environmental handbook. documentation on monitoring and eval

8/14/2019 Environmental Handbook. Documentation on Monitoring and Eval

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Published by:Federal Ministry forEconomic Cooperation and Development (BMZ)

Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH,Division 44: Environmental Management, Water, Energy, TransportEschborn December 2000

Development of EIA InstrumentsPhone: (+49) 6196-79-1372Fax: (+49) 6196-79-7144

E-mail: [email protected]

Author: Jrgen Porst

Technical supervision: Hermann Rump (KfW) (in overall charge), Roger Wolf (GTZ)

Responsible: Burghard Rauschelbach
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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Contents

1 Scope......................................................................................................................................................31.1 Overview ......................................................................................................................................31.2 Definition of used oil.....................................................................................................................31.3 Origination of used oils ................................................................................................................4

2 Environmental impacts and protective measures...................................................................................52.1 Used oils as an environmental problem.......................................................................................5

2.1.1 Danger for soil, water, air and health.................................................................................52.1.2 International conventions...................................................................................................5

2.2 Avoidance of used oils - substitute materials and areas of use................................................... 62.3 Collection of used oils..................................................................................................................7

2.3.1 General conditions in the Federal Republic of Germany that can also be applied todeveloping countries..........................................................................................................7

2.3.2 Collection methods in industrialised countries ..................................................................82.3.3 General conditions in developing countries.......................................................................9

2.4 Transport of used oils ................................................................................................................102.4.1 The Federal Republic of Germany as an example of handling in industrialised

countries ..........................................................................................................................102.4.2 Developing countries .......................................................................................................10

2.5 Reuse of used oils .....................................................................................................................102.5.1 The situation in industrialised countries........................................................................... 102.5.2 Possibilities in developing countries................................................................................11

2.6 Disposal of used oils ..................................................................................................................122.6.1 Routes to sustainable used oil management in developing countries ............................ 12

3 Notes on the analysis and evaluation of environmental impacts .........................................................14

4 Interaction with other sectors................................................................................................................16

5 Summary assessment of environmental relevance..............................................................................17

6 References ...........................................................................................................................................19

APPENDIX 1..................................................................................................................................... App. 1, 1

APPENDIX 2......................................................................................................................................App. 2, 1

APPENDIX 3......................................................................................................................................App. 3, 1


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Abbreviations

AbfG Waste Avoidance and Waste Management ActAltlV Used Oil Ordinance

BImSchG Federal Act on Air Pollution Control and Noise AbatementBImSchV Federal Pollution Control Act Implementing OrdinanceBbodSchG Federal Soil Protection ActGC-MS Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometryKrW-/AbfG Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management ActPAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonsPCB Polychlorinated biphenyls


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1 SCOPE

1.1 Overview

Used oil arises wherever work is carried out with oil and where it is put to use for a

particular purpose: this means primarily in the lubrication and maintenance ofengines, motors, machines and vehicles, but also when filling and emptying tanks orother facilities or structures containing oil, such as transformers, hydraulic equipmentor ships hulls. Other sources are leaks from such facilities or structures, and duringmetalworking. Careful collection and at the same time strict separation according tothe type of oil are the most important starting points for preventing problematicalenvironmental impacts and negative effects on human health. Soil, groundwater andsurface water, in particular, are endangered by the introduction of used oil, and alongwith these protected resources the health of the population is also put at risk.Moreover it is not only the hydrocarbons contained in the used oil which constitute acontamination risk, but much more so it is the toxic substances that they may contain,such as heavy metals or certain halogenated organic compounds.

1.2 Definition of used oil

Because of the danger to the environment and health from inappropriatemanagement of used oil and in view of the possible content of problematical foreignsubstances (such as heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) or otherhalogen compounds), used oils require special handling. In the Federal Republic ofGermany and in most industrialised countries, used oil is classed as hazardouswaste. The collective term used oil includes used and contaminated mineral oils, oilyresidues from containers, emulsions, and water-oil mixtures. In the industrialisedcountries the term used oil tends to be defined more according to the disposal

channel than according to the material composition.In contrast with the complicated legal context applicable in Germany (for furtherdetails refer to Appendix 1), in developing countries used oil, sometimes also referredto as waste oil or oil waste, is usually defined in simple terms: generally speaking,used or waste oils are used, semiliquid or liquid substances consisting entirely orpartially of mineral oil or synthetic oils (PCBs, glycols, esters of phosphoric acid etc.).Accordingly, used oil is oil that has taken up foreign substances or impurities and canno longer be used for lubrication purposes.

It may contain small quantities of toxic substances which are liable to degrade thequality of air, soil and groundwater if it is not handled and disposed of in anappropriate manner.

It is not always the case that other residues that should be classified as used oil ordrums/containers contaminated with used oil are recognised as such in developingcountries and are handled and disposed of accordingly:

! Synthetic oils

! Used brake fluids

! Certain solvents, petroleum naphtha, white spirit

! Oil filters

! Contaminated containers

! Oily residues from receptacles

Oil emulsions are stable mixtures of mineral oil and water obtained by the addition ofemulsifying agents. Emulsions of this type are produced during metalworking, inparticular. Drawing oils usually contain halogens, and cutting oils usually containsulphur. Used oil-water mixtures occur for example as separation products in oil and


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petrol separators in refineries, tank farms, filling stations etc., or as bilge oils in theshipping industry, where they can cause problems when ships undergo overhaul indockyards or if they are illegally dumped at sea. Synthetic oils and halogenatedorganic compounds such as cooling, hydraulic and electrical insulating oils are oftentoxic compounds.

1.3 Origination of used oils

Used oil arises wherever fresh oil is put to use or consumed and where it is changed,stored, handled or disposed of.

The most significant and, in terms of volume, largest proportion is used lubricating oilfrom internal combustion engines (petrol and diesel engines) in road transport and especially in the case of island nations in shipping, including oil collected in oilseparators at filling stations. In comparison, residues of oils used in fixed locations(transformers, hydraulic installations, mechanical oils such as drilling and cutting oils)play a relatively minor role, but because of the important principle of separatecollection they should not be neglected.

