entrepreneurship development in palestine: an empirical...

Entrepreneurship Development In Palestine: An Empirical Study

on the Gaza Strip

Prof. Dr. Majed Mohamed Elfarra

2017

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Dedication

:dedicationa a donation and This work is

To the Sole of My father

To My Mother and may God Bless Hear

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Table of Contents

Dedication .................................................................................................................................................. 3 Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................................... 5 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................. 7 Executive Summery in Arabic .......................................................................................................... 18 Executive Summery ............................................................................................................................. 22 Entrepreneurship Skills university provide ................................................................................ 24 Chapter one: General Introduction .................................................................. 29 1.1 Preface .............................................................................................................................................. 31 1.2 Study objectives: ............................................................................................................................ 34 1.3 Research variables, Questions and Hypothesis ................................................................... 35

1.3.1 Research Variables: .................................................................................................. 35 1.3.2 Research Questions .................................................................................................. 37 1.3.3 Research Hypothesis ................................................................................................ 37

1.4 Study Importance .......................................................................................................................... 38 1.5 Methodology ................................................................................................................................... 39 1.6 Research Population and sample ............................................................................................. 40 1.7 Research instrument .................................................................................................................... 42 1.8 Data Entry and Statistical Analysis.......................................................................................... 43 1.9 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................... 43 Chapter Two: Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurs: A Theoretical Background .. 47 2.1 An Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 49 2.2 Definition of entrepreneurship and entrepreneur ............................................................ 51 2.3 Characteristics of Entrepreneurs ............................................................................................. 55 2.4 Success factors to entrepreneurs ............................................................................................. 56 2.5 Motivational factors to entrepreneurs ................................................................................... 57 2.6 Problems facing entrepreneurs. ............................................................................................... 58 2.7 Entrepreneurship Development in Developing Countries .............................................. 59 2.8 What makes entrepreneurs in developing countries different? ................................... 61

2.8.1 Opportunity ................................................................................................................. 61 2.8.2 Financial resources ................................................................................................... 62

2.9 Apprenticeship and Human Resources .................................................................................. 62 2.10 Entrepreneurship Ecosystem ................................................................................................. 63

2.10.1 The key components of an entrepreneurial ecosystem............................. 65 2.11 G20 Nations Proposed Recommendations to Support SMEs and Entrepreneurship ...... 67 2.12 Entrepreneurship programs at higher education Institutes ........................................ 68 2.13 Policies recommended to develop entrepreneurship education ............................... 70 2.14 Small and medium enterprises and Entrepreneurship ................................................. 71 2.15 Economic and entrepreneurship development in Palestine (West Bank and Gaza Strip) .......75

2.15.1 Economic Development in Palestine ................................................................ 75 2.15.2 Initiatives to Develop Entrepreneurship in Palestine ................................ 78

2.16 Global Entrepreneurship levels in developed and developing countries ................ 80

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Chapter Three: The Empirical Study: Data analysis and discussions ........... 83 3.1 Students and Graduates Profile ................................................................................................ 85 3.2 Entrepreneurs profile .................................................................................................................. 87 3.3 Students and Graduates opinions toward bargaining and volunteering ................... 90 3.4 Research questions and discussion ......................................................................................... 91 3.5 Hypothesis Testing .....................................................................................................................122 Chapter Four: A proposed entrepreneurial development model to Palestine .......... 135 4.1 An Introduction ............................................................................................................................137 4.2 The Components of the Proposed model ............................................................................137

4.2.1 The Profile of PEA ...................................................................................................138 4.3 Proposed Palestinian Entrepreneurship Ecosystem .......................................................144 References ............................................................................................................................ 146 Appendices ........................................................................................................................... 154

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List of Tables Table (1) Total Number of enrolled students in the final year of study (2014/2015)

and total graduates from faculties of Engineering, Commerce and IT from Gaza's universities......................................................................................................... 41

Table (2) shows Some definitions of Entrepreneurship ......................................................... 52 Table (3) points and ranks of selected countries in 2015 entrepreneurship .................. 82 3.1 Students and Graduates Profile ................................................................................................ 85 Table (4) Students and Graduates Profile .................................................................................... 86 Table (5) The relation between level of family income and stages of establishments,

Students viewpoints. .................................................................................................... 87 Table (6) entrepreneurs profile ...................................................................................................... 88 Table (7) The relation between level of family income and stages of establishments,

Entrepreneurs viewpoints. ........................................................................................ 89 Table (8) Sample opinions toward bargaining and volunteering ........................................ 90 Table (9) Means and Test values of Entrepreneurship Knowledge university provide

in the Gaza Strip ............................................................................................................. 91 Table (10) Aspects of Entrepreneurship Skills university provide ..................................... 93 Table (11) Entrepreneurship Attitudes university provide .................................................. 95 Table (12) Means and Test values for “Perceptions and population attitudes toward

having business” ............................................................................................................ 98 Table (13) Means and Test values of Motivational factors for students and graduates

to start their own businesses, students and graduates viewpoints ............. 99 Table (14) Means and Test values of Motivational factors for starting business from

experts and entrepreneurs viewpoints................................................................ 101 Table (15) Means and Test values for “Receiving advice regarding entrepreneurship

(in field of starting or running their businesses)”, graduates and students and entrepreneurs viewpoints ............................................................................... 103

Table (16) Means and Test values for enterprises in Gaza, whether innovative or traditional and replication, experts viewpoints ................................................ 105

Table (17) Means and Test values for “Reasons for discontinue operating”, experts viewpoints ..................................................................................................................... 106

Table (18) Means and Test values for “Entrepreneur social image”, experts viewpoints107 Table (19) Means and Test values for “Physical infrastructure”, experts viewpoints 108 Table (20) Means and Test values for “Governmental support programs to

entrepreneurs”, experts viewpoints ..................................................................... 110 Table (21) Means and Test values for “National experts views on youth

entrepreneurship”, experts viewpoints ............................................................... 112 Table (22) Means and Test values for “Risk taking”, experts and entrepreneurs

viewpoints ..................................................................................................................... 113 Table (23) Means and Test values for “Factors contribute to entrepreneur’s Success”116 Table (24) Means and Test values for “Problems which hinder entrepreneurial

development”, experts and entrepreneurs viewpoints .................................. 117 Table (25) Means and Test values for “Organization's support for entrepreneurship”,

entrepreneurs viewpoints ........................................................................................ 118 Table (26) Means and Test values for “Initiatives and friends and relatives are

entrepreneurs”, entrepreneurs viewpoints ....................................................... 120

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Table (27) Means and Test values for “Innovation”, entrepreneurs viewpoints.......... 121 Table (28) Total dimensions of entrepreneurship from entrepreneurs viewpoints .. 121 Table (29) Level of differences in the dimensions of Entrepreneurship attributed to

Age of respondents, from entrepreneurs viewpoints ..................................... 123 Table (30) Level of differences in the dimensions of Entrepreneurship attributed to

whether they have any of their sons work with them, from entrepreneurs viewpoints ..................................................................................................................... 123

Table (31) Level of differences in the dimensions of Entrepreneurship attributed to Years of experience in the field before starting business, from entrepreneurs viewpoints ........................................................................................ 124

Table (32) Level of differences in the dimensions of Entrepreneurship attributed to business ownership, from entrepreneurs viewpoints. ................................... 124

Table (33) Level of differences in the dimensions of Entrepreneurship attributed to business Legal form, from entrepreneurs viewpoints. ................................... 125

Table (34) Level of differences in the dimensions of Entrepreneurship attributed to family income before starting business, from entrepreneurs viewpoints125

Table (35) Level of differences in the dimensions of Entrepreneurship attributed to level of education, from entrepreneurs viewpoints ........................................ 126

Table (36) correlation between the aspects of Entrepreneurship and Number of workers, from entrepreneurs viewpoints. .......................................................... 127

Table (37) result of one-way anova test for motivational factors, respondents viewpoints ..................................................................................................................... 128

Table (38) Result of independent samples t-test for receiving advices and support regarding entrepreneurship, students & graduates and entrepreneurs viewpoints. .................................................................................................................... 129

table (39) Result of independent samples t-test for factors contribute to entrepreneur’s success, entrepreneurs and experts viewpoints. ............... 129

Table (40) Result of Independent Samples T-Test for Problems which hinder entrepreneurial development, entrepreneurs and experts viewpoints. .. 130

Table (41) The correlation between the dimensions of Entrepreneurship and Receiving advices and support regarding entrepreneurship, from entrepreneurs viewpoints ........................................................................................ 130

Table (42) The correlation between the dimensions of Entrepreneurship and organization support to entrepreneurship, from entrepreneurs viewpoints ........................... 131

Table (43) the differences in the elements of entrepreneurship education, attributed to Age, from students and graduates viewpoints. ............................................ 133

Table (44) the difference in the elements of entrepreneurship education attributed to Level of family income, from students and graduates viewpoints. ............ 133

Table (45) the difference in the elements of entrepreneurship education attributed to field of education, from students and graduates viewpoints. ...................... 134

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Executive Summery in Arabic تهدف هذه الدراسة إلى استكشاف وتطـوير الفكـر والممارسـة والسـلوك الريادي في فلسطين بشكل عام وقطـاع غـزة بشـكل خـاص والعمـل علـى بنـاء

. أنموذج ريادي مناسب للبيئة الفلسطينية تحتاج فلسطين بشكل عام وقطاع غزة على وجه الخصـوص الـى مزيـد

مـن سـكان % 43 ، حيـث أكثـر مـن من المشاريع الجديدة والمزيد مـن الريـاديون ، اال أن هـذه النسـبة 2014 قطاع غزة عاطلين عن العمـل وفـق احصـاءات العـام

ساط الشباب وبخاصة االناث. و تزيد أكثر في أولقد ركزت الدراسة على ثالث مجموعات رئيسة من العوامل التي

:تسهم في تنمية الريادة وهي كما يلي قتصادي والسياسي والقانوني:والثقافي واال االطار االجتماعي -1

وتشمل توفر الدعم المرضي من األسرة واألصدقاء، والحكومة وغيرهـا، ، والبنيـة التحتيـة ل، وتعليم ريـادة األعمـال بالجامعـات والحصول على رأس الما

فـي غـزة، ومراحـل التنميـة االقتصـادية (الحالـة االقتصـادية)، المناسبة المادية نحو ريادة األعمـال، النظـرة االجتماعيـة للريـادي فـي االيجابية ومواقف السكان

قطاع غزة، والعوامل المحفزة لبـدء األعمـال، والعوامـل التـي تسـاعد فـي نجـاح الريادي.

السمات النفسية والشخصية للرياديين: -2 التوجـه نحـو و الرغبة بالعمل باستقاللية، والمبادرات الفردية والجماعية

المخاطرة واالبتكار. ات اإلدارية وتدريب الرياديين:المهار -3

ترويج والبيــع، ال وتشـمل القـدرة علـى اإلدارة بشــكل صـحيح، التسـويق/ منتجات جيدة بأسعار تنافسـية، خدمـة جيـدة للعمـالء، خبـرة سـابقة فـي مجـال

المشروع والمسك الجيد للسجالت المحاسبية. تظهر أهمية الدراسة من خالل تصميم أنموذج مناسب لتطـوير الريـادة في فلسطين وبخاصة في قطاع غزة. ولقد ركـزت الدراسـة علـى دور الجامعـات

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والحكومة والمنظمات غيـر الحكوميـة والقطـاع الخـاص والحاضـنات فـي تعزيـز ريادة األعمال في فلسطين. باإلضافة إلى ذلك قامت الدراسة بقياس خصـائص

تحسـين ريادة األعمال بين الطـالب وخريجـي الجامعـات، وهـذا قـد يسـاعد فـي نوعية التعليم العالي في فلسطين.

وإلنجاز هذا البحث التطبيقي تم استخدم المنهج الوصفي التحليلي واستخدام البيانات الكمية والنوعية، كما اعتمد البحث على المصادر األولية والثانوية، واستند البحث الميداني على توزيع استبيان وإجراء مقابالت. ولقد

) في تقييم ريادة GEMوذج المراقب العالمي لريادة األعمال (تم استخدام أنماألعمال في فلسطين وخاصة في قطاع غزة، مع بعض التعديالت لتتناسب مع الواقع الفلسطيني. ولقد أخذت الدراسة آراء طالب الجامعات والخريجين

واألكاديميين والخبراء ورجال األعمال بعين االعتبار. الثـامن عشـر م الريادة ألول مرة في بداية القرن لقد تم استخدام مفهو

) 1700s ثم تطور المفهـوم كثيـرا، وأصـبحت الريـادة محـط االهتمـام العـالمي ( وارتبطــت بالتنميــة االقتصــادية ورفاهيــة المجتمــع. الريــادة عمليــة ديناميكيــة لتعبئة الموارد، وتحديد الفرصة المربحة واالبتكار وتحمل المخاطرة، عبـر عمـل

فراد أو الجماعات من أجل تحقيق الرضا الشخصي. األهو مكتشف الفرص ويحول األفكار الى مشاريع وخطط عمل الريادي

واقعية ويقدم خدمات ومنتجات جديدة للمجتمع عبر استخدام عوامل االنتاج ولدى الريادي القدرة على التكيف مع التغيرات البيئية بتوليفة مناسبة.

كشف عن الفرص المربحة واالبتكار وتحمل المخاطرة المتسارعة من خالل ال المحسوبة والعمل باستقاللية وقادر على النمو.

إليجاد النظم المتكاملة تولي العديد من الحكومات الدعم )ecosystems التي تغطي كامل دورة حياة المشروع الجديد، من بدايته إلى (

مبكر والنمو ومن ثم العمل على بقاء المشروع على قيد الحياة في وقتاالنتشار العالمي. والنظام المتكامل قائم على التفاعيل والتنسيق بين أصحاب المصالح من مؤسسات قطاع عام وخاص، جامعات، جمعيات خيرية، حاضنات

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أعمل، ومؤسسات مالية في تقديم الدعم والرعاية للرياديين لتعزيز وانجاح مبادراتهم.

المي إليجاد برامج تعليمية لتطوير الريادة ولقد أصبح هناك اهتمام ععلى مستوى مؤسسات التعليم العالي في الدول النامية والمتقدمة. ويهدف تعليم الريادة الى رفد األفراد بالمعارف والمهارات والسلوك الريادي الضروري

إليجاد الريادي الكفؤ. والتي وترتبط الريادة بشكل كبير بالمشاريع الصغيرة والمتوسطة

تعتبر القوى الرئيسة في تنمية اقتصاد السوق وتمثل معظم المشاريع القائمة محليا ودوليا.

ال يوجد اجماع في فلسطين حول المعيار المناسب لتصنيف المنشآت وضعوا معيار عدد العاملين، قد حسب الحجم، ولكن هناك العديد من الكتاب

أقل بانها صغيرة، وهذا المعيار أفراد أو 10حيث صنفوا المنشآت التي توظف عاملة هناك % من المنشآت ال97مناسب لفلسطين وبخاصة لغزة كون أكثر من

أشخاص للمنشأة الواحدة. لذلك 5متوسط تشغيل بو أفراد 10توظف أقل من تتبنى هذه الدراسة سياسة دعم المشاريع الصغيرة في غزة وهذا يتطلب

كي يعالج االختالالت الهيكلية في تصميم برنامج دعم مناسب لقطاع غزةأن العديد من الدول النامية تتبنى العلماالقتصاد ويسرع عملية التنمية، مع

برامج تحفيزية للمنشآت الصغيرة جدا والصغيرة والمتوسطة كجزء مهم من سياساتها الهادفة إليجاد بيئة تنموية مناسبة.

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ملخص لنتائج الدراسة التطبيقية :عن الطلبة الجامعيين والخريجين لمحة عامة

%) لدى أسرهم دخل 71.6( المبحوثين أكثر من ثلثي الطلبة والخريجينسنة، 26% منهم أعمارهم أقل من 87.3، كما أن في الشهر $1000أقل من

% 18.9% هندسة، 35.2الطلبة والخريجين يدرس علوم ادارية، من % 45كما أن % 80.5شخص منهم 244مالي عينة الدراسة تكنولوجيا معلومات. ولقد بلغ اج

% فقط لديهم مشروع 2.7في مرحلة التخطيط لبدء مشروع خاص، بينما شهر. انخفاض دخل األسر انعكس سلبا على القدرات 42جنيني عمرة أقل من

المالية للمبحوثين، حيث غالبية المبحوثين يعانوا من ضعف القدرات المالية م الريادية، كون الموارد المالية الشخصية والعائلية الكافية إلنجاح مبادراته

. ً وعالميا ً هي المصدر الرئيس لتمويل المشاريع الصغيرة والمتوسطة محليا

:سمات الرياديون في غزة% منهم تتراوح أعمارهم 73.1معظم الرياديون في غزة من الشباب،

% حاصلين 50.8ية و% لديهم شهادة جامع49.2، كما أن قليال عام او يزيد 34بين % من الرياديون لديهم خبرة في مجال 57.2على درجه الدبلوم أو أقل، كما أن

% من المشاريع الريادية بانها 92.7تصنف وسنوات، 8العمل الحالي أقل من فردية أو شراكة، وهذا ربما يعكس محدودية القدرات المالية لهذه المشاريع.

:لجامعاتالمعرفة الريادية التي تقدمها ا

%) 61.9لقد كانت اجابات الطلبة الخريجين محايدة (متوسط حسابي تقدمها الجامعات لهم في فلسطين، وهذه النتائج تجاه المعرفة الريادية التي

تعكس الحاجه لتطوير مناهج الجامعات كي تشمل تحليل البيئة المجتمعية تعلم بالممارسة والصناعية، االبداع الريادي، تصميم مناهج قائمة على ال

تصميم حاالت دراسية كأمثلة واقعية يمكن للرياديين الرجوع اليها ووالتطبيق، لتطوير قدراتهم وحل مشاكلهم.

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:المهارات الريادية التي تقدمها الجامعات%) لدور 58.8أظهر الطلبة والخريجين ضعف التأييد (متوسط حسابي

تبين ضعف الجامعات في يثح، الجامعات في تنمية المهارات الريادية لهمتطوير مهارات الطلبة في التفاوض واتخاذ المخاطرة المحسوبة والعمل بروح الفريق ومهارات التحليل والرقابة والتقييم وضعف واضح في المهارات االدارية

من تخطيط وتنظيم وقيادة وتفويض.

:السلوك والممارسات الريادية التي تقدمها الجامعاتة والخريجين أن الجامعات لها تأثير ايجابي على سلوكهم يؤيد الطلب

%)، حيث تبين أن الجامعات تعزز 71وممارساتهم الريادية (متوسط حسابي ثقة الطالب بنفسة ومعرفته لقدراته وحضوره وتفاعله االجتماعي واالصرار وااللتزام بتحقيق الهدف والطموح العالي وعمل مبادرات جديدة والميل

. ويتضح أن السلوك الريادي أفضل من المعارف والمهارات الريادية للمخاطرة % على التوالي).%58.8، %61.9، 71(

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نظرة وسلوك السكان تجاه الريادة في فلسطين من وجهه نظر الطلبة والخريجين

%) 61.5لقد كانت اجابه الطبة والخريجين محايدة (متوسط حاسبي ه تملك وادارة المشاريع في غزة، حيث فيمل يتعلق بنظرة وسلوك السكان تجا

وتشجيع درجة احترام وكذلكأبدو تأييد غير كافي تجاه الريادة كمهنة جيدة المجتمع للبدء بمشاريع ناجحة أو الرغبة باالستقاللية في العمل واالدارة، كما

أظهرت الدراسة أن غالبية الطلبة ليس لديهم أصدقاء أو أقارب رياديون. :حفزة للرياديالعوامل الم

%) 68.8يبدو أن الطلبة والخريجين متحفزين بمستوى متوسط (للمبادرة وتأسيس مشروع خاص، ولكن مستوى التحفيز بحاجه الى تطوير من خالل تصميم برنامج توعية للطلبة والخريجين من قبل الجامعات والحكومة

ز برنامج الفلسطينية والقطاع الخاص والجمعيات الخيرية، مع ضرورة تركيالتوعية على مزايا الريادة. أما الخبراء والرياديون فكانوا متحفزين أكثر

Globalأن الشبكة العالمية للريادة % على التوالي)، مع العلم %73.8، 83.4(Entrepreneurship Network قد صنفت معظم الدول العربية بمستوى ريادي

متدني جدا باستثناء بعض الدول الخليجية. :ى تلقي الدعم الفني واالستشارات لتعزيز الريادةمد

لقد أكد الطلبة والخريجين أنهم يتلقون دعما فنيا أو استشارات ادارية %. 55.9لتأسيس وادارة المشاريع بفاعلية، حيث المتوسط الحسابي محدودة

كذلك بينت الدراسة الدور المحدود للنقابات المهنية والشبكات والقطاع الخاص م الريادة في فلسطين.في دع

:خصائص االبداع لدى المشاريع القائمة%) تجاه 60.5لقد كانت وجهه نظر الخبراء محايدة (متوسط حسابي

درجه االبتكار في المنشآت الفلسطينية، وهذا يعطي انطباع أن أكثر األعمال في غزة قائمة على التقليد والتكرار.

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:أسباب توقف المنشآت وعدم استمراريتهايرى الخبراء أن أهم أسباب عدم استمرارية المنشآت هو نقص التمويل

محدودية فرص العمل المتاحة في ارتفاع البطالة و%)، مع 73.8(متوسط حسابي السوق المحلي، والمفاجئ أن التحليل االحصائي العاملي قد استبعد الحصار

عمل في قطاع واالغالق وضعف الربحية كعوامل مسببة لتوقف المشاريع عن ال غزة.

:مالمح البيئة الريادية في قطاع غزة من وجهه نظر الخبراءيرى الخبراء أو هناك قناعة متواضعة من قبل األفراد بدور الريادة في

تحقيق الثراء. يتمتع قطاع غزة ببنية تحية قوية في قطاع االتصاالت من شبكات

) حيث من السهل %76.7التليفون األرضي والجوال واالنترنت (متوسط %)، اال 58.1الحصول على هذه الخدمات اال أن تكلفتها مرتفعة نسبيا (متوسط

أن البنية التحتية ضعيفة من طرق ومياه ومواصالت وكهرباء وغيرها من الخدمات.

ال تقدم الحكومة الفلسطينية الدعم الكافي للرياديين (متوسط يس مشاريع جديدة أو دعم %) وهذا يتضح من خالل ندرة الدعم لتأس47.6

حاضنات الدور المحدود لمشاريع قائمة، وعدم توفر المراكز الحكومية العلمية واألعمال لمساعدة واحتضان المبادرات الفردية، وتفتقر غزة إلى البرامج الحكومية لتدريب ودعم رواد األعمال الشباب ماليا، كما أن معظم الشباب يرون

٪.77.6كثر جاذبية بمتوسط أن فرص العمل خارج غزة أيرى الخبراء والرياديون أن األفراد في غزة لديهم الميل لتحمل

% على التوالي. ويميل األفراد للتغلب 65.2%، 73المخاطرة بمتوسط حسابي ٪ على التوالي) وال يمانعون من العمل 71٪، 75.2على الخوف والمضي قدما (

لساعات طويلة لتحقيق األهداف. :اهم في نجاح الريادي، من وجه نظر الرياديون والخبراءعوامل تس

هناك اتفاق واسع النطاق بين الرياديون والخبراء على معظم العوامل ٪ 80.8و ٪81.3التي تتسبب في نجاح الريادي في غزة بقيم اجمالية متوسطة

للخبراء الرياديون على التوالي. وكانت أهم العوامل لنجاح ريادة األعمال،

]16 [

والتسويق ات اإلدارة الجيدة والخبرة السابقة في مجال العمل الحالي، مهاروالعمل ، الترويج والبيع، واألسعار التنافسية، وخدمة جيدة للعمالءوبخاصة

الجاد، والوصول إلى رأس المال والمهارات االجتماعية. أما العوامل التي تعيق ص المهارات التسويقية )، ونق%80.5تنمية الريادة، مشكلة الكهرباء (متوسط

٪)، 74.8٪)، واالفتقار إلى التدريب في مجال اإلدارة (متوسط 78.5(متوسط ٪)، اللوائح 73.3عدم القدرة على االحتفاظ بسجالت محاسبية دقيقة (متوسط

٪) 65.2٪)، ارتفاع حدة المنافسة (متوسط 71الحكومية المقيدة (متوسط ير األجل.ضعف القدرة على الحصول على تمويل قص

:الرياديون دعم المنظمات للريادة فيها، من وجهه نظر اصحاب المشاريع/%) تجاه مستوى الدعم 65.7فقة متوسطة (متوسط الدى الرياديون مو

التنظيمي للريادة، وهذا يعطي مؤشر بضرورة تمكين الموظفين، واعتماد قواعد المخاطرة المحسوبة.ورعاية إدارية مرنة، وتعزيز االبتكار وريادة األعمال وتشجيع

المبادرة واالبتكار والميل الى المخاطرة، من وجهه نظر اصحاب المشاريع/ :الرياديون

بلغت القيمة االجمالية المتوسطة لجوانب المبادرات واالبتكار والرغبة ٪، اال أن مستوى المبادرات كان منخفضا بمتوسط 67في المخاطرة في غزة

يل جدا من الرياديين لديهم أصدقاء أو أقارب رياديون. %، كما أن عدد قل57.4 :) مقترح للريادة في فلسطينecosystems( أنموذج متكامل

يتكون هذا النموذج المقترح من الخطوات الثمانية التالية: تصميم حملـة توعيـة لتشـجيع رواد األعمـال الشـباب لبـدء مشـاريعهم، - 1

ايجابية للريـاديين والتهيئـة وهذا يتطلب من وسائل اإلعالم بناء صورة المجتمعية لقبول أي اخفاقات قد تتعرض لها المشاريع.

حملة مجتمعية لتوفير الدعم المعنوي للرياديين الشباب، وعـادة القيام ب - 2 يوفر اآلباء واألمهات واألقارب واألصدقاء الدعم المعنوي العالي.

فــي ا (انظـر تفاصــيل أنشـطته PEA الـدعم الحكـومي مــن خـالل إنشــاء - 3ــوافز، المــتن ــوفير الح ــى الحكومــة ت ــين عل ــك، يتع ــى ذل ــافة إل ). باإلض

. المناسب مرافق البنية التحتية وتطوير اإلطار القانوني تطوير و

]17 [

تطوير الريادة من قبل مؤسسات التعليم العالي، وهذا يتطلـب تصـميم - 4 تعليم عالي ينمي الريادة ويتناسب مع حاجة المجتمـع المحلـي ويشـمل،

هج تحتوي على مسـاقات فـي الريـادة، تبنـي أسـلوب الـتعلم تطوير منا النشــط، وتــوفير الحــاالت الدراســية واألمثلــة الواقعيــة التــي يمكـــن

للرياديين الرجوع لها. توفير الدعم المالي، حيث معظم األعمـال الرياديـة تبـدأ بتمويـل ذاتـي - 5

يأتي من األقـارب واألصـدقاء وتسـهيالت تقـدم مـن المـوردين، ويمكـن يب تلقي التسهيالت المالية من المؤسسات الماليـة والمنظمـات غيـر ترت

للحصـول PEA الحكومية والقطاع الخاص بضـمانات ماليـة مقدمـة مـن على تمويل من المؤسسات المالية األخرى.

