environmental impact assessment of prototype greenhouse installation_draft

Adapt2change – LIFE09 ENV/GR/296 “Adapt Agricultural Production to climate change and

limited water supply”

Final Version 2012-07-23

Environmental Impact Assessment of Prototype Greenhouse Installation

www.greengears.eu [email protected]

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http://www.greengears.eu/


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Disclaimer

This document describes work undertaken as part of the 01/11/2011 tender between the TEI of Larissa and the Emmanouilides and GreenGears Ltd consortium. All views and opinions expressed therein remain the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the Institute.




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Table of contents

1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 8

2 Environmental impacts of agriculture ............................................................................... 9

2.1 Land and soil .............................................................................................................. 9

2.1.1 Soil erosion ........................................................................................................ 9

2.1.2 Soil structure ................................................................................................... 11

2.1.3 Salinity ............................................................................................................. 12

2.1.4 Soil acidity and alkalinity ................................................................................. 13

2.1.5 Sodicity ............................................................................................................ 14

2.2 Water ....................................................................................................................... 14

2.2.1 Inefficient use of resource ............................................................................... 15

2.2.2 Efficient irrigation management practices ...................................................... 16

2.2.3 Inappropriate water quality ............................................................................ 17

2.2.4 Risk Assessment............................................................................................... 20

2.2.5 Risk Assessment of irrigation water quality .................................................... 20

2.2.6 Risk Assessment of downstream water quality ............................................... 22

2.3 Chemicals ................................................................................................................. 23

2.3.1 Inappropriate storage of chemicals ................................................................. 23

2.3.2 Inappropriate application ................................................................................ 25

2.3.3 Inappropriate disposal ..................................................................................... 27

2.3.4 Spray drift ........................................................................................................ 27

2.3.5 Use of chemicals risk assessment .................................................................... 32

2.3.6 Spray drift risk assessment .............................................................................. 32

2.4 Nutrients - fertilizers ............................................................................................... 33

2.4.1 Nutrient management risk assessment ........................................................... 35

2.4.2 Nutrient application risk assessment .............................................................. 36

2.5 Biodiversity .............................................................................................................. 37

2.5.1 Biodiversity risk assessment ............................................................................ 38

2.6 Waste ....................................................................................................................... 39

2.6.1 Waste risk assessment .................................................................................... 40

2.7 Air ............................................................................................................................ 41

2.7.1 Odor management .......................................................................................... 41

2.7.2 Monitoring and recording ............................................................................... 42

2.7.3 Odour management risk assessment .............................................................. 43




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2.7.4 Dust management risk assessment ................................................................. 44

2.7.5 Smoke management risk assessment ............................................................. 45

2.7.6 Noise management risk assessment ............................................................... 46

2.7.7 Greenhouse gases management risk assessment ........................................... 47

2.8 Energy ...................................................................................................................... 48

2.8.1 Energy management risk assessment ............................................................. 49

3 Environmental impact assessment and control procedures ........................................... 50

3.1 Soil - Soil treatment ................................................................................................. 50

3.1.1 Rotation ........................................................................................................... 50

3.1.2 Objective – to minimize the potential for water to erode soil on the property.

51

3.1.3 Objective – to minimize the potential for wind to erode soil on the property.

52

3.1.4 Objective – soil structure is suitable for root growth, water infiltration,

aeration and drainage needs of the crop. ....................................................................... 53

3.3 Water ....................................................................................................................... 54

3.3.1 Irrigation methods ........................................................................................... 55

3.3.2 Objective – water quality is suitable for its intended use on the property and

does not negatively impact downstream water quality.................................................. 57

3.4 Chemicals ................................................................................................................. 58

3.4.1 Storage of plant protection products .............................................................. 59

3.4.2 Objective – agricultural chemicals are used in accordance with label or permit

instructions; and all chemicals, including fuels and oils, are stored, handled, applied and

disposed of in a manner that minimizes environmental impacts ................................... 59

3.5 Nutrient Management ............................................................................................. 61

3.5.1 Instructions of inorganic fertilizer ................................................................... 61

3.5.2 Fertilizer application management tools ......................................................... 61

3.5.3 Fertilizer storage .............................................................................................. 62

3.5.4 Objective – to effectively manage nutrient inputs to meet crop requirements

and soil characteristics. ................................................................................................... 62

3.5.5 Objective – to ensure nutrient application methods and timing maximize

benefits to the crop and minimize potential negative environmental impacts. ............. 62

3.6 Biodiversity .............................................................................................................. 63

3.6.1 Suggested practices ......................................................................................... 63

3.6.2 Soil biodiversity ............................................................................................... 64

3.7 Energy Management ............................................................................................... 65

3.7.1 Irrigation .......................................................................................................... 65




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3.7.2 Vehicles and equipment .................................................................................. 65

3.7.3 Fuel .................................................................................................................. 65

3.7.4 Lighting ............................................................................................................ 65

3.7.5 Renewable resources ...................................................................................... 66

4 Environmental impact of prototype “Adapt2Change” greenhouse ................................ 67

4.1 Land and soil ............................................................................................................ 67

4.2 Water ....................................................................................................................... 67

4.3 Chemicals ................................................................................................................. 67

4.4 Nutrients .................................................................................................................. 68

4.5 Biodiversity .............................................................................................................. 68

4.6 Waste ....................................................................................................................... 68

4.7 Air ............................................................................................................................ 69

4.8 Energy ...................................................................................................................... 69

5 Environmental risk assessment at the prototype “Adapt2Change” greenhouse ........... 70

5.1.1 Water management risk assessment .............................................................. 71

5.1.2 Risk Assessment of irrigation water quality .................................................... 72

5.1.3 Risk Assessment of downstream water quality ............................................... 73

5.1.4 Use of chemicals risk assessment .................................................................... 74

5.1.5 Spray drift risk assessment .............................................................................. 76

5.1.6 Nutrient management risk assessment ........................................................... 77

5.1.7 Nutrient application risk assessment .............................................................. 78

5.1.8 Biodiversity risk assessment ............................................................................ 79

5.1.9 Waste risk assessment .................................................................................... 80

5.1.10 Odour management risk assessment .............................................................. 81

5.1.11 Dust management risk assessment ................................................................. 82

5.1.12 Smoke management risk assessment ............................................................. 83

5.1.13 Noise management risk assessment ............................................................... 84

5.1.14 Greenhouse gases management risk assessment ........................................... 85

5.1.16 Energy management risk assessment ............................................................. 86

6 Determination of changes in the environmental load at the prototype “Adapt2Change” greenhouse .............................................................................................................................. 87

