Environmental Crisis, Environmental Pollution, and

Health GovernanceMiranda Schreurs

What are Environmental Crises?

1.) Immediate natural or human-induced disasters causing large scale threat to human health and/or environment (Seveso, Bhopal, Chernobyl, Exxon Valdez, Aurul gold mine cyanide spill, Songhua)

2.) Problems that accumulate over time leading to human health problems and/or severe environmental degradation

Rivers on Fire

Among the World’s Worst Environmental Disasters

• Bhopal, India 1984 -- Dec. 3 -- Bhopal disaster. Union Carbide Co. fertilizer plant leaks methyl icocyanide in Indian town of Bhopal. 2259 immediately dead, another 8,000 die of chronic effects. Estimated 100,000-500,000 injuries, and significant damage to livestock and crops.

1984 Bhopal: Union Carbide fertilizer plant

BBC pictures

Chernobyl Nuclear Accident

1986 -- April 26. Chernobyl nuclear reactor explodes in Ukraine. Immediate deaths are numbered at 31, mid-term deaths are estimated around 4,200. Various agencies report 10 fold to 200 fold increases in thyroid cancer. Over 2,000 square miles evacuated

Exxon Valdez Oil Spill

March 23, 198911 million gallons of oil pour into Prince

William Sound, Alaska killing birds and marine mammals, seriously affecting fishing industry

Worst oil spill in U.S. history

EU and Seveso

• In 1976, an accident happened at a chemical plant in Seveso, Italy, manufacturing pesticides and herbicides.

• Dioxin released from reactor.• More than 600 people had to be

evacuated from their homes and as many as 2.000 were treated for dioxin poisoning.

Nov. 1986 Chemical spill. Basel, Switzerland creates massive fish

kill in Rhine RiverSpill occurs when a fire breaks out in a chemical

warehouse owned by Sandoz S.A. Fire fighters hose down the blaze and, in the process, wash

tons of toxic chemicals into the Rhine affecting Germany, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands.

Swiss authorities do not issue timely notices that could have led to containment downstream.

Contamination cuts off drinking and irrigation water for millions of people and kills half a million fish.

Intense international criticism of Switzerland by neighbors.

Cyanide overflow Aurul Goldmine

• 2000 -- Jan 30 -- Aurul goldmine dam near Baia Mare, Romania overflows releasing cyanide-laced slurry into the Danube River.

Less Visible Pollution

• Air pollution• Traffic pollution• Chemicals• Water pollution(e.g. from run-off and

dumping)

Premature Deaths from Pollution

A 2004 World Health Organization evaluation found that air pollution contributed to 100,000 premature deaths and the loss of 725,000 working days annually in Europe.

“In Europe, emissions of many air pollutants have fallen substantially since 1990, resulting in improved air quality over the region. However, since 1997, measured concentrations of particulate matter and ozone in the air have not shown any significant improvement despite the decrease in emissions. A significant proportion of Europe’s urban population still live in cities where certain EU air quality limits (set for the protection of human health) are exceeded. A number of countries are also likely to miss one or more legally binding 2010 emission ceilings of four important air pollutants. The need to reduce exposure to air pollution remains an important issue.”—European Environment Agency

Air pollutants: most serious problems

• Fine particulate matter• Ground level ozone

“It has been estimated that PM2.5 (fine particulate matter) in air has reduced statistical life expectancy in the EU by more than eight months.” European Environment Agency

Pollution from Traffic

“increasing traffic congestion and the growth of traffic volume in urban areas are undermining the benefits to urban air quality resulting from the introduction of cleaner fuels, more stringent emission limits for new vehicles, and road management.” -Michael Krzyzanowski, “Health Effects of transport-related air pollution: summary for policy makers,” World Health Organization, 2005

Scientific uncertainty, pollution, and human health

The polluter pays and theprecautionary principle

Black Triangle: Air Pollution from Coal Burning

Minamata and Itai-itaiPollution Victims

Common Impacts of Major Environmental Disasters

-Short and/or long-term environmental problems

-Short and/or long-term human health problems

-Major economic costs to industry and communities

-Law suits against corporations and governments

Public Responses to Environmental Crises

-tendency towards growth of media coverage of problems

-tendency towards growth of social movement protest

-public begins to question government for failure (loss of “governmental legitimacy”)

Government/business cover-up tends to worsen problems and cause international

condemination

Minamata Mercury Poisoning and Govt./Business Cover-Up

1956 Hajime Hosokawa reports "Minamata disease: "an unclarified disease of the central nervous system" affecting residents of Kumamoto and Minamata.

Symptoms: permanent numbness of face and limbs, severe & crippling birth defects.

Fish diets suspected; Hosokawa narrowed cause of disease to mercury dumping by Chisso Corporation.

Minamata

Co. denied accusations, continued dumping mercury; attempted to silence Hosokawa.

By the 2000s, over 10,000 had received compensation. Close to 2000 were recognized as official victims.

Songhua R. Chemical Spill (2005)Nov 13 Major explosion in petrochemical plant in Jiansu (no public

announcement of benzene spill)

Nov 18 SEPA issues emergency

Nov 21 City of Harbin’s water supply shut down. Citizens are told it is for water main maintenance purposes.

Nov 22 State media announces their could be contamination

Nov 23 Chinese officials admit 100 tons of benzene were spilled

Nov 25 Chemical spill reaches Harbin (pop 4 mill)

Dec Spill reaches Russia (Khabarovsk)

Govts often Forced to Respond to Disasters with Major Policy Change1950s London Smog Incidents → air pollution legislation

1976 Seveso → EU Seveso Directive

1978-80 Love Canal → Super Fund Legislation

1984 Bhopal Disaster →Emergency Planning and Chemical Right to Know Act

1986 Chernobyl Nuclear Accident → Phase out of nuclear energy in Germany

1989 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill → Oil Pollution Prevention Act of 1990

2005 Songhua → Creation Ministry of Environment

Crises can also Lead to International Agreements

• Basel Convention on Hazardous Waste Trade

• LRTAP

• ASEAN—Transboundary Haze

Words of Caution in relation to Reactive Policy-making in Response to Crises

“reactive policy making assures an environmental agenda in which place and priority among programs depend less on scientific logic than on political circumstances. Often the losers are scientifically compelling environmental problems unblessed with political appeal”. Walter Rosenbaum.

Words of Caution…

-reactive policy making can result in new programmatic responsibilities for agencies without allocation of sufficient resources to carry out the new tasks assigned to them. In the long-run, this often leads to implementation failure.