، المنظمــات غيــر PEA الــدعم المقــدم مــن الشــبكات والمنظمــات مثــل - 6 ة، وجمعيـات ووحـدات ، واالتحادات الصناعي األعمال الحكومية، وحاضنات

الخريجين، وشبكات الموردين والموزعين والتوعية والدعم المقدم عبـر شبكات التواصل االجتماعي مثل الفيس بوك، وتويتر.

غيـر الحكوميـة وحاضـنات من قبل المنظمات توفير الدعم التكنولوجي - 7 التكنولوجيـــا الجديـــدة المطـــورة فـــي المؤسســـات تقـــديم ، و األعمـــال

التكنولوجيا المستوردة، وكيفية التصنيع واالنتاج االبـداعي، التعليمية، و والمعارف والخبرات المتوفرة محليا.

فرص الريادية في السوق من خـالل ال دعم السوق المحلي: التعرف على - 8 ، والفرص التسويقية المقدمة مـن المـوردين PEA التقارير المقدمة من

قبـل الوسـطاء والمعـارض والعمالء األوفياء، وقبول المنتج المحلـي مـن التجارية وجمهور المستهلكين.

]18 [

Executive Summery

This study aims to explore and develop the entrepreneurial thought, practice and behavior in Palestine, and to build an entrepreneurial model suitable to Palestinian environment in general and Gaza Strip in particular.

Palestine in general and Gaza Strip in particular needs more new enterprises and more entrepreneurs. Gaza suffers of high unemployment ,high poverty and stagnant economy, with more than 43% of Gazans unemployed in year 2014.

The study considered three major groups of factors which contribute to the development of entrepreneurship as the following:

1. Palestinian Socio-cultural Economic Political and Legal context: Satisfactory support from family, friends, government and others, access to capital, Entrepreneurship university education, Physical infrastructure in Palestine, phases of economic development (economic condition), population attitudes towards entrepreneurship, Entrepreneur social image in Palestine, Motivational factors for starting business, Factors contribute to entrepreneur’s Success and Problems hinder entrepreneurial development.

2. The psychological and personality traits of entrepreneurs:

Drive for independence, initiatives, attitude toward risk and Innovation.

3. The managerial skills and training of entrepreneurs: The ability to manage properly, Marketing/sales

promotion, Good product at competitive price, Good customer service, Previous business experience and maintain accounting records. The importance of the study is echoed through

designing a suitable entrepreneurship developmental model

]19 [

to Palestine in general and Gaza Strip in particular. The rules of universities, government, NGOs and private sector in promoting entrepreneurship in Palestine were considered. In addition, measuring the characteristics of entrepreneurship among students and university graduates, may help in promoting the quality of higher education in Palestine mainly in the Gaza Strip.

The research applied analytical and descriptive methods involving both qualitative and quantitative approaches. The fieldwork was based on distributing a questionnaire and conducting interviews. Both primary and secondary data sources were used. The research adapted the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) approach in evaluating entrepreneurship in Palestine specially in the Gaza Strip, with some modifications to match Palestinian situation. The opinions of universities' students and graduates, academics, experts and entrepreneurs were considered.

The concept of entrepreneurship was first recognized in the 1700s, and the meaning

has developed ever since. Entrepreneurship has become a global concern and is associated with economic development and well-being of society. Entrepreneurs are the source of economic growth. They discover opportunities, transform ideas into viable business plan and provide new products and services to the society by bringing together and combining various factors of production.

Entrepreneurship is a dynamic process of mobilizing resources, spotting profitable opportunity, innovative and taking risk through the action of individuals or groups to achieve personal satisfaction.

While entrepreneur is defined as: someone who facilitates adjustment to change by spotting profitable

]20 [

opportunities, innovation, taking risk, mobilizing resources, able to work independently and willing to grow.

Entrepreneurs prefer to work independently and with high achievement. They have enthusiastic vision, with high determination. They take the initial responsibility to cause a vision to become a success. Entrepreneurs take cautious risks, have positive thinker and they are resourceful and creative.

The major factors which contribute to entrepreneur success include, the psychological and personality traits of entrepreneurs, managerial, ,marketing and technical skills and the external environmental conditions.

Currently, many governments consider the support of ecosystems that cover the entire life cycle of a new venture, from inception to early survival and growth to international expansion. Entrepreneurial ecosystem is the interaction that takes place between a range of institutional and individual stakeholders so as to nurture entrepreneurship.

Developing entrepreneurship programs at higher education institutions has become a global concern in developed and developing countries. Entrepreneurship education aims to equip people with an entrepreneurial attitude, skills and knowledge necessary to become a competent entrepreneurs.

Entrepreneurship is strongly linked to small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs), which are the main developing force of the market economies. SMEs are usually representing the majority of all enterprises.

There is no agreement in Palestine about a criteria to classify businesses according to their sizes. However, many writers classify business small if it employs 10 persons or less. This criteria of size classification is suitable to Gaza, since more than 97% of establishments employ less than 10 persons with average employment size of about 5 persons. This study advocates the policy of supporting small-scale

]21 [

establishments in Palestine specially Gaza, as the most appropriate and viable model, rather than supporting large-scale projects. Pursuing a supportive program suitable to the establishments in Gaza may help in tackling the structural imbalances of the economy and accelerate the process of development. In many developing countries, incentives for micro, small and medium establishments (MSME) constitute an important and integral part of the policy instruments available to create a conducive atmosphere to promote MSME.

]22 [

Summary of the findings of the Empirical Study

Gaza's Students and Graduates Profile More than two third of the sample (71.6%), their family

income were less than ($1000). 87.3% of the respondents were younger than 26 years. Regarding the field of education, (45.9%) of the respondents were belong to business field and 35.2% to engineering and 18.9% to IT. The total number of respondents from students and graduates was 244 persons. In addition, 80.5% of students and graduates were in the entrepreneurial planning stage, and only 2.7% of them have a baby business with less than 42 months old. The low family income of students and graduates reflects the financial limitations of the majority to find sufficient fund to support their entrepreneurship initiatives, since personal and family financial resources were the main source of fund for SMEs in Palestine and globally, especially in developing countries.

Students and graduates are moderate regarding entrepreneurial attitude toward bargaining when buying something (mean value 65%) and low attitude toward volunteering to organizations or clubs they affiliate to (58.2%). Gaza's Entrepreneurs profile

Entrepreneurs with age 34 years or more accounted 73.1% of the sample, which may indicate that younger people or fresh graduates have limited initiatives to launch their businesses. In addition, only 49.2% of the entrepreneurs hold a university degree and 50.8% hold a diploma degree or less. This may reflect the need to further develop the skills and competencies of Gaza's entrepreneurs. Furthermore, the great majority of the entrepreneurs (83.9%) their family income were less than $1000, which may reflect their limited capacity to establish large establishments. Moreover, 57.2%

]23 [

of businesses had experience in the same field less than 8 years, and 92.7% of them were sole traders and partnerships, which reflect why personal resources were 92.1% of business fund, which is usually limited.

Entrepreneurship Knowledge university provide

Students and graduates were "neutral" (mean value 61.9%), toward entrepreneurship knowledge universities provide to them in the Gaza Strip. This result revealed that university curriculum need to include how to understand and analyze industrial and societal environment, include courses in entrepreneurship innovation, adopt the action-based pedagogy, create new local materials, case studies and examples of role models that entrepreneurs can refer to.

]24 [

Entrepreneurship Skills university provide

Students and graduates were not much supportive (mean value 58.8%) toward entrepreneurship skills Gaza's universities may provide to them. In fact Gaza's universities were weak in improving students and graduates skills in negotiations, taking a calculated risk, team work, monitoring and evaluation, and analysis skills. In addition, Managerial skills in planning, organizing, leading and delegating need to be further improved.

Entrepreneurship Attitudes university provide

On the other hand, students and graduates were positive towards entrepreneurship attitudes Gaza's universities provide to them, with mean value (71%). They believe that universities enhance their entrepreneurial attitudes in self-belief, self-efficacy, self-awareness, social confidence, determination and commitment, ambition, determination to meet objectives, make some new initiatives and risk tendency. However, Entrepreneurship attitudes was much better in comparison to knowledge and skills (71%, 61.9% and 58.8% respectively).

Population perceptions and attitudes toward entrepreneurship, from students and graduates opinions

Students and graduates were "neutral" (mean 61.5%), regarding population attitudes towards owning and managing business in Gaza. They were neutral toward having business as a good career, or community respect toward successful business start-ups and the preference to be independent and self-employed. In addition, few of students and graduates have relatives or friends as entrepreneurs.

]25 [

Motivational factors for starting business Students and graduates were moderately motivated

(mean 68.8%) to start their own businesses. This level of motivations need to be improved among students and graduates through adopting awareness programs by universities, government, private sector and NGOs. The awareness programs should highlight the benefits of being a business owner.

However, experts and entrepreneurs emphasized on the same motivational factors, with mean values (83.4%) and (73.8%) to entrepreneurs and experts respectively. Furthermore, the study of Global Entrepreneurship Network ranked most of Arab Countries in a low entrepreneurship level.

Receiving advice to enhance entrepreneurship

Students and graduates were rarely received technical or managerial advices to establish or run their businesses efficiently, where the mean value was (55.9%). Professional network and other private network have weak contribution in supporting entrepreneurship in the Gaza Strip.

Aspects of innovation in Gaza's enterprises

Experts were neutral (mean value 60.5%) when they were asked whether establishments are innovative or traditional and replication. There is an indication that most businesses in Gaza rely on duplication and copying. 97% of Gaza's establishments in year 2012 were small and employ less than 9 persons, and 88.8% of Gaza's establishments employ less than 5 persons.

Reasons for business discontinue operating in Gaza

Experts believe that, the main reason for businesses to discontinue operation was short of finance, with mean value 73.8%. While, job or business opportunity was considered

]26 [

low important. The surprise was, the statistical factor analysis removed the factors; siege and closures and business not profitable from the reasons of discontinue operating.

Aspects of Gaza’s entrepreneurship environment from National experts views

Gaza's people are not much supportive to the new ventures as a way to become rich. There is a moderate concern to become an entrepreneur.

New or growing firms in Gaza can get good access to communications (telephone, internet, etc.) easily, with mean value (76.7%). However, the cost of getting the basic utilities is quite high (mean value 58.1%). Conversely, there is a weak physical infrastructure support (roads, utilities, communications, water disposal and power supply) from government and local authorities.

The government in Gaza Strip has a weak support to entrepreneurs, with mean value 47.6%. The government does not provide assistance to new and growing firms. Gaza lacks governmental science parks and business incubators to assist private initiatives.

Youth in Gaza receives limited entrepreneurship support with mean value 56.6%. Gaza lacks government programs to train and support youth entrepreneurs. Also Gaza lacks financial support to fund young business initiatives. Limited support made most of youth adults to consider life/work opportunities outside Gaza more attractive with mean value 77.6%.

National experts and entrepreneurs belief that Gaza's people are risk taking, with total mean value 73% and 65.2% respectively. People tend to overcome fear and go forward (75.2%, 71%) and do not mind working long hours to achieve goals.

]27 [

Factors contribute to entrepreneur’s Success, from entrepreneurs and experts, viewpoints

There is a wide agreement between entrepreneurs and experts on most of the factors which cause business success in Gaza with total means values were 81.3% and 80.8% to experts and entrepreneurs respectively. The most important factors for entrepreneurs' success were, good management skills, previous experience, marketing and sales promotions, competitive price, good customer services, hard work, access to capital and social skills. The other factors which hinder entrepreneurship development including, electricity problem (mean value 80.5%), lack of marketing training (mean value 78.5%), lack of management training (mean value 74.8%), inability to maintain accurate accounting records (mean value 73.3%), restricted government regulations (mean value 71%), too much competition (mean value 65.2%) and unable to obtain short-term finance.

Organizations' support to entrepreneurship, from entrepreneurs viewpoints

Entrepreneurs in Gaza were moderate toward organizational support to entrepreneurship (mean value 65.7%). Establishments in Gaza should enhance employees empowerment, adopt flexible management rules, enhance innovation, sponsor entrepreneurship and encourage calculated risk. Initiatives, innovation and risk taking in Gaza, from entrepreneurs viewpoints

The average mean value of the aspects of initiatives, innovation and risk taking in Gaza was moderate (mean value 67%). There is a low level of initiatives with mean value (57.4%). Very few number of the interviewed entrepreneurs, their friends or family members were entrepreneurs.

]28 [

Proposed Palestinian entrepreneurship ecosystem The proposed ecosystem consists of the following steps

1. Design awareness campaign to encourage young entrepreneurs to initiate and start their ventures. The media should build a good image to entrepreneurs and acceptance of venture failure.

2. Social campaign to provide moral support to young entrepreneurs. Parents, relatives and friends usually provide a high moral support.

3. Government support through the establishment of PEA (see the details of its activities in the text). In addition, government should provide incentives, infrastructure facilities and legal framework development.

4. Developing entrepreneurship higher education: Tailoring entrepreneurship higher education to fit the local needs of Palestine. Curriculum development, include courses in entrepreneurship, adopt the action-based pedagogy, case studies and examples of role models that entrepreneurs can refer to.

5. Financial support: most of initial fund comes from the personal resources mainly from family, friends, relatives and credit from suppliers. Receiving financial facilities from financial institutions, NGOs, private sector and PEA securities.

6. Network support refers to organizations that support entrepreneurship like PEA, NGOs, incubators, specific industry associations, alumni associations, online social networking sites like Facebook, LinkedIn, friends, network of suppliers and distributors.

7. Technology support is provided by NGOs and universities funded incubators, new technology developed in educational institutions, imported technology know- how, talent pool available locally.

8. Market support: identifying business opportunities in the market, reports from PEA, support of suppliers and loyal customers. Acceptance of the product on consignment by the intermediaries and trade exhibitions.

Chapter one

General Introduction 1.1 Preface 1.2 Study objectives 1.3 Research variables, Questions and Hypothesis 1.4 Study Importance 1.5 Methodology 1.6 Research Population and sample 1.7 Research instrument 1.8 Data Entry and Statistical Analysis

1.9 Conceptual Framework

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Chapter one General Introduction

1.1 Preface Palestine in general and Gaza Strip in particular needs

more new enterprises and more entrepreneurs. Gaza suffers of high unemployment ,high poverty and stagnant economy. However, economic growth and development requires an increasing number of start-ups, which are likely to provide more and better jobs. The finding of a research which, was conducted on Gaza Strip in 2002 revealed that Gazans were reluctant to take up opportunities for self-employment and entrepreneurial activities. This result correspond with the findings of the field work of this research. This may be attributed to the high failure rates among business initiatives and the dominant preference among Gaza’s citizens especially graduates to seeking jobs in public or private sectors (Ashour and El-Farra, 2002, p.2). To a certain extent there is a similarity to EU countries, where only 45% of European citizens would like to be self-employed. In the United States these figures are different; 55% of the population would like to be self-employed (EC, 2012, p. 21).

Entrepreneurship concerns an individual’s ability to turn ideas into action. It includes spotting profitable opportunities, innovation, taking risk, mobilizing resources, able to work independently, as well as the ability to plan and manage projects in order to achieve objectives. Still, in developing countries, the prime barrier to economic growth is often not the scarcity of capital, labor or land but the scarcity of the dynamic entrepreneurs that can seize opportunities and bring all necessary resources together to

]32 [

transform a business concept into a new success venture (UNDP, 1999, p. 1). Consequently, developing countries pay attention to the role of labor policies that aim to improve skills among young generations and graduates in order to enhance start-ups initiative to improve the potential of success among self-employed and small-scale entrepreneurs (Cho and Maddalena, 2013, p. 2).

Promoting entrepreneurship is widely perceived to be a crucial policy to increase employment, economic development and reduce poverty. Suitable macroeconomic conditions and business environment including infrastructure, political stability and legal environment have been emphasized to increase self-employment and entrepreneurship activities (GEM, 2014; 2012; Heinonen & Poikkijoki, 2006; Maddalena, 2013, p. 2).

In addition, frequently used interventions cross countries, technical and managerial assistances including, how to start-up new business, how to prepare a business plan, marketing, production and financial skills. Financing support includes, microcredit loans and grants. Further, counseling ranging from mentoring and advisory services after start- up (Naude, 2010, p. 10; Cho and Honorati, 2013, p. 2; Attanasio et al., 2011; Card et al., 2011).

In fact, access to finance is a dominant constraint to entrepreneurship in Gaza Strip. However, there are some limited programs initiated by the ministry of economy, IUG incubator, UNRWA, UNDP and some NGOs. These programs have provided fresh graduates and individuals in the labor market with the opportunities of training, some counseling, and little access to finance (Skaik, 2015: Interview). Outcomes of these supporting programs to entrepreneurship in Gaza Strip were limited. However there are some success stories, ranging from employment, business creation, earnings and profits. Also, there are some improvements

]33 [

among the beneficiaries in technical and non-cognitive skills, business knowledge and practice, attitudes, aspirations, and financial behavior (Rafati, 2015: Interview).

On the other hand, a considerable attention has been paid globally to formal entrepreneurship education at university level. Public authorities and economic experts emphasis on the importance of promoting aspirations for entrepreneurship among young and graduate people. If the business birth rate in any nation can be enhanced by supporting students and graduates in their entrepreneurial activities, it is worthwhile to examine the current status of entrepreneurship education. Entrepreneurship education seeks to prepare people to be responsible, enterprising individuals who have the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to achieve their goals (EC, 2012, p. 8). Worldwide higher education institutions play an important role in promoting entrepreneurship. They need to produce entrepreneurial graduates (Herrmann et al., 2008). This can be achieved by bringing together the providers of academic theory and entrepreneurs (Chang and Rieple, 2013, p. 225). The combination between theory and practice can promote the competencies of universities' graduates and therefore likely to result in economic growth (Richardson and Hynes, 2008). The importance of entrepreneurship education emerged as a result of a belief that entrepreneurship can be taught (Henry et al., 2005). A considerable evidence support the positive effect of entrepreneurship education on establishing new ventures (Cruz et al., 2009; Chang and Rieple, 2013). However, learning methods are varied, including action learning, internships, case studies, workshops, lectures and class-discussions and business simulations (Gibb, 2002; Matlay, 2008). Learning by doing is the best way to be an entrepreneur (Politis, 2005; Chang and Rieple, 2013).

]34 [

This study is an exploratory and a developmental, to identify the characteristics of entrepreneurial thought, practice and behavior in Palestine in general and Gaza Strip in particular, and to build an entrepreneurial model suitable to Palestinian environment. This book will set the policies and roles of universities, government, NGOs and private sector in developing entrepreneurship practices in Palestine and specially in the Gaza Strip.

This study answers the question: what are the characteristics of entrepreneurial thought, practice and behavior among people in Palestine, especially in the Gaza Strip? 1.2 Study objectives:

This study aims to achieve the following objectives: 1- Identify the characteristics of entrepreneurial

knowledge, skills and attitudes higher education provides to Palestinian students and graduates.

2- Study the level and characteristics of entrepreneurial thought and practice in Palestine specially in the Gaza Strip.

3- Suggests a relevant entrepreneurial education strategy to Palestine.

4- Build a suitable developmental entrepreneurship model to Palestine, to develop the entrepreneurial thought, practice and behavior in Palestine.

5- Highlight the success and failure of entrepreneurial experiences in Palestinian society and draw lessons from them.

6- Improve the entrepreneurship mindset of young people to enable them to be more creative and self-confident in whatever they undertake and to improve their attractiveness for employers.

]35 [

1.3 Research variables, Questions and Hypothesis The research variables were developed based on the

studies of (Stefanovic, et al., 2013, pp. 24-29; EC, 2012, p. 43; GEM, 2012; 2014; Heinonen & Poikkijoki, 2006). These variables are the following: 1.3.1 Research Variables:

Dependent variable: development of Entrepreneurship thought, practice and behavior

Independent variables: factors contribute to the development of Entrepreneurship thought, practice and behavior

1. Socio-cultural Economic Political and Legal context: Satisfactory support from family, friends, government and others, access to capital, Entrepreneurship university education, Physical infrastructure in Gaza, phases of economic development (economic condition), population attitudes towards entrepreneurship, Entrepreneur social image in Gaza, Motivational factors for starting business, Factors contribute to entrepreneur’s Success and Problems hinder entrepreneurial development.

2. The psychological and personality traits of entrepreneurs: Drive for independence, initiatives, attitude toward risk and Innovation.

3. The managerial skills and training of entrepreneurs: The ability to manage properly, Marketing/sales promotion, Good product at competitive price, Good customer service, Previous business experience and maintain accounting records.

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Figure (1) depicts the conceptual framework, which shows the dependent and independent variables.

Figure (1) Conceptual Framework

Sources: Adapted from GEM, 2014; 2012; Stefanovic, et al., 2013; EC, 2012; Heinonen & Poikkijoki, 2006.

Dependent

variable:

Development

of

Entrepreneurs

hip thought

and behavior

1) Socio-cultural Economic Political and

Legal context:

Satisfactory support from family, friends,

government and others, access to capital,

Entrepreneurship university education,

Physical infrastructure in Gaza, phases of

economic development (economic

condition), population attitudes towards

entrepreneurship, Entrepreneur social image

in Gaza, Motivational factors for starting

business, Factors contribute to

entrepreneur’s Success and Problems hinder

entrepreneurial development.

2) The psychological and personality traits

of entrepreneurs:

Drive for independence, initiatives, attitude

toward risk and Innovation.

3)The managerial skills and training of

entrepreneurs:

The ability to manage properly,

Marketing/sales promotion, Good product at

competitive price, Good customer service,

Previous business experience and maintain

accounting records.

Independent

variables:

factors

contribute to

the

development

of

Entrepreneurs

hip thought

and behavior

]37 [

1.3.2 Research Questions Question (1): What are the characteristics of

entrepreneurship education the universities provide in the Gaza Strip, from students and graduates opinions?

Question (2): What are the Perceptions and population attitudes toward entrepreneurship or having business, from students and graduates opinions?

Question (3): What are the Motivational factors of starting business?

Questions (4): Did students & graduates and entrepreneurs receive advice regarding entrepreneurship?

Question (5): Do established enterprises in Gaza innovative or traditional and replication?

Question (6) What are the Reasons of business discontinue operating in Gaza?

Question (7): What are the aspects of Gaza’s entrepreneurship?

First: Aspects of Gaza’s entrepreneurship environment. Second: Factors contribute to entrepreneur’s

Success, from entrepreneurs and experts, viewpoints.

Third: organizations' support to entrepreneurship, from entrepreneurs viewpoints.

Fourth: aspect of initiatives, innovation and risk taking in Gaza, from entrepreneurs viewpoints.

1.3.3 Research Hypothesis H1: There is a significant difference from

entrepreneurs viewpoints at @ 5% related to entrepreneurship dimensions in terms of: (1) Initiatives, 2) Risk taking and 3) Innovation, attributed to some of personal and organizational factors.

H2: There is a significant correlation at @ 5% between the dimensions of Entrepreneurship and number of full-time workers, from entrepreneurs viewpoints.

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H3: There is a significant differences at @ 5% among respondents related to:

a) Motivational factors to become entrepreneur. b) Receiving advices and support regarding

entrepreneurship. c) Factors contribute to entrepreneur’s Success. d) Problems which hinder entrepreneurial development.

H4: There is a significant correlation at @ 5% between the dimensions of entrepreneurship and receiving advices and support regarding entrepreneurship, from entrepreneurs viewpoints.

H5: There is a significant correlation at @ 5% between the dimensions of Entrepreneurship and Organization support for entrepreneurship, from entrepreneurs viewpoints.

H6: There is a significant difference at @ 5% related to the elements of entrepreneurship education attributed to some personal traits, students and graduates viewpoints.

1.4 Study Importance

- The importance of the study is reflected through designing a suitable entrepreneurship developmental model to Palestine specially Gaza Strip. the rules of universities, government, NGOs and private sector in promoting entrepreneurship in Gaza Strip will be considered. In addition, measuring the characteristics of entrepreneurship among students and university graduates, may help in promoting the quality of higher education in Palestine mainly in the Gaza Strip.

- This study concerns with a very important phenomena, which is entrepreneurship development in Palestine specially in the Gaza Strip. The importance of the study is supported by recent figures from the Palestinian statistics in year 2014, which indicated that the unemployment was reached in 2014, 43.9% and 17.7% in the Gaza Strip West

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Bank respectively (PCBS, 2015, p. 8). Improving entrepreneurship helps in more start-up enterprises and developing the existing ones, which would help in overcoming unemployment and poverty in Palestine.

1.5 Methodology This research employs descriptive and analytical

methods involving both qualitative and quantitative approaches. The fieldwork was based on distributing a questionnaire and conducting interviews. Both primary and secondary data sources were used. The data collection was done in the following manners:

Secondary data sources: using academic work on the subject such as books, articles, reports and other library-housed materials were collected through library research and through the internet. Overall, this study relied on a variety of sources and used a selective method in gathering the relevant information from each source in order to benefit fully from all available sources.

Primary data sources: This research adapted the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) approach in evaluating entrepreneurship in Palestine specially in the Gaza Strip, with some modifications to match Gaza Strip situation. This methodology includes two ways as the following (GEM, 2012; 2013; 2014):

- Two questionnaires were designed(1). The first was answered by the graduates and students and the second one was answered by entrepreneurs (see the attached questionnaires Appendices A and B).

(1) Significant part of the questionnaires used in this study were originally developed by Hung M. Chu and has been used in studies of entrepreneurs across numerous countries, such as Serbia, Turkey, Palestine, Vietnam, Romania, India, Kenya and Ghana (Chu and Katsioloudes 2001; Stefanovic, et al., 2013, p. 22). The questionnaire was translated into Arabic.

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- Students and graduates were selected from fields of commerce, engineering and IT. Those who affiliated to these areas of studies are potentially entrepreneurs, since they study the basics of initiating and managing businesses. In addition, the incubated projects at Islamic University of Gaza (IUG) were initiated by graduates from these fields (Skaik, 2015: Interview).