6.1 Land – Soil ................................................................................................................ 87

6.2 Water ....................................................................................................................... 87

6.3 Chemicals ................................................................................................................. 87

6.4 Nutrients .................................................................................................................. 87




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6.5 Biodiversity .............................................................................................................. 87

6.6 Waste ....................................................................................................................... 88

6.7 Air ............................................................................................................................ 88

6.8 Energy ...................................................................................................................... 88

7 Reproducibility and transferability of technology ........................................................... 89

7.1 Reproducibility ........................................................................................................ 89

7.2 Transferability of technology .................................................................................. 89

8 Eco friendly procedures and products ............................................................................ 90

8.1 Procedures ............................................................................................................... 90

8.1.1 Hydroponics ..................................................................................................... 90

8.1.2 Use of geothermal energy ............................................................................... 91

8.1.3 Water recycling ................................................................................................ 91

8.1.4 Waste reducing and recycling ......................................................................... 97

8.2 Eco friendly Products ............................................................................................... 98

8.2.1 Greenhouse organic farming ........................................................................... 98

9 Included standards .......................................................................................................... 99

9.1 Good Agricultural Practices ..................................................................................... 99

9.2 Good Agricultural Practices (G.A.P.) ........................................................................ 99

9.3 Food safety ............................................................................................................ 100

9.4 Soil ......................................................................................................................... 100

9.5 Crop protection ..................................................................................................... 100

9.6 Sustainability ......................................................................................................... 101

9.7 Social responsibility ............................................................................................... 101

9.8 Economic efficiency ............................................................................................... 101

9.9 Hygiene .................................................................................................................. 101

9.10 Record keeping ...................................................................................................... 102

10 References ..................................................................................................................... 103




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1 Introduction

Recent intensification of agriculture, and the prospects of future intensification, will have major impacts on the nonagricultural terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems of the world (Tilman, 1998). The doubling of agricultural food production during the past 35 years was associated with a 6.87-fold increase in nitrogen fertilization, a 3.48-fold increase in phosphorus fertilization, a 1.68-fold increase in the amount of irrigated cropland, and a 1.1-fold increase in land cultivation (Tilman, 1998).

Around half the EU's land is farmed. Farming is important for the EU's natural environment. Farming and nature influence each other (EC, 2012):

Farming has contributed over the centuries to creating and maintaining a unique countryside. Agricultural land management has been a positive force for the development of the rich variety of landscapes and habitats, including a mosaic of woodlands, wetlands, and extensive tracts of an open countryside.

The ecological integrity and the scenic value of landscapes make rural areas attractive for the establishment of enterprises, for places to live, and for the tourist and recreation businesses.

The links between the richness of the natural environment and farming practices are complex (EC, 2012). Many valuable habitats in Europe are maintained by extensive farming, and a wide range of wild species rely on this for their survival (EC, 2012). However, inappropriate agricultural practices and land use can also have an adverse impact on natural resources, such as (EC, 2012):

pollution of soil, water and air, fragmentation of habitats and loss of wildlife.

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has identified three priority areas for action to protect and enhance the EU's rural heritage (EC, 2012):

Biodiversity and the preservation and development of 'natural' farming and forestry systems, and traditional agricultural landscapes;

Water management and use; Dealing with climate change.




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2 Environmental impacts of agriculture

2.1 Land and soil

Soil is a composite environment since it is the result of abiotic factors (independent of human actions), that is to say of alterations to the bedrock (which provides soil's mineral elements), atmospheric content (oxygen fixation, nitrogen cycle, water cycle) and biotic factors (linked to the actions of living things) such as the content of vegetation cover and decomposition of organic matter (GoodPlanet.info, 2009). Soil analysis shows a superimposition of layers made up of different colors, chemical compositions and sizes of material (GoodPlanet.info, 2009). Each superimposition of layers creates a pedological profile (GoodPlanet.info, 2009).

Agriculture plays a large part in soil and land degradation, especially clearing, irrigation, chemical fertilisers and pesticides, overgrazing and even the passage of heavy farming equipment (GoodPlanet, 2009). Clearing and deforestation of large plots of land to increase the agricultural surface area, change humus composition and soil formation because of varied indigenous vegetation being replaced by secondary vegetation (monoculture being the extreme) (GoodPlanet, 2009).

Tillage destroys superior layers of soil as well as the layer of humus and can even cause a plough sole (lower layer of compact land) to form because of ploughs regularly passing through soil at the same depth (GoodPlanet, 2009). Farming equipment also contributes to soil compaction especially when it weighs more than 5 tons (GoodPlanet, 2009).

Irrigation and soil drainage can cause soil acidification and salination whilst the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides contributes to reducing soil capillarity (runoff) as well as its consistency (GoodPlanet, 2009).

2.1.1 Soil erosion

Soil is naturally removed by the action of water or wind: such 'background' (or 'geological') soil erosion has been occurring for some 450 million years, since the first land plants formed the first soil (Favis-Mortlock, 2007). In general, background erosion removes soil at roughly the same rate as soil is formed but 'accelerated' soil erosion loss is a far more recent problem stemming from human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing and unsuitable cultivation practices (Favis-Mortlock, 2007). These activities intensify soil erosion and can lead to desertification especially in arid Mediterranean areas with major topsoil loss. Furthermore, accelerated soil erosion can affect both agricultural areas and natural ecosystems either off-site or on site and it is one of the most widespread environmental problems worldwide (Favis-Mortlock, 2007). The use of powerful agricultural implements has, in some parts of the world, led to damaging amounts of soil moving downslope merely under the action of gravity: the so-called tillage erosion phenomenon (Favis-Mortlock, 2007).


http://soilerosion.net/doc/extent_of_erosion.html

http://soilerosion.net/doc/tillage_erosion.html



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Despite its global nature, data on soil erosion severity are often limited (Favis-

Mortlock, 2005). The Global Assessment of Human Induced Soil Degradation

(GLASOD) study estimated that around 15% of the Earth's ice-free land surface is

afflicted by all forms of land degradation, of which soil erosion by water is

responsible for about 56% and wind erosion for about 28% (Favis-Mortlock, 2005) as

shown in Figure 2.1. This means that the area affected by water erosion is, very

roughly, around 11 million km2, and the area affected by wind erosion is around 5.5

million km2, while the area affected by tillage erosion is currently unknown (Favis-

Mortlock, 2005).