In order to decide what is to be done with used oil, it is necessary to know thequantities arising in individual countries and regions and the sources of generation.The example in Appendix 2 is intended to illustrate what data is required in order torecord the quantities of used oil arising so that an effective collection and disposalsystem can be devised.

In developing countries, most of the used oil that is generated originates fromlubricating oil in the transport sector; the quantities of hydraulic oil and transformer oilare relatively small. Agriculture (irrigation pumps etc.) and the energy sector (small-scale power stations with diesel engines) are the second most significant source.Most used oil arises in urban centres and along major roads at filling stations andmotor vehicle repair shops, and in some cases also at do-it-yourself oil-change

stations on major roads.


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2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

2.1 Used oils as an environmental problem

2.1.1 Danger for soil, water, air and healthIf used oil is not disposed of properly, there is a risk that it and any other substancesthat it may contain will enter natural cycles and the food chain via water, soil and theair. In this way, hydrocarbons, heavy metals, PCBs and other halogen compoundssometimes contained in used oil pose a risk to human health and impede the growthof plants and their ability to take up water. As little as one litre of used oil, it is oftensaid, contaminates one million litres of groundwater or surface water. This is becausethe concentration of oil in the water is then 1 ppm (part per million) or 1 microlitre perlitre, a level that is seen as the upper limit that can still be considered tolerable.

The quality of used oils is determined mainly, apart from their content of middledistillates and highly volatile components, by the treatment of lubricating oils withadditives and the conditions under which the oils are used. Additives serve thepurpose of improving viscosity or flow properties, for example, or of reducing wear. Inconnection with the question of additive treatment, the growing use of synthetic oils isa significant factor.

! The infiltration of oil into soil as a phase or in dissolved form constitutes above all along-term threat to groundwater and hence potentially to drinking water quality.Both the biodegradation of oils in soil and the discharge of the substances intogroundwater proceed very slowly.

2.1.2 International conventions

The Basel Convention and the Montreal Protocol are both of significance inconnection with used oil.

Basel Convention:

Since 1992, trade in hazardous waste has been regulated in the signatory countriesto the Basel Convention1. Amongst other things the Convention advocates theelaboration of appropriate provisions and regulations on the management ofhazardous waste as one of the most important preconditions for the cross-bordermovement of wastes, among them also used oil. As a result of numerous cases of nolonger needed toxic substances and hazardous waste being exported from countrieswith strict regulations (usually industrialised countries) to countries with no statutorywaste disposal regulations or with less strict laws, serious environmental and publichealth problems have repeatedly arisen in developing countries. As it is commonpractice in those countries, for example, for waste to be sorted into recoverableresources and residues by hand on the landfill sites by waste scavengers, there is aconstant risk to health.

The Convention governs the cross-border movement of such waste substances andobliges the signatory states to handle hazardous waste in an environmentallyacceptable manner and to dispose of it accordingly.

The most important principles are as follows:

! In accordance with the requirement for environmentally acceptable handling,transboundary movements of hazardous waste are to be restricted to a minimum.

1

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal

was adopted in 1989 and entered into force on 5 May 1992


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! Hazardous waste should be treated and disposed of as close as possible to theplace of its origin.

! The amounts of hazardous waste should be reduced and also minimised atsource (avoidance principle).

! In order to achieve the objectives, the transboundary movement of hazardouswaste is monitored and supervised, and unauthorised trafficking is prevented. TheConvention supports environmentally acceptable hazardous waste management,promotes cooperation in this field and develops technical guidelines.

Montreal Protocol:

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer2, adopted in1987, relates to protection of the atmospheric ozone layer. The concern of theProtocol is to protect human health and the environment against detrimental effectsthat are caused by the emission of ozone-depleting substances, primarily certainhalogenated hydrocarbons (chlorofluorocarbons). The discharge and production ofthese substances are regulated, as is the process of bringing them into circulation.

Particular support is provided to developing countries in this respect.The Convention has an indirect connection with used oil: if used oil is mixed orcontaminated with substances containing halogens and is incinerated, provision mustbe made for the emission of halogenated hydrocarbons to be reduced accordingly, orincineration should be avoided altogether.

2.2 Avoidance of used oils - substitute materials and areas of use

Considerable environmental pollution is caused by engine oil being changed toofrequently and by leaks from hydraulic systems. Even in the industrialised countries,the consumption of lubricants and the generation of used oil could be reduced byapproximately 30 % within about 5 years through better maintenance and design ofengines, gearboxes and machines.

The consumption of fresh oil could be reduced if non-container-bound dispensingfacilities, for example pumps with nozzles similar to those used for petrol pumps,were provided more often at filling stations instead of cans, because considerableresidual amounts are left in the containers. Moreover, this would also allow moreprecise metering when replenishing the oil in vehicle engines.

Much greater potential savings can be achieved solely by extending the oil changeintervals for motor vehicles. Passenger cars can run for 30,000 km and trucks for upto 100,000 km with a single oil filling without damaging the engine. Oil changes at thespecified regular, relatively closely spaced service intervals are often unnecessary

when using high-quality oils usually branded oils in high performance classes,which age only slowly.

More attention can also be paid to reducing oil consumption in the development ofnew engines. Hundreds of thousands of tonnes of engine oil are burned in a countrysroad traffic every year; the waste products from this together with those from the fueland the exhaust gases are released into the air. Some of the oil that is used forcooling in metalworking also escapes into the air. The evaporation or atomisation ofcooling lubricants such as these can be reduced by using better machine tools, low-emission oils and exhaust air filters.

Unnecessary consumption of fresh oil occurs as a result of leaks from poorlymaintained hydraulic systems (presses, lifting platforms, diggers, agricultural and

road construction machines). Not inconsiderable quantities of hydraulic oils, which2

as adjusted and amended by the last Meeting of the Parties in Montreal, 15-17 September 1997; this entered

into force on 4 June 1998. Source: UNEP Internet Web page, December 1999


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often find their way into the soil, can be saved through improved maintenance andhandling.