- Conduct a national expert survey by performing a structured interview with a sample of experts (see the attached questions Appendix C).

1.6 Research Population and sample

The study population includes entrepreneurs, experts and graduates and students enrolled in the final year of study in Gaza’s universities; from the faculties of commerce, engineering and IT, in the academic year 2014/2015. Table (1) reveals that the total number of enrolled students in Gaza’s universities in the three specializations, in the final years of study were estimated 2280 students, while the IUG portion was 36%. However, total number of graduates from Gaza’s universities were estimated 18500 in the three fields, while the IUG portion was 72.8%. Overall the total population size of students and graduates was 20780 persons in the academic year 2014/2015. In addition, according to the IUG official statistics female students and graduates in the three fields of study were accounted one third of the population (Quality &Development Deanery, 2014; 2015).

The research used two types of samples: 1) a cluster random sample was used to measure the entrepreneurship among IUG university students and graduates. The sample included equally the Graduates and enrolled students, and 2) a random sample was selected to gauge the opinions of entrepreneurs and experts related to entrepreneurship aspects and how to develop. The size of the cluster random sample was 380 persons. Faculties were represented in the

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sample according to their relative population size. It was calculated through the survey system on the web (Survey system, 2015). The size of the random sample was 100 persons selected from entrepreneurs and experts. Out of the random sample, 80% were entrepreneurs or business owners, and 20% were professionals and experts. The response rate of students and graduates was 64% (244 valid questionnaires). While, the response rate of entrepreneurs and experts was 86% (63 and 23 persons respectively).

Table (1) Total Number of enrolled students in the final year of study (2014/2015) and total graduates from faculties of Engineering, Commerce and IT from Gaza's universities. Total number of enrolled students in final years and graduates

Total Number

enrolled students in final years (2014/2015)

Total Number

Sample size %

Sample size in number

Number of enrolled and graduates in Commerce

10000 Enrolled in Commerce

1000 44 167

Number of enrolled and graduates in Engineering

7500 Enrolled in Engineering

1000 44 167

Number of enrolled and graduates in IT

3280 Enrolled in IT 280 12 46

Total 20780 2280 100% 380 Sources: These figures were estimated by the researcher based on the IUG published reports: Quality &Development Deanery (2015) Graduate Students Report 2013/2014, IUG; Quality &Development Deanery (2014) Enrolled Students 2013/2014, IUG; Admission & Registration Deanery, Unpublished statistics, IUG.

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1.7 Research instrument The research adopted self-administered, delivery, and

collection questionnaire as a research instrument. Students, graduates and entrepreneurs were asked about some of their personal traits such as, age, level of family income and field of education.

The second part was prepared to assess the factors contribute to the development of entrepreneurship thought and behavior in the Gaza Strip. This part was answered by all research population including the experts. However, this part of questions was designed differently to match the three target groups (see the attached questionnaires).

Students, graduates, entrepreneurs and experts were asked to indicate their agreement with a particular item by using a ten-point scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (10). In addition, some interviews were performed with some experts.

Some scales of variables were adapted from measures in prior studies to ensure content validity. Appropriate modifications were introduced to fit the current study.

The original English language version of the questionnaire was translated into Arabic through a back-translation procedure.

The questionnaire was reviewed by board of referees to assure the content validity. Responses validated the design of the questionnaire. Moreover, pilot study was conducted with a sample of 50 persons to ensure the internal validity, structure validity, and the reliability of the questionnaire. After all, the questionnaire was found to be valid and reliable for conducting the survey.

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1.8 Data Entry and Statistical Analysis The questionnaire was analyzed using the Statistical

Package for Social Science (SPSS). The following statistical methods and tests were used:

1. Percentages, frequencies and proportional weighted means.

2. Pearson Coefficient to check the correlations between the degrees of every dimensions of the entrepreneurship and the total degree of the entire entrepreneurship. In addition, Pearson Coefficient was used to test the hypothesis.

3. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was calculated to define the type of data distribution. The test reveals that the data was parametric.

4. T test, independent sample T test and one-way An nova test, to discover the difference in the characteristics of entrepreneurship attributed to some of personal and organizational traits.

5. Factor analysis to identify the most important or unimportant characteristics of entrepreneurship in the Gaza Strip.

1.9 Conceptual Framework This research adapts the GEM conceptual framework.

This framework sets out the relationship between entrepreneurship and socio-economic conditions in the Gaza Strip and the way in which the elements interact. The GEM model acknowledges that the contribution of entrepreneurs to an economy varies according to its phase of economic development. It considers the level of dissimilarity between

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phases of economic development, in line with Porter’s typology of “factor-driven economies”, “efficiency-driven economies” and “innovation-driven economies” (GEM, 2014, p. 20). This model describes and measures, the conditions under which entrepreneurship and innovation can prosper.

The GEM model uses the categories of World Economic Forum’s (WEF) Global Competitiveness Report. The WEF identifies three main phases of economic development based mainly on GDP per capita (GEM, 2014, p. 20).

According to the WEF classification, the factor-driven phase is dominated by subsistence agriculture and extraction businesses, with a heavy dependence on natural resources such as Oil and steel, and high reliance on unskilled labor. The developmental efforts of this face are focused on building a sufficient foundation of basic requirements. Gaza more likely belongs to this face of economic development (PCBS, 2015), though there are some features of other economic phases mark Gaza situation.

In the efficiency-driven phase, the economy comes under intensive competition. Businesses try to reduce cost and try to adopt the cost leadership strategy. In this stage businesses become capital intensive and high reliance on economies of scale. China is a good example of this stage.

As development advances into the innovation-driven phase, businesses are more knowledge-intensive, and the service sector expands. In this face businesses rely more on research and development. They adopt a differentiation strategy and rely on efficiency enhancers. EU countries and USA are examples on this stage.

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In addition, GEM model, considers the impact of country’s social, cultural, political, and

economic context, as well as the mix of framework conditions, on development of the entrepreneurship. Further, The GEM framework embraces the three main components that capture the multi-faceted nature of entrepreneurship: entrepreneurial attitudes, entrepreneurial activities, and entrepreneurial aspirations. All these three elements may affect each other.

The GEM conceptual model, methodology and data are widely published and used to measure entrepreneurship in 104 countries, and has gained widespread recognition as the most authoritative longitudinal study of entrepreneurship in the world (GEM, 2014, p. 17). The National Expert components of GEM focus on the factors that constrain entrepreneurial activities and the factors that promote entrepreneurship, and to recommend areas that can be improved in promoting entrepreneurship (Tajnikar and Pusnik, 2008).

In the Early-stage of Entrepreneurial Activity, GEM measures the level of dynamic entrepreneurial activity in an economy by considering the incidence of startup businesses (emerging entrepreneurs) and new firms (up to 3.5 years old) in the adult population (i.e. individuals aged 18–64 years). The second measure of entrepreneurship used by the GEM is the established business rate, which measure the level of entrepreneurial activity for established firms (more than 3.5 years).

The GEM also aims to differentiate between types of entrepreneurship, and to discover variances at national levels

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and show how entrepreneurship activities contribute to job creation and economic growth. Individuals who are inspired to start businesses due to a lack of other employment opportunities are called necessity entrepreneurs. While individuals who start businesses to benefit of an opportunity, or those who wish to maintain or develop their income, or to rise their independence, are classified as opportunity entrepreneurs. Interviewees are also asked questions on market innovativeness and expected employment growth (GEM, Palestine, 2012, p. 3).

Chapter Two

Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurs: A Theoretical Background

2.1 An Introduction 2.2 Definition of entrepreneurship and entrepreneur 2.3 Characteristics of Entrepreneurs 2.4 Success factors to entrepreneurs 2.5 Motivational factors to entrepreneurs 2.6 Problems facing entrepreneurs. 2.7 Entrepreneurship Development in Developing Countries 2.8 What makes entrepreneurs in developing countries different? 2.9 Apprenticeship and Human Resources 2.10 Entrepreneurship Ecosystem 2.11 G20 Nations Proposed Recommendations to Support

SMEs and Entrepreneurship 2.12 Entrepreneurship programs at higher education Institutes 2.13 Policies recommended to develop entrepreneurship

education 2.14 Small and medium enterprises and Entrepreneurship 2.15 Economic and entrepreneurship development in

Palestine (West Bank and Gaza Strip) 2.16 Global Entrepreneurship levels in developed and

developing countries

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Chapter Two Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurs:

A Theoretical Background

2.1 An Introduction The concept of entrepreneurship was first recognized

in the 1700s, and the meaning has developed ever since. Many simply associate it with

starting one’s own business, but it is more than that (Bharat, 2014, pp.2010-2011).

Entrepreneurship has become a global concern. According to the key players in societies, including policymakers, academics and entrepreneurs themselves: entrepreneurship tends to be associated with economic development and well-being of society (GEM, 2014, p. 16). This believe is “aligned with the “Schumpeterian” view that entrepreneurs are ambitious and spur innovation, speed up structural changes in the economy, introduce new competition and contribute to productivity, job creation and national competitiveness” (GEM, 2014, p. 16). Entrepreneurs are the source of economic growth. They discover opportunities, transform ideas into viable business plan and provide new products and services to the society by bringing together and combining various factors of production.

There are at least three main views in development economics about the concept of entrepreneurship. The first gives attention to the structural transformation of economy; tries to give answer to what, how and where production and consumption takes place: from low-value added, low productivity and rural-based activities to more productive, higher value added activities in services and manufacturing located in cities. The second view is that, development is a multi-dimensional concept that requires more than just the eradication of income poverty. The third view gives concern

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to the state rule in coordinating and regulating development through its economic policies (Naude, 2013, pp. 4-5).

In addition, Naude (2011, p. 2) said that there are three main conceptual approaches to entrepreneurship. The first: a functional approach: this method is concerned with the dynamic players that make key decisions on investment, production, innovation, location, research and development. From this perspective, entrepreneurship is a psychological trait referring to dynamism, creativity and originality. This approach also includes managers of multi-national firms, state enterprises or non-profit organizations. The second: focuses on the firm-level behavior as the key economic actor. The firms included here are owner-operated firms, incorporated joint stock companies, state-owned firms’ joint ventures and subsidiaries of multinationals. These firms are the units that make the key decisions on investment, on branching into new activities or sectors. This approach examines firm characteristics, including their economic performance, innovative performance, capabilities and business strategies. The third: focuses on the conceptual approach, it focuses on owner-operated enterprises. In this approach, the entrepreneur is the person who is both owner and is actively involved in running the business. This relates to mainly small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), start-ups and self-employment. In addition, McClelland (1961), emphasized on some traits to explain entrepreneurial behavior. These traits were risk-taking propensity, high need for achievement, preference for energetic and/or novel activity, and assuming personal responsibility for successes or failure. While, Brockhaus (1982) mentioned three traits associated with entrepreneurial behavior: need for achievement, internal locus of control, and a risk-taking tendency. Moreover, Bygrave (1989) highlighted a model that comprises internal locus of control, need for achievement, risk-taking propensity and tolerance for ambiguity as

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important components of entrepreneurial behavior. Additionally, Koh (1996) proposed that entrepreneurs have greater need for achievement, higher inclination to take risk, greater tolerance for ambiguity, more internal locus of control, more self-confidence and greater innovativeness.

2.2 Definition of entrepreneurship and entrepreneur

The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) defined entrepreneurship as “the individual or collective initiatives that produce goods and services for the purpose of making a profit” (MAS, 2014b, p. 1). The GEM project (2014, p. 19) was focused on entrepreneurship as a process comprising different phases, from intending to start, to just starting, to running new or established enterprises and even discontinuing a business. While, Ebert (2012, p. 88) defined entrepreneurship as “the process of identifying an opportunity in the marketplace and accessing the resources needed to capitalize on that opportunity”. An entrepreneur is a person who establishes and manages a business by taking risks regardless of the size and in/formal status of the project (MAS, 2014, p. 1). Entrepreneurship may be defined as “the resource, process and state of being through and in which individuals utilize positive opportunities in the market by creating and growing new business firms” (Gries and Naude, 2011, 217). Entrepreneurship can be viewed as the formation of a new firm that uses innovation to enter existing markets or to create new ones and grow by making new demand (Stefanovic, et al., 2013, p. 16). While the entrepreneur is someone who independently owns and actively manages a small business. An entrepreneur is someone who introduces new ideas and changes the rate at which the wheels of an enterprise go around (Stefanovic, et al., 2013, p. 16).

The field of entrepreneurship generally studies the why, when and how of opportunity creation, recognition and utilization for providing goods and services through the

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creation of new firms (start-ups) and within existing firms for both profit and non-profit purposes (Naudé et al., 2011, p. 1). EC (2012, p. 7) defined Entrepreneurship as an individual’s ability to turn ideas into action. It includes creativity, innovation and risk taking, as well as the ability to plan and manage projects in order to achieve objectives. “Entrepreneurship is "the process of using private initiative to transform a business concept into a new venture or to grow and diversify an existing venture or enterprise with high growth potential” (UNDP, 1999, p. 1). Entrepreneurship is often synonymous with self-employment. It has been modeled as an occupational choice between self-employment and wage-employment. People will become an entrepreneur if financial and non-financial benefits from self-employment exceed wage income plus additional benefits from being in wage employment (Naude, 2013, p. 6). Table (2) highlights some definitions of entrepreneurship.

Table (2) shows Some definitions of Entrepreneurship No. The study Definition

1. (Ronstadt, 1984, P28)

Entrepreneurship is the dynamic process of creating incremental wealth. The wealth is created by individuals who assume the major risks in terms of equity, time, and/or career commitment or provide value for some product or service. The product or service may or may not be new or unique, but value must somehow be infused by the entrepreneur by receiving and locating the necessary skills and resources.

2. (Hisrich, 1986, P18)

Entrepreneurship is the process of creating something new with value by devoting the necessary time and effort, assuming the accompanying financial, psychic, and social risks, and receiving the resulting rewards of monetary and personal satisfaction and independence.

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No. The study Definition

3. Gartner (1989)

Entrepreneurship is the process of identifying, developing, and bringing a vision to life. The vision may be an innovative idea, an opportunity, or simply a better way to do something. The result of this process is the creation of a new venture, formed under conditions of risk and considerable uncertainty.

4. (Carton et al, 1998, P1)

Entrepreneurship is the pursuit of a discontinuous opportunity involving the creation of an organization with the expectation of value creation to the participants. Therefore, entrepreneurship is the means by which new organizations are formed with their resultant job and wealth creation.

5. Shane

&Venkataraman, (2000, P 218)

Entrepreneurship as the scholarly examination of how, by whom, and with what effects opportunities to create future goods and services are discovered, evaluated, and exploited

6. (Hisrich & Michael 2002, P23)

Entrepreneurship means different things to different people and can be viewed from different conceptual perspectives. However, in spite of the differences, there are some common aspects: risk taking, creativity, independence, and rewards.

7. Mohanty, (2005)

Cole defined entrepreneurship as the purposeful activity of an individual or a group of associated individuals undertake to initiate, maintain, or earn profit by production and distribution of economic goods and services. Heggins has defined entrepreneurship as the function of seeking investment and production opportunity, organizing an enterprise to undertake a new production process, raising capital, hiring labor, arranging the supply of raw materials and selecting top managers of day-to-day operations.

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No. The study Definition Schempeterhas defined entrepreneurship an essentially a creative activity. It consists of doing such things as are generally not done in ordinary course of business. McCellend writes achievement motivation as the most critical factor for the growth of entrepreneurship. Drucker affirms entrepreneurship is neither a science nor an art. It is a practice. It has a knowledge base. Entrepreneurship is not just about making money. It is about imagination, flexibility, creativity, willingness to think conceptually, readiness to take risks, ability to mobilize agents of production and the capacity to see change as an opportunity. It is also about marrying passion and process with a good dose of determination.

8. (Hatten, 2006, P32)

Entrepreneurship: The process of identifying opportunities for which marketable needs exist and assuming the risk of creating an organization to satisfy them.

9. (Hisrich et al, 2007, P8)

Entrepreneurship is creating something new with value by devoting the necessary time and effort, assuming the accompanying financial, psychic, and social risks, and receiving the resulting rewards of monetary and personal satisfaction and independence

10. (Rindova et al. 2009, p. 477)

Entrepreneurship is the efforts to bring about new economic, social, institutional, and cultural environments through the actions of an individual or group of individuals.

Source: prepared by El Danaf, Akram (2014) The role of High Performance Work System in achieving Entrepreneurship – Case Study: Islamic University of Gaza (IUG), Master Thesis, IUG.

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Based on the previous definitions, this study will adopt the following definition of the entrepreneurship:

A dynamic process of mobilizing resources, spotting profitable opportunity, innovative and taking risk through the action of individuals or groups to achieve personal satisfaction.

While entrepreneur is defined as: someone who facilitates adjustment to change by spotting profitable opportunities, innovation, taking risk, mobilizing resources, able to work independently and willing to grow.

Considering the fact that entrepreneurs are very important for growth and development of economies in countries, four issues will be highlighted (Stefanovic, et al., 2013, p. 16): 1) characteristics of entrepreneurs, 2) motivational factors to entrepreneurs, 3) success factors and 4) problems facing entrepreneurs. 2.3 Characteristics of Entrepreneurs The following are some of the characteristics of success entrepreneurs (Hojjati, 2012, p. 63):

1. They are tough, pragmatic people prefer to work independently and with high achievement.

2. The entrepreneur has an enthusiastic vision, the driving force of an enterprise.

3. The entrepreneur's vision is usually supported by an interlocked collection of specific ideas not available to the marketplace.

4. With determination, the entrepreneur develops strategies to change the vision into reality.

5. The entrepreneur takes the initial responsibility to cause a vision to become a success.

6. Entrepreneurs take cautious risks. They assess costs, market and customer needs and persuade others to join and help.

7. An entrepreneur is usually a positive thinker and a decision maker.

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8. Entrepreneurs are resourceful and creative. 9. Discover new sources of materials. Entrepreneurs are

never satisfied with traditional or existing sources of materials.

10. Entrepreneurs have initiative and self-confidence in accumulating and mobilizing capital resources for new business or business expansion.

11. Introduce new technologies, new industries and new products. Entrepreneurs take advantage of business opportunities, and transform these into profits.

12. Such entrepreneurial spirit has greatly contributed to the modernization of the economy. Every year, there are new technologies and new products. All of these are intended to satisfy human needs in more convenient and pleasant way.

2.4 Success factors to entrepreneurs Several studies displayed different factors that

influence the success of entrepreneurs. However, most of these studies concentrated on these three major variables (Stefanovic, et al., 2013, p. 18):

1) The psychological and personality traits of entrepreneurs, e.g., a drive for independence, friendliness and attitude toward risk.

2) The managerial skills and training of entrepreneurs include the ability to manage personnel, marketing/sales promotion, good product at competitive price, good customer service, previous business experience and maintain accounting records.

3) The external environmental conditions, which is related to satisfactory government support, socio-economic and political conditions, access to capital and support of family and friends.

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2.5 Motivational factors to entrepreneurs A number of studies was conducted on many countries to determine the motivational factors to entrepreneurs. These studies revealed that the importance of motivational factors are varied a cross countries (Stefanovic, et al., 2013, p. 17). However the most important motivational factors can be grouped as follows (Stefanovic, et al., 2013, p. 16; Hojjati, 2012, p. 63):

1. Self-employment, offering more job satisfaction and flexibility.

2. High personal financial gain. 3. Job creation to overcome unemployment and economic

growth. 4. Income and job security for themselves and their

families. 5. Development of new markets locally and

internationally. 6. Challenge and achievement of developing a success

business. 7. Progress of entrepreneurial skills and attitudes.

In addition, the EC (2012, p. 11) study which was conducted on selected students and graduates from some European universities revealed the major reasons for the preference to be self-employed. They are, the wish for personal independency, the freedom of choosing time and place of work and the realization of a business opportunity. People who have not attended entrepreneurship education prefer to be an employee for reasons of job security and employment stability.

In fact, person who is interested in work, understanding, and experimenting in the business is likely to be success. He is doing by joyful and without compulsion. He feels happy or likes to do a variety of actions related to entrepreneurship.

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2.6 Problems facing entrepreneurs. Since the entrepreneurship plays an important role in

economic development, it is important to highlight the problems facing entrepreneurs to prosper. Problems or constraints are broadly defined as those internal or external factors that restrain growth potential in entrepreneurs (Storey,1994). Identifying the problems help entrepreneurs to understand the growth dynamics and threats they must avoid in order to grow their businesses (Stefanovic, et al., 2013, p. 19).

Stefanovic, et al. (2013, p. 19-21) believes that Problems which are facing entrepreneurs and SMEs in developing countries are quite similar. These problems are the following: 1- The laws governing private enterprise, especially

business registration and taxation systems, are complex and difficult to understand.

2- Limited tangible resources, e.g., limited capital, technology and needed logistics.

3- Shortages of qualified managers and skilled workforce. 4- Inadequate knowledge and information necessary for the

enterprise to function. 5- Economic conditions such as recession, inflation and

limited purchasing power of people. The findings of a research which was emphasized the

factors contributed to business failure in the Gaza Strip revealed six major factors as follows (Ashour & El-Farra, 2002, p. 7-13):

1- Shortage of funds was one of the most important problem facing Gaza’s establishments.

2- High cost of the bank finance and lack of ability of getting bank finance.

3- Weak management practices in planning, decision making, organizing and inability to predict markets and competition.

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4- Lack of appropriate accounting policy. There was a mixing between personal and firm expenditures.

5- Shortages of raw materials because of repeated Israeli closures.

6- On-site repair and maintenance business capability is poor.

7- Absence of marketing efficiency, which is attributed to limited skills and awareness of proper marketing techniques.

2.7 Entrepreneurship Development in Developing Countries

Development economists indicate that the majority of entrepreneurs in developing countries are involved in micro and small scale enterprises (MSE), often informal, contributing little to poverty easing and growth. Moreover, only a few new start-up firms survive for a long time and the majority fail within the first two years (Naude, 2010, p. 1).

Many empirical studies showed that entrepreneurs play an essential role in driving the structural transformation from a traditional low-income economy to a modern economy by creating new formal firms, absorbing surplus labor from the traditional sector, providing innovative intermediate inputs to final-goods producing firms and raising productivity and employment (Naude, 2010, p. 3). In addition, employment growth in the SMEs sector in developing countries is often significant. Further, income generations, from self-employment are often better than in the formal wage sector in many developing countries. For example the rapid growth in the number of small, private entrepreneurs in China has been an important contributor to rapid growth and declining poverty (Naude, 2010, p. 3).

Designing policies for development through the promotion of entrepreneurship in developing countries is complicated. When designing a promoting policy, three questions should be answered taking into consideration a

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country’s level of development: 1) whether entrepreneurship should be braced, 2) whether entrepreneurship can be supported and 3) how to establish the most effective means of support (Naude, 2010, p. 5).

Most countries adopt entrepreneurship development programs. These programs are managed by governments, universities, private sectors and incubators. In the Gaza Strip many entrepreneurial development initiatives were launched by local universities through incubators, UNRWA and NGOs initiatives. However these roles are still in there early stages (Skaik, 2015: Interview). Entrepreneurship development (ED) refers to the process of enforcing entrepreneurial knowledge, skills and attitudes through structured training and institution-building programs (UNDP, 1999, p. 1).

Entrepreneurship promotion programs in developing countries are largely varied by objectives, target groups, and implementation arrangements. The promotion programs are differed depending on the constraints to entrepreneurial activities that each program aims to address (Cho and Honorati, 2013, p. 2). However, most of entrepreneurship promotion programs provide individuals in the labor market with the opportunities of training, counseling, and access to finance. Frequently used interventions include technical, managerial, financial skills training, financing support such as microcredit loans and grants, and counseling ranging from mentoring and advisory services to post-program consulting (Cho and Honorati, 2013, p. 3). Some promotion programs in developing countries target potential entrepreneurs (the unemployed, school drop-outs, or graduating individuals) to foster self-employment and new business creation; others target existing micro-entrepreneurs to increase their productivity.

Evidence on the effectiveness of entrepreneurship promotion programs is still rare. The evaluation of Latin America’s Jovenes entrepreneurship promotion programs,

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suggested that vocational and life skills training combined with an internship in private firms could be potentially useful for self-employment promotion (Attanasio et al., 2011; Card et al., 2011). Sierra Leone, and Uganda, were noticed positive effects on psycho-social well-being but mixed results in labor market outcomes (Cho and Honorati, 2013, p. 4). The complication increases as the training programs combine other financial and counseling support especially for social assistance beneficiaries. Evaluations on the effects of expanding access to credit in Mongolia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, India, South Africa, Morocco, and Philippines advocate that access to credit did not automatically improve entrepreneurial activities (Cho and Honorati, 2013, p. 4). Heterogeneity of entrepreneurship promotion programs is necessary to have an effective program that match the requirements of the target groups (Cho and Honorati, 2013, p. 4).

2.8 What makes entrepreneurs in developing countries different?

There are some distinctive attributes of entrepreneurship in developing countries compared with developed countries as the following (lingelbach, et al, 2006, pp.3-7): 2.8.1 Opportunity

Opportunities for entrepreneurs in developing countries are broader in scope than in developed countries. Entrepreneurs in developing countries face different sets of circumstances than their counterparts in developed economies. They lack stability and consistency. Consequently, the opportunities for entrepreneurship in developing countries are prevalent. While entrepreneurs in developed countries operate at the fringes of the economy. In addition, in developing countries the risks posed by high economic, political and regulatory uncertainty—often outweighing direct competitive threats.

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2.8.2 Financial resources Entrepreneurs in developing countries rely mainly on

their personal and family financial resources. Limited personal and family savings and an absence of financial innovation severely limits the growth prospects of promising startups in developing countries. Entrepreneurs in developing economies rely very heavily on informal sources of finance to start their businesses; these sources provided between 87% and 100% of the outside capital raised by entrepreneurs. Few financial resources come from development finance institutions interested in improving access to finance in the developing economies. Bank lending and venture capital play a very limited role in financing entrepreneurs, at least in the startup stage.

2.9 Apprenticeship and Human Resources

Training is an important component for businesses to enhance their competitiveness. Leading hotspots of innovation such as Silicon Valley have a broad pool of well-trained talent, a culture that encourages innovation and new businesses. At a higher level, multinationals have played a leading role as training grounds for prospective entrepreneurs. In addition, High potential businesses in developed economies assemble executive teams with common experiences but diverse complementary skills. In developing economies they have shortages in skills and experience. As a result, entrepreneurs look for other characteristics that are appropriate to the local market environment, including the ability to see through the fog of politics and economics. Trust and friendship even more highly regarded in developing countries. Family owned and operated businesses are even more common in developing markets than in developed economies.