Figure 2.1 The GLASOD estimate of global land degradation: note that this includes all forms of soil degradation, not just erosion (Favis-Mortlock, 2005)

The Mediterranean region is particularly prone to erosion, as shown in Figure 2.1,

because it is subject to long dry periods followed by heavy bursts of erosive rainfall,

falling on steep slopes with fragile soils, resulting in considerable amounts of erosion

(Van der Knijff et. al., 2000). In parts of the Mediterranean region, erosion has

reached a stage of irreversibility and in some places erosion has practically ceased

because there is no more soil left (Van der Knijff et. al., 2000). With a very slow rate

of soil formation, any soil loss of more than 1 t/ha/yr can be considered as

irreversible within a time span of 50-100 years (Van der Knijff et. al., 2000). Losses of

20 to 40 t/ha in individual storms, that may occur once every two or three years, are

measured regularly in Europe with losses of more than 100 t/ha in extreme events

(Morgan, 1992 in Van der Knijff et. al., 2000). It may take some time before the

effects of such erosion become noticeable, especially in areas with the deepest and

most fertile soils or on heavily fertilised land (Van der Knijff et. al., 2000). However,


http://lime.isric.nl/index.cfm?contentid=158



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this is all the more dangerous because, once the effects have become obvious, it is

usually too late to do anything about it (Van der Knijff et. al., 2000).

Figure 2.2 Soil erosion risk assessment in the EU (Van der Knijff et. al., 2000)

Because soil is formed slowly, it is essentially a finite resource. Therefore sustainable agricultural practices, prevention and remediation measures must be further researched and implemented.

2.1.2 Soil structure

When soil is compacted, its natural porosity is markedly reduced leading to severe

cases of water and air induced erosion and restricted root development (DEFRA,

2011). Factors adding to compaction are (DEFRA, 2011):

Field operations carried out when the soil is too wet.

Heavy equipment – the heavier the equipment, the drier the conditions

required unless different tires are used.

Emphasis on early showing or drilling (particularly in the spring).

Reducing the number and extent of tillage operations.

Wheeling in furrow bottoms when plowing.

The effects of cultivation pans and weakly structured layers are: poor germination,

poor response to fertilizers, traffic damage, crop diseases and pests, draughtiness

(DEFRA, 2011).




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2.1.3 Soil salinisation

Soil salinisation is the process that leads to an excessive increase of water-soluble

salts in the soil (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). Accumulated salts include sodium,

potassium, magnesium and calcium, chloride, sulphate, carbonate and bicarbonate

(mainly sodium chloride and sodium sulphate) (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). A

distinction can be made between primary and secondary salinisation processes (EC

Joint Research Centre, 2012). Primary salinisation involves salt accumulation through

natural processes due to a high salt content of the parent material or in

groundwater. Secondary salinisation is caused by human interventions such as

inappropriate irrigation practices, e.g. with salt-rich irrigation water and/or

insufficient drainage (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). More specifically, salinisation

is often associated with irrigated areas where low rainfall, high evapotranspiration

rates or soil textural characteristics impede the washing out of the salts, which

subsequently build-up in the soil surface layers (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012).

Irrigation with high salt content waters dramatically worsens the problem (EC Joint

Research Centre, 2012). In coastal areas, salinisation can be associated with the over

exploitation of groundwater caused by the demands of growing urbanisation,

industry and agriculture (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). Over extraction of

groundwater can lower the normal water table and lead to the intrusion of marine

water (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012).

Soil salinisation is one of the most widespread soil degradation processes on Earth,

with an estimated 1 to 3 million hectares affected in the enlarged EU and mainly in

the Mediterranean countries, as shown in Figure 2.3 (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). It is

regarded as a major cause of desertification and therefore is a serious form of soil

degradation (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012).




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Figure 2.3 Saline and Sodic Soils in the EU (EC, 2008)

2.1.4 Soil acidity and alkalinity

Soil acidity and alkalinity depends on various components which determine its

properties (Lake, 2000). These include mineral particles (sand, silt and clay, which

give soil its texture), organic matter (living and dead), air and water (Lake, 2000). Soil

acidity and alkalinity are measured in pH units with a scale of 1 (most acidic) to 14

(most alkaline) and 7 being neutral, though extreme values do not occur in

agricultural soils (FAO, 2000). Values from 7 to 4 are increasingly more acid and from

7 to 10 increasingly alkaline (FAO, 2000).

A main effect of too high or too low pH is that certain nutrients become too available

and toxic to the crop, while others become less available and show up as crop

deficiencies (FAO, 2000). In acid soils aluminium and manganese can become very

soluble and toxic, but additionally, they reduce plant's ability to take up calcium,

phosphorus, magnesium and molybdenum (FAO, 2000). Phosphorus in particular is

unavailable in acid soils and if boron, copper and zinc are present they can become

toxic at low pH (FAO, 2000). In medium alkaline soils boron, copper and zinc become

deficient and phosphorus again becomes unavailable (FAO, 2000). Soil pH has

relatively little effect on nitrogen (FAO, 2000).

Causes of extreme soil pH are (FAO, 2000):




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The soil is geologically very old and heavily leached, with high levels of

aluminium and iron oxides. These soils are acid.

Acidifying fertilizers have been applied to the soil for many years. These

include those with ammonium nitrogen and superphosphate.

Large amounts of organic matter have been added to a very wet soil over

many years with resulting acidification.

The soil is inherently alkaline being derived from limestone parent materials.

2.1.5 Sodification

Sodification is the process by which the exchangeable sodium (Na+) content of saline

soil is increased (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). This process takes place in saline

soils, where much of the chlorine has been washed away, leaving behind sodium

ions attached to tiny clay particles in the soil (Mason, 2003). As a result, these clay

particles lose their tendency to stick together when irrigated – leading to unstable

soils which may erode or become impermeable to both water and roots (Mason,

2003).