Oil-smeared piping and equipment, but also empty containers that are disposed ofwithout being cleaned, are a further source of contamination. A large amount of oil isalso lost during the shredding or other forms of disposal of scrap vehicles, because

until now the salvage operators have often not drained the engines. In the FederalRepublic of Germany the proper draining of scrap vehicles is made mandatory by theScrap Car Ordinance (Altautoverordnung), which has been in force since April 1,1998.

So-called once-through lubricants for chainsaws and for corrosion prevention, butalso form oils, release agents or carrier oils for the application of crop pesticidesshould be replaced by quickly biodegradable alternatives. Such alternatives shouldalso be sought for lubricants and hydraulic fluids of which part are produced fromvegetable oils.

Other measures in the fields of avoidance/reduction and reuse/recovery, applicableabove all to companies, are listed in the following; they are implementable in

developing countries within the framework of existing or specially initiated projects:

! Disclosure of deficiencies and strengths (positive starting points) throughaudits and the introduction of good housekeeping practices above all throughpersonnel training

! Prevention of leaks, overflows and spills through appropriate training of staffand through the use of requisite equipment

! Use of dispensing equipment, catch pans, funnels and drip collectors

! Separate collection and avoidance of cross contamination of different wastestreams; reduction of the contamination of used oil with foreign substances, inparticular halogenated and other organic substances, heavy metals etc.

! Oil changes should not be carried out because a certain time interval haselapsed but only after true running times or when certain levels ofcontamination are reached

! Log books should be kept and other quality assurance measures introduced inorder to prevent the accumulation of outdated oil products

! In addition to the reprocessing and heat-recovery incineration of used oils,other safe possibilities for their use should be found in the company:promotion of innovation

! Used oil can also be added to asphalt as a thinner or for plastification

! In the case of heat-recovery incineration of used oil, it is an importantcondition that the oil should contain no halogenated admixtures because theycan be converted into toxic dioxins and furans in the course of combustion

! A service can be set up to ensure the safe disposal or cleaning of oily rags

! The correct methods of handling and disposing of fresh and used oil should beset out in simple work instructions which are put on show at the places of work

2.3 Collection of used oils

2.3.1 General conditions in the Federal Republic of Germany thatcan also be applied to developing countries

Since 1986 the disposal of used oils has been carried out in accordance with theprovisions of the legislation on waste management. Details are set out in theAltlverordnung (Used Oil Ordinance), which also remained in force after theKreislaufwirtschafts- und Abfallgesetzes (Closed Substance Cycle and Waste


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Management Act) came into effect. The principles and regulations laid down in theAltlverordnung include in particular the following aspects which can be used as amodel for setting up a used oil management scheme in developing countries:

! Determination of reprocessable used oils and of reprocessing procedures,with possibilities being left open for innovations in relation to materials recycling or

in the event of higher pollutant loading

! Stipulation of limit values for PCBs and total halogenand the methods oftheir determination in used oils, i.e. for substances which make reprocessingmore difficult, which can accumulate in re-refined oils or which result in otherimpacts on the environment, for example relating to the law on ambient airprotection

! Introduction of a labelling and take-back obligation in the distribution of oil forinternal combustion engines and gear oils, according to the polluter-pays principle

! Priority given to materials recycling over disposal

! Obligation to set up used oil collection stations in the vicinity of sales outlets

and places of use

! Prohibition of the admixture of foreign substances (e.g. oils containing PCBs,other hazardous wastes, solvents etc.)

! Establishment of facilities for carrying out oil changes at used oil collectionstations

! Dovetailing of provisions pertaining to waste law and the law on ambient airprotection by the authorisation of heat-recovery incineration of used oils, forexample in high-temperature incineration plants such as cement works, blastfurnaces or melting chamber furnaces, and of materials recycling in refining orhydrogenation plants

The law on waste should ensure that

! recovery,

! collection and

! transportation to recycling or reprocessing plants

is carried out under supervision (with full documentation) and in particular that there isno mixing of used oils with hazardous substances, which can be a considerableburden on the environment whether the oils are recycled or are used to generateenergy.

2.3.2 Collection methods in industrialised countries

Collecting receptacles:

The following collecting receptacles are available on the European market for motorvehicle repair shops and filling stations for wastes that require particular monitoring:

! Receptacles for engine oil, gear oil and other used oils

! Receptacles for contaminated fuels (e.g. from tanks filled incorrectly)

! Receptacles for materials and equipment contaminated with grease and oil. Thereceptacles are not intended for the collection of oil filters, but among other thingsfor cans, tubes, cartridges etc. with greasy or oily adhesions. Separate

receptacles for containers with oily impurities are not necessary.

! Receptacles for coolants


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! Receptacles for brake fluids

! Receptacles for starter batteries (lead-acid batteries)

! Receptacles for metal containers with harmful impurities (e.g. brake fluid,cleansing agents)

! Receptacles for plastic containers with harmful impurities (e.g. battery acid, paintresidues)

! Receptacles for spray cans without the "Green Dot" environmental labelling mark

All receptacles and collection systems are generally licensed under traffic law, whichfor example allows the transport of wastes that require particular monitoring torecycling, reprocessing or incineration plants.

Sites for collecting receptacles

The collecting receptacles should be situated as close as possible to the place ofwork, the place where the waste is generated or the sales outlet. Short distancesguarantee better sorting. Particular requirements apply to the sites for collecting

receptacles. In order to prevent pollutants from being washed out when substancesthat are harmful to water or combustible substances are stored in the receptacles,and therefore from entering the sewer system or the soil, they are fitted with roofsand, depending on the type of waste, with catch pans.

2.3.3 General conditions in developing countries

In most developing countries, used oil is classified as hazardous waste and must bedisposed of accordingly. In the Philippines, for example, the reprocessing andrecycling of used oil began as long ago as the Seventies, after the oil crisis.Companies collecting and recycling used oil operate in many developing countries;not all of these, though, operate to capacity and some have to import used oil forprocessing. In most cases, however, full data on the quantity and type of used oilsarising or on their sources is just as unlikely to be available as a formal collection andreprocessing system. For used oil from motor vehicles, at least, complete data shouldbe available.