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According to UNDP (1999, pp. 2-9) the experience of entrepreneurship development program in developing countries; the following lessons are drawn: 1- Clear understanding of the feasibility and objectives of the

development program, focusing on the development of enterprises with the potential for rapid growth.

2- Developing a criteria to select carefully the potential entrepreneurs who are a program target.

3- Identifying the market through an intensive preparation process, searching for innovation and growth potential.

4- Providing support to entrepreneurs through an independent private sector organization.

5- Deciding on the methodology that integrates the entrepreneurship development elements with other support and follow-up.

6- Create special measures to develop the desired competencies of trainers and facilitators.

7- Launch a pilot entrepreneurship development program and expand to a national network as warranted.

8- Internalize the entrepreneurship development support system so that it has the momentum and capability to continue and expand through local efforts.

9- Successful entrepreneurship also depends on supportive and coordinated government policies.

2.10 Entrepreneurship Ecosystem

Many governments currently talk about support ecosystems that cover the entire life cycle of a new venture, from inception to early survival and growth to international expansion. However, their policies do not consider bottlenecks that hold back the performance of these systems. To design policies that effectively enhance entrepreneurship ecosystems, policy-makers need to take an ecosystems approach (Global Entrepreneurship Network, 2015, pp. 54-55).

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Entrepreneurial ecosystem may be defined as "the interaction that takes place between a range of institutional and individual stakeholders so as to foster entrepreneurship, innovation and SME growth" (Mazzarol, 2014, pp. 4-5). It is "a framework that allows private sector and social actors, often with different traditions and motivations, and of different sizes and areas of influence to act together and create wealth in a symbiotic relationship” (Prahalad, 2005, p. 65).

The concept was conveyed into prominence in 2010 by Professor Daniel Isenberg through his article in the Harvard Business Review (Isenberg, 2010). However, Suresh and Ramraj (2012, p. 96) stated that the term ‘entrepreneurial ecosystem’ was used before Isenberg by other researchers such as Prahalad (2005), Cohen (2005) and Bernardez (2009) to describe conditions in which the individual, enterprise and society come together to foster economic development. In addition, Suresh and Ramraj (2012, p. 96) emphasized the importance of entrepreneurial ecosystems to promote economic development in all stages and conditions, but cultural differences among nations has to be considered when designing the ecosystems. "There is a need for a model which acknowledges the individual without discounting on the social factors that are beyond the control of the individual". Moreover, "The history of business in developed and developing economies shows that social capital is not only built “top-down” by societies and governments, but also –and more frequently- “bottom-up”, by clusters and networks of organizations that form a “business ecosystem”" (Bernardez, 2009, p. 5).

Isenberg (2010) model for ecosystem comprising thirteen factors. They include, Leadership, Government, Culture, Human Capital, Financial Capital, Entrepreneurship Organizations, Success stories, Education, Infrastructure, Economic Clusters, Networks, Support Services and early

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Customers. The stakeholders include Government, Educational Institutions, Financial Institutions, Media and Network. Isenberg added that Entrepreneurial Revolution, is not due to the heroics of one person or even one idea but the collective vision of a group of stakeholders committed to the promotion of entrepreneurship, creating an ecosystem to actualize their vision (Suresh and Ramraj, 2012, pp.96-97).

2.10.1 The key components of an entrepreneurial ecosystem They are the following (Bernardez, 2009, pp. 9-10):

1. Central strategic, value creating cross-organizational competencies. Each entrepreneurial ecosystem grows around and based on specific value adding competencies. Central competencies are each ecosystem’s competitive advantage, combined and leveraged with its comparative advantage, e.g., labor cost, location and innovation.

2. Support structure that makes individual business viable and clusters collectively competitive. The support may include:

Access to Finance: government finance, lending institutions, NGOs and incubators.

Logistics: transportation, communications, energy and an efficient supply chain.

Technology: use of e-commerce, broadband access and e-performance.

Market: access to global markets and target customers.

Organizational capital: viable business plans, efficient processes and management quality

Human Capital: competencies and work ethic availability.

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3. Success Metrics: business ecosystems can be measured using the Doing Business Ranking. The metrics can be used to identify gaps between ecosystem’s current and desired performance. Business clusters can implement different support systems to compensate or close the gaps. Suresh and Ramraj (2012, pp.98-99) proposed a model

of entrepreneurship ecosystem consists of 8 factors as the following:

1. Moral support consists of the role played by the entrepreneur’s father, mother, brother, spouse, In-laws, relatives, friends and society at large.

2. Financial support comes from the immediate family, Banks, Venture Capitalists, friends, relatives, in-laws, educational institutions, and small investors from the capital market, foreign financial institutions, government bodies and credit from suppliers.

3. Network support refers to organizations that support entrepreneurship like National Entrepreneurship Network, specific industry associations, alumni associations, online social networking sites like Facebook, LinkedIn, friends, network of suppliers and distributors.

4. Government support like educational programs from Micro Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME), incentives, incubation centers, infrastructure facilities, awards and legal procedures.

5. Technology support is provided by government funded incubation centers, new technology developed in educational institutions, imported technology know- how, talent pool available locally.

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6. Market support refers to the opportunities in the market, reports from government and trade associations, support of suppliers, loyal customers. Acceptance of the product on consignment by the intermediaries and trade exhibitions.

7. Social support in the form of awards from trade associations, acceptance of venture failure, and exposure by media.

8. Environmental support includes availability of natural resources and climatic conditions.

2.11 G20 Nations Proposed Recommendations to Support SMEs and Entrepreneurship The G20 SMEs Conference which was held on 20th of June 2014 issued recommendations for change in how G20 nations should support SMEs as follows (Mazzarol, 2014, pp. 4-5): 1. Government procurement policies – government

agencies should simplify and reduce their conditions for SMEs with a voluntary procurement target if applicable, of 20% of goods and services to be sourced from local SMEs.

2. Regulation and ‘red tape’ reduction – healthier regulation and inter-departmental cooperation is vital over the long term to encourage SMEs prosperity.

3. Tax reform and productivity – governments should reform taxation systems, harmonize regulation across local and national jurisdictions and improve national productivity.

4. Entrepreneurship education – entrepreneurship should become a subject taught within schools and universities and to be encouraged as a post-education employment route.

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5. E-Government – single online entry points for the input of personal and business information and credentials should be developed as part of Government’s Digital Economy agenda.

6. Easiness payment of SMEs invoices – the government should ease the SMEs payment of government accounts.

7. SMEs take up of digital technologies – SMEs must embrace new technology and grip the digital economy in order to remain globally competitive. A stronger focus on brand quality can also underpin long-term domestic and export success.

8. Alternative sources of SME financing – alternative sources of SME finance should be encouraged, with appropriate protection for stakeholders involved. Most SME growth is funded by retained personal earnings.

9. Growing the existing stock of SMEs – encouraging existing small firms to employ additional workforces to increase employment. Medium-sized firms that have export potential have better opportunity for growth and job creation, and policy should encourage their expansion.

2.12 Entrepreneurship programs at higher education Institutes

Entrepreneurship education aims to equip people with an entrepreneurial attitude, skills and knowledge necessary to achieve the goals they set for themselves to live a fulfilled life. Entrepreneurship education stimulates the intentions of individuals to become an entrepreneur (EC, 2012, p. 8). Based on the experiences of developed and developing countries in entrepreneurship education, many issues should be highlighted:

Entrepreneurship education policy needs to be closely interlinked with overall entrepreneurship policy as well as economic and social development objectives (UNCTAD, 2011, p. 4). It should be reflected in a country’s national economic

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and social development plans. Entrepreneurship is a lifelong learning process, starting from elementary school and continuing through all levels of education, including adult education. It should build positive attitudes towards business and develop entrepreneurial competencies. To implement an effective entrepreneurship education, both top down and bottom up approaches are necessary. Top down approach requires the commitment of the most senior policymakers. Bottom up approach necessitates entrepreneurs at the local or regional level who can help drive initiatives on the ground (UNCTAD, 2011, p. 4).

In order to develop entrepreneurship, developing countries need to develop a national strategy for entrepreneurship education that should call for all relevant stakeholders including, private and public sectors, universities, experts and NGOs to participate in designing the strategy. Furthermore, developing countries need to integrate entrepreneurship education into the overall poverty reduction strategy (UNCTAD, 2011, p. 5). Entrepreneurship needs to be integrated into the formal educational system at all levels, schools and universities. This requires a strong commitment from the government in terms of policy and resources. Students should be exposed early to business and entrepreneurship. Perceptions and attitudes about entrepreneurship start at a young age. Moreover, entrepreneurial learning should be integrated into the curriculum, rather than only being offered as standalone courses, in order to change the mindset among students. For example, in 2007, Nigeria included entrepreneurial skills in the new basic education curriculum for its primary and secondary schools (UNCTAD, 2011, p. 8). In addition, curriculums should be tailored to the local environment, by leveraging existing resources and by creating new local materials, case studies and examples of role models that entrepreneurs can relate to (UNCTAD, 2011, p. 9). Moreover,

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there is a need to increase the number of entrepreneurship teachers, by providing training, particularly in interactive teaching methods (UNCTAD, 2011, p. 10).

The findings of entrepreneurship education in Europe revealed the following (EC, 2012, pp. 12-17):

1. Entrepreneurship education have a positive effect on the employability in terms of job experience, creativity in the current job and annual income earned.

2. A more entrepreneurial role were played by individuals in the economy and society, due to entrepreneurship education.

3. Development of the entrepreneurial competence leads to more innovative behavior by individuals and consequently this would mean that the enterprises which were established are more innovative than other enterprises.

4. Entrepreneurs who have attended entrepreneurship education are more ambitious regarding the growth of the enterprises.

5. Most of entrepreneurs were graduated from management, engineering and economics.

2.13 Policies recommended to develop entrepreneurship education

EU experience in supporting entrepreneurship education proposed the following policies (EC, 2012, pp. 18-19).

1. Entrepreneurship education should become obligatory and expanded to all disciplines

2. Learning by doing should be an important part of training.

3. Entrepreneurship programs should therefore not only focus on the use of entrepreneurial competences in working life, but also on the personal and social life.

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4. Measure impact of entrepreneurship education in more than one period.

5. Tailoring the entrepreneurship education to fit the local needs of entrepreneurs and the characteristics of the societal environment.

6. All country's relevant stakeholders need to participate in developing a national strategy for entrepreneurship education.

2.14 Small and medium enterprises and Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship is strongly linked to small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs), which are the main developing force of the market economies. SMEs are usually representing the majority of all enterprises. In most of developed countries, the percentage of SMEs in total number of enterprises is higher than 90%, while around 60% of available workforce is employed in those firms (Stefanovic, et al., 2013, p. 15).

The Importance of entrepreneurship and SMEs development for sustainable economic growth is obvious. For example, in the European Union , SMEs account for 99.8% of all enterprises. The great majority of them are micro enterprises (they comprise 91.8% of all enterprises). SMEs provide jobs to 67.1% of all employees and participate with 57.6% of total added value in EU countries (Stefanovic, et al., 2013, p. 16). However, there is no consensus about the classification of SMEs cross the glob and even in some countries. Arab Labor Organization (2009, p. 18): was emphasized on the difficulties of reaching to a unified concept to SMEs even in the same country. This is due to the following (Arab Labor Organization, 2009, p. 18):

1- Difference in the level of economic growth affects the level of technology development.

2- SMEs belong to different economic sectors, e.g., agricultural, industrial and service sectors.

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3- There are many qualitative and quantitative standards used in classifying businesses according to their sizes. In addition, researchers have classified SMEs in many

ways. Some classified SMEs by owner characteristics, such as gender, ethnicity and founder status (West head and Wright, 1998). Others categorized SMEs by organizational features, such as size, family ownership or managerial structure (Scase and Goffee, 1980). While some writers use number of workers the business employs, the company's sales revenue, the size of the investment and the type of business ownership (Ebert, 2012, p. 86). For example in Canada a goods producing business is considered small if it employs less than 100 employees, while a service producing business is considered small if it employs less than 50 employees (Ebert, 2012, p. 87). Furthermore, in Canada 2.3 million business establishments are classified to be small (Ebert, 2012, p. 87).

In Palestine there is no agreement about a criteria to classify businesses according to their sizes (Reslan and Nasir, 2011, p. 19). However, some writers classify business small if it employs 10 persons or less. This criteria of size classification is suitable to Gaza since more than 97% of establishments employ less than 10 persons with average employment size of about 5 persons and average invested capital at about $10,000 per industrial establishment (PCBS, 2013; Ashour & El-Farra, 2002). In addition, according to the PCBS labor force survey data for the fourth quarter of 2008, 45.3% of firms in the West Bank are informal compared to 65.7% of enterprises in the Gaza Strip. Informal firms are those with no tax registration and their production is sold in the local market (MAS, 2014c, p. 1). Low employment, high informal sector and low invested capital in Gaza’s industrial establishments reflected negatively on the level of productivity in Gaza’s establishments (PCBS, 2013).

This study advocates and defends the policy of supporting small-scale establishments in Gaza as the most

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appropriate and viable model for the Strip, rather than supporting large-scale projects. Introducing such a model can be justified on the bases of a number of elements as follows (El-Farra, 2006, p. 6) :

a) It is difficult to monopolize the products of small-scale industries. Competition among these establishments should encourage the rise of a large number of entrepreneurs among the middle class and low-income group. The economic situation in the Gaza Strip cannot stand for monopoly.

b) The lack of financial resources and the small size of available markets locally and regionally dictate that Gaza should follow a policy of supporting small-scale establishments. Large-scale businesses require large amounts of capital, technical and administrative skills and large markets which are difficult to achieve in the Gaza Strip. The a big number of newly formed establishments in Gaza died after few years of their existence. This is due to several reasons, including management, marketing and financial weaknesses.

c) Small businesses are probably better able to absorb new workers more quickly than large businesses and require relatively little aid and professional guidance in comparison to big firms.

d) An obvious problem which Gaza faces is the inability to attract significant foreign investment. This problem will continue, because the competition significantly high with the surrounding regional economies, and Israel will be the most attractive economy in the region. The lack of attractive investment opportunities in Gaza is primarily due to the structural imbalances and distortions in the local economy and the lack of political stability.

e) The large-scale industries need a large number of highly qualified workers in the technical and

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administrative fields. These qualified people usually demand high wages. Gaza lacks such skilled people and paying them high wages is beyond its available resources. Therefore, during the initial stages, the small-scale establishments could constitute centers for training and some of their workers can gain good qualifications which are needed for large-scale industries. Such qualified and skilled workers could shift to work in large-scale establishments in the future.

f) Developing and enhancing the small-scale establishments facilitates the geographical diffusion of industries. It is possible to spread such small-scale establishments to the areas which require economic activities for job creation, thereby increasing the purchasing power of regional residents. This strategy helps to enhance and spread technical and administrative expertise among a wide spectrum of people in various classes.

In addition, pursuing a program suitable to the establishments in Gaza may help in tackling the structural imbalances of the economies and accelerate the process of development. The support of small businesses, the newly established and the long standing ones, was neglected by the Law of Encouraging Investment in Palestine. According to the new modified law, micro, small and medium establishments were neglected. The law insists that no business can get incentives unless its capital was $100,000 or more. In addition, establishments which employ less than 25 persons were neglected (Palestinian Investment Promotion Agency, 2014). In many developing countries, incentives for micro, small and medium establishments (MSMEs) constitute an important and integral part of the policy instruments available to create a conducive atmosphere to promote

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MSMEs. The absence of a comprehensive and sustainable incentive policy could be a major obstacle to development in a developing area such as Gaza. The policy of MSMEs incentives involves the use of various policy instruments to attract investment and direct it to fulfill specific development objectives. The general objectives of these incentives may include reducing the cost of the project’s establishment, helping to identify viable investment opportunities, feasible financing, cost of input concessions and import duties concessions. businesses in their early stages of development are likely to have high initial costs thus impairing their ability to compete with imports. Tariff protection for infant establishments will have the effect of raising the price of imported goods to domestic buyers, which will induce them to increase their consumption of import substitutes at higher prices than would otherwise have been the case, but will keep the price competitively lower than that of imports.

2.15 Economic and entrepreneurship development in Palestine (West Bank and Gaza Strip) 2.15.1 Economic Development in Palestine

In Palestine, because of political instability, peace process failure and Gaza Strip siege and closures, unemployment increased and poverty rate escalated. In 2013, unemployment rate in Palestine reached 23.4 percent (16.8 percent in the West Bank and 32.6 percent in the Gaza Strip). However, unemployment rate among females in Palestine was 35% compared with 20.6% among males in year 2013. The situation in Gaza Strip was even worse, where females unemployment rate was 53.1% compared with 27.8% to males in year 2013 (MAS, 2014a, p. 20). In addition, unemployment rate in Palestine in 2013 was higher among young people, where it reached 41 percent for the age group 15-24 years (64.7 percent for females and 36.9 percent for males). In addition, unemployment among individuals with

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intermediate diploma or higher was 30.2 percent (MAS, 2014a, p. 21).

However, in the years 2014 and 2015 the situation in Gaza Strip even worse. For example the official statistics of unemployment rate in Gaza reached 43.9% compared with 17.7% in the West Bank (Palestinian average unemployment rate 26.9%) (PCBS, 2015, p. 8). The situation in Gaza has been deteriorated after the 2014 war, which was waged on Gaza. Furthermore, there is a significant difference in the level of per capita income in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, where it was $3650 and $1700 respectively in year 2013 (MAS, 2014a, p. 10). The differences in the two territories reflect a significant gap in the income per capita, level of employment and as a result level of poverty which all came in favor of West Bank.

The findings of MAS report (2014b, pp. 1-5) on entrepreneurship in Palestine, which was examined some aspects of youth entrepreneurship (age range between 18-34 years) revealed the follows:

- The study targeted individuals who represent 57% of the working age population in Palestine (18-34 years of age). This age of population are classified as the highest level of education and energy.

- The rate of early-stage entrepreneurship among young people in Palestine is slightly above the MENA average of 9% in 2012. In terms of established business, Palestine marks 2.4 percentage points below the MENA average. In terms of early-stage young entrepreneurship, Palestine ranks 38th out of 67 countries and 58th in terms of established businesses.

- The rate of established entrepreneurial activity for Palestinian adults (aged 35-64 years) is roughly 4 percentage points higher than among young entrepreneurs.

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- In terms of motivation, 46% of youth projects in Palestine were necessity-driven, a much higher than among Palestinian adult entrepreneurs (37%) and the MENA average (36%).

- The early-stage entrepreneurial activity in Palestine rate among young males ranges more 4 times than among young females (14.9% versus 3.9%).

- In terms of economic activity, 53% of projects are consumer related (retail and social services), while manufacturing, wholesale and construction businesses together account for 30% of total entrepreneurial projects.

- The most influential factors that influence entrepreneurship among youth are educational attainment and family income, particularly with opportunity-driven activities. The analysis revealed a positive correlation between the level of educational attainment and the rate of entrepreneurship activity. In contrast, there exists a negative relationship between the level of household income and the rate of entrepreneurship activity, particularly among individuals with only primary and secondary education.

- The main obstacles that affect entrepreneurship among young Palestinians are: Israeli occupation by its policies, the gaps between educational output and Palestinian labor market needs, credit availability, legal and regulatory aspects, socio-cultural challenges, and barriers to market entrance. The empirical study of this research will cover in

details the aspects of entrepreneurship in Gaza Strip in terms of motivational and success factors, problem factors, Gaza's entrepreneurship environment, initiation, innovation, risk taking and so on.

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2.15.2 Initiatives to Develop Entrepreneurship in Palestine There are many initiatives introduced by different

parties in Palestine Territories to develop entrepreneurship. Some of these initiatives as follows:

1. Many local Palestinian universities such as Islamic University of Gaza, Annajah university, Palestine Polytechnic University, Bethlehem University and Palestine Al Ahliya University introduced some courses in entrepreneurship to promote students’ skills and knowledge in the field.

2. Introducing programs to promote entrepreneurship culture in Palestine. For example, there are three incubators in the Gaza Strip including the IUG one. The potential entrepreneurs join the incubators in order to transform their ideas into a start-up by the end of the incubation period which lasts from 6 months to 1.5 years in average. The incubators provide incubated establishments with Business Development and Incubation services (Skaik, 2015: Interview). The Palestine Information and Communications Technology Incubator (PICTI), was established to provide business services to Palestinian entrepreneurs that have mature concepts for unique and innovative projects in various fields assessed to have strong market potential. PICTI assists palestinian entrepreneurs to commercialize their ideas by designing, developing, implementing and promoting those startups that will support the growth of entrepreneurial business ventures by providing them with an integrated package of business development services aimed at generating lively enterprises. PICTI provides full incubation services to start-ups businesses, on the job training, internship opportunities and job placements for individuals (PICTI, 2015).

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3. There have been several entrepreneurial activities and initiatives by the Palestine Investment Fund (PIF), microfinance institutions and some excellence centers at Palestinian universities such as Centers at Al Quds University and Berzeit. Furthermore, the ministry of national economy in Gaza Strip initiated a program several years ago to fund small businesses and provide them some technical and managerial support (Rafati, 2015: Interview). Moreover, there are some initiatives by local and international NGOs to promote small enterprises by providing them with financial, technical and management support, such as Faten institute, Small Enterprise Center – Palestine, Islamic Relief and Job Advisory Center. However, all these initiatives were limited in scope and capacity. They provide limited financial and managerial assistance (Skaik, 2015: Interview).

4. There is a new initiative by Mercy Corps NGO, called "Business Accelerator program". Its aim was to help the graduated entrepreneurs from business incubators to grow throw offering them investment or matching with potential local or international investors (Mercy Corps, 2015). The accelerator program provides working capital, advanced technical training, and a global network of mentors to help entrepreneurs refine their business plans and prepare for a regional investor road show (Mercy Corps, 2015).This initiative was in its early stage and needs a substantial resources and efforts to develop and sustain (Skaik, 2015: Interview).

5. SHAREK Youth Forum initiated Programs and projects e.g., Center for Youth Economic Empowerment’s “A Step Forward,”” which provides some career counseling and facilitates work experience for young women, academic

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counseling and business incubation. In addition, SHAREK established the ‘Tamayyaz’ program, which encourage exceptional entrepreneurship skills among undergraduates in an attempt to address the gap between educational deliverables and labor market demands. Furthermore, SHAREK provides some Technical and Financial Support to Small Businesses. However, all these services are only delivered in the West Bank and on a very small scale (SHAREK Youth Forum, 2014).

2.16 Global Entrepreneurship levels in developed and developing countries

The world economy is facing a big challenges. Whereas rich countries need to increase their economic productivity to sustain current standards of living as their populations rapidly age. Low-income countries need to create massive jobs to more than 2 billion young adults by 2050 (Global Entrepreneurship Network, 2015, p. 1). Economic initiatives by entrepreneurs are likely to be a key in addressing the challenges of long-term productivity in rich countries, while poor countries will continue to fight to integrate their rapidly growing populations into their economies (Global Entrepreneurship Network, 2015, p. 1). In the developed countries, the population of the 15-59 age group, the core of the labor force, is expected to lose almost 15 percent between 2010 and 2040. Nevertheless, the number of people in that age group in the developing countries is still rising rapidly and is expected to increase by 50 percent by 2050, excluding China whose labor force has already stopped growing. In sub-Saharan Africa alone, the population aged 15-59 will increase from 455 million today to over 1 billion by 2050 (Global Entrepreneurship Network, 2015, p. 1).

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Creating jobs and overcoming poverty in developing countries require the combination of innovation and entrepreneurship. However, entrepreneurship does not look like manna from heaven as a country moves through the stages of development. Relatively, it is a process that plays a role in all stages of development and continues over many years (Global Entrepreneurship Network, 2015, p. 13).

The study of Global Entrepreneurship Network (2015, p. 15) was measured the entrepreneurship cross countries based on three major pillars. They include, entrepreneurial attitudes, entrepreneurial abilities, and entrepreneurial aspirations. The study was listed 130 countries from developed and developing countries. The study was revealed a great differences in entrepreneurship levels between developed and developing countries. Developed countries were on the lead (see Table 3). USA came first with points value (85). The rank of best Arab country was United Arab Emirates, which was ranked (20) followed by Qatar (24) with point values 61.6 and 56.2 respectively. Jordan came (65) and Egypt (91) with point values 33.3 and 28.1 respectively. In addition, Cyprus came 46 and lagged behind Israel 22, with point value 42.5 and 59.9 respectively. However, Palestine was not ranked. Furthermore, the study indicated that the world is at 52% of its entrepreneurial capacity (Global Entrepreneurship Network, 2015, p. III). This result revealed that entrepreneurship capacity in developing countries in general and Palestine in particular needs to be promoted in order to ignite development and overcome poverty and unemployment.

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Table (3) points and ranks of selected countries in 2015 entrepreneurship Rank Country Points

value Rank Country Points

value 1 USA 85 25 Turkey 54.6 3 Australia 77.6 31 Saudi Arabia 49.6 4 United Kingdom 72.7 33 Japan 49.5 8 Taiwan 69.1 46 Cyprus 42.5 10 Singapore 68.1 50 Lebanon 40.7 11 Germany 67.4 65 Jordan 33.3 19 Chile 63.2 82 Morocco 29.4 20 United Arab Emirates 61.6 91 Egypt 28.1 22 Israel 59.9 120 Indonesia 21 24 Qatar 56.2 123 Pakistan 20.1 Source: Global Entrepreneurship Network, 2015, pp. 5-6.

Chapter Three

The Empirical Study: Data analysis and discussions

3.1 Students and Graduates Profile 3.2 Entrepreneurs profile 3.3 Students and Graduates opinions toward bargaining

and volunteering 3.4 Research questions and discussion 3.5 Hypothesis Testing

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Chapter Three The Empirical Study: Data analysis and

discussions

3.1 Students and Graduates Profile Table (5) revealed that more than two third of the

sample (71.6%) their family income were less than ($1000). Graduates only accounted 36.8% of respondents and the rest were students. 87.3% of the respondents were younger than 26. Regarding the field of education, (45.9%) of the respondents were belong to business field and 35.2% to engineering (see Table 4). The total number of respondents from students and graduates was 244 persons. This sample is a representative sample to research population. It also reflects the response rate according to the field of education.

The low family income of students and graduates reflects the financial limitations of the majority to find sufficient fund to support their entrepreneurship initiatives, since personal and family financial resources were the main source of fund for SMEs in Palestine and globally, especially in developing countries (Ashour & El-Farra, 2002, p. 7-13; Stefanovic, et al., 2013, p. 19-21; Cho and Honorati, 2013, p. 3; Lingelbach, et al, 2006, pp.3-7). In addition, the established business rate in Palestine in 2012 marked 2.4 % points below the MENA average. Furthermore, Palestine was ranked 38th out of 67 countries and 58th in terms of established businesses in the MENA region (MAS, 2014b, p. 2).