Sodicity can occur in the top 30 cm or so of the soil, or further down, but it is in the

top 5 cm where the biggest problems occur (Mason, 2003). If sodicity occurs below

the root zones of plants, its effect on crop productivity may be less apparent but it

can still cause significant problems (AAS, 1999). Sodic topsoils in arid and semi-arid

regions are subject to dust storms, which create major environmental and human

health problems (AAS, 1999). Sodic soils on sloping land are also subject to water

erosion, which means that important fertile topsoil is lost from agricultural land

(AAS, 1999). When water flows in channels or rivulets, soil is washed away along

these lines forming furrows called rills and in some cases, even larger channels of soil

removal, called gullies, develop (AAS, 1999). In other situations where only the

subsoil is sodic on sloping land, subsurface water flowing over this sodic layer will

create tunnels, leaving cavities that eventually collapse to form gullies (AAS, 1999).

Sodic soils that are also saline contain high concentrations of both sodium and

sodium chloride (AAS, 1999). Strangely enough, such soils will usually not exhibit

symptoms of sodicity because the sodium and chloride ions formed by the dissolved

sodium chloride (an electrolyte) in the soil solution prevents clay particles from

dispersing (AAS, 1999).

2.2 Water

Second only to drinking water availability, access to food supply is the greatest

priority (FAO, 1996). Hence, agriculture is a dominant component of the global


http://www.science.org.au/nova/035/035glo.htm#ion

http://www.science.org.au/nova/035/035glo.htm#electrolyte



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economy (FAO, 1996) inflicting great pressures on both water quantity and quality

especially in the Mediterranean region. Fresh water is a finite resource, widely but

not everywhere available, sensitive to external influences and environmental

degradation, difficult to manage as it is mobile under its own peculiar conditions,

and costly to control and develop (FAO, 1996). On the other hand, population

growth and socio-economic development lead to increasing demands, while climate

change and international geopolitics are increasing uncertainties (FAO, 1996). Thus,

intensifying pressure on vulnerable water and land resources, the task of sustainable

management in agriculture becomes vital and urgent.

2.2.1 Water availability

In recent years, a growing concern has been expressed throughout the EU regarding

water scarcity problems and the significant impacts on water resources by

agricultural activities (EC Environment, 2012). In Europe, agriculture has been

estimated to account for around 24% of total water abstraction, although in parts of

southern Europe, this figure can reach up to 80% (EEA, 2009 in EC Environment,

2012) while in Greece, Spain and Portugal this percentage rises to 90% of total

overall water consumption (Berman et. al., 2012). Irrigation of crops constitutes a

considerable use, especially in southern Member States where irrigation accounts

for almost all agricultural water use and over-abstraction remains a pressing issue as

shown in Figure 2.4 (EC Environment, 2012). Agriculture has also been identified as

the major sustainable water management issue in the implementation of the EU

Water Framework Directive (WFD) (EC Environment, 2012). For this reason, water

use management in agriculture has been identified as one of the key themes relating

to water scarcity and drought (EC Environment, 2012).


http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/water-resources-across-europe



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Figure 2.4 Irrigation intensity in Europe (GMIA, Siebert et. al., 2007 in Berman, 2012)

All agricultural aspects of agricultural production require water and are broadly

subdivided in three types of uses: irrigation, animal rearing and on-farming

processing operations (Berman et. al., 2012). It takes approximately 3,500 litres of

water to produce the food a typical European consumes in one day (Berman et. al.,

2012). A large proportion of this comes from rainwater (so called “green water”),

however in southern Europe irrigated crop production may be entirely dependent on

surface and groundwater resources (so called “blue water”), for this there is

increasing competition (Berman et. al., 2012).

Therefore, sustainable water management is essential to maximize yields and

control product quality (Lovell, 2006). Sustainable water management considers

both the crop’s water demand and the amount of water available, while managing

irrigation in order to maximize efficient use of water applied (Lovell, 2006). Irrigation

efficiency is a term that helps define the proportion of irrigation water that is

actually taken up and used by the crop (Lovell, 2006). Improvement in irrigation

efficiency is normally associated with water savings, production gains and better

long-term environmental management (Lovell, 2006). Irrigation efficiency is

determined by factors such as (Lovell, 2006):

Ensuring irrigation systems are operating to design specification and applying water as evenly as possible;

Ability to time, or schedule irrigation, based upon crop water needs; Clear understanding of soils’ water holding, infiltration and drainage capacity.

To manage irrigation efficiently, a number of management practices need to be considered, starting with an understanding of water availability and crop requirements (Lovell, 2006) as described below.

Efficient irrigation management practices

There are nine basic steps in the efficient management of irrigation (Lovell, 2006):

1. Identify: Define property goals and implications for water management. 2. Plan: Know your soils. 3. Design the most suitable irrigation system. 4. Develop a farm water budget. 5. Know your water supply/ies. 6. Do: Determine a basic irrigation schedule. 7. Implement strategies to manage nutrient input and salinity. 8. Monitoring and recording:

a. Monitor record and evaluate. 9. Check irrigation system performance.




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2.2.2 Water quality

Agricultural practices may also have negative impacts on water quality (Utah State

University, 2012). Pollutants that result from farming include sediment, nutrients,

pathogens, pesticides, metals, and salts (US EPA, 2005). Impacts from agricultural

activities on surface and ground water can be minimized by using management

practices adapted to local conditions (US EPA, 2005). Many practices designed to

reduce pollution also increase productivity and save farmers money in the long run

(US EPA, 2005).

There are two aspects of water quality that need to be considered (Lovell, 2006):

The first involves water quality for agricultural use (e.g. irrigation, agricultural

sprays, packing sheds);

The second aspect involves water quality protection from agricultural

activities, thus ensuring that the quality of water leaving the crop does not

negatively impact on downstream users and the environment (Lovell, 2006).

2.2.2.1 Water quality of irrigation water

If rivers or streams are used as water resources, upstream human activities may

impact agriculture (Lovell, 2006). Possible problems caused from poor quality water

use include (Lovell, 2006):

Salinity (high total soluble salt content) Sodicity (high sodium content) Toxicity (high concentration of specific salts in the soil) Blue-green algae, which may be toxic Clogging of irrigation equipment and Corrosion of pipes and other equipment.