In many developing countries there are no regulated and monitored collectionsystems. If at all, used oil tends to be collected on a random basis and put to varioususes, for example as two-stroke oil, as fuel, or for subsidiary lubrication purposes, etc.Otherwise excess used oil is disposed of in an uncontrolled manner (tipping).

The sphere of hazardous waste is nowadays subject to statutory regulation in mostdeveloping countries. Although the types of hazardous waste are frequently defined

and measures for handling and disposal are described, in most cases these are notspecific enough to provide a useable basis to allow meaningful implementation. Thelegislation is therefore not always complete or problem-oriented, nor is it easy toenforce in practice.

A significant shortcoming in many developing countries is the absence of collectionsystems and the lack of adequate treatment plants and disposal sites for hazardouswastes, in particular for wastes in liquid form. Another negative factor in many placesis the lack of sophisticated analysis and measuring equipment for the traceconstituents.

The dissemination of information and the raising of awareness of the subject of usedoil in industry (especially in small industries and microindustries) and as part of

vocational training are indispensable prerequisites for future improvements.


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2.4 Transport of used oils

2.4.1 The Federal Republic of Germany as an example of handlingin industrialised countries

Full documentation in the form of a declaration of collection, disposal and recycling orreprocessing is governed by statutory regulation. Transport (collection) is carried outexclusively by approved and, usually, certificated specialist companies. Thesecompanies must:

! Examine the quality of the used oils provided

! Take reference samples in order to preserve evidence

! In some cases pump out the oil with vacuum tankers

! Perform the declaration analyses

! Fill in the waste consignment documents

! Subsequently forward the oils for appropriate disposal or recycling/reprocessing

2.4.2 Developing countries

In developing countries there are regulations on the transport of dangerous goodsand hazardous wastes in many places, but control and implementation tends to bedeficient and used oil is rarely specified separately, with the effect that there are nomanageable foundations in place.

The shortcomings in the transport of used oil are the same as for the transport ofother dangerous goods by road, rail or water: leakages occur, oil is lost during thefilling or emptying of tanks or transfer from one to another, the vehicles and tanks are

not safe enough, there is no labelling obligation and there is no documentationsystem (obligation to provide accompanying documents).

In the event of accidents with oil (during transport, or when relatively large quantitiesescape from stores or from road tankers or tanker ships), extensive and speedysafety measures are necessary which are directed at protecting water resources andwells, as well as the soil and other biological media. It is also necessary to use oil-binding agents.

2.5 Reuse of used oils

2.5.1 The situation in industrialised countriesIt is not possible to reuse used oil without it first undergoing pretreatment orreprocessing.

The reprocessingof used oils is only performed in large plants known as re-refineries,which recover materials from used oil. Re-refineries produce high-quality re-refinedoils, which are used as engine oils, gear oils, hydraulic oils, gas oils and flux oils (forthe bitumen industry). The introduction of quality management systems and theperformance of regular environmental and certification audits in these plants ensuresthat the quality of the re-refined oils is constant and competitive.

The technical steps involved in the reprocessing and disposal of used oil are listed inAppendix 3.


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2.5.2 Possibilities in developing countries

In addition to the technical aspects mentioned above, two other substantiveconsiderations are also important, namely the location at which the used oil isreprocessed in developing countries, and the purpose to which it is put.

In principle the following applies:

! The shorter the time the used oils are stored, the simpler the reprocessing will beand the better the re-refined products.

In the simplest case, oils can be fine-filtered directly at their place of use, andreturned to the system. This also applies to petrol engines. A bypass filter system ofthis type removes solid particles, which results in an improvement in lubricatingefficiency and reduces emulsification and oxidation, because these are catalysed bymetal particles.

However, filtration is not enough to be considered a complete recycling technology,because traces of water accumulate and bacterial degradation takes effect, especiallyduring the intermediate storage of used oil. Mobile facilities for recycling used oil,

equipped with a heat source, vacuum generator and a pressure filtration componentare in operation in the USA. These facilities enable water and impurities to beremoved from existing recirculation plants or from collected used oil and thelubricating oils to be reprocessed to a high level of quality.

Better results are achieved in central plants with filtration and distillation stages andwith chemical treatment. This, though, presupposes that there is a collection system,intermediate storage and transport. As already described above, larger plants allowthe production of re-refined oils, the quality of which approaches that of fresh oil.

Experience shows that the quality that consumers demand of re-refined used oil riseswhen the used oil is processed in full-scale re-refineries (off-site). If reprocessing iscarried out in the companys own plant (on-site), losses in quality tend more to beaccepted.

The processing of oil-water mixtures and emulsions follows the principle of thedecentralised on-site facilities. The techniques for filtration and subsequent breakingof the emulsions must be adapted to the respective types of oil in each case, withcentrifuges also being used. The isolated aqueous phase then has to be treated aswastewater.

Reprocessing technologies are also available for used oils that become highlycontaminated when used for their intended purpose, and even for those that arecontaminated in other ways: there is then the possibility that these re-refined productscan be used for lesser purposes than those of the original products. The classical

case is crankcase lubricating oils, which are reprocessed as engine lubricating oil.These types of oils are exposed to the effects of flames and heat in internalcombustion engines and to the influences of fuels and breakdown products as well asair pollutants that enter via the carburettor.

Other types of oil such as hydraulic oil and turbine oil are subjected to far less stress,which is why they can be reprocessed at considerably lower cost. The preconditionfor this, however, is that the different types of oil from the various applications mustbe collected and kept strictly separately.

The complications of separate collection and separate processing together with thecomplex reprocessing technology itself make it more difficult to use reprocessing indeveloping countries, and in addition to the frequent shortcomings in enforcement of

the law these are the reason why used oil is more often incinerated there or simplyused in two-stroke engines rather than being re-refined or processed in some otherway, which would be technically more demanding.