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Table (4) Students and Graduates Profile Students & graduates

Age Number % Education

level Frequency %

Younger than 26 213 87.3 Third Year 43 18.0

26 - Less than 30 20 8.2 Fourth Year 63 26.4

30- Less than 35 6 2.5 Fifth Year 45 18.8

35 and older 5 2.0 Graduate 88 36.8

Total 244 100.0 Total 239 100.0

- - - Field of education Frequency %

- - - Business 112 45.9

- - - IT 44 18.0

- - - Engineering 86 35.2

- - - Other 2 0.8

- - - Total 244 100.0

In addition, Table (5) showed that 80.5% of students

and graduates were in the entrepreneurial planning stage, and only 2.7% of them have a baby business with less than 42 months old. Moreover, the majority of students and graduates (71.6%) belong to family monthly income less that 1000$, which may emphasis the necessity driven entrepreneurship. MAS report (2014b, p.5) revealed a negative relationship between Palestinian family income and entrepreneurship activity.

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Table (5) The relation between level of family income and stages of establishments, Students viewpoints.

Item Level of family income

Less than 1000

1000-1999

2000 or more

Involved in Total early-stage Entrepreneurial Activity (planning stage)

N 97 24 13

% 65.5% 16% 9%

Actively involved in start-up effort, owner, no wages yet (Nascent/emerging rate)

N 5 5 -

% 3.4% 3.4% -

Manages and owns a business that is up to 42 months old (Baby business ownership rate)

N 4 - -

% 2.7% - -

Manages and owns a business that is older than 42 months (Established business ownership rate)

N - - - % - - -

3.2 Entrepreneurs profile

As shown in Table (6) entrepreneurs with age 34 years or more were accounted 73.1% of the sample, which may indicate that younger people have limited initiatives to launch their businesses. In addition, only 49.2% of the entrepreneurs hold a university degree and 50.8% hold a diploma degree or less. This may reflect the need to further develop the skills and competencies of Gaza's entrepreneurs. Furthermore, the great majority of the entrepreneurs (83.9%) their family income were less than $1000, which may reflect their limited capacity to grew and necessity driven. Moreover, 57.2% of businesses had experience in the same field less than 8 years, and 92.7% of them were sole traders and partnerships, which reflect why personal resources were 92.1% which is usually limited (Table 6). Likewise, none of the sample had a fulltime employees and they work themselves and 71.4% of them employed 1-3 part-time workers only, which reflects that small businesses were dominant in the Gaza Strip.

]88 [

Table (6) entrepreneurs profile Entrepreneurs

Age Number % Education level Frequency %

18- Less than 24 5 7.9 Secondary or less 21 33.3

24- Less than 34 12 19.0 Post-secondary 11 17.5 34- Less than 44 11 17.5 Graduates 31 49.2 44- Less than 54 35 55.6 Total 63 100.0

Total 63 100.0 Industry sector Frequency % Level of family

income Frequency % manufacturing 4 6.3

Less than 1000 47 83.9 Commercial 50 79.4 1000-1999 6 10.7 Service 9 14.3 2000-2999 2 3.6 Total 63 100.0

3000 or more 1 1.8 Sons work with entrepreneurs Frequency %

Total 56 100.0 Yes 26 41.3 Years of

experience in the same field

Frequency Percent No 37 58.7

Less than 3 19 30.2 Total 63 100.0

3 - Less than 8 17 27.0 Number of

workers (Part Time)

Frequency Percent

8 - Less than 10 5 7.9 (1-3) 40 71.4 10 and more 22 34.9 (4-6) 14 25.0

Total 63 100.0 More than 6 2 3.6 Legal form Frequency Percent Total 56 100.0 Sole trader 45 71.4 Source of fund Frequency Percent Partnership 14 22.2 Personal 58 92.1%

Private limited 4 6.3 Friends and neighbors 1 1.6%

Total 63 100.0 Close family member 4 6.3%

Total 63 100%

]89 [

Table (7) The relation between level of family income and stages of establishments, Entrepreneurs viewpoints.

Item

Level of family income

Less than 1000 1000

or more

Involved in Total early-stage Entrepreneurial Activity (planning stage)

N - -

% - -

Actively involved in start-up effort, owner, no wages yet (Nascent/emerging rate)

N - -

% - -

Manages and owns a business that is up to 42 months old (Baby business ownership rate)

N 29 9

% 52% 16%

Manages and owns a business that is older than 42 months (Established business ownership rate)

N 15 3

% 27% 5%

In addition, Table (7) revealed that 68% of examined establishments were baby businesses of up to 42 months old. Furthermore, 32% of them older than 42 months. This result may reflect the aspects of the research sample. According to GEM and World Economic Reform (2015, p. 12) most early-stage entrepreneurs across the globe do not have high growth ambitions. In 56% of the countries, less than 10% of early-stage entrepreneurs are ambitious. In addition, the more competitive an economy, the greater the share of ambitious early-stage entrepreneurs among all early-stage entrepreneurs (GEM and World Economic Reform, 2015, p. 12).

The results of Ashour and El-Farra (2002, p. 4) study revealed that 62.5% of Gaza's industrial establishments left the market within 12 years of establishment. In addition, 94.5% of Gaza's establishments were classified family businesses in year 2012; 50% of them their capital less than $50000 only and 50% their age 10 years or less (El-Farra and Elhayk, 2014). However, the current situation in Gaza would be even worse, because of closure, siege and high unemployment rate in Gaza.

]90 [

3.3 Students and Graduates opinions toward bargaining and volunteering

Table (8) shows that the total mean value of bargaining and volunteering equals (65.0%), Test-value =4.0, and P-value = 0.000. We conclude that the respondents were moderate regarding bargaining and volunteering. The results reflect average entrepreneurial attitude toward bargaining when buying something (mean value 65%) and low attitude toward volunteering to organizations or clubs they affiliate to (58.2%). This result correspond with the fact that 90.5% of students and graduates have no businesses and they are in the thinking and planning stage (Table 5). In addition, Global Entrepreneurship Network (2015, p. 15) revealed a great differences in entrepreneurship levels between developed and developing countries in favor of developed ones. Furthermore, Table (10) revealed low entrepreneurship skills (mean value 58.8%) among students and graduates (see details below).

Table (8) Sample opinions toward bargaining and volunteering

No Variables Mean (%)

T Test Sig.

1. I sometimes insist on a discount on already low priced goods when in a shop

65.0 2.9 0.002*

2. I make sure that I know the latest developments in the fields of my interest.

71.6 7.9 0.000*

3. I contribute to organizational activities when I am a member of a club

58.2 -1.1 0.128

Total Background of the sample 65.0 4.0 0.000* * The mean is significantly different from 6.

]91 [

3.4 Research questions and discussion Question (1): What are the characteristics of

entrepreneurship education the universities provide in the Gaza Strip, from students and graduates opinions?

To answer this questions, three dimensions were considered: 1) entrepreneurship knowledge, 2) entrepreneurship skills and 3) entrepreneurship attitudes.

First: Entrepreneurship Knowledge university provide Table (9) Means and Test values of Entrepreneurship Knowledge university provide in the Gaza Strip


T Test Sig.

1. On how to identify opportunities 59.1 -0.6 0.284

2. About the ‘bigger picture’ issues that provide 61.5 1.0 0.153

3. Understanding the context in which people live and work 61.7 1.1 0.131

4. Understanding of the workings of the economy 60.9 0.6 0.267

5. Ethical position of enterprises 68.2 5.4 0.000*

6. On the processes of innovation & creativity 62.3 1.4 0.080

7. Entrepreneurship special courses & seminars. 59.9 -0.1 0.472

Total Entrepreneurship Knowledge 61.9 1.6 0.057 * The mean is significantly different from 6.

Table (9) showed that the total mean value of

entrepreneurship knowledge equals (61.9%), Test-value =1.9, and P-value =0.057. We conclude that the respondents "neutral" toward entrepreneurship knowledge universities provide to students and graduates in the Gaza Strip. This result revealed that university curriculum need to include how to understand and analyze industrial and societal environment in order to identify opportunities and threats to

]92 [

business. In addition, courses in entrepreneurship innovation should be considered to choose viable and competitive business ventures. Furthermore, universities need to adopt the action-based pedagogy by bridging the gap between theory and practice. This idea was initiated in 1997 by a Key faculty at Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden. It was centered on an advanced form of role-play between student teams and a comprehensive tailored environment. The first year is preparatory and interdisciplinary together with engineering, business, law and medicine students. In the second year, students were encouraged to establish their businesses and get technical, managerial and financial assistances (EC, 2012, p. 32). Moreover, universities in Gaza may benefit from the experience of Dublin Institute of Technology by adopting a proactive approach to building successful links with industry, through training, collaborative and commissioned research, consultancy and support the development of campus and non-campus businesses (EC, 2012, p. 32). Furthermore, UNCTAD (2011, p. 5) advised that advancing entrepreneurship in developing countries requires a national strategy for entrepreneurship education that should call for all relevant stakeholders to participate in designing the strategy. Additionally, MAS (2014b, p. 3) recommended a comprehensive review of the curriculum of the Palestinian educational system in order to account for the knowledge and skills necessary for the development of entrepreneurs as well as to gradually instill entrepreneurial spirit, critical thinking, and risk management skills of students. Also, universities should create new local materials, case studies and examples of role models that entrepreneurs can relate to (UNCTAD, 2011, p. 9).

The analysis of the curriculums of the main universities in Gaza in the fields of business, engineering and IT, revealed a clear neglect of entrepreneurship. Though there is a course delivered in feasibility study in business field, this course was

]93 [

not designed in a way that lead students to establish their businesses (IUG; Al-Azhar; Al-Aqsa, 2015; El-Farra, 2012). In addition, the findings of a workshop which was conducted with a sample of business students in 2015, revealed their complain about the gap between theory and practice and they lack managerial competencies (Faculty of Commerce, workshop: 2015).

Second: Entrepreneurship Skills university provide Table (10) Aspects of Entrepreneurship Skills university provide No Variables Mean

(%) T

Test Sig.

1. Managerial skills: Plan; Organize; Manage; Lead & delegate 64.1 2.7 0.003*

2. Analyzing skills 61.1 0.8 0.214 3. Communicating skills 62.2 1.5 0.067 4. Monitoring and Evaluating skills 61.0 0.6 0.260 5. Effective representation & negotiation

skills 58.5 -0.9 0.182

6. Work as an independent Individual skills 59.9 -0.1 0.469

7. Work in teams skills 62.4 1.4 0.080 8. Judge & identify one’s strengths and

weaknesses 60.0 0.0 0.490

9. Assess and take risks 57.9 -1.3 0.105 10. Entrepreneurial activity (Business

simulation, Entrepreneurs club, Business Plans competitions).

57.0 -1.9 0.033*

11. Entrepreneurs rewards. 55.2 -3.0 0.002* 12. Entrepreneurship guidance for

graduate student. 54.2 -3.6 0.000*

13. Access to recourses (financial, technology, network, knowledge) 51.3 -5.1 0.000*

Total Entrepreneurship Skills 58.8 -1.0 0.171 * The mean is significantly different from 6

]94 [

Table (10) indicated that the total mean value of entrepreneurship skills equals (58.8%), Test-value =1.9, and P-value =0.171. This indicates that the students and graduates were "neutral" toward entrepreneurship skills Gaza's universities provide. It was obvious from Table (10) that Gaza's universities weak in improving students and graduates' skills in negotiations, taking a calculated risk, team work, monitoring and evaluation, and analysis skills. In addition, Managerial skills in planning, organizing, leading and delegating need to be further improved. These results were supported by the recent policy which was recommended by European Commission on entrepreneurship education at schools (MAS, 2012, p. 9). These policies include:

- Improving students attitudes by enhancing self-awareness and self-confidence and taking the initiative, risk taking, critical thinking, creativity and problem solving.

- Enhancing Knowledge of career opportunities and the world of work; economic and financial literacy and knowledge of business organization and processes.

- Developing Skills in communication, presentation, planning, team work, and practical exploration of entrepreneurial opportunities includes the various stages of the business set up process, including designing and implementing a business plan. Furthermore, UNCTAD (2011, p. 8) emphasized that

entrepreneurial learning should be integrated in the curricula and should be tailored to local environment. Further, a suitable entrepreneurial ecosystem should be designed (Surresh and Ramraj, 2012, p. 96).

]95 [

Third: Entrepreneurship Attitudes university provide Table (11) Entrepreneurship Attitudes university provide No Variables Mean

(%) T

Test Sig.

1. Always Initiate something new. 63.8 2.5 0.007*

2. Always positive towards Independence & innovation in all aspects of life

68.0 6.1 0.000*

3. Highly Motivated 69.2 6.9 0.000* 4. Determination to meet objectives 72.5 8.8 0.000* 5. Risk tendency 67.5 5.4 0.000* 6. Ambition/drive 73.1 9.2 0.000* 7. Determination & commitment 72.5 8.9 0.000* 8. Self-belief 73.7 9.5 0.000* 9. Self-efficacy 73.5 9.6 0.000* 10. Self-awareness 72.2 8.3 0.000* 11. Feeling of empowerment 71.4 8.1 0.000* 12. Social confidence 72.5 8.9 0.000* 13. Creativity & imagination 72.6 9.2 0.000* 14. Curiosity 71.3 7.6 0.000* 15. Tolerance to failure 71.2 7.7 0.000*

Total Entrepreneurship Attitudes 71.0 10.5 0.000* * The mean is significantly different from 6

Table (11) specified that the total mean of

entrepreneurship attitudes equals (71%), Test-value =10.5, and P-value =0.00. This result designates that the respondents agreed toward entrepreneurship attitudes universities provide to students and graduates in the Gaza Strip. Table (11) showed a positive entrepreneurial attitudes in self-belief, self-efficacy, self-awareness, social confidence, determination and commitment, ambition, determination to meet objectives, make some new initiatives and risk tendency.

It seems that entrepreneurship attitudes was much better in comparison to knowledge and skills (71%, 61.9% and 58.8% respectively). However, attitudes depend more on people personality, emotion and experience.

]96 [

The findings of the G20 SME conference emphasized that, entrepreneurship should become a subject taught within schools and universities and to be encouraged as a post-education employment method (Mazzarol, 2014, pp. 4). In addition, Palestine in general and Gaza Strip in particular need to design a suitable entrepreneurship education, that able to equip people with an entrepreneurial attitude, skills and knowledge necessary to qualify and stimulate the intentions of individuals to become an entrepreneur. (MAS, 2012). Moreover, the experiences of developed and developing countries in entrepreneurship education, emphasized that entrepreneurship education program needs to build positive attitudes towards business and develop entrepreneurial competencies (UNCTAD, 2011, p. 4). Furthermore, developing students’ entrepreneurial capabilities becomes not a luxury, but a complete necessity (MAS, 2012, p. 3). The educational system in Palestine has given limited attention to entrepreneurship. A very limited number of modest initiatives were implemented to introduce entrepreneurship education in Palestine (MAS, 2012, p. 3). Additionally, examination of the Palestinian Ministry of Education and Higher Education latest strategic plan for 2014-2019 (MoEHE, 2014) reveals that there is no concern of the importance of entrepreneurial education and no plans to introduce it at the school or university levels. In addition, the recommendations of recent conference on entrepreneurship development in Palestine emphasized on the following (Faculty of Commerce, 2015):

- Reconsidering the palestinian education at schools and universities' levels to enhance entrepreneurship culture among students, graduates and society in large.

- Supporting and enhancing universities' graduates by using a practical methods which enhance entrepreneurial behavior among graduates.

]97 [

- Universities need to give further attentions to conduct research on success stories in entrepreneurship that suitable to palestinian environment.

Question (2): What are the Perceptions and

population attitudes toward having business/ entrepreneurship, from students and graduates opinions?

The entrepreneurship is a complex process strongly affected by cultural context

and societal attitudes (GEM, 2012, p. 7). Table (12) shows that the mean of the field “Perceptions and population attitudes towards having business” equals (61.5%), Test-value =1.4, and P-value =0.088. We conclude that the respondents "neutral" to the field. Table (12) reveals middling levels of population attitudes towards three points: 1) starting a new business is considered as a good career choice, 2) successful business start-ups have high and respectful status, and 3) people prefer to be independent and self-employed. In addition, few of students and graduates have relatives or friends as entrepreneurs. This probably reflect negatively on them in initiating their businesses and become entrepreneurs. In the Gaza Strip, there is a need to promote entrepreneurship initiatives, because of higher unemployment rate among young people in Palestine, where it reached 43.9 percent (PCBS, 2015, p. 8). In addition, unemployment among individuals with intermediate diploma or higher was 30.2 percent in 2013 (expect to exceed more than 50 percent in 2015) (MAS, 2014a, p. 21). Furthermore, students and graduates have a weak opportunities to start a new ventures in the next 6 months (with mean value 53.7%, Table 12). Partly, this faintness is attributed to the limitation in the knowledge university provide in identifying success business opportunities (see Table 9).

]98 [

Suresh and Ramraj (2012, p. 98) advised moral support from parents, friends and society at large to entrepreneurs to prosper. In addition, G20 SMEs conference emphasized on the awareness at society level to promote entrepreneurship as part of national comprehensive policy (Mazzarol, 2014, p. 4). Moreover, entrepreneurship education should be obligatory in most study disciplines (EC, 2012, p. 18).

Table (12) Means and Test values for “Perceptions and population attitudes toward having business”

No Variables Mean (%) T Test Sig.

1. Expect to start a business in the next 3 years 65.8 3.5 0.000*

2. Good opportunities to start a new business in the next 6 months 53.7 -3.7 0.000*

3. Starting a new business is considered as a good career choice 66.7 4.6 0.000*

4. Successful people business start-ups have high and respectful status 68.0 6.1 0.000*

5. Successful stories coverage in public media 62.8 2.0 0.025*

6. I prefer to be independent and self-employed. 67.0 4.9 0.000*

7. My father or mother is an entrepreneur 53.6 -3.6 0.000*

8. There are entrepreneurs in my family 55.8 -2.4 0.009*

9. I have friends who are entrepreneurs 59.8 -0.1 0.451

Total Perceptions and population attitudes toward having business 61.5 1.4 0.088

* The mean is significantly different from 6

]99 [

Question (3): What are the Motivational factors for starting business?

Table (13) shows that the mean of the field “Motivational factors for students and graduates to start their own businesses” equals (68.8%), Test-value =7.1, and P-value =0.00. We conclude that the respondents "agree" to the field. However, the level of motivations need to be improved among students and graduates through adopting awareness programs by universities, government, private sector and NGOs. The awareness programs should highlight the benefits of being a business owner and not just waiting for jobs in public or private sectors which is very difficult to find.

Table (13) Means and Test values of Motivational factors for students and graduates to start their own businesses, students and graduates viewpoints


T Test Sig.

1. To be my own boss 70.2 6.4 0.000*

2. To be able to use my past experience and training 67.1 4.4 0.000*

3. To prove I can do it 68.1 5.4 0.000* 4. To increase my income 70.0 6.6 0.000*

5. To provide jobs to family members 67.8 4.8 0.000*

6. For my own satisfaction and growth 70.8 6.9 0.000*

7. So I will always have job security 70.7 6.9 0.000*

8. To build a business to pass on 68.7 5.5 0.000* 9. To be closer to my family 67.0 4.3 0.000*

Total Motivational factors for starting you own business 68.8 7.1 0.000*


]100 [

In addition, table (14) revealed that experts and entrepreneurs mostly emphasized on the same motivational factors, with mean values were (83.4%) and (73.8%) to entrepreneurs and experts respectively. Furthermore, experts were disagreed with the importance of building a business to pass on and to be closer to their families as a motivational factors. Probably the experts were affected with the local community priority in the current situation which is tackling poverty and unemployment. Also experts were conservatized in their response to the motivational factors compared to entrepreneurs. In addition, the results of MAS report (2014b, pp. 1-5) indicated that 46% of youth projects in Palestine were necessity driven, compared by MENA average 36%. In Gaza it would be more necessity-driven initiatives because of higher unemployment rate. Furthermore, the study of Global Entrepreneurship Network (2015, pp. 5-6) ranked most of Arab Countries in a low entrepreneurship level, e.g., the rank of Jordan and Egypt 65 & 91 respectively, while Palestine was excluded. Moreover, the results of EC study (2012, p. 11) revealed that the major incentives for European Universities' students and graduates to become entrepreneurs were, to be independent, freedom of choosing time and place of work and realization of business opportunity.

]101 [

Table (14) Means and Test values of Motivational factors for starting business from experts and entrepreneurs viewpoints

No

Vari

able

s

Mea

n of

en

trep

rene

urs

(%)

T Te

st

P-Va

lue

Mea

n of

exp

erts

(%

)

T Te

st

P-Va

lue

1. To be my own boss 82.7 7.5 0.000* 69.5 3.1 0.00*

2. To be able to use my past experience and training

84.6 9.7 0.000* 73.3 4.9 0.00*

3. To prove I can do it 83.7 9.1 0.000* 80.0 7.5 0.00*

4. To increase my income 92.4 19.9 0.000* 81.4 6.7 0.00*

5. To provide jobs to family members (Necessity).

77.6 5.5 0.000* 80.0 10.2 0.00*

6. For my own satisfaction and growth

86.5 12.9 0.000* 76.2 5.8 0.00*

7. So I will always have job security 84.3 10.2 0.000* 74.8 4.6 0.00*

8. To build a business to pass on

86.7 9.9 0.000* 55.2 -1.5 0.07

9. To be closer to my family 71.5 3.2 0.001* - - -

Total

Motivational factors for

starting your own business

83.4 13.1 0.000* 73.8 6.5 0.00*

]102 [

Questions (4): Did students &graduates and entrepreneurs receive advice regarding entrepreneurship?

Table (15) shows the viewpoints of students, graduates and entrepreneurs regarding advice on business they may be received. According to students and graduates viewpoints, the mean of the field “receiving advice regarding entrepreneurship” equals (55.9%), Test-value =-3.0, and P-value =0.00. We conclude that the students and graduates were rarely received technical or managerial advices to establish or run their businesses efficiently. The situation even worse for entrepreneurs, where mean value 47.6% and p-value 0.00.

It is obvious that the professional networks and other private network environment have weak contribution in supporting entrepreneurship in the Gaza Strip. This reflects the need of a strategic national plan to promote entrepreneurship practices, knowledge and skills in the Gaza Strip by designing a suitable entrepreneurship ecosystem, that all stakeholders including, private and public sectors, universities, NGOs and professional networks should participate in developing and supporting entrepreneurship in Gaza Strip. Entrepreneurial development is a collection vision of all parties to be committed to the promotion of entrepreneurship (Suresh and Ramraj, 2012, pp. 96-97; Faculty of Commerce, 2015; MAS, 2014b).

]103 [

Table (15) Means and Test values for “Receiving advice regarding entrepreneurship (in field of starting or running their businesses)”, graduates and students and entrepreneurs viewpoints

No

Vari

able

s

Mea

n, s

tude

nts

&

grad

uate

s vi

ews

(%)

T Te

st

p-va

lue

Mea

n,

entr

epre

neur

s (%

)

T Te

st

p-va

lue

1.

Private network environment which includes spouse, parents, other family, and friends.

58.4 -0.9 0.179 60.8 0.2 0.417

2.

Work environment which includes anyone who has started a project, and anyone with experience in business.

56.5 -2.1 0.019*

55.6 -1.1 0.135

3.

The international network environment includes anyone who has just come from abroad or anyone living abroad.

52.0 -4.8 0.000*

31.6 -7.5 0.000*

4.

The professional network environment includes any of the following: researchers, lawyers, accountants, investors, banks, and business service providers.

52.6 -4.4 0.000*

30.7 -8.6 0.000*

5.

The market environment includes a competitors, and partners, e.g. a supplier, or a customer.

60.0 0.0 0.500 59.3 -0.2 0.431

Total Receiving advice 55.9 -

3.0 0.002

* 47.6 -4.5 0.000

* * The mean is significantly different from 6

]104 [

Question (5): Do established enterprises in Gaza innovative or traditional and replication?

According to Table (16) the total mean value of the field “whether establishments are innovative or traditional and replication” equals (60.5%), Test-value =1.0, and P-value =0.44. We conclude that the experts were neutral to the field. In addition, the original questionnaire contained addition 4 points including(1), rely on innovation, duplication, copying (see Appendix A3). It seems that experts were not sure about the aspects and structure of the business in Gaza. This is probably attributed to the fact that many of small businesses are managed to survive despite of closure and siege and some of them initiated new success projects in IT businesses and distance working (Migdad, 2015: Interview). However, 97% of Gaza's establishments in year 2012, were small and employ less than 9 persons, and 88.8% of Gaza's establishments employ less than 5 persons (PCBS, 2014, p. 33). Furthermore, almost all Gaza's establishments were sole trader and partnership except 3.6% private and public limited companies (PCBS, 2014, p.32). this would reflect the limited capacity of these businesses to grow and introduce new technology, which affect negatively on their level of innovation.

(1) The factor analysis excluded these 4 points.

]105 [

Table (16) Means and Test values for enterprises in Gaza, whether innovative or traditional and replication, experts viewpoints

No Variables Mean (%) T Test P-Value

1. Rely on innovation 62.4 0.5 0.298

2. business is similar to some of family members. 58.6 -0.4 0.348

Total Total 60.5 0.1 0.447 Question (6) What are the Reasons for business

discontinue operating in Gaza? Table (17) indicates that experts believe the main

reason for businesses to discontinue operation was in getting finance, with mean value 73.8% and P-value =0.00. While, other reasons e.g, job or business opportunity was considered low important. The surprise the statistical factor analysis removed the factors; siege and closures and business not profitable from the reasons for discontinue operating. Though recession and poverty among population would be the main reasons for low demand, which will reflect negatively on profits and business finance (PCBS, 2013; MAS, 2014a, p. 20). With regards to limited finance Ashour and El-Farra (2002, pp. 7-13) stressed on the shortages of fund and higher cost of bank finance as the most important problem facing Gaza's establishments. In addition, Stefanovic, et al. (2013, p. 18) emphasized on the importance of government support, access to capital and support of family and friends.