2.2.2.2 Water quality impacts from agriculture

Sedimentation. The most prevalent source of agricultural water pollution is soil that

is washed off fields. Rain water carries soil particles (sediment) and dumps them into

nearby lakes or streams (US EPA, 2005). Too much sediment can cloud the water,

reducing the amount of sunlight that reaches aquatic plants. It can also clog the gills

of fish or smother fish larvae (US EPA, 2005). In addition, other pollutants like

fertilizers, pesticides, and heavy metals are often attached to the soil particles and

wash into the water bodies, causing algal blooms and depleted oxygen, which is

deadly to most aquatic life (US EPA, 2005). Farmers and ranchers can reduce erosion

and sedimentation by 20 to 90 percent by applying management practices that

control the volume and flow rate of runoff water, keep the soil in place, and reduce

soil transport (US EPA, 2005).




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Nutrients. Farmers apply nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium in

the form of chemical fertilizers, manure, and sludge (US EPA, 2005). They may also

grow legumes and leave crop residues to enhance production (US EPA, 2005). When

these sources exceed plant needs, or are applied just before it rains, nutrients can

wash into aquatic ecosystems (US EPA, 2005). There they can cause algae blooms,

which can ruin swimming and boating opportunities, create foul taste and odor in

drinking water, and kill fish by removing oxygen from the water (US EPA, 2005). High

concentrations of nitrate in drinking water can cause methemoglobinemia, a

potentially fatal disease in infants, also known as blue baby syndrome (US EPA,

2005). To combat nutrient losses, farmers can implement nutrient management

plans according to the CAP Directives.

Animal Feeding Operations. Runoff from poorly managed facilities can carry

pathogens such as bacteria and viruses, nutrients, and oxygen-demanding organics

and solids that contaminate shell fishing areas and cause other water quality

problems (US EPA, 2005). Ground water can also be contaminated by waste seepage

(US EPA, 2005). Farmers can limit discharges by storing and managing facility

wastewater and runoff with appropriate waste management systems according to

the CAP Directives.

Livestock Grazing. Overgrazing exposes soils, increases erosion, encourages invasion

by undesirable plants, destroys fish habitat, and may destroy stream banks and

floodplain vegetation necessary for habitat and water quality filtration (US EPA,

2005). To reduce the impacts of grazing on water quality, farmers can adjust grazing

intensity, keep livestock out of sensitive areas, provide alternative sources of water

and shade, and promote re-vegetation of ranges, pastures, and riparian zones (US

EPA, 2005).

Irrigation. Irrigation water is applied to supplement natural precipitation or to

protect crops against freezing or wilting (US EPA, 2005). Inefficient irrigation can

cause water quality problems (US EPA, 2005). In arid areas, for example, where

rainwater does not carry minerals deep into the soil, evaporation of irrigation water

can concentrate salts (US EPA, 2005). Excessive irrigation can affect water quality by

causing erosion, transporting nutrients, pesticides, and heavy metals, or decreasing

the amount of water that flows naturally in streams and rivers (US EPA, 2005). It can

also cause a buildup of selenium, a toxic metal that can harm waterfowl

reproduction (US EPA, 2005). Farmers can reduce pollution from irrigation by

improving water use efficiency (US EPA, 2005). They can measure actual crop needs

and apply only the amount of water required (US EPA, 2005). Farmers may also

choose to convert irrigation systems to higher efficiency equipment (US EPA, 2005).

Pesticides. Insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides are used to kill agricultural pests

(US EPA, 2005). These chemicals can enter and contaminate water through direct




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application, runoff, and atmospheric deposition (US EPA, 2005). They can poison fish

and wildlife, contaminate food sources, and destroy the habitat that animals use for

protective cover (US EPA, 2005). To reduce contamination from pesticides, farmers

should use CAP Directive and EU techniques based on the specific soils, climate, pest

history, and crop conditions for a particular field (US EPA, 2005). The CAP Directives

encourages natural barriers and limits pesticide use and manages necessary

applications to minimize pesticide movement from the field.

2.2.3 Risk Assessment

The following flow charts describe Risk Assessment steps for sustainable water

management implementation in agricultural practices like the proposed prototype

Greenhouses, based on international literature and practice (Lovell, 2006).




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2.2.3.1 Water Use Risk Assessment

Are you aware of the

anticipated water volume

required for planned

production?

NO HIGH RISK

YES

Does water availability meet

this requirement? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Is your irrigation system

working to design

specifications? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Is the irrigation scheduling

system in place? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Are there strategies to manage

nutrient input and salinity? NO HIGH RISK

YES

LOW RISK




[21]

2.2.3.2 Irrigation Water Quality Risk Assessment

Has your water been

tested for:

pH, nutrient levels,

salinity, dissolved

oxygen, turbidity

NO

Is the irrigation water known to be:

Acid

High in nitrogen or phosphorus

Saline

Low in dissolved oxygen

Turbid

Are these problems occurring in the region?

NO

LOW RISK

YES

HIGH RISK

YES

Did test results meet

national guidelines?

NO

Is the source of irrigation water

known to be affected by any

other potential risk (heavy

metals, agricultural chemicals etc)

etc)?

NO LOW RISK

YES YES

HIGH RISK




[22]

2.2.3.3 Water Quality Impacts Risk Assessment

Has the risk of soil erosion been

assessed and any necessary

control measures

implemented?

NO HIGH RISK

YES

Are waterstreams passing

through the property protected? NO HIGH RISK

YES Are fertilizers, agricultural

chemicals and fuels stored so as

to minimize the risk of polluting

surface or ground water?

NO HIGH RISK YES

Is the risk of contaminating water

resources addressed when

applying and handling fertilizers,

agricultural chemicals, fuels and

releasing used packing shed

water?

NO HIGH RISK

YES

LOW RISK




[23]

2.3 Chemicals

Agricultural chemicals are widely used in farming, pesticides or plant protection

products (EC, 2012). They fight crop pests and reduce competition from weeds, thus

improving yields and protecting the availability, quality, reliability and price of

production to the benefit of farmers and consumers (EC, 2012). However, their use

does involve risk, because most have inherent properties that can endanger health

and the environment if not used properly (EC, 2012). Human and animal health can

be negatively affected through direct exposure (e.g. industrial workers producing

plant protection products and operators applying them) and indirect exposure (e.g.

via their residues in agricultural produce and drinking water, or by exposure of

bystanders or animals to spray drift when they are applied) (EC, 2012).

Soil and water may be polluted via spray drift, dispersal of pesticides into the soil,

and run-off during or after cleaning of equipment, or via uncontrolled storage and

disposal (EC, 2012). In this context the EU seeks to ensure the correct use of

pesticides or plant protection products and to maintain public awareness (EC, 2012).

