poverty, and stress. Definition Develop paragraphs by definition when you want to set working generalizations that will help control the meaning and scope of important terms. Defining is an effective way of controlling the scope of terms. In the following paragraph, an extended definition is used as part of the introduction to a research article. The intention here is both to establish the terms of the discourse and to establish the importance of the subject. By exploring the meaning of the term bimetals, the writer creates a shared concept that focuses the discussion that follows. Note the use of other devices, such as functional description and enumeration. Classification and Division Use classification and division to develop material by relating parts to wholes. In classification, you associate similar things or processes by grouping them into classes. You can classify organisms, mechanisms, processes according to shapes, magnitudes, effects, and so on. In division, you develop a topic by breaking it down into smaller parts. Classification is the tutorial prose strategy. It is an effective approach for showing the terrain of a subject by elaborating upon its essential types. In the following example, corrosion-resistant ceramics are broken down into types. Analogy Use analogy to explain one object or process in terms of another. The aptness of the analogy is generally a point of subtle judgment. Some analogies are more valid than others. Comparing an apple to the space shuttle is not likely to be an effective analogy. Explaining the Internet by reference to a highway system might make a better analogy. In the following analogy, a body infection is compared with an invading army of attack organisms. Comparison and Contrast Use comparison and contrast to develop a topic by examining its similarities or dissimilarities to another thing, process, or state. Comparison emphasizes the similarities, contrast the differences. A paragraph may use both comparison and contrast. In the following example, two kinds of electrical cable are compared. The aim here is to convey the superiority of A over B for two categories of performance. Description

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Use descriptive prose to provide a physical picture or a functional view of the subject. Physical description develops a picture by identifying the shapes, materials, position, and functions of its subject. Such prose often serves as the raw material for more elaborate forms of analytical prose. Process Use process in paragraphs to develop sequences that describe how an action is carried out or how something works. The following paragraph shows a typical sequential treatment of a general physical phenomenon. Note the concentration of process verbs such as to find, samples, sums, and provides. Narration Use narration to establish a series of events that tells the reader what happened. Narration follows a chronological pattern of development. It is a convincing mode of paragraph development to the extent that it tells a coherent story. This pattern or time line is usually very easy to understand. In the following narrative, the first narrative paragraph is followed by two descriptive paragraphs. Note the use of transitional words such as thereafter, first, next, and after.

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COMMUNICATION SKILLS 2

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