]106 [

Table (17) Means and Test values for “Reasons for discontinue operating”, experts viewpoints


T Test

P-Value

1. Opportunity to sell 50.0 -1.7 0.0505 2. Problems getting finance 73.8 5.1 0.000*

3. Another job or business opportunity 44.3 -3.2 0.002*

4. Retirement 46.7 -2.9 0.004* 5. Personal reasons 50.5 -2.4 0.013*

Total Reasons for discontinue operating 53.1 -1.8 0.045*

* The mean is significantly different from 6 Question (7): What are the aspects of Gaza’s

entrepreneurship? First: Aspects of Gaza’s entrepreneurship

environment To understand the aspects of Gaza’s environment which

affect negatively or positively on entrepreneurship prosperity, five factors were highlighted: 1) entrepreneurship social image, 2) physical infrastructure, 3) government support, 4) youth entrepreneurship and 5) risk taking. 1) National experts views on Entrepreneur social image:

According to Table (18) the entrepreneur social image was moderate, with mean value (65.1%) and P-value =0.00.

The experts believe that there is a moderate perception from Gaza's people to the following issues:

- The creation of new ventures is considered an appropriate way to become rich.

- Becoming an entrepreneur is a desirable career choice. - You often see stories in the public media about

successful entrepreneurs. However, students and graduate were considered

the population attitudes towards entrepreneurship was neutral (Table 11).

]107 [

Suresh and Ramraj (2012, p. 98) advised moral support from parents, friends and society at large to entrepreneurs to prosper. In addition, G20 SME conference emphasized on the awareness at society level to promote entrepreneurship as part of national comprehensive policy (Mazzarol, 2014, p. 4). Moreover, entrepreneurship education should be obligatory in study disciplines (EC, 2012, p. 18).

Table (18) Means and Test values for “Entrepreneur social image”, experts viewpoints


T Test

P-Value

1. The creation of new ventures is considered an appropriate way to become rich.

68.1 2.3 0.016*

2. Most people consider becoming an entrepreneur as a desirable career choice.

64.8 1.5 0.072

3. You will often see stories in the public media about successful entrepreneurs.

62.4 0.7 0.253

Total Entrepreneur social image 65.1 1.7 0.052 * The mean is significantly different from 6. 1) National experts views on Physical infrastructure

Experts believe that a new or growing firms can get good access to communications (telephone, internet, etc.) easily, with mean value (76.7%) and p-value (0.00). However, experts consider the cost of getting the basic utilities neutral with a mean value (58.1%) and p-value (0.348) (see Table 19). Conversely, the statistical factor analysis removed the physical infrastructure support (roads, utilities, communications, water disposal).

In addition, the cost of basic utilities is quite expensive to new and growing firms (see Table 19).

]108 [

The state of the infrastructure in any country is an important aspect of its progress and economic development. It is also a measure of the commitment of a country to the private and public sectors development. The infrastructure usually includes power supply, water supply, sewage and waste disposal systems, industrial zones, transport and communications and telecommunications networks, many of which were lacking at even the most basic levels in the Gaza Strip. There is an urgent need for upgrading and developing the power supply in Gaza because of inadequate electric supply and fluctuating current levels of the service, which disrupt work and cause damage to machinery. According to Palestinian Energy & Natural Resources Authority (PENRA) (2014, p. 1), Gaza Strip has a deficit in power supply ranged between 45-67%.

Table (19) Means and Test values for “Physical infrastructure”, experts viewpoints


T Test

P-Value

1.

A new or growing firm can get good access to communications (telephone, internet, etc.) in about a week.

76.7 7.2 0.000*

2. New and growing firms can afford the cost of basic utilities (gas, water, electricity, sewer).

58.1 -0.4 0.348

Total Physical infrastructure 67.4 2.2 0.018* * The mean is significantly different from 6.

]109 [

2) National experts views on Governmental support programs to entrepreneurs

Table (20) shows a weak government support to entrepreneurs in the Gaza Strip, with mean value 47.6% and p-value 0.00. It is obvious from Table (20) that experts believe that the government do not provide assistance to new and growing firms. In addition, Palestine lacks of governmental science parks and sufficient business incubators to assist private initiatives. However, there are three incubators with limited capacities in the Gaza strip were initiated by universities and NGOs to promote entrepreneurship. These incubators nurture the potential entrepreneurs in order to convert their ideas into start-up (Skaik, 2015: Interview).

After examining the reality of entrepreneurship in Palestine, MAS (2014b, pp.3-5) proposed a range of policies to develop entrepreneurship. Some of these policies include:

1. The need to establish partnership between government, private sector, NGOs and universities to support entrepreneurship.

2. Simplify establishment procedures of MSMEs. 3. Provide tax-breaks to motivate businesses. 4. Establish sufficient number of business incubators to

support incubate innovative ideas.

]110 [

Table (20) Means and Test values for “Governmental support programs to entrepreneurs”, experts viewpoints


T Test

P-Value

1.

A wide range of government assistance for new and growing firms can be obtained through contact with a single agency.

41.4 -4.8 0.000*

2. Science parks and business incubators provide effective support for new and growing firms.

56.7 -0.8 0.213

3. The people working for government agencies are competent and effective in supporting new and growing firms.

48.1 -3.3 0.002*

4.

Almost anyone who needs help from a government program for a new or growing business can find what they need.

47.1 -3.8 0.001*

5. Government programs aimed at supporting new and growing firms to be effective.

44.8 -3.6 0.001*

Total Governmental support programs to entrepreneurs 47.6 -3.6 0.001*

* The mean is significantly different from 6. 3) National experts views on youth entrepreneurship The local support of youth entrepreneurship is limited

with mean value 56.6% (see Table 21). The weak remarks were attributed to the following:

- Lack of government programs to train and support youth entrepreneurs.

- Limited adequate system of business incubators that can be accessed by young adults.

- Lack of financial programs to fund young adults business initiatives.

]111 [

Supporting young people to become entrepreneur should be highly considered, because they suffer of higher unemployment. In 2013 unemployment rate was 41% in Palestine for the age group (15-25), compared by palestinian average unemployment rate 23.4% (MAS, 2014a, p. 20). In year 2014 the situation even worse because of war and closure, where average unemployment in Gaza reached 43.9% (PCBS, 2015, p. 8). The situation among youth is more difficult and expected to reach 60% (Rafati, 2015: Interview; OCHA, 2015, p. 1).

Limited support to youth entrepreneurship in Gaza made most of youth adults to consider life/work opportunities outside the country more attractive with mean value 77.6% and p-value 0.00 (see Table 21). During the period 2005-2009, more than 32000 persons formally emigrated and settled abroad, however, the informal figures would be much higher. In addition, the majority of the formal emigrants were holding a university degrees, diploma or higher (PCBS, 2010). Furthermore, the continuous education deaneries in local universities play a limited role in enhancing students and graduates soft and life skills. These deaneries have weak level of entrepreneurship culture, risk taking and creativity (Alhabeel and Abu Qaren, 2015, p. 1).

]112 [

Table (21) Means and Test values for “National experts views on youth entrepreneurship”, experts viewpoints


T Test

P-Value

1. Most of the youth have no option other than to find work. 58.1 -0.4 0.351

2. Governmental programs effectively train and support youth entrepreneurs.

41.9 -4.7 0.000*

3. Young adults are significantly involved in entrepreneurship. 60.0 0.0 0.500

4. There is an adequate system of business incubators that can be accessed by young adults.

55.2 -0.8 0.215

5.

Financiers (banks, informal investors, business angel..) fund young adults' business initiatives to start a business are efficient.

46.7 -3.1 0.003*

6. Young adults consider life/work opportunities outside the country more attractive.

77.6 7.7 0.000*

Total National experts views on youth entrepreneurship 56.6 -1.1 0.136

* The mean is significantly different from 6 4) National experts views on Risk taking

Table (22) reveals that national experts and entrepreneurs belief that Gaza's people are risk taking, with total mean value 73%, 65.2% and p-value 0.00, 0.04 respectively. It is obvious that people tend to overcome fear and go forward (75.2%, 71%) and do not mind working long hours to achieve goals. This result disagrees with the finding of Ashour and El-Farra (2002, p.2) which, was conducted on Gaza Strip. This may be attributed to the difference in the socio-economic context era in the Gaza Strip. Gaza has suffered from three comprehensive wars from Israel during the period 2008-2014, and still under siege and closure. The deterioration in the current situation in Gaza has limited the job opportunities in the private and public sector. Therefore,

]113 [

people are necessity driven to think in establishing their businesses. However, the results of Block et al. (2015, p. 183) show that opportunity entrepreneurs are more willing to take risks than necessity entrepreneurs. In addition, those who are motivated by creativity are more risk tolerant than other entrepreneurs.

Table (22) Means and Test values for “Risk taking”, experts and entrepreneurs viewpoints

No

Vari

able

s

Mea

n, e

xper

ts

view

poin

ts (%

)

T Te

st

P-Va

lue

Mea

n,

entr

epre

neur

s vi

ewpo

ints

(%)

T Te

st

P-Va

lue

1.

Gaza’s people have a high tendency toward risk

70.5 2.6 0.008* 63.5 0.9 0.178

2.

Most of people are willing to take risk

66.2 1.8 0.045* - - -

3.

Gaza’s people may be classified as a risk takers.

73.8 5.1 0.000* 60.2 0.0 0.482

4.

They tend to overcome fear and go forward

75.2 6.2 0.000* 71.0 3.6 0.000*

5.

People do not mind working long hours to achieve goals

79.0 9.8 0.000* - - -

Total Risk taking 73.0 5.2 0.000* 65.2 1.8 0.043* * The mean is significantly different from 6

]114 [

Second: Factors contribute to entrepreneur’s Success, from entrepreneurs and experts, viewpoints

There is a wide agreement between entrepreneurs and experts on most of the factors which cause business success (see Table 23). The total means values were 81.3% and 80.8% to experts and entrepreneurs respectively. It was obvious that both agreed that the most important factors for entrepreneurs' success were, good management skills, previous experience, marketing and sales promotions, competitive price, good customer services, hard work, access to capital and social skills. However, appropriate training was given moderate attention (65.9%) by entrepreneurs. Improving the skills and knowledge of entrepreneurs require a comprehensive strategic developmental plan at national level that focus on the most important factors which contribute to entrepreneurs' success (MAS, 2014b, pp.3-5). Furthermore, access to fund should be resolved. Nevertheless, Table (24) disclosed that experts and entrepreneurs were believed that most of the success factors were moderately available; mean values 67.4% and 61.8% respectively. Entrepreneurs were only considered two factors as a problem to entrepreneurship, which were, the competition (mean value 69.8% and p-value 0.00) and lack of management training (mean value 66.2% and p-value 0.03). While, entrepreneurs were either disagreed or neutral to the other factors. However, Table (24) indicated that experts considered many other factors which hinder entrepreneurship development including, electricity problem (mean value 80.5%), lack of marketing training (mean value 78.5%), lack of management training (mean value 74.8%), Inability to maintain accurate accounting records (mean value 73.3%), restricted government regulations (mean value 71%), Too much competition (mean value 65.2%) and unable to obtain short-term finance. While entrepreneurs were either disagreed or neutral to the other factors.

]115 [

The hindrances factors to entrepreneurs' development (Table 24) correspond with many of the aspects of Gaza's entrepreneurship environment previously mentioned e.g., social image, physical infrastructure and government support (see the analysis of question 7). Designing a supportive national policy to entrepreneurship should take in consideration all hindrances (Table 24). This national policy should be tailored to match Gaza's situation. Most of entrepreneurship promotion programs in developing countries focus on providing individuals' managerial and financial training, counseling and access to finance (Honorati, 2013, p. 3). In addition, Reslan and Nasir (2011, p. 17) mentioned some of limitations in Palestinian entrepreneurship including: 1) inappropriate palestinian curriculum and teaching methods to promote entrepreneurship, 2) complicating procedures of establishing businesses, 3) absence of supporting regulations and policies to promote entrepreneurship in Palestine, 4) lack of support programs to entrepreneurship in palestinian developmental plans and 5) lack of counseling and technical support to entrepreneurs. Moreover, Ashour and Zoarob (2015, p. 1) concluded many managerial obstacles to small commercial enterprises in Gaza Strip mainly: poor planning and organizing, intensive competition, limited financial resources, complex local government procedures towards small business, limited marketing capabilities, shortage of financial resources available to small businesses, inability of businesses to provide loan security required by banks and the frequent power cut (see also MAS, 2009)

]116 [

Table (23) Means and Test values for “Factors contribute to entrepreneur’s Success”

No

Vari

able

s

Mea

n, e

xper

ts

view

s (%

)

T Te

st

P-Va

lue

Mea

n,

entr

epre

neur

s vi

ews

(%)

T Te

st

P-Va

lue

1. Good management skills 87.1 13.0 0.000* 86.2 12.1 0.000*

2. Appropriate training 76.2 8.6 0.000* 65.9 1.5 0.066 3. Access to capital 78.1 11.1 0.000* 81.7 8.3 0.000*

4. Previous business experience 82.4 8.4 0.000* 80.6 6.9 0.000*

5. Marketing/sales promotion 83.8 10.7 0.000* 82.2 7.8 0.000*

6. Good product at competitive price 85.7 12.7 0.000* 84.6 10.1 0.000*

7. Good customer service 86.2 16.2 0.000* 89.0 15.3 0.000*

8. Hard work 83.3 10.0 0.000* 87.1 11.4 0.000*

9. Maintenance of accurate records 75.7 7.8 0.000* - - -

10. Ability to manage personnel 74.8 7.3 0.000* 80.5 8.2 0.000*

11. Social skills 80.5 9.2 0.000* 76.7 6.4 0.000* 12. Position in society - - - 78.7 6.1 0.000*

13. Reputation for honesty - - - 91.7 16.5 0.000*

14. Support of family and friends - - - 65.4 1.4 0.086

15. Factors contribute to entrepreneur’s Success

81.3 14.5 0.000* 80.8 11.5 0.000*


]117 [

Table (24) Means and Test values for “Problems which hinder entrepreneurial development”, experts and entrepreneurs viewpoints

No

Vari

able

s

Mea

n, e

xper

ts

view

s (%

)

T Te

st

P-Va

lue

Mea

n,

entr

epre

neur

s vi

ews

(%)

T Te

st

P-Va

lue

1. Unreliable and undependable employees 59.0 -

0.4 0.347 59.3 -0.2 0.429

2. Too much competition 65.2 1.6 0.063 69.8 2.9 0.003*

3. Unable to obtain short-term financial capital 65.2 1.9 0.035* - - -

4. Too much government regulation 71.0 4.4 0.000* 62.0 0.5 0.304

5. Limited parking 54.8 -1.2 0.115 - - -

6. Lack of management training 74.8 5.6 0.000* 66.2 1.9 0.030*

7. Lack of marketing training 78.6 9.3 0.000* 63.8 1.3 0.099

8. Inability to maintain accurate accounting records

73.3 7.7 0.000* 60.0 0.0 0.500

9. Complex/confusing tax structure 61.4 0.3 0.374 60.7 0.2 0.431

10. Complicated business registration process 61.9 0.4 0.335 56.7 -

0.9 0.197

11. Poor roads/transportation 62.9 1.3 0.104 60.7 0.2 0.434

12. Electricity problems 80.5 9.2 0.000* - - - 13. Unsafe location - - - 60.0 0.0 0.500

Problem factors which hinder entrepreneurial development

67.4 3.8 0.001* 61.8 0.8 0.201


]118 [

Third: Organizations' support to entrepreneurship, from entrepreneurs viewpoints. Table (25) Means and Test values for “Organization's support for entrepreneurship”, entrepreneurs viewpoints No Variables Mean

(%) T

Test P-

Value

1. Your organization empowers employees. 64.6 1.3 0.099

2. Senior managers encourage flexible rules. 68.2 2.5 0.008*

3. Top management high experience with innovation. 66.9 2.2 0.018*

4. Top management sponsors entrepreneurship. 64.1 1.2 0.108

5. Individual risk-takers are often recognized whether eventually successful or not.

64.8 1.3 0.096

Organization's support for entrepreneurship 65.7 2.1 0.020*

* The mean is significantly different from 6 Table (25) showed that the total mean value was 65.7%

and p-value 0.02, which indicates that entrepreneurs were moderate toward organizational support to entrepreneurship. It is obvious that the establishments in Gaza need to enhance employees empowerment, adopt flexible management rules, enhance innovation, sponsor entrepreneurship and encourage calculated risk. Organizational support to initiatives, innovation, participation in decision making and empowering employees, requires a change in the mind attitude and behavior of managers/owners. It is a cultural issue that Arab culture lenient centralization (El-Farra & Wakelam, 1999). In addition, since most of Gaza's establishments are small and family business, they have limited number of qualified employees; they prefer to recruit their family members and friends (El-Farra and Elhayk, 2014).

]119 [

Fourth: Aspect of initiatives, innovation and risk taking in Gaza, from entrepreneurs viewpoints.

Table (28) revealed that the average mean value of the aspects of initiatives, innovation and risk taking in Gaza was 67% and p-value 0.01, which means that the aspects of entrepreneurship was moderate in the Gaza Strip. The weakest element was initiatives with mean value (mean 57.4%). Table (26) showed that very few number of the interviewed entrepreneurs, their friends or family members were entrepreneurs. In addition, Table (22) displayed that people were moderate in risk taking, with mean value was 65.2% and p-value 0.04. Furthermore, experts were discarded two factors according to factor analysis; dependence on themselves to overcome obstacles and working long hours to achieve goals. Self-efficacy and dedication to business were considered by many writers as important requirements to entrepreneurs' success (Naude et al., 2011, p.1; Hojjati, 2012, p.63). Moreover, the good think was the level of innovation, where mean value was (78.4%) and p-value 0.00 (see Table 27). Gaza's entrepreneurs frequently introduce new innovations, captivating business opportunity may arise, looking for better ways to offer products and they emphasis growth. However, the weakest part was the availability of resources (59.45%).

]120 [

Miller (1983) maintained that establishments' actions relating to Innovation, risk taking, and pro-activeness represent the primary dimensions of entrepreneurship. Miller emphasized that imitating competitors and avoiding taking risk would not call as entrepreneurial.

Table (26) Means and Test values for “Initiatives and friends and relatives are entrepreneurs”, entrepreneurs viewpoints


T Test

P-Value

1. My father or mother is an entrepreneur

43.8 -3.5 0.000*

2. There are entrepreneurs in my family 45.5 -3.4 0.001*

3. I have friends or associates who are entrepreneurs

56.3 -0.9 0.176

4. I make sure that I know the latest developments in the fields of my hobbies

83.2 8.7 0.000*

5. I want to contribute to organizational activities when I am a member of a club

52.1 -2.0 0.026*

6. I Always contribute to family activities.

63.9 1.0 0.150

Initiatives and friends and

relatives are entrepreneurs 57.4 -1.1 0.132


]121 [

Table (27) Means and Test values for “Innovation”, entrepreneurs viewpoints No Variables Mean

(%) T

Test P-

Value

1. I Frequently introduce new innovations to my business. 79.0 6.8 0.000*

2. I take any opportunity I identify which would be beneficial to my business. 87.0 14.7 0.000*

3. I am looking for better ways of producing products, work methods or processes.

86.5 14.2 0.000*

4. Innovativeness and creativity are thought of as an important in my work place.

84.0 10.3 0.000*

5. My business is very dynamic and entrepreneurial place. 76.0 6.9 0.000*

6. My business emphasizes growth and acquiring new resources. 76.2 5.6 0.000*

7. Resources (budget, personnel, time, etc.) are generally available for new ventures.

59.5 -0.1 0.446

Innovation 78.4 9.9 0.000*

Table (28) Total dimensions of entrepreneurship from entrepreneurs viewpoints No Variables Mean

(%) T

Test P-

Value Rank

1. Initiatives and friends and relatives are entrepreneurs 57.4 -1.1 0.132 3

2. Risk taking 65.2 1.8 0.043* 2 3. Innovation 78.4 9.9 0.000* 1

Average score 67 2.4 0.014*

]122 [

3.5 Hypothesis Testing H 1: There is a significant differences from

entrepreneurs viewpoints at @ 5% related to Entrepreneurship dimensions in terms of: (1) Initiatives, 2) Risk taking and 3) Innovation, attributed to some personal and organizational factors.

Tables from 29 to 33, revealed insignificant differences in the dimensions of entrepreneurship attributed to Age of entrepreneurs, sons work with them, Years of experience in the field before starting business, business ownership and business Legal form.

However, Tables (34, 35) indicated significant differences in some of the dimensions of entrepreneurship attributed to level of family income before starting business and level of education.

People with income $1000 or more their initiatives were affected positively, when they have entrepreneurs from their families and friend. However, Table (34) revealed insignificant differences in risk taking and innovation attributed to family income. It is obvious that risk taking and innovations are influenced with culture, experience and skills rather than income.

Table (35) indicated a significant difference (p-vale 0.00) in the dimension of business innovation attributed to the level of education in favor of less educated people. This result probably reflects the weakness of entrepreneurship educations in Gaza's universities, which match to a certain extent the low levels of knowledge and skills universities provide to students and graduates (see Tables 9 and 10).

Learning by doing would be a suitable pedagogy universities should adopt to improve students and graduates' skills and enhance initiatives and innovations (UNCTAD, 2011, p. 9).

]123 [

Table (29) Level of differences in the dimensions of Entrepreneurship attributed to Age of respondents, from entrepreneurs viewpoints

Items

Means

F-Test

P-value

18- Less than

24

24- Less than

34

34- Less than

44

44- Less than

54 Initiatives and friends and relatives are entrepreneurs

5.57 5.38 6.45 5.66 0.73 0.537

Risk taking 8.40 6.22 6.97 6.22 1.46 0.236 Innovation 8.17 6.94 8.01 8.04 1.91 0.137

Table (30) Level of differences in the dimensions of Entrepreneurship attributed to whether they have any of their sons work with them, from entrepreneurs viewpoints

Items Means T-Test P-value Yes No Initiatives and friends and relatives are entrepreneurs 5.88 5.64 0.50 0.617

Risk taking 6.10 6.82 -1.18 0.241 Innovation 7.76 7.89 -0.35 0.727

]124 [

Table (31) Level of differences in the dimensions of Entrepreneurship attributed to Years of experience in the field before starting business, from entrepreneurs viewpoints

Items

Means

F-Test P-

value

Less than 3

3 - Less than

8

8 - Less than

10

10 and more

Initiatives and friends and relatives are entrepreneurs

5.48 5.75 6.30 5.83 0.283 0.838

Risk taking 6.68 6.00 6.27 6.85 0.449 0.719 Innovation 8.20 7.05 8.37 8.01 2.462 0.071

Table (32) Level of differences in the dimensions of Entrepreneurship attributed to business ownership, from entrepreneurs viewpoints.

Items

Means T-

Test

P-valu

e

Entirely owned by you

You have partners

Initiatives and friends and relatives are entrepreneurs 5.78 5.60 0.35 0.724

Risk taking 6.48 6.33 0.21 0.831 Innovation 7.66 7.94 -0.70 0.485

]125 [

Table (33) Level of differences in the dimensions of Entrepreneurship attributed to business Legal form, from entrepreneurs viewpoints.

Items Means F-

Test P-value Sole trader Partnership Private

limited Initiatives and friends and relatives are entrepreneurs

5.88 5.42 5.25 0.480 0.621

Risk taking 6.37 7.00 6.58 0.369 0.693 Innovation 7.69 8.30 7.93 0.916 0.406

Table (34) Level of differences in the dimensions of Entrepreneurship attributed to family income before starting business, from entrepreneurs viewpoints

Items Means

T-Test P-value Less than $1000

$1000 or more


5.58 6.72 -1.73 0.045*

Risk taking 6.36 7.59 -1.46 0.151 Innovation 7.76 7.90 -0.26 0.798 * The mean difference is significantly different from 6

]126 [

Table (35) Level of differences in the dimensions of Entrepreneurship attributed to level of education, from entrepreneurs viewpoints

Items Means F-

Test P-

value Secondary or less

Post-secondary

Graduates


5.64 6.12 5.67 0.28 0.756

Risk taking 6.57 6.18 6.61 0.14 0.873 Innovation 8.53 8.12 7.27 5.51 0.006* * The mean difference is significantly different from 6

H 2: There is a significant correlation at @ 5%

between the dimensions of Entrepreneurship and number of full-time workers, from entrepreneurs viewpoints.

According to Table (36) a significant positive correlation was found between entrepreneurs innovations and number of full-time employees (p-vale 0.04). Also, a significant positive correlation was found between the entrepreneurs' initiatives and number of full time employees. Innovative businesses are expected to grow and recruit full-time employees. In addition, entrepreneurs who have friends and relatives as entrepreneurs they may acquire experience and skills to develop their businesses. Furthermore, businesses with full time employees are more stable than businesses which rely on part-timers. Full-time employees are motivated more than part-timers with job security and salary level. This would encourage innovation and initiatives.

]127 [

Table (36) correlation between the aspects of Entrepreneurship and Number of workers, from entrepreneurs viewpoints.

Items Part time Full time

Pearson Correlation P-value Pearson

Correlation P-

value Initiatives and friends and relatives are entrepreneurs

0.022 0.435 0.353 0.049*

Risk taking 0.124 0.182 0.130 0.278 Innovation 0.163 0.115 0.359 0.046* *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level

H 3: There is a significant differences at @ 5% among respondents related to:

a) Motivational factors to become entrepreneur. a) Receiving advices and support regarding

entrepreneurship. b) Factors contribute to entrepreneur’s Success. c) Problems which hinder entrepreneurial

development.

1) Motivational factors to become entrepreneur. Table (37) reveals that the means' values for

Motivational factors for Students and Graduates, Entrepreneurs, and expert equal 68.8, 83.4, and 73.8, respectively. The value of the F-test equals 16.613, with p-value equals 0.000. This implies that there is a sufficient evidence to conclude that mean of Motivational factors are significantly different among Students and Graduates, Entrepreneurs, and expert. The mean of Motivational factors for Entrepreneurs is significantly greater than Students and Graduates and experts. The estimated effect size equals 0.095, this means that the mean difference is moderate.

]128 [

Table (37) result of one-way anova test for motivational factors, respondents viewpoints

Items N Mean Std. Deviation F-test Sig Effect

size Students and Graduates 235 68.8 1.9

16.613 0.000* 0.095 Entrepreneurs 63 83.4 1.4 Experts 21 73.8 1.0

* The mean difference is statistically significant at 0.05 level

2) Receiving advices and support regarding entrepreneurship.

The means for "receiving advices and support" regarding entrepreneurship for Students and Graduates and Entrepreneurs equal 55.9% and 47.6%, respectively (see Table 38). The value of the T-test equals 2.7, with p-value equals 0.008. This implies that there is a sufficient evidence to conclude that mean of receiving advices and support regarding entrepreneurship is significantly different between Students and Graduates and Entrepreneurs. The mean of receiving advices and support regarding entrepreneurship for Students and Graduates is significantly greater than Entrepreneurs. The estimated effect size equals 0.023, this means that the mean difference is moderate. However, it is obvious from the mean value, a weak support and advices were provided to Students and Graduates and entrepreneurs.