In this respect, the Common Agricultural Policy includes measures that help

promoting the sustainability in the use of plant protection products (EC, 2012):

decoupling,

cross-compliance,

operational programs of the fruit and vegetables regime,

agri-environmental measures (e.g. support to integrated farming),

training,

the use of farm advisory services.

Moreover, no pesticide can be used in the EU unless it is scientifically proven that it: (EC, 2012)

Doesn’t harm people's health; Has no unacceptable effects on the environment; Is effective against pests.

Today, farmers are increasingly aware of the complex interrelationships between

agricultural practices and environmental quality (Hamilton et. al., 2006). Modern

farmers now consider the timing of agricultural chemical application and irrigation,

the amount and style of pesticide application, specific crop needs, and local weather

conditions in their pesticide and fertilizer use (Hamilton et. al., 2006).

2.3.1 Storage

Poorly stored pesticides and improper mixing/loading practices can present a

potential risk to our health and to the integrity of the environment (Kennedy, 2012).

The quality of surface water, groundwater and soil can be degraded in areas where


http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/envir/soil/index_en.htm

http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/envir/water/index_en.htm

http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/envir/cross-compliance/index_en.htm

http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/envir/measures/index_en.htm



[24]

pesticides are stored under inappropriate conditions, improperly mixed and loaded

into application tanks and where equipment is washed and rinsed after application

(Kennedy, 2012). Accidents involving spills or leakages may have serious health and

environmental consequences (Kennedy, 2012).

Safety is the key element in pesticide storage (Kennedy, 2012). The safest approach

to any pesticide problem is to limit the amounts and types of pesticides stored

(Kennedy, 2012). The amounts and types of pesticides stored should be maintained

at the level that is immediately required and should not be stored beyond

immediate needs (Kennedy, 2012).

According to Australian Standards for minor storage (<10 kg or L of fumigants),

pesticides should be stored in a dedicated shed or room and not be used for other

than storage or measuring out pesticides (DPIWE, 2004). More specifically, the

following checklists should be followed while planning pesticide storage in a farming

area (DPIWE, 2004):

Site selection:

The site should be located at least:

15 m from the property boundary 10 m from buildings occupied by people or livestock 5 m from watercourses, dams, drainage or sewage lines 3 m from stored flammable materials well above maximum flood level

The site should preferably be:

in an open area with low risk to wild-fires located to have good air circulation and avoid temperature extremes near to the tank mixing and filling area

The site must have access to:

a clean and reliable water supply for tank filling and emergency use

Storage room structure/construction:

structurally sound to wind and weather especially good roof with no leaks fire resistant structure and internal cladding is preferred wall and roof insulation to moderate storage temperature is desirable should have clear access and outward opening doors

The floor:

must be impermeable and preferably graded to aid collection of spills and wash down

must be graded or bounded to contain 25% of the total liquid in the store. Some schemes may require this to be 110% of the possible store contents. Check that doorways and service entry/exits do not compromise containment




[25]

a normally closed pipe feeding an external lime pit for dilute wash down is acceptable

should be clear of fixtures and items to aid a total clean up in the event of a spill

should be non slip for worker safety.

Ventilation:

must be adequate to prevent build up of chemical vapors; both lower vents just above the bund and upper vents in the walls or roof are highly recommended

Lighting:

must be adequate to read labels in and to measure out chemicals; natural light is preferred

Shelving:

must be sturdy and made of non absorbent materials located on the coolest side of store and away from direct sunlight, electrical

and heat sources must be sufficient to avoid stacking and allow ease of use

Water supply:

clean, reliable and capable of 15 minutes continuous flow to wash chemical off any part of the body

Security:

the store must be lockable and kept locked to prevent unauthorized entry

windows and vents must be designed to prevent entry by children or others

only authorized staff should have access to store keys

2.3.2 Application

Pesticide application refers to the practical way in which pesticides (including

herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, or nematode control agents) are delivered to

their biological targets (e.g. pest organism, crop or other plant) (Bateman, 2003).

Public concern about the use of pesticides has highlighted the need to make this

process as efficient as possible, in order to minimize their release into the

environment and human exposure (including operators, bystanders and consumers

of produce) (Bateman, 2003).

Farmers can adopt “low-input” production methods, although usually they avoid

these methods because they ignore agrichemical use external costs, especially

environmental damage, and because of possible lack of information describing low-

input farming techniques and government support (Fleming, 1987).

Pest control should be initiated only when a pest is causing or is expected to cause

more harm than is reasonable to accept (UK, 2005). Then, each euro spent for pest


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbicide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungicide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecticide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematode

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pest_%28organism%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crop



[26]

control should return several euros in reduced losses or quality (UK, 2005). Often,

low or moderate pest numbers will not cause damage or economic loss. In these

cases, the cost of control is greater than the amount of damage that the pest would

cause (UK, 2005). When control is justified, an effective strategy should be selected

that is safe for the applicator and poses minimum potential harm to the

environment (UK, 2005).

The use of pesticides can threaten human health, the environment and wildlife; thus,

the decision to use a pesticide should only be taken when all other alternative

control measures have been fully considered (FAO, 2001). The three general pest

control goals are prevention, suppression, or eradication and it is important to select

the most appropriate one for every situation (UK, 2005). Integrated Pest

Management (IPM) is the combination of several appropriate pest control tactics

into a single plan to reduce pests and their damage to an acceptable level (UK,

2005). IPM, as described in the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution

and Use of Pesticides (FAO 1990 in FAO, 2001), offers a pest management system

that combines all appropriate control techniques to effect satisfactory results.

Pesticides are important tools to reduce outbreaks but continued reliance on them

can be very expensive and may lead to resistance to pesticides, outbreaks of other

pests, or harm to non-target or beneficial organisms (UK, 2005). With some pests,

using pesticides alone will not achieve adequate control (UK, 2005). The proposed

steps for the implementation of IPM according to international literature and

practice, include (UK, 2005):

Identify the pest or pests and determine whether or not control is needed.

Determine your pest control goal – suppression, eradication.

Evaluate the alternatives and select one that will be most effective and will

cause the least harm to people and the environment.

Evaluate the results and adjust your strategy as needed.

Pest control can fail for any of a variety of reasons and in the context of an IPM plan,

failures should be reviewed in order to try to determine what went wrong and

implement appropriate remediation and prevention measures (UK, 2005). More

specifically, the following checklist should be take into account (UK, 2005):

Was the pest identified correctly? Sometimes a pesticide application fails

because the pest was not identified correctly and the wrong pesticide was

chosen or was applied at the wrong time.