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Regardless of the purpose for which used oil is reused, it replaces an equivalentamount of crude oil. There is no doubt that this assumption that a litre of used oil isequivalent to a litre of crude oil needs to be closely examined in each individual case,but as a rough guide it can be assumed that the cost of re-refining used oil isapproximately the same as that of refining crude oil to lubricating oil or heating oil. If itis taken into consideration that during the re-refining of used oil up to a third of thequantity is lost due to process-related causes and that the expenditure of energy ishigher than when used oil is pretreated for thermal treatment, in other wordsincineration, it is necessary to assess carefully which types of used oil are to beselected for reprocessing and which for energy recovery through incineration. It isessential therefore to perform economic analyses and ecological materials balancesin each individual case.

2.6 Disposal of used oils

2.6.1 Routes to sustainable used oil management in developing

countriesIn many developing countries it is necessary to work out systems to ensure therational and environmentally friendly reprocessing and disposal of used oil, and theprerequisites for establishing such systems, or in places where a start has been madein this direction to examine what has been done so far and if necessary improve andoptimise the systems. The following principles are indispensable in achieving this:

! Only used oils from internal combustion engines should be considered forreprocessing (re-refining, recycling).

! The recovery of energy from used oil (incineration) may only be performed insuitable, licensed facilities.

! Contaminated, mixed used oil and used oil of unknown origin may only bedisposed of in hazardous waste treatment plants.

The approach to be taken is as follows:

! Identify and estimate the sources, types and quantities of used oil arising

! Analyse and assess existing practices for the disposal and further use of usedoil

! Identify collection and reprocessing companies for used oil

! Introduce improvements on the basis of the principles listed above: collectionand transport system, reprocessing, thermal exploitation and hazardous wastetreatment

As much as possible of the volume of used oil originating solely from motor vehicleengines must be collected and kept separately from other used oils. The costscovering this work of collection and intermediate storage, including the costs of theactual technical reprocessing itself, must be sufficiently low that it is worth resellingthe re-refined products, in other words at a lower price than fresh oil.

In the Federal Republic of Germany, for example, according to estimates by themineral oil industry the amount of used oil from do-it-yourself oil changing but with anunknown final destination was put at roughly 10,000 t per annum before the Used OilOrdinance (AltlV) came into force in 1986. The reason for this was not only a lack ofenvironmental awareness but also an ignorance of the requirements and possibilitiesof proper disposal among consumers and in the trade. Another factor was that some

of the distributors, in particular hypermarkets and self-service outlets, did not takeback used oils after use. Furthermore, used oils were often disposed of illegally,


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because people avoided travelling relatively long distances to collection points tosave inconveniencing themselves.

The same findings are also significant factors in developing countries, and theconsequences derived from these should be used as the basis for proposedsolutions, for example in accordance with the following criteria:

! Objective exploitation of the original properties of the oil: materialsrecycling, re-refining to produce high-quality base oils.

! Objective exploitation of the energy content of used oils for powergeneration: heat-recovery incineration. A broad range of possibilities areavailable. Various criteria can be used to distinguish between usage, for examplebetween the use of pretreated used oils as a fuel on their own and their use as anadmixture with specified fuels such as coke, oil or gas or other substances such asdomestic-type refuse, hazardous wastes or sewage sludge. Further differentiationcan be made according to the field of application for the used oil as a fuel, forexample for electricity generation or heat generation in industrial processes suchas the production of pig iron, asphalt, bricks or cement and the waste incineration

or waste disposal procedures mentioned above.

! Objective removal/disposal of used oils: this is generally carried out if usedoils have become unusable as a consequence of contamination and/oradmixtures, such that they cannot be put to any technical or economic use in anyof the three above-named ways and therefore they have to be disposed of aswaste. The possibilities range from controlled disposal in hazardous wastedisposal plants to controlled dumping in a pure or chemically bonded form, in eachcase either on its own or as an admixture.

The decision as to the way in which used oils are to be treated is determined by alarge number of technological, economic and legal factors, which are all interrelated.

A key role in determining the method for treating used oils is played by the matter ofcollection, which is generally to be considered as the crucial function within a usedoil system, upon which all of the subsequent possibilities are dependent. Thecollected quantities determine the downstream technology for the used oil treatmentmethods: some technologies are not technically feasible unless certain minimumthroughput volumes are reached, while others are only economic from certainvolumes upwards.

The interplay between technological, economic and legal criteria in the decision tochoose a particular treatment option often does not allow a clear-cut choice to bemade according to microeconomic considerations. For example, in particular thequestion of whether to re-refine or incinerate used oils must be discussed carefully

between the authorities and the various groups and institutions involved in orinterested in the matter before a decision is taken. In this connection it is worth notingthat in countries with a relatively well-defined legal system relating to used oil theUsed Oil Ordinance in the Federal Republic of Germany is considered trend-setting inthis respect there is no clear position on this question.

A range of macroeconomic and business management details are necessary for thedecision-making process. Having as much reliable data as possible about the sectorsin which fresh oil is consumed and used oil is generated is essential.


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3 NOTES ON THE ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF ENVIRON-

MENTAL IMPACTS

In addition to a range of ecotoxicological effects, even low concentrations of oil havea detrimental effect on the taste of drinking water, making it unpalatable. Purification

is only possible at great expense.

In this connection, in order to carry out a qualitative assessment of environmentaldamage and risks arising from seepage as a result of improper storage and disposalit is necessary to take account of a number of factors:

! Geological and hydrogeological site characteristics

! Sites and site conditions with regard to the recovery and treatment of drinkingwater, wastewater collection and wastewater treatment plants

! Drinking water protection measures (water protection zones, observance of limitvalues and other standards) and framework conditions relating to environment law

! Estimation of the potential hazards to groundwater and other risksAs well as the analytical identification of environmental impacts, it is also important toperform analytical tests on the used oil itself. Crucial aspects include takingrepresentative samples that are appropriate to the task in hand and examiningsamples in a test laboratory that has suitable equipment and staff. The followingparameters should be analysed in order to determine the quality of the collected usedoil:

! Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

! Total halogen

! Sulphur

! Water content

! Net calorific value

! Flash point

! Heavy metals, especially lead

! Phenols

In addition to these parameters, tests are normally also performed on a randomsample basis with the aid of GC-MS screenings3 to determine whether there is anycontent of middle distillates (light distillate oil and diesel), carburettor fuels orlubricating oils, or contamination by PAH4-containing tar oils and other organicadditives or pollutants (such as cold cleaners, particularly in bilge oils).