]129 [

Table (38) Result of independent samples t-test for receiving advices and support regarding entrepreneurship, students & graduates and entrepreneurs viewpoints.

type N Mean Std. Deviation

T-Test Sig Effect

size Students & Graduates 240 55.9 2.2 2.7

0.008*

0.023 Entrepreneurs 61 47.6 2.1 * The mean difference is significant at 0.05 level. 3) Factors contribute to entrepreneur’s Success.

Table (39) shows that the means for " Factors contribute to entrepreneur’s Success " for Entrepreneurs and Experts equal 80.8 and 81.3, respectively. The value of the T-test equals -0.129, with p-value equals 0.898. This implies that there is insufficient evidence to conclude that mean of " Factors contribute to entrepreneur’s Success " is significantly different between Entrepreneurs and Experts. The estimated effect size equal 0.000201, this means that the mean difference is very small.

table (39) Result of independent samples t-test for factors contribute to entrepreneur’s success, entrepreneurs and experts viewpoints.

type N Mean Std. Deviation T-Test Sig Effect

size Entrepreneurs 63 80.8 1.4 -0.129 0.898 0.000201 Experts 21 81.3 0.7

4) Problems which hinder entrepreneurial development.

According to Table (40) the means for " Problems which hinder entrepreneurial development " for Entrepreneurs and Experts equal 61.8 and 67.4, respectively. The value of the T-test equals -1.437, with p-value equals 0.030. This implies that there is a sufficient evidence to

]130 [

conclude that the mean of " Problems which hinder entrepreneurial development " is significantly different between Entrepreneurs and Experts. The mean of " Problems which hinder entrepreneurial development " for Experts is significantly greater than Entrepreneurs. The estimated effect size equals 0.025163, this means that the mean difference is moderate.

Table (40) Result of Independent Samples T-Test for Problems which hinder entrepreneurial development, entrepreneurs and experts viewpoints.

type N Mean Std. Deviation

T-Test Sig Effect

size Entrepreneurs 61 61.8 1.7 -1.437 0.030* 0.025163

Experts 21 67.4 0.9 * The mean difference is significant at 0.05 level.

H 4: There is a significant correlation at @ 5% between the dimensions of entrepreneurship and receiving advices and support regarding entrepreneurship, from entrepreneurs viewpoints.

Table (41) The correlation between the dimensions of Entrepreneurship and Receiving advices and support regarding entrepreneurship, from entrepreneurs viewpoints

Items

Pearson Correlation P-value

Initiatives and friends and relatives are entrepreneurs 0.391 0.001*

Risk taking 0.298 0.010* Innovation 0.128 0.162 Total dimensions' value 0.374 0.002* * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level

]131 [

Table (41) shows a correlation between the dimensions of entrepreneurship and receiving advice and support, with R value 0.374 and p-value 0.00. However insignificant correlation was found between innovation and receiving advice and support regarding entrepreneurship. It was obvious that providing advice and support regarding entrepreneurship improves initiatives and risk taking. In order to improve the level of innovation it is necessary to consider the whole dimensions and processes of organization (El-Farra, 2007). In a dynamic environment, innovation is very important to generate long-term stability, growth and sustainable performance (Cook, 1998). Innovation is essential for sustainable competitive advantage (Jacobs and Heracleous, 2005).

H 5: There is a significant correlation at @ 5% between

the dimensions of Entrepreneurship and Organization support to entrepreneurship, from entrepreneurs viewpoints.

Table (42) The correlation between the dimensions of Entrepreneurship and organization support to entrepreneurship, from entrepreneurs viewpoints

Items Pearson Correlation

P-value

Initiatives and friends and relatives are entrepreneurs 0.302 0.009*

Risk taking 0.066 0.308 Innovation 0.343 0.003* Total dimensions' value 0.364 0.002* * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level

With regards to the correlation between the aspects of Entrepreneurship and organization support to entrepreneurship, Table (42) showed a significant correlation between the dimensions of entrepreneurship and organization support to entrepreneurship, with R value

]132 [

0.364 and p-value 0.00. Table (42) revealed that initiatives and innovation are affected with organizational support. McAdam (2000) stated that failure to build a creative organization culture stops the essential processes of innovation, while a commitment to the continuous improvement process can reinforce it.

Ismail (2005) said that there is a correlation between learning organization and innovation. The relationship between learning, knowledge and organizational innovation was studied by Merx-Chermin and Nijhof (2005), who found strong correlations between these three variables. They concluded that the most important factors in the creation of new knowledge are; knowledge sharing and reflective learning on the job.

H 6: There is a significant difference at @ 5%

related to the elements of entrepreneurship education attributed to some personal traits, students and graduates viewpoints.

1) Differences attributed to Age:

According to Table (43) there is insignificant difference in the elements of entrepreneurship education attributed to age (p-value 0.916). This is attributed to the fact that the great majority of respondents (87.3%) less than 26 years old (students or recently graduated) (Table 4). In addition, local universities have similar pedagogy in providing higher education to their enrolled students and graduates.

]133 [

Table (43) the differences in the elements of entrepreneurship education, attributed to Age, from students and graduates viewpoints.

Items Means

F-Test P-

value

Younger than 26

26 - Less than 30

30- and order

Knowledge 6.26 5.64 5.81 1.185 0.307 Skills 5.93 5.61 5.20 0.994 0.372

Attitudes 7.04 7.26 7.84 1.387 0.252 The elements in entrepreneurshi

p education 6.46 6.32 6.46 0.088 0.916

2) Differences attributed to Level of family income:

Table (44) reveals insignificant difference in the elements of entrepreneurship education, attributed to family income (p-value 0.996). This may indicate that family income does not affect students and graduates entrepreneurship. In addition, most of Gaza's entrepreneurs were necessity driven, with family income less than $1000 (see Tables 4 and 5). Moreover, Table (5) showed that 80.5% of students and graduates were in the entrepreneurial planning stage

Table (44) the difference in the elements of entrepreneurship education attributed to Level of family income, from students and graduates viewpoints.

Items Means

F-Test P-value Less than

1000 1000-1999

2000 or more

Knowledge 6.15 6.08 6.14 0.026 0.975 Skills 5.81 5.96 5.36 0.766 0.466

Attitudes 7.02 7.09 7.42 0.587 0.557 The elements in entrepreneurshi

p education 6.41 6.41 6.38 0.004 0.996

]134 [

3) Difference attributed to field of education According to Table (45) only significant differences is

found in the skills element attributed to the field of education in favor of IT, with p-value 0.03. However, insignificant difference is found in overall elements of entrepreneurship education (p-value 0.056). Nevertheless, the means of IT, Business and Engineering were 68%, 65% and 61.8% respectively which is in favor of IT.

Table (45) the difference in the elements of entrepreneurship education attributed to field of education, from students and graduates viewpoints. Items Means F-Test P-

value Business IT Engineering Knowledge 6.33 6.46 5.84 2.226 0.110 Skills 5.81 6.52 5.59 3.570 0.030* Attitudes 7.16 7.39 6.83 1.992 0.139 Overall elements of entrepreneurship education

6.50 6.80 6.18 2.915 0.056

Mean value 65% 68% 61.8% * The mean difference is significant at the.05 level.

Chapter Four

A proposed entrepreneurial development model to Palestine

4.1 An Introduction 4.2 The Components of the Proposed model 4.3 Proposed Palestinian Entrepreneurship Ecosystem

]136 [

]137 [

Chapter Four A proposed entrepreneurial development

model to Palestine

4.1 An Introduction This entrepreneurial development model was

developed based on the findings of the empirical part of this research and findings of previous studies, which were conducted on different environmental context including: 1) MAS (2014b) study for scaling youth entrepreneurship in Palestine, 2) Stefanovic, et al. (2013) study on entrepreneurs in Republic of Serbia, 3) Isenberg (2010) proposed ecosystem in Europe, 4) Bernardez (2009) entrepreneurial ecosystem, 5) Suresh and Ramraj (2012) entrepreneurial ecosystem to India, 6) Mazzarol (2014) proposed policies to support SMEs and entrepreneurship development at G20 nations, 7) the findings of EC (2012) on entrepreneurship education development in Europe and 8) findings of the several workshops conducted with experts, academics, entrepreneurs, NGOs, private sector and public sector representatives in the Palestine. 4.2 The Components of the Proposed model

First: Establish an independent body specialized in promoting entrepreneurship in Palestine, called Palestinian Entrepreneurship Agency (PEA). The support services of the agency should continue through all the stages of business, from inception to production and to entry into the market place. To ensure all entrepreneurs access to the Agency services, subsidiary offices and branches in all governorates are crucial.

In addition, PEA may support the establishment of business incubators in all Palestinian governorates to support innovative ideas and develop entrepreneurial activities. The incubators should operate in direct cooperation with PEA to avoid duplication and overlap.

]138 [

4.2.1 The Profile of PEA 1. Vision and Mission

VISION To be the symbol of entrepreneurial development in

the Middle East. Mission Statement

Palestinian Entrepreneurship Agency provides excellent support services to entrepreneurs, by developing relevant programs and activities to start and nurture businesses.

2. The goals of the agency: 1- Encourage entrepreneurship in every home in Palestine. 2- Provide excellent support services to new and existing

businesses. 3- Promote ethical business practices amongst the local

business community. 4- To facilitate access to finance for viable business

proposals. 5- Facilitate or provide workspace for new and growing

businesses 6- Support businesses to overcome barriers imposed by

government bodies. 7- Inspire and promote the use of technology.

3. Membership of the PEA This agency is an independent semi-governmental. Its

organizational structure consists of the following: 1- Board of Trustees as a referral body, who is responsible

for sitting policies, strategies and monitoring. The board consists of experts, practitioners and supportive institutions to entrepreneurship.

2- Recruit a management team and experts in entrepreneurship to manage and provide the services to target groups.

]139 [

4. Training Services - Having a Center of Excellence to facilitate clients in

establishing and growing their businesses using online tools and technology.

- Mentoring: To link aspiring entrepreneurs with already established entrepreneurs to foster learning and expertise of their chosen businesses.

- To train entrepreneurs on how to start up their businesses.

- Training should focus on promoting the following competences:

- Promoting the psychological and personality traits of entrepreneurs, e.g., a drive for independence, friendliness and attitude toward risk.

- Developing entrepreneurs' abilities to manage personnel, marketing/sales promotion, produce at competitive price, customer service and how to maintain accounting records.

- Developing entrepreneurs skills in identifying business opportunities and analyzing business environment.

- Create special measures to develop the desired competencies of trainers and facilitators.

5. Entrepreneurship Development Services - Business Advisory Service: One – to – One interactive

counseling sessions to existing and aspiring business owners.

- Outreach Services: Interactive group counseling to organizations on their premises

- Business Clinic: Sessions with experts (e.g. Accountants, management experts, marketing experts, Lawyers etc.) and regulatory organizations such as Ministry of National economy, Chamber of Commerce, Ministry of Justice and local Authorities.

- Skills acquisition program: designed to facilitate the learning, start - Up of business and management success.

]140 [

6. Credit Service This service aims to facilitate access to micro –

credit and equipment leasing. - Establish a consortium of organizations specialized in

providing funds to small businesses. They include, NGOs, incubators, government and private organizations. The PEA should provide loan guarantees for young entrepreneurs in order to encourage banks and other financial institutions to grant small loans and appropriate credit channels to entrepreneurs. In addition, an amendments can be introduced to the Palestinian Banking law (2) of 2002, including banks providing a minimum of credit facilities to MSMEs owners as a proportion of their deposits. Furthermore, priority of banks' social responsibilities programs should focus on promoting young entrepreneurs.

7. Information, Technology, Database and Research - Database should be updated and include information

about the beneficiaries from entrepreneurship support in Palestine, including: 1) names of beneficiaries, 2) types of support received, 3) types of businesses, 4) dates of services provided, 5) fund security provided and others.

- Developing a comprehensive database on market opportunities, market conditions, customers, economy, technology, regulations, feasibility studies and training materials. PEA should help in identifying the market through an intensive preparation process, searching for innovation and growth potential. This requires developing updated database on markets locally and internationally in order to help entrepreneurs to access real market opportunities.

- All institutions and incubators which involve in supporting entrepreneurs should have access to the database for use and development.

]141 [

Research Service: To facilitate access to information by providing research materials, fact sheets and books.

Consultancy: To facilitate the development and execution of business ideas

Logistics: facilitating entrepreneurs access to transportation, communications, and energy.

Technology: encourage and support the use of e-commerce, broadband access and e-performance. Distance working should be highly supported and expanded in Palestine, which is not affected with siege and closure.

8. Fees of the services The proposed agency should work on two types of

services: 1- Free of charge services. These services should be

provided to a certain target groups based on funded projects.

2- Paid services. These services are paid by beneficiaries. They include, financial facilities, counseling and training.

9. Target groups We need to develop a criteria to select carefully the

potential entrepreneurs, who are a program target. The target group may be classified into three categories: 1) universities' students and graduates, 2) existing establishments, which need support to overcome their problems to sustain and grow and 3) technicians and craft people non-university graduates who has potential and aspiration to succeed. These criterions should be developed in cooperation with the stakeholders. However, the first two groups should be given a priority.

]142 [

10. Awareness campaign Designing an entrepreneurial awareness campaign to

Palestinian people in cooperation with the stakeholders specially the media (radio, TV, electronic media and social media). This awareness campaign should be tailored to inspire and motivate local entrepreneurship. In addition, success entrepreneurship stories should be highlighted.

11. Piloting Launch a pilot entrepreneurship development program

and expand to a national network as warranted. This piloting should benefit from the experience existing programs in Palestine including incubators. Second: Legal framework Development - Palestinian Authority needs to set up a clear standards, in

order to be able to classify establishments into micro, small or medium establishments. This classification should be the bases to tailor the different types of support and services provided to businesses. The following criteria may be considered:

Firms employ less than 5 should be considered micro business.

Firms employ 5-10 should be considered small. Firms employ 11-20 should be considered

medium. Firms employ more than 20 should be considered

large. - There is a need to simplify and shorten the procedures for

registration of establishments. All official institutions which are involved in the process of the registration may be grouped into a single office (one-stop shop), to facilitate and speed the registration process.

- Palestinian incentives law for investment should provide a number of incentives and benefits for MSMEs, in order to encourage the development and improvement of MSME working conditions. The law should provide direct and indirect tax exemption, and obliges the government to buy a portion of their goods from MSMEs.

]143 [

Third: An association of Entrepreneurship Support Organizations

Forming an association of entrepreneurship support organizations. The members of this association should include, NGOs, financial institutions and private sector. The association should operate as a coordinating body.

All the above mentioned services should be in coordination with active organizations including, incubators, credit institutions, private sector and other supportive bodies to entrepreneurs.

Fourth: Developing an entrepreneurship higher education

The following policies are proposed: 1. Tailoring the entrepreneurship education, to fit the

local needs of Palestine and the characteristics of the societal environment. Universities' curriculum should include how to understand and analyze industrial and societal environment, include courses in entrepreneurship innovation, adopt the action-based pedagogy, case studies and examples of role models that entrepreneurs can refer to. Furthermore, universities' pedagogy should succeed in improving students and graduates' skills in negotiation, taking a calculated risk, team work, monitoring and evaluation and analysis skills. In addition, Managerial skills in planning, organizing, leading, controlling and delegation, need to be highly considered.

2. In the coming 5-10 years entrepreneurship education should become an obligatory in the disciplines of business, engineering and IT. After evaluation, it should be improved and expanded to other selected disciplines. Measuring the impact of entrepreneurship education, should be a continuous process.

]144 [

3. All relevant stakeholders need to participate in developing a national strategy for entrepreneurship education. These stakeholders include, universities, government, private sector and NGOs. Several workshops, interviews and focus groups need to be used to develop the national strategy.

4. Government should provide financial and non-financial supports, to enhance the success of entrepreneurship proposed program. The support should be sufficient to design the appropriate curriculum, expose to different success experiences in Europe and developing countries. Improving the skills and competencies of current universities' staff and attract new well-trained ones, who can counsel students and develop their entrepreneurial knowledge, skills and initiatives.

5. Establish partnership programs between universities, NGOs, the private sector, and the public sector, in order to support entrepreneurship among young people. This partnership should be worked with the relevant stakeholders.

4.3 Proposed Palestinian Entrepreneurship Ecosystem

The proposed ecosystem consists of the following steps 1. Design awareness campaign: to encourage young

entrepreneurs to initiate and start their ventures. The media should build a good image to entrepreneurs and acceptance of venture failure.

2. Social campaign: to provide moral support to young entrepreneurs. Parents, relatives and friends usually provide a high moral support.

3. Government support: through the establishment of PEA (see the details of its activities). In addition, government should provide incentives, infrastructure facilities and legal framework development.

]145 [

4. Developing entrepreneurship higher education: Tailoring entrepreneurship higher education, to fit the local needs of Palestine. Curriculum development, include courses in entrepreneurship, adopt the action-based pedagogy, case studies and examples of role models that entrepreneurs can refer to (see the details in fourth above).

5. Financial support: most of initial fund comes from the personal resources mainly from family, friends, relatives and credit from suppliers. Receiving financial facilities from financial institutions, NGOs, private sector and PEA securities.

6. Network support: refers to the organizations that support entrepreneurship, like PEA, NGOs, incubators, specific industry associations, alumni associations, online social networking sites like Facebook, LinkedIn, friends, network of suppliers and distributors.

7. Technology support: is provided by NGOs and universities funded incubators, new technology developed in educational institutions, imported technology know- how, talent pool available locally.

8. Market support: identifying business opportunities in the market, reports from PEA, support of suppliers and loyal customers. Acceptance of the product on consignment by the intermediaries and trade exhibitions.

]146 [

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Appendices

Appendix A

Questionnaire framework (Stefanovic, et al., 2013, pp. 24-29; EC, 2012, p. 43; GEM, 2012)

Appendix A1

First: Questionnaire for students and graduates Students and Graduates Profile Gender male female

Place of living Rafah Khan younis Middle Gaza North

Current age (average)

younger than 26

26-30

31-35 older than 35

Level of family income (parents) (in US$) Less than 1000 1000-1999 2000-2999 3000 or more

Field of education Business IT Engineering Other (indicate) Classifying entrepreneurs by years/stages of establishment (choose one answer) Variables Yes No

1. Involved in Total early-stage Entrepreneurial Activity (planning stage)

2. Actively involved in start-up effort, owner, no wages yet (Nascent/emerging rate)

3. Manages and owns a business that is up to 42 months old (Baby business ownership rate)

4. Manages and owns a business that is older than 42 months (Established business ownership rate)

]155 [

Students and Graduates opinions toward bargaining and volunteering Variables Grade 1-10


2. I make sure that I know the latest developments in the fields of my interest.

3. I contribute to organizational activities when I am a member of a club

Aspects of entrepreneurship education in the Gaza Strip

First: Entrepreneurship Knowledge university provide Variables Grade 1-10

1. On how to identify opportunities 2. About the ‘bigger picture’ issues that

provide

3. Understanding the context in which people live and work

4. Understanding of the workings of the economy

5. Ethical position of enterprises 6. On the processes of innovation &

creativity

7. Entrepreneurship special course & seminars.

Second: Entrepreneurship Skills university provide the following skills: Variables Grade 1-10

1. Managerial skills: Plan; Organize; Manage; Lead & delegate

2. Analyzing skills 3. Communicating skills 4. Monitoring and Evaluating skills

]156 [

Variables Grade 1-10 5. Effective representation & negotiation skills 6. Work as an independent Individual

skills

7. Work in teams skills 8. Judge & identify one’s strengths and

weaknesses

9. Assess and take risks 10. Entrepreneurial activity (Business

simulation, Entrepreneurs club, Business Plans competitions).

11. Entrepreneurs rewards. 12. Entrepreneurship guidance for

graduate student.

13. Access to recourses (financial, technology, network, knowledge)

Third: Entrepreneurship Attitudes university provide Variables Grade 1-10

1. Always Initiate something new. 2. Always positive towards Independence

& innovation in all aspects of life

3. Highly Motivated 4. Determination to meet objectives 5. Risk tendency 6. Ambition/drive 7. Determination & commitment 8. Self-belief 9. Self-efficacy 10. Self-awareness 11. Feeling of empowerment 12. Social confidence 13. Creativity & imagination 14. Curiosity 15. Tolerance to failure

]157 [

Perceptions and population attitudes toward having business Variables Grade 1-10

1. Expect to start a business in the next 3 years

2. Good opportunities to start a new business in the next 6 months

3. Starting a new business is considered as a good career choice

4. Successful people business start-ups have high and respectful status

5. Successful stories coverage in public media

6. I prefer to be independent and self-employed.

7. My father or mother is an entrepreneur 8. There are entrepreneurs in my family 9. I have friends who are entrepreneurs

Motivational factors for starting you own business (only answered with people who have intention to start their own business) Variables Grade 1-10

1. To be my own boss 2. To be able to use my past experience

and training

3. To prove I can do it 4. To increase my income 5. To provide jobs to family members 6. For my own satisfaction and growth 7. So I will always have job security 8. To build a business to pass on 9. To be closer to my family

]158 [

Did you receive advice regarding entrepreneurship from: Variables Grade 1-10

1. Private network environment which includes spouse, parents, other family, and friends.

2. Work environment which includes anyone who has started a project, and anyone with experience in business.

3. The international network environment includes anyone who has just come from abroad or anyone living abroad.

4. The professional network environment includes any of the following: researchers, lawyers, accountants, investors, banks, and business service providers.

5. The market environment includes a competitors, and partners, e.g. a supplier, or a customer.

]159 [

Appendix A2 Second: Questionnaire for entrepreneurs General information about entrepreneurs Gender male female

Place of living

Rafah Khan younis Middle Gaza North

Age of respondents

18-24

25-34 35-44 45-54 55 or more

Do you have any of your sons work with you? Yes No Level of family income (parents) before starting business (in US$) Less than 1000 1000-1999 2000-2999 3000 or more

Level of education

Secondary or less

post-secondary

graduates postgraduates

Years of experience in the field before starting business 3 years or less 4-7 8-10 11 or more

Ownership of business

Entirely owned by you

You have partners

Legal type Sole trader Partnership Private limited

Number of workers now Part-time full-time

Number of Job growth expected in next 2 years

Part-time

full-time

Source of fund

Personal Friends and neighbors

close family members

others

]160 [

Entrepreneurship Aspects 1) Initiatives and friends and relatives are entrepreneurs. Variables Grade 1-10

1. My father or mother is an entrepreneur 2. There are entrepreneurs in my family 3. I have friends or associates who are

entrepreneurs


5. I make sure that I know the latest developments in the fields of my hobbies

6. I want to contribute to organizational activities when I am a member of a club

7. I Always contribute to family activities. 2) Risk taking

Variables Grade 1-10 1. I have a high tendency toward risk 2. I may be classified as a risk takers. 3. I tend to overcome fear and go forward 4. I depend on myself to overcome

obstacles.

5. I do not mind working long hours to achieve goals

3) Innovation: Variables Grade 1-10

1. I Frequently introduce new innovations to my business.

2. I take any opportunity I identify which would be beneficial to my business.

3. I am looking for better ways of producing products, work methods or processes.

]161 [

Variables Grade 1-10 4. Innovativeness and creativity are

thought of as an important in my work place.

5. My business is very dynamic and entrepreneurial place.

6. My business emphasizes growth and acquiring new resources.

7. Resources (budget, personnel, time, etc.) are generally available for new ventures.

Classifying entrepreneurs by stage of establishment (choose one answer) Variables Yes No

1. Involved in Total early-stage Entrepreneurial Activity (planning stage)

2. Actively involved in start-up effort, owner, no wages yet (Nascent/emerging rate)

3. Manages and owns a business that is up to 42 months old (Baby business ownership rate)

4. Manages and owns a business that is older than 42 months (Established business ownership rate)

Motivational factors for starting your own business Variables Grade 1-10

1. To be my own boss 2. To be able to use my past experience and

training

3. To prove I can do it 4. To increase my income 5. To provide jobs to family members (Necessity).

]162 [

Variables Grade 1-10 6. For my own satisfaction and growth 7. So I will always have job security 8. To build a business to pass on 9. To be closer to my family

Factors contribute to entrepreneur’s Success Variables Grade 1-10

1. Good management skills 2. Access to capital 3. Previous business experience 4. Satisfactory government support 5. Appropriate training 6. Support of family and friends 7. Marketing/sales promotion 8. Good product at competitive price 9. Good customer service 10. Hard work 11. Position in society 12. Maintenance of accurate records 13. Ability to manage personnel 14. Social skills 15. Political involvement 16. Reputation for honesty

Problems which hinder entrepreneurial development Variables Grade 1-10

1. Unreliable and undependable employees 2. Too much competition 3. Unable to obtain short-term financial capital 4. Unable to obtain long-term financial capital 5. Too much government regulation 6. Limited parking

]163 [

Variables Grade 1-10 7. Unsafe location 8. Weak economy 9. Limited available market size. 10. Lack of management training 11. Lack of marketing training 12. Inability to maintain accurate

accounting records

13. Complex/confusing tax structure 14. Complicated business registration

process

15. Poor roads/transportation 16. Electricity problems

Did you receive advice regarding entrepreneurship from: Variables Grade 1-10

1. Private network environment which includes spouse, parents, other family, and friends.

2. Work environment which includes coworkers, bosses, anyone who has started a project, and anyone with experience in business.

3. The international network environment includes anyone who has just come from abroad or anyone living abroad.

4. The professional network environment includes any of the following: researchers, lawyers, accountants, investors, banks, and business service providers.

5. The market environment includes a competitors, and partners, e.g. a supplier, or a customer.

]164 [

Organization's support for entrepreneurship: Variables Grade 1-10

1. Your organization empowers employees. 2. Senior managers encourage flexible rules. 3. Top management high experience with

innovation.

4. Top management sponsors entrepreneurship. 5. Individual risk-takers are often recognized

whether eventually successful or not.

6. 'Risk-taker' is considered a positive attribute.