Was the pesticide rate used? Lack of calibration or faulty spray equipment

can cause control failures.

Was the application timed correctly? Sometimes the pests are too large to be

controlled by a pesticide or in a less susceptible stage. In other cases, the

damage is already done and killing the pest has no impact on the problem.




[27]

What were weather conditions before and after application? Weather can

impact pest control. Rain may wash off pesticide residues before the product

can work. Poor growing conditions may keep herbicides from being effective.

2.3.3 Disposal

Improper disposal of pesticides, rinsates and containers can cause water and soil

pollution either through surface runoff or through leaching (UK, 2005). Runoff and

leaching may occur when too much liquid pesticide is applied, leaked, or spilled onto

a surface, or too much rainwater, irrigation water, or other water gets onto a surface

containing pesticide residue (UK, 2005).

Runoff water may travel into drainage ditches, streams, ponds, or other surface

water where pesticide residues can be carried great distances offsite, while

pesticides that leach downward through the soil in the sometimes reach ground

water. (UK, 2005). Runoff water in the greenhouse may get into floor drains or other

drains and into the domestic water system (UK, 2005). In a greenhouse, pesticides

may leach through the soil or other planting medium to floors or benches below (UK,

2005).

Apart from water and soil contamination, pesticide runoff may harm fish and other

aquatic animals and plants in ponds, streams and lakes (UK, 2005). Aquatic life also

can be harmed by careless tank filling or draining and by rinsing or discarding used

containers along or in waterways (UK, 2005). Typical pesticide labeling statements

that alert users to these concerns and must be carefully followed, include (UK, 2005):

"Do not apply this product or allow it to drift to blooming crops or weeds if bees are

visiting the treatment area."

"Extremely toxic to aquatic organisms. Do not contaminate water by cleaning of

equipment or waste disposal."

Wildlife exposure to pesticides either directly through feeding and direct exposure or

indirectly through run off, leaching or soil contamination, may lead to accumulation

of certain toxic substances within the food chain (UK, 2005). Therefore, a careful IPM

plan must be implemented and pesticide disposal must follow product instructions

and labeling as well as measures proposed in the CAP Directives and Greek

legislation on pesticide use and dangerous toxic waste disposal.

2.3.4 Spray drift

The drift of spray and dust from pesticide applications can expose people, wildlife,

and the environment to pesticide residues, causing both health and environmental

problems (US EPA, 2009). Therefore, when using an approved pesticide, the

objective is to distribute the correct dose to a defined target with the minimum of




[28]

wastage due to drift using the most appropriate spraying equipment (FAO, 2001).

Pesticides only give acceptable field results if they are delivered safely and precisely

(FAO, 2001). Unlike other field operations, the results from poor spraying may not

become apparent for some time, thus it is essential that those involved in pesticide

selection and use are fully aware of their responsibilities and obligations, and are

trained in pesticide use and application (FAO, 2001).

2.3.4.1 Operator training

Operators of spray equipment must receive suitable training before handling and

applying pesticides (FAO, 2001). Training should be provided by a recognized

provider and courses are frequently offered by local training groups, agricultural

colleges, government extension departments, spray equipment manufacturers and

the chemical industry (FAO, 2001). The satisfactory completion of a course may

result in a recognized certificate of competence to cover:

safe product handling,

delivery of the product to the target

instruction on using the relevant spray equipment.

2.3.4.2 Spray equipment selection

The selection of appropriate and suitable spray equipment is essential safe and

effective pesticide use (FAO, 2001). International and national equipment testing

schemes have been established in many countries where after thorough testing

under laboratory and field situations, sprayers are given certificates of approval

(FAO, 2001). Where testing is not in place equipment manufacturers can be required

to confirm that a sprayer complies with the requirements in countries where testing

is mandatory or the equipment meets the appropriate FAO guidelines (FAO, 2001).

Equally important when selecting spraying equipment is access to spare parts,

service and support facilities (FAO, 2001).m Ideally, equipment selection should not

be based primarily on cost; safety, design, comfort and ease of use must be major

considerations, and ease of maintenance must be a high priority (FAO, 2001).

Knapsack sprayer maintenance should require only simple tools (FAO, 2001). The

combination of operator training to a recognized standard, combined with the

selection of appropriate spray equipment will contribute to improving the accuracy

of pesticide delivery as well as protecting the environment (FAO, 2001).

2.3.4.3 Correct use

Pesticides should only be used if there is an economically important need and all

pesticides must be used strictly in accordance with their label recommendation

(FAO, 2001). Product selection must assess potential exposure hazard of the selected




[29]

formulation and determine what control measures and dose rates the label

recommendations advocate (FAO, 2001).

2.3.4.4 Managing operator exposure

The use of Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE) is essential for protecting operator

health and advice on its use will be found on the product label (FAO, 2001). Effective

health monitoring records will be able to provide early warnings and identify

changes in operator health, which may be attributed to working with pesticides

(FAO, 2001).

The public must be safeguarded as well, both during, and after spraying, for example

where they might have access to a treated area (FAO, 2001). Maybe livestock also

ought to be prevented from re-entering treated areas immediately after spraying

(FAO, 2001).

The following flow charts describe Risk Assessment steps for sustainable pesticide

implementation based on international literature and practice (Lovell, 2006).




[30]

2.3.5 Chemical use risk assessment

Have you investigated

alternatives or environmentally

friendlier options? NO HIGH RISK

YES Are chemicals, fuels and soil

stored safely and according to

law, including an appropriate

spill kit?

NO HIGH RISK

YES

Are chemical mixing facilities

designed to contain / prevent

spread of any spillage? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Are strategies in place to

minimize spray drift? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Do you use: agricultural,

cleaning, sanitizing chemicals,

fuels, oils? NO

YES

LOW

RISK




[31]

LOW RISK

Is the personnel working with

chemicals appropriately trained

and are chemicals applied safely

effectively and according to

legislation?

NO HIGH RISK

YES

Are surplus chemicals (spray

and tank washing) and obsolete

chemicals disposed of safely

and according to legislation?

NO HIGH RISK

YES Are empty chemical containers

(including plastic and metal

drums and paper and plastic

bags) stored and disposed of

safely and according to law?