After appropriate preparation (extraction), environmental samples (soil, groundwater,surface water and drinking water) are investigated for their content of mineral oilhydrocarbons using a variety of methods: spectroscopy (UV/Vis, IR), chromatographyand gravimetry. The atmosphere is an additional route of exposure in the emission ofoil fumes. Air samples are only analysed for oil content in exceptional cases.

In industrialised countries the maximum permissible concentrations of mineral oilhydrocarbons are of the following orders of magnitude:

! 10 micrograms per litre of drinking water

! 100 micrograms per litre of groundwater

! 100 or 1000 milligrams per kilogram of air-dry soil

3

Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry to provide an overview analysis4

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons


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The higher figure for soil indicates that remediation of the soil is necessary if it isexceeded. The remediation measures that come into consideration for contaminatedsoils are soil exchange or clean-up procedures. If the lower figure for soil isexceeded, more extensive investigations are required.

The risks to the environment and health resulting from the storage, collection and

transport of used oil are high, because of the potential for spills, leaks and accidentsand other forms of contamination. Likewise there is a high risk associated with finalstorage in landfill sites or with processing (recycling or incineration). These negativeconsequences of protective measures make it essential that the control andregulatory mechanisms described above should be in place, enshrined in law.

On the one hand used oil is a secondary resource which it is worth reprocessing,but at the same time it is also an environmentally hazardous substance, especiallywhen it is not handled properly and is disposed of as waste. A preventive effect istherefore achieved through activities and programmes which are aimed atminimisation of use and improvement in handling, and which make it possible toarrange forsafe disposal. Both of these lead to an improvement in conditions at the

workplace in relation to the management of oil and used oil, provide greater healthprotection and relieve the burden on the environment.


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4 INTERACTION WITH OTHER SECTORS

Environmentally damaging oil losses occur as a result of incorrect handling (spillage),or because of leaks, accidents, collisions and improper disposal. In the case ofshipping and off-shore extraction it is seawaters that are affected, and in the case of

the petrochemical industry and quite substantially in the motor vehicle and machinesector in addition to the protected resources of soil and groundwater it is in particularinland seas and oceans that are affected.

! Metalworking industry

! Petrochemical industry

! Power stations with fuel-powered generators, transforming stations

! Paint shops

! Scrap yards

The most important sector is the transport sector, in which the following are affected:

! Filling stations

!

Motor vehicle repair shops! Port operations

! Bus and taxi stations

! AirportsIn developing countries, motor vehicle repair shops, filling stations, transportcompanies and bus and coach businesses, industrial plants and power stations alongwith small diesel-powered power plants are the most important sources where usedoil arises. Widely dispersed sources of used oil are often found in countries where oilchanges are carried out privately on vehicles by the owners themselves.

Examples of used oil arising in developing countries include:

! Lubricating oil from internal combustion engines (petrol engines, diesel

engines and filters from those engines)

! Other lubricating oils from gearboxes, turbines or similar machinery withoutincineration processes

! Hydraulic oil

! Metalworking oils, oil-water mixtures, emulsions

! Cooling oils

! Transformer oil

! Oily wastewater

! Oily sludges

In addition, residues from the petrochemical industry from the production of petrol andchemical products in oil refineries are also important because they are burned asbunker C fuel on merchant ships, in some cases mixed with used oils. The highlycontaminated oil sludge remaining on the ships as a result of using this fuel is oftendisposed of illegally on the high seas, resulting in long-term pollution of the oceans.


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5 SUMMARY ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL RELEVANCE

In most developing countries the situation relating to the disposal of used oil isunsatisfactory. If oil is dumped on the ground after use, as is often the case, seepageoccurs, after which layers of the soil and above all groundwater resources and

drinking water wells may be contaminated. Because of the possible content ofextremely toxic halogen compounds, this practice is hazardous to health.

Small proportions of the used oil or in some cases also the entire arisings (dependingon how the law is enforced or the economic situation) are collected and transported toresource recoverers, who mostly use it as a fuel without pretreatment or resell it.Positive approaches include heat-recovery incineration in cement works and limekilns, where it is used as an additive to heating oil.

A system of complete collection, broken down according to types of oil, together witha reduction of the quantities of oil used in all fields of application to a minimumreduces the risks to as great an extent as possible.

Used oil from petrol engines can be reprocessed although this is relatively complex

technically to produce high-quality lubricating oil or oil of lesser quality than theoriginal products. It can be treated by thermal means, in other words incinerated, inthat way exploiting its energy content, or it can be dealt with solely by disposal, inother words by safe final disposal. The possibilities of dealing with used oil should beexamined in this order. Disposal is only to be considered if the two first-namedoptions are not possible, or if the used oil is too highly contaminated with foreignsubstances (adulterated). Whichever of the three stated alternatives is chosen, usedoil must be pretreated in a certain way and with different degrees of effort andexpense.

Roughly half of the fresh oil that is used is lost as a result of lubrication, oxidationprocesses and unavoidable leakages. The rest arises again as used oil. Since the

enactment of the Used Oil Ordinance (Altlverordnung), in the Federal Republic ofGermany two thirds of used oil is reprocessed (recycled) by re-refining and one thirdis used for energy generation. Through the recovery of oil filters from petrol engines,re-refinable used oil and steel scrap can be returned to the economic cycle.

Good management of oil and used oil reduces environmental and health risks to alarge extent and makes the greatest possible use of the energy content of the naturalresource that is crude oil. Good management is taken to mean dealing with itresponsibly and in an environmentally acceptable way. This includes:

! Storage, transport, use, treatment, handling and disposal

! Minimising consumption

Used oil should never by disposed of simply by dumping: any contact with soil andwater must be avoided whatever the circumstances. Disposal on waste landfill sitesor in sewers and sewage treatment works is unacceptable. If no other disposal optionis available, if need be it should be stored safely in the medium term. Safely means inclosed, leak-proof receptacles and among other things protected againstunauthorised access, roofed and provided with catch pans. In the medium termmeans for as long as necessary until one of the environmentally acceptable means ofdisposal described above can be made possible.