]165 [

Appendix A3

Third: Questionnaire for Experts opinions Motivational factors: people started their business in order: Variables Grade 1-10

1. To be their own boss 2. To be able to use their past experience

and training

3. To prove that he can do it 4. To increase their income 5. To provide jobs to family members 6. To achieve satisfaction and growth 7. To have job security 8. To build a business to pass on 9. To be closer to their family

Factors contribute to entrepreneur’s Success Variables Grade 1-10

1. Good management skills 2. Satisfactory government support 3. Appropriate training 4. Access to capital 5. Previous business experience 6. Support of family and friends 7. Marketing/sales promotion 8. Good product at competitive price 9. Good customer service 10. Hard work 11. Position in society 12. Maintenance of accurate records 13. Ability to manage personnel 14. Social skills 15. Political involvement

]166 [

Problem factors which hinder entrepreneurial development Variables Grade 1-10

1. Unreliable and undependable employees 2. Too much competition 3. Unable to obtain short-term financial

capital

4. Unable to obtain long-term financial capital

5. Too much government regulation 6. Limited parking 7. Unsafe location 8. Weak economy 9. Limited market size 10. Lack of management training 11. Lack of marketing training 12. Inability to maintain accurate

accounting records

13. Complex/confusing tax structure 14. Complicated business registration

process

15. Poor roads/transportation 16. Electricity problems

Characteristics of established businesses. Rely on innovation

many produce the same product

produce in cooperation with other business

business is similar to some of family members.

Business discontinued in the past 2 years

]167 [

Reasons for discontinue operating Siege and

closures

Opportunity to sell

Business not profita

ble

Problems

getting finance

Another job or

business opportun

ity

Retirement

Personal

reasons

others

Gaza’s entrepreneurship environment Entrepreneur social image: Variables Grade 1-10

1. The creation of new ventures is considered an appropriate way to become rich.

2. Most people consider becoming an entrepreneur as a desirable career choice.

3. Successful entrepreneurs have a high level of status and respect.

4. You will often see stories in the public media about successful entrepreneurs.

5. Most people think of entrepreneurs as competent, resourceful individuals.

Physical infrastructure

Variables Grade 1-10 1. The physical infrastructure (roads,

utilities, communications, water disposal) provides good support for new and growing firms.

2. It is not too expensive for a new or growing firm to get good access to communications (phone, Internet, etc.).

3. A new or growing firm can get good access to communications (telephone, internet, etc.) in about a week.

]168 [

Variables Grade 1-10 4. New and growing firms can afford the

cost of basic utilities (gas, water, electricity, sewer).

5. New or growing firms can get good access to utilities (gas, water, electricity, sewer) in about a month.

Governmental support programs to entrepreneurs Variables Grade 1-10

1. A wide range of government assistance for new and growing firms can be obtained through contact with a single agency.

2. Science parks and business incubators provide effective support for new and growing firms.

3. The people working for government agencies are competent and effective in supporting new and growing firms.

4. Almost anyone who needs help from a government program for a new or growing business can find what they need.

5. Government programs aimed at supporting new and growing firms to be effective.

National experts views on youth entrepreneurship Variables Grade 1-10

1. Most of the youth have no option other than to find work.

2. Youth are pushed into business activity by necessity.

3. Families expect youth to contribute to the family's finances.

]169 [

Variables Grade 1-10 4. The youth involved in business activity

are more likely to be self-employed than an employee (work for someone else).

5. Self-employed youth learn to develop their business activities largely through their own experience and relationships.

6. There are many opportunities to develop "micro business" for youth.

7. Governmental programs effectively train and support youth entrepreneurs.

8. Conflict situations form a substantial barrier for youth/young adults to start and grow a business.

9. Young adults are significantly involved in entrepreneurship.

10. Youth and young adults face greater constraints to entrepreneurship relative to the general adult population.

11. There is an adequate system of business incubators that can be accessed by young adults.

12. Most young adults that become entrepreneurs have been helped to start up by their families, close relatives or friends.

13. Financiers (banks, informal investors, business angel..) fund young adults business initiatives micro-credit facilities for young adults to start a business are efficient.

14. Young adults consider life/work opportunities outside the country to be more attractive.

]170 [

Risk taking Variables Grade 1-10

1. Gaza’s people have a high tendency toward risk

2. Most of people are willing to take risk 3. Gaza’s people may be classified as a risk

takers.

4. They tend to overcome fear and go forward

5. People depend on themselves to overcome obstacles.

6. People do not mind working long hours to achieve goals

]171 [

Appendix B نماذج االستبانة باللغة العربية

(Stefanovic, et al., 2013, pp. 24-29; EC, 2012, p. 43; GEM, 2012) Appendix B1

أوال: استبانة الطلبة الخريجين أنثى ذكر الجنس

مكان السكن الشمال غزة الوسطى خانيونس رفح

العمر فأكثر 35 35أقل من -30 30أقل من -26 26أقل من دخل الوالدين بالدوالر مستوىأقل من -1000 1000أقل من

2000 أقل من -20003000

فأكثر 3000

مجال الدراسةتكنولوجيا هندسة أخرى (حدد)

معلومات تجارة

سنة الدراسة خريج مستوى خامس مستوى رابع مستوى ثالث

)اختر اجابة واحدة من فضلكتصنيف الرياديين حسب مرحلة التأسيس للمشروع ( ال نعم المتغيرات

أنت في مرحلة التخطيط والتفكير للبدء في .1 تأسيس مشروع خاص.

أنت في مرحلة البدء بتأسيس المشروع (بدأت .2 اجراءات الترخيص، وبدء تنفيذ خطة العمل..).

شهر أو أقل. 42تملك وتدير مشروع عمرة .3 شهر. 42تملك وتدير مشروع عمرة أكثر من .4

]172 [

دل على 10رجة التي تناسبك، حيث كلما اقتربت االجابة من يرجى وضع الد على ما ورد في العبارة والعكس صحيح. الموافقة العالية

لمحة عن عينة الدراسة 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

أصر أحيانا على الحصول على خصم عند الشراء حتى .1 عندما يكون السعر منخفض.

الت التي تهمني.دائما أتابع التطورات في مختلف المجا .2دائما أساهم في أنشطة المؤسسات والنوادي التي .3

أنتمي لها.

مدى تعلم الريادة في الجامعات أوال: المعرفة: الجامعة تنمي معارف الطلبة في المجاالت التالية:

10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات كيف تحدد الفرص المناسبة. .1 تدار المنشآت.التفكير بنظرة شمولية حول تعمل و .2فهم االطار االقتصادي واالجتماعي والتنافسي العام .3

الذي يعمل فيه الناس والمنشآت.

فهم كيف يعمل ويتفاعل االقتصاد وآلياته. .4 معرفة أخالقيات العمل. .5 المعرفة بعمليات االبداع واالبتكار. .6تقدم الجامعة مساقات وتنظم ورش عمل خاصة .7

الطلبة أو الخريجين.بتنمية الريادة لدى

ثانيا: المهارات: تنمي الجامعة مهارات الطلبة التالية: 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

مهارات ادارية: التخطيط، التنظيم، القيادة والتفويض. .1 مهارات تحليلية لتحليل بيئة العمل. .2

]173 [

10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات مهارات االتصال والتواصل مع اآلخرين. .3 مهارات المتابعة والتقييم. .4 رات التفاوض.مها .5 مهارات العمل بشكل مستقل معتمدا على الذات. .6 مهارات العمل بروح الفريق. .7تنمي الجامعة مهاراتك في تحليل نقاط القوة والضعف .8

للمنشآت واألفراد.

تنمي الجامعة مهاراتك في تقييم المخاطرة واتخاذ .9 القرار.

ثل تنظم الجامعة فعاليات تطبيقية لتنمية الريادة م .10استخدام المحاكاة، تنظيم مسابقات ألفضل خطة

عمل أو دراسة جدوى.

تقدم الجامعة جوائز للرياديين من الطلبة. .11تقدم الجامعة للخريجين ارشاد حول الريادة وكيف .12

تكون ريادي.

توفر الجامعة مجال للحصول على الموارد الالزمة ألن .13 تصبح ريادي (موارد مالية، تكنولوجيا..).

ثالثا: السلوك والمواقف 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

دائما أبادر بأشياء جديدة. .1دائما ايجابي تجاه االبداع واالعتماد على الذات في .2

كافة نواحي الحياة.

دائما متحفز وعالي الهمة. .3 لدي االصرار لتحقيق األهداف. .4

]174 [

10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات أميل لتحمل المخاطرة. .5 لدي طوح عالي. .6 ام بإنجاز الهدف.لدي اصرار والتز .7 أثق بنفسي. .8 أثق بكفاءتي. .9

أعرف ما لدي من مكانات ومهارات. .10أشعر بان لدي التفويض والتمكين بإنجاز العمل .11

معتمدا على الذات.

أشعر بأن لدي قبول مجتمعي. .12 .لدي من االبداع واالبتكار ما يؤهلني للنجاح في حياتي .13زمني من معلومات أميل الى السؤال لمعرفة كل ما يل .14

وأصر على ذلك.

قد أفشل أحيانا وأتقبله بصدر رحب ألنه يساعدني .15 على النجاح.

مدى ادراك افراد المجتمع ومواقفهم تجاه تأسيس مشاريع خاصة بهم 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

سنوات القادمة. 3أتوقع أن أبدأ مشروع خاص خالل ال .1 6الل التوجد فرص جيدة لتأسيس مشروع خاص خ .2

شهور القادمة.

يعتبر البدء بمشروع جديد بمثابة مهنة جيدة. .3يتمتع األفراد المبادرون بتأسيس مشاريع جديدة .4

باحترام ومكانة عالية.

تتم التغطية االعالمية محليا للمشاريع الناجحة .5 كقصص نجاح.

]175 [

10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات أفضل العمل باستقاللية دون تلقي أوامر من أحد. .6 لمبادرين الذين يملكون مشاريع ذاتية.أبي أو أمي من ا .7 يوجد من أفراد عائلتي مبادرون يملكون مشاريع ذاتية. .8 يوجد لدي أصدقاء مبادرون يملكون مشاريع ذاتية. .9

يجاب عليها ممن لديهم النية بتأسيس العوامل المحفزة لبدء مشاريع ذاتية (

).مشاريع ذاتية 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

اللية دون تلقي أوامر من أحد. للعمل باستق .1 الستخدام خبراتي ومهاراتي السابقة. .2 إلثبات أني قادر على تأسيس وادارة المشاريع. .3 لزيادة دخلي. .4 إليجاد فرص عمل ألفراد عائلتي. .5 لتحقيق الرضى والنمو الذاتي. .6 لتحقيق وضمان األمن الوظيفي. .7 ى األبناء.لتأسيس مشروع يمكن أن يستمر وينتقل ال .8 كي أكون قريب من عائلتي. .9

هل تلقيت نصيحة أو دعم فني لتأسيس وادارة مشاريع ريادية من أي من

الجهات التالية: 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

الزوجة، / من أفراد لدي معهم عالقات خاصة مثل الزوج .1 اآلباء، أحد أفراد العائلة أو أصدقاء.

حة في المجتمع المحلي.من أفراد أصحاب مشاريع ناج .2

]176 [

10- 1الدرجة المتغيراتمن مؤسسات دولية ذات تجربة دولية تقدم الدعم .3

الفني للريادين.

الشبكات والمؤسسات المهنية مثل نقابات المهندسين .4 والمحاسبين، المستثمرين والبنوك..

عبر االحتكاك مع األخرين في السوق مثل الموردين .5 والمنافسين والزبائن.

]177 [

Appendix B2 : استبانة الرياديون ثانيا

هو الشخص المبادر الذي يتحين الفرصة المناسبة لتأسيس يقصد بالرياديمشروع خاص ويتحمل المخاطر في سبيل انجاح المشروع وتطويره ولديه

القدرة على التأقلم مع التغيرات البيئية. معلومات عامة

أنثى ذكر الجنس مكان السكن

الالشم غزة الوسطى خانيونس رفح العمر

فأكثر 35 35أقل من -30 30أقل من -26 26أقل من هل يعمل معك األبناء في المشروع

ال نعم مستوى الدخل الشهري للوالدين بالدوالر

أقل من -1000 1000أقل من 2000

أقل من -20003000

فأكثر 3000

المستوى التعليمي دراسات عليا بكالوريوس دبلوم ثانوي أو أقل

ل المشروعمجال عم خدمي (حدد) تجاري صناعي

عدد سنوات الخبرة في المجال قبل بدء المشروع 3أقل من

سنوات أقل من -8 8أقل من -3

10 أو أكثر 10

ملكية المشروع لديك شركاء مملوك بالكامل منك

]178 [

الشكل القانوني للمنشأة مساهمة خاصة شراكة منشأة فردية

عدد العاملين في المنشأة عدد غير المتفرغين المتفرغينعدد

عدد الوظائف الجدد المتوقع أن تتولد خالل العامين القادمين غير متفرغين متفرغين

مصدر التمويل (يمكن اختيار أكثر من اجابة) أخرين من األقارب من األصدقاء والجيران مصادر ذاتية

دل على 10يرجى وضع الدرجة التي تناسبك، حيث كلما اقتربت االجابة من على ما ورد في العبارة والعكس صحيح. الموافقة العالية

خلفية عامة عن العينة 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

الوالدين أو أحدهم ريادي صاحب منشأة. .1 يوجد أفراد رياديون من عائلتي/أقاربي. .2 لدي أصدقاء رياديون .3أصر أحيانا على الحصول على خصم عند الشراء حتى .4

كون السعر منخفض.عندما ي

دائما أتابع التطورات في مختلف المجاالت التي تهمني. .5دائما أساهم في أنشطة المؤسسات والنوادي التي .6

أنتمي لها.

دائما أساهم في األنشطة العائلية. .7 تحمل المخاطرة

10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات لدي ميل عالي لتحمل المخاطرة .1 أصنف نفسي بأني مغامر .2

]179 [

10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات يل دائما الى تجنب الخوف والتقدم نحو األمامأم .3 أعتمد دائما على نفسي لعالج الصعاب .4 أميل للعمل ساعات طويلة من أجل تحقيق الهدف. .5

االبداع واالبتكار 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

دائما أقدم/أجرب أشياء جديدة في عملي .1أقتنص أي فرصة يمكن أن تكون مفيدة لتطوير .2

المشروع.

أبحث دائما عن طرق جديدة لتحسين االنتاجية. .3أنظر الى األفكار واألشياء الجديدة على أنهما مهمان .4

لمستقبل المشروع.

أعتقد أن منشأتي ديناميكية وريادية. .5 تهتم منشأتي بالنمو واالستحواذ على مصادر جديدة. .6المصادر الالزمة لتأسيس مشروع جديد أو توسعة .7

م متاحة.المشروع القائ

)اختر اجابة واحدة من فضلكحسب مرحلة التأسيس للمشروع ( ال نعم المتغيرات

أنت في مرحلة التخطيط والتفكير للبدء في .1 تأسيس مشروع ذاتي.

أنت في مرحلة البدء بتأسيس المشروع (بدأت .2 اجراءات الترخيص، وبدء تنفيذ خطة العمل..).

أو أقل.شهر 42تملك وتدير مشروع عمرة .3 شهر. 42تملك وتدير مشروع عمرة أكثر من .4

]180 [

.العوامل المحفزة لتأسيس مشاريع ذاتية 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

للعمل باستقاللية دون تلقي أوامر من أحد. .1 الستخدام خبراتي ومهاراتي السابقة. .2 إلثبات أني قادر على تأسيس وادارة المشاريع. .3 لزيادة دخلي. .4 جاد فرص عمل ألفراد عائلتي.إلي .5 لتحقيق الرضى والنمو الذاتي. .6 لتحقيق وضمان األمن الوظيفي. .7 لتأسيس مشروع يمكن أن يستمر وينتقل الى األبناء. .8 كي أكون قريب من عائلتي. .9

العوامل التي تساهم في نجاح الريادي والمشاريع الريادية 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

رية لدى الريادي.توفر مهارات ادا .1 توفر مصادر التمويل المناسبة. .2 الخبرة السابقة في مجال المشروع. .3 توفر الدعم الحكومي المناسب للمشاريع. .4 التدريب المناسب ألصحاب المشاريع. .5 دعم العائلة واألصدقاء. .6 ممارسة جيدة للتسويق: الترويج والبيع المناسب. .7 بالسعر المناسب. المنتج ذات الجودة المناسبة .8 خدمة زبائن جيدة. .9

المثابرة والعمل الدؤوب. .10 المركز والمكانة لصاحب العمل في المجتمع. .11 مسك الدفاتر واالحتفاظ بسجالت دقيقة. .12

]181 [

10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات القدرة على ادارة الموارد البشرية. .13 توفر المهارات االجتماعية والذكاء االجتماعي. .14 .من قبل صاحب العملاالنخراط في األنشطة السياسية .15 األمانة والسمعة الجيدة للمشروع والقائمين عليه. .16

مشاكل تساهم في اعاقة تطور األعمال الريادية في قطاع غزة 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

عدم الثقة بالموظفين العاملين في المشروع أو .1 التعويل عليهم.

المنافسة الشديدة. .2 ويل قصير األجل.عدم القدرة على الحصول على تم .3 عدم القدرة على الحصول على تمويل طويل األجل. .4تعقيد التشريعات الحكومية التي تتعلق بتأسيس .5

وتشغيل المشاريع.

محدودية أماكن الوقوف للسيارات بجوار المنشأة. .6 موقع المشروع غير آمن. .7 ضعف االقتصاد الفلسطيني. .8 صغر حجم األسواق المتاحة. .9

تدريب االداري.نقص ال .10 نقص التدريب في مجال التسويق. .11 .عدم القدرة على االحتفاظ بالسجالت المحاسبية الدقيقة .12 تعقيد الهيكل والنظام الضريبي. .13 تعقيدات في اجراءات تسجيل وترخيص المنشآت. .14 رداءة طرق المواصالت. .15 مشكلة الكهرباء. .16

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ة مشاريع ريادية من أي من هل تلقيت نصيحة أو دعم فني لتأسيس وادار الجهات التالية؟

10- 1الدرجة المتغيراتمن أفراد لدي معهم عالقات خاصة مثل الزوج/الزوجة، .1

اآلباء، أحد أفراد العائلة أو أصدقاء.

من أفراد أصحاب مشاريع ناجحة في المجتمع المحلي. .2 من أفراد أو مؤسسات دولية ذات تجربة ناجحة. .3لمؤسسات المهنية مثل نقابات المهندسين الشبكات وا .4

واالدارة، المستثمرين والبنوك وغيرهم

عبر االحتكاك مع األخرين في السوق مثل الموردين .5 والمنافسين والزبائن.

مدى دعم منشأتك للرياديين 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

تمكن المنشأة الموظفين من تعزيز قدراتهم على .1 العمل باستقاللية.

تشجع االدارة تبني قواعد مرنة في طرق أداء العمل. .2 لدى االدارة العليا خبرة عالية في مجال االبتكار. .3 تدعم االدارة العليا العمل الريادي والمبادرات. .4تقدر االدارة ما يقوم به األفراد المبادرون اصحاب .5

المجازفات العالية.

تدعم المنشأة المبادرات عالية المخاطر. .6

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Appendix B3 ثالثا: استبانة خاصة الخبراء

دل على 10يرجى وضع الدرجة التي تناسبك، حيث كلما اقتربت االجابة من على ما ورد في العبارة والعكس صحيح. الموافقة العالية

العوامل المحفزة لبدء مشاريع ذاتية: 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

أحد. للعمل باستقاللية دون تلقي أوامر من .1 الستخدام الشخص الخبرات والمهارات السابقة لدية. .2 إلثبات القدرة على تأسيس وادارة المشاريع. .3 لزيادة الدخل. .4 إليجاد فرص عمل ألفراد العائلة واألقارب. .5 لتحقيق الرضى والنمو الذاتي للمبادر. .6 لتحقيق وضمان األمن الوظيفي. .7 تقل الى األبناء.لتأسيس مشروع يمكن أن يستمر وين .8 كي يكون صاحب المشروع قريب من األسرة. .9

العوامل التي تساهم في نجاح الريادي والمشاريع الريادية 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

توفر مهارات ادارية لدى الريادي. .1 توفر الدعم الحكومي المناسب للمشاريع. .2 التدريب المناسب ألصحاب المشاريع. .3 تمويل المناسبة.توفر مصادر ال .4 الخبرة السابقة في مجال عمل المشروع. .5 دعم العائلة واألصدقاء. .6 ممارسة جيدة للتسويق: الترويج والبيع المناسب. .7 المنتج ذات الجودة المناسبة بالسعر المناسب. .8

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10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات خدمة زبائن جيدة. .9

المثابرة والعمل لساعات طويلة. .10 لمجتمع.المركز والمكانة لصاحب العمل في ا .11 مسك الدفاتر واالحتفاظ بسجالت دقيقة. .12 القدرة على ادارة الموارد البشرية. .13 توفر المهارات االجتماعية والذكاء االجتماعي. .14االنخراط في األنشطة السياسية من قبل صاحب .15

العمل.

مشاكل تساهم في اعاقة تطور األعمال الريادية في قطاع غزة 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

عدم الثقة بالموظفين أو التعويل عليهم. .1 المنافسة الشديدة. .2 عدم القدرة على الحصول على تمويل قصير األجل. .3 عدم القدرة على الحصول على تمويل طويل األجل. .4تعقيد التشريعات الحكومية التي تتعلق بتأسيس .5

وتشغيل المشاريع.

نشأة.محدودية أماكن الوقوف للسيارات بجوار الم .6 موقع المشروع غير آمن. .7 ضعف االقتصاد الفلسطيني. .8 صغر حجم األسواق المتاحة. .9

نقص التدريب االداري. .10 نقص التدريب في مجال التسويق. .11عدم القدرة على االحتفاظ بالسجالت المحاسبية .12

الدقيقة.

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10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات تعقيد لنظام الضريبي وارتفاع الضرائب. .13 وترخيص المنشآت. تعقيدات في اجراءات تسجيل .14 رداءة طرق المواصالت. .15 مشكلة الكهرباء. .16

مواصفات المشاريع القائمة 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

قائمة على االبتكار .1 معظم المنشآت تنتج نفس المنتج .2 المنشآت متشابهة ومكررة وتقليدية .3 تنتج المنشآت بالتعاون مع منشآت أخرى .4المشاريع خالل العامين توقف العمل في الكثير من .5

السابقين

أسباب توقف المنشآت عن العمل؟ 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

االغالق والحصار .1 فرصة لبيع المنشآت بعائد مجزي .2 المنشأة غير مربحة .3 صعوبة الحصول على تمويل .4 توفر فرصة عمل أخرى كموظف .5 التقاعد أو كبر السن .6 أسباب خاصة شخصية .7

رى مثل:أسباب أخ

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خصائص البيئة الريادية في غزة نظرة المجتمع للريادي

10- 1الدرجة المتغيراتينظر المجتمع لتأسيس مشروع ذاتي جديد على أنه .1

الطريقة المناسبة للثراء.

معظم الناس ينظرون الى الريادة على أنها اختيار .2 مهني مفضل.

نة الرياديون الناجحون لديهم قدر عالي من المكا .3 واالحترام المجتمعي.

تسمع دائما عبر وسائل االعالم المحلية عن .4 رياديون ناجحون (قصص نجاح).

معظم الناس ينظر الى الريادي على أنه صاحب .5 قدرات وامكانات عالية.

البنية التحتية 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

البنية التحتية المتوفرة من طرق وخدمات ووسائل .1 .شجع على تأسيس منشآت وتطويرهااتصال وغيرها ت

ليس مكلفا للشركات الجديدة أو النامية دفع تكلفة .2 خدمات االتصال مثل التليفون والنت.

يمكن للشركات الجديدة أو النامية الحصول على .3 خالل أسبوعخدمات االتصال مثل التليفون والنت

من تقديم الطلب.

دفع تكلفة ليس مكلفا للشركات الجديدة أو النامية .4 الخدمات مثل الغاز والكهرباء والنظافة.

يمكن للشركات الجديدة أو النامية الحصول على .5 خالل شهرالخدمات مثل الغاز والكهرباء والنظافة

من تقديم الطلب.

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برامج الدعم الحكومي للرياديين 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

يوجد دعم حكومي واسع للمنشآت الناشئة والنامية .1 يمكن الحصول عليه دون تعقيدات.

تقدم المراكز العلمية والحاضنات دعم مناسب .2 للمنشآت الناشئة والنامية.

يتصف العاملون في المؤسسات الحكومية الداعمة .3 للرياديين بالكفاءة.

لكل المنشآت الناشئة والنامية الحصول على يمكن .4ما يحتاجونه من المؤسسات الحكومية من عم فني

ير فني.وغ

تهدف المؤسسات الحكومية الى تعزيز قدرات .5 ونجاحات المنشآت الناشئة والنامية.

وجهه نظر الخبراء حول الريادة لدى الشباب 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

.معظم الشباب ليس لديهم خيار آخر اال البحث عن عمل .1يجد الشباب أنفسهم مجبورين بسبب الحاجة .2

سيس مشروع ذاتي.ونقص فرص العمل لتأ

تتوقع األسر الفلسطينية من أبناءهم المساعدة في .3 مصاريف العائلة.

الشباب المنخرطين في العمل معظمهم مالكون .4 وليسوا موظفون.

يتعلم الشباب أصحاب األعمال الخاصة كيف .5 يطورون العمل باالعتماد على خبراتهم وعالقاتهم.

أسيس مشاريع تتوفر العديد من الفرص للشباب لت .6 صغيرة ذات فرص نجاح عالية.

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10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات .تدرب وتدعم البرامج الحكومية بفاعلية الشباب الرياديين .7يعيق الواقع السياسي واالقتصادي المتأزم الشباب .8

من تأسيس وتطوير مشاريعهم.

يشترك الشباب في المبادرات الريادية بشكل واسع. .9ات يواجه الشباب مثل غيرهم من الكبار معيق .10

كبرى تجاه العمل الريادي.

يوجد منظومة كافية من حاضنات األعمال يمكن .11 للشباب االستفادة منه بيسر.

يرجع الفضل في نجاح معظم الشباب الرياديون الى .12 . المساعدات التي يتلقونها من العائلة واألصدقاء

يتوفر لدى الشباب سهولة الحصول على التمويل .13 مؤسسات األخرى.الكافي من البنوك وال

يعتبر الشباب أن فرصة العمل والتوظف بأجر في .14 الخارج هي أكثر جاذبية وبمثابة فرصة العمر.

تحمل المخاطرة 10- 1الدرجة المتغيرات

.لدى المبادرون في قطاع غزة ميل عالي لتحمل المخاطرة .1لدى المبادرون في قطاع غزة رغبة دائمة في .2

المخاطرة العالية.

نف المبادرون في قطاع غزة بأنهم مغامرون.يص .3يميل المبادرون في قطاع غزة دائما الى تجنب .4

الخوف والتقدم نحو األمام.

يعتمد المبادرون في قطاع غزة دائما على النفس .5 لعالج الصعاب.

يميل المبادرون في قطاع غزة للعمل ساعات .6 طويلة من أجل تحقيق الهدف.

entrepreneurship development in palestine: an empirical...

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