The incineration of used oil must only be carried out in plants that are expresslysuitable or approved for that purpose. The addition of used oil to liquid fuels in high-temperature furnaces is considered environmentally friendly. This includes the kilns

used for cement manufacture, for example.

These principles should be observed in all development projects in which used oil isgenerated. If for no other reason than the oil changes on vehicles with internal


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combustion engines, this amounts to a large number of projects. At the same time,the range of quantities and qualities of used oil generated in connection withdevelopment projects is very large.

Consideration should be given to the management and treatment of used oil at anearly stage, during the planning phase of development projects. Recommendations or

regulations must be included in the project documentation. Staff who will be dealingwith used oil should be given appropriate instructions or training and upgrading, andclear areas of responsibility should be established.

The management of oil and used oil can easily be standardised by drawing up shortStandard Operating Procedures and Work Instructions.


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6 REFERENCES

Arner, Robert, "Safe recycling of used oils", BioCycle, 36:36-37, September 1995.

Barry, Carol F., "New rules for used oil: a compliance guide for used oil handlers,"Environment Report-BNA 25(41):2015-2021, February 17, 1995.

Basel Convention (1994): Framework Document on the Preparation of Technical Guidelinesfor the Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Subject to the Basel Convention.Document no. 94/005. Secretariat of the Basel Convention, Geneva.

Batstone, R et al (ed) (1989): The Safe Disposal of Hazardous Wastes - The Special Needsand Problems of Developing Countries. World Bank Technical Paper Number 93 (3 Vols.)Washington DC.

Beiring, Elizabeth A., "Used oil in the United States: Environmental impact, regulation, andmanagement" Buffalo Law Review 41(1):157-205, Winter 1993.

Bruening, John C., "Filters seek recycling niche," Recycling Today, 33(4):28-30, April 1995.

CODE OF PRACTICE FOR USED OIL MANAGEMENT IN CANADA / Canadian Council ofMinisters of the Environment, Ottawa, August 1989. Report TS/WM-TRE006E. 61 p.

Harrison, Charles, "The engineering aspects of a used oil recycling project," WasteManagement 14(3-4):231-235, 1994.

Finnish International Development Agency (FINNIDA) (1994): Guidelines for theManagement of Oil Wastes

IMO (1995): Global Waste Survey - Final Report. DRAFT International MaritimeOrganisation, London.

Khawaja, Manzoor A. and Mohmoud M. Aban, "Characteristics of used lubricating oils, theirenvironmental impact and survey of disposal methods," Environmental Management and

Health, 7(1):23-32, 1996.

Kim, Myung-Soo, Jong-Sic Hwang and Hyung-Rak Kim, "Re-refining of waste lube oils byvacuum distillation with petroleum atmospheric residuum," Journal of Environmental Science& Health, Part A: Environmental Science & Engineering, A32(4): 1013-1024, 1997.

Land, Walter R., "Used oil management," presented at the 1980 NPRA Annual Meeting,March 23-25, 1980, New Orleans. National Petroleum Refiners Association, Washington,D.C., 1980. 19 p. AM-80-23.

Peaslee, Kent D. and Darrell E. Roberts, II, "Characterization of used automotive oil filters forrecycling," Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 19(2):81-91, 1997.

Porst J: Waste Oil Recycling, in: GATE (No.3) 1990, p 27

Porst J: "Waste-Oil Management in Developing Countries", in: F. Arendt, M. Hinsenveld andW.J. van den Brink (eds.), Contaminated Soil '90, p 145-146, Dordrecht, Boston, London1990

Shipley, Charles W. and Boyd Jamie Taylor, "Waste oil disposal problems," Pipeline & GasJournal 9(9):31-34, January 1991.

Siegel, Richard and Chester Skidd, "Case studies utilizing mobile on-site recycling ofindustrial oils for immediate reapplication," Journal of the Society of Tribologists & LubricationEngineers, 51(9):767-770, September 1995.

Troch, Filip, "Recycling of waste brake fluids," Industry and Environment 17(2):32-35, April-June 1994.

UNEP (1992): Hazardous Waste Policies and Strategies - A Training Manual UNEPIndustry and Environment Programme, Technical Report No.10. UNEP/IE, Paris. (Also inFrench and Spanish.)


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Umweltbundesamt (publisher): Ermittlung von Altlvermeidungspotentialen, UBA-TEXTE Nr.16/97

Warren, Timothy J. and Scott Cohoon, "Changing our disposal habits: recycling used oilfilters," Resource Recycling, 14(2):44,46-48,50,52,53, February 1995.

WHO (1983): Management of Hazardous Waste - Policy Guidelines and Code of Practice.

Regional Publications, European Series No.14. Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen.

Wolfe, Paris R., "Economics of used oil recycling: still slippery," Resource Recycling11(9):28,30,32-33,35-38,40, September 1992.


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Appendix 1, Page 1

APPENDIX 1

According to 42 of the Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act (KrW-

/AbfG), used oil is waste that requires special supervision. The management of usedoil is regulated by the Used Oil Ordinance (AltlV)5.

The wide-ranging term used oil fundamentally includes all liquid and semiliquidsubstances produced from mineral oil and originating from applications such aslubrication, driving, cooling, insulation or metalworking (drilling, cutting, grinding,drawing, loosening or greasing).

In addition it also includes other oleaginous substances and synthetic hydrocarbons,for example on the basis of PCBs and halogen-containing substitute products, suchas may be contained in transformers, capacitors and hydraulic equipment ( 4AltlV).The term used oil also covers a range of solvents, in particular white spirit, petroleumnaphtha, cold cleaner and solvent mixtures. The term used oil as in 5a Waste

Avoidance and Waste Management Act (AbfG) encompasses subject to furtherspecification in accordance with the waste compendium (Appendix 2) the followingthree categories, which are defined according to the way in which they can be used:

(1) Used oils which are considered for reprocessing, depending on the startingproduct and place of generation. According to 2 Clause 1 AltlV, these are usedoils from internal combustion engines and gearboxes, and mineral machine oils,gear oils and hydraulic oils in which the limit values for PCBs and total halogen (3 AltlV) are not exceeded. Other used oils may be reprocessed in individualcases if the pollutants contained in them are rendered harmless in the procedureused by means of conversion or separation ( 2 Clause 2 AltlV). Whetherreprocessing is permissible is dependent solely on the permit for operation of the

plant concerned according to the law on ambient air protection.

(2) Used oils which are supplied forenergy generation in plants specially approvedfor that purpose within the meaning of 4 of the Federal Pollution Control Act(BImSchG). Whether used oils can be exploited in this form is dependent solelyon the permit according to the law on ambient air protection. The limit valuesspecified in 3AltlVdo not apply in this case.

(3) Used oils which must be treated in hazardous waste disposal plants on accountof their pollutant content (in particular PCBs and total halogen content) and whichare not covered by (1) and (2). This also applies to used oils whose origin cannotbe specified with certainty (admixture of foreign substances or suspicion thereof).

In the Federal Republic of Germany the problem of environmental endangerment asa result of contamination in soil and groundwater has been regulated by the FederalSoil Protection Act (Bundesbodenschutzgesetz - BbodSchG) and the associatedordinances implemented at the national and Land level, specifically consolidated inthe Federal Soil Protection Ordinance (Bundesbodenschutzverordnung seeAppendix 2) with specific test values for mineral oil hydrocarbons and PCBs.

In connection with the clean-up of contaminated sites, in the Federal Republic ofGermany the assessment of hazards in relation to the soil-groundwater pollutant pathfor the mineral oil hydrocarbon parameter is particularly important. The contaminationof soil substance with mineral oil hydrocarbons is one of the most common causes ofa high potential for environmental hazards affecting protected groundwater resources.

5

UB-Media Fachdatenbank 11/1999 Abfallrecht und Entsorgungspraxis [Law on Waste and Disposal Practice];

publ.: Prof. Dr. Peter M. Kunz


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Appendix 1, Page 2

In addition, the health and industrial safety legislation aspects of dealing with usedoils are regulated and defined in the 4th Implementing Ordinance of the FederalPollution Control Act (4th. BImSchV) and in the general statutory regulations of theemployers liability insurance associations (ZH1/708 skin protection in the broadersense). In this case used oils are classified in the group of skin-irritating workingsubstances because of their skin-adherent properties. A variety of regulations onhandling and safety have resulted from this6. For technological, ecological and alsoeconomic reasons the need is growing in the Federal Republic of Germany to carryout separate collection of used oils of various qualities and compositions, both forincineration and for re-refining.

6

A. Meyer-Falke, G. Lewing, publ: Sicherheit und Gesundheit im Betrieb [Safety and Health at Work]; UB-Media

Fachdatenbank 11/1999 Arbeitsschutz [Industrial Safety]


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Appendix 2, Page 1

APPENDIX 2

Table 1: Number of registered motor vehicles according to type and region

Private Government Diplomaticservices

Rentedvehicles

Non-taxpayers

All types

Philippines in total 2,030,705 51,160 3,070 493,103 3,316 2,581,354Metro Manila 909,411 12,873 2,904 127,311 3,193 1,055,692Cordillera Auton. Region 20,764 1,273 0 8,856 0 30,893Ilocos 80,195 2,072 6 37,015 64 119,352Cagayan Valley 40,290 2,817 0 29,944 0 73,051Central Luzon 208,095 3,216 144 66,766 8 278,229Southern Tagalog 223,378 3,111 0 70,023 0 296,512Bicol 38,678 2,093 6 19,791 0 60,568

Source: Land Transportation Office, Manila, 1998

Table 2: Number of registered motor vehicles according to region and annual trend

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

National Capital Region 684,778 721,776 799,754 901,312 973,550 1,055,692

TOTAL 1,620,242 1,715,366 1,879,563 2,125,115 2,341,469 2,581,354

Source: LTO Annual Statistical Reports, Manila, 1996

In order to estimate the quantities of used oil originating from the importantsector of motor traffic on the basis of (by way of example) the motor vehiclesregistered in the conurbation of Manila according to

Table 2 roughly 1 million it is assumed, for instance, that the oil in thesevehicles is changed on average every 20,000 kilometres. Given an averageannual mileage of 10,000 km and a quantity of 2.5 litres of oil, this results in avolume of 5 million litres or approximately 4,000 tonnes per year, from thissector alone. If roughly 50% of this is collected, some 2,000 tonnes per yearneeds to be reprocessed. This is of an order of magnitude in which the

operation of an entire re-refining plant dedicated to this type of used oil beginsto be worthwhile.

Further information is required in order to establish the basis for economicallysensible and ecologically effective used oil management in a developingcountry.


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Appendix 3, Page 1

APPENDIX 3

Technical recycling:

The individual processing steps in the large-scale reprocessing of used oils:

! Examination of the quality of the delivered batches, in particular for contaminationwith pollutants

! Presorting and qualitative separation in the receiving tank store

! Water separation by gravity

! Chemical breaking of emulsion constituents

! Separation of the remainder of the water by centrifugation and distillation

! Thermal pretreatment (cracking of additive residues)

! Refining with sulphur (separation of tar impurities)

! Vacuum distillation for the recovery of lubricating oil fractions

! Filtration of the lubricating oils with bleaching earth

! Post-filtration of the lubricating oil and gas oil fractions in chamber filter presses

! Mixing of the mineral oil fractions for adjusting required properties such as viscosity

! Addition of additives for the production of top-specification industrial oils and engineoils

! Waste gas purification: thermal afterburning of gaseous emissions

! Wastewater treatment: separation of the oil phase in collection systems andsecondary purification in boundary layer evaporators

Heat-recovery incineration:

Plants in which used oils are used for energy recovery require a permit before they arebuilt and enter operation. Heat-recovery incineration is possible in the following:

! High-temperature incineration plants such as cement works, blast furnaces ormelting chamber furnaces

! Refining plants

! Hydrogenation plants

environmental handbook. documentation on monitoring and eval

Documents