NO HIGH RISK

YES




[32]

2.3.6 Spray drift risk assessment

Is wind speed between 3

and 15 Km/h?

AND

Is temperature lower than

30oC?

AND

Is relative humidity

moderate (40-100%)?

NO

Are there neighbors or other crops nearby?

NO

LOW RISK

YES

HIGH RISK

YES

Are there sensitive

environmental areas

nearby (wetlands,

natura sites, national

park, special habitats))?

NO

YES

HIGH RISK

HIGH RISK




[33]

2.4 Fertilizers - Nutrients

Agricultural production increases in the next three decades are to be no smaller in

absolute terms than those of the past three decades, although growth rates will be

significantly lower (Alexandratos, 2003). These future increases must be achieved

starting from a resource base that is much more stretched than in the past

(Alexandratos, 2003). Given the scarcities of suitable agricultural land in several

developing countries, a good part of the required production will stem from

increasing output per ha cultivated (Alexandratos, 2003). Therefore, agriculture will

become more intensive and the use of fertilizers must be more efficient and

environmentally friendly.

Intensive fertilizer application is linked to nutrient input in runoff and leaching,

which may lead to water body eutrophication, soil acidification and potential soil and

water contamination with nitrates (Alexandratos, 2003). Elements such as nitrogen

and phosphorus found in fertilizers can cause algae blooms and excess plant growth

in water bodies, which in turn can lead to oxygen depletion and toxic conditions in

aquatic habitats (Alexandratos, 2003). Nitrates leaching into ground water resources

is of great concern because they contribute to the "blue baby" syndrome in drinking

water (Alexandratos, 2003).

Any fertilizer in any form, whether organic or synthetic, can harm the environment if

misused. Whether you're using cow manure or commercial fertilizer, you need to

take precautions to protect the environment (EnviroGreen, 2012). There are several

things to keep in mind when using fertilizers, described as follows (EnviroGreen,

2012):

1) Get the soil tested regularly - Soil testing is the only way that will know what

nutrients are in the soil. If there are sufficient amounts of elements such as

phosphorus, then there is no need in applying extra phosphorus.

2) Know the nutrient needs of crop - If the crop only needs 1/2 pound of

nitrogen per thousand square feet, then only apply 1/2 pound of nitrogen per

thousand square feet. Any more than this will not do any good and will most

likely not be used. Unused fertilizer can be washed away into lakes, rivers and

streams or leached into ground water. Study the crop and learn about its

nutrient needs. Use this knowledge plus information from soil test to

determine the amount of fertilizer to apply.

3) Apply at the proper time - Know when the crop needs to be fertilized. There

is no need to apply fertilizer when the crop will not use it. Again, this unused

fertilizer can be washed away or leached before the plant can use it.

4) Take extra precautions on slopes - Applying fertilizers on slopes can lead to

the washing away of nutrients. This is how most of these nutrients wind up

into our surface waters. Take precautions to control runoff from property. Do




[34]

not allow fertilizer to drift onto the streets because this fertilizer will certainly

make its way into the storm drains. Above all, control soil erosion. Elements

that are tightly held by the soil, make their way into the surface waters on

soil that is washed away. Phosphorus is an example of this type of element.

5) If you use organic fertilizer sources, have them tested - Like the soil, the only

way that you can know what is in your organic fertilizer source is to have it

tested and the only way to know how much organic fertilizer to apply is to

know what is in it. The nutrient contents of organic materials vary

considerably, therefore information on average contents of individual

materials are not always reliable.

6) Apply fertilizers only to healthy plants or reduce the amount to unhealthy

plants - An unhealthy plant or in the case of a crop, poor plant stand, is not

going to use as much nutrient as a healthy crop. Applying the same amount

of fertilizer to an unhealthy plant can lead to unused fertilizer and can also

harm the plant. Find out what is causing the problem. Fertilizer may not be

the solution and if applied, could lead to polluting the environment.

7) Store your fertilizer materials properly - Keep fertilizer sources from being

washed away by rains. Keep them under a shelter and off of the ground so

the nutrients want get caught in rain water runoff.

8) Plant debris and compost is a source of nutrients - Remember that crop

residue left over from last year, mulch and compost contain plant nutrients.

These nutrients can also get into the environment as well. When deciding the

amount of fertilizer to apply, take into consideration the nutrients from these

sources and reduce the amount of fertilizer.

9) Break up fertilizer applications on sandy soils - Nutrients leach very readily on

sandy soils. If apply more than the plant can use at the time, one good rain or

irrigation can leach the nutrients down below the plant roots before it can

use them. On sandy soils, break up fertilizer applications into several smaller

applications instead of a few larger applications.

10) Follow up fertilizer applications with a light irrigation - A light irrigation is

good to activate the fertilizer, but a heavy rain or irrigation can leach or wash

away nutrients. Keep this in mind when applying fertilizer.

The following flow charts describe Risk Assessment steps for sustainable nutrient

and fertilizer management based on international literature and practice (Lovell,

2006).




[35]

2.4.1 Nutrient management risk assessment

LOW RISK

RISK

Do you know the type and

quantity of nutrients your crop

needs? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Do you know what nutrients are available to

your crop from your soil/substrate? Take into

account:

Major and minor nutrients Soil texture, ph, salinity, organic matter and crop residues Quality of irrigation water

NO HIGH RISK

YES

Are you losing nutrients

through leaching, surface water

runoff, wind erosion? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Are fertilizer applications/soil amendments causing

other environmental pollution such as heavy metal

contamination or soil acidification? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Have you developed a nutrient

budget, farm budget nutrition? YES HIGH RISK NO




[36]

2.4.2 Fertilizer application risk assessment

LOW RISK

RISK

Are fertilizer application

methods and timing chosen to

maximize benefit to the crops

and minimize potential negative

environmental impacts?

Consider: runoff, leaching,

volatilization

NO HIGH RISK

YES

Is fertilizer application equipment:

Calibrated and maintained? Checked for accuracy of distribution?

NO HIGH RISK

YES




[37]

2.5 Biodiversity

Despite the fundamental importance of biodiversity and ecosystem services to the

Earth’s functioning and to human society, human activities are driving the loss of

biodiversity at an unprecedented rate, up to 1,000 times the natural rate of species

loss (UNEP, 2008). And despite the specific importance of crop and livestock

diversity, and of associated agricultural biodiversity, advances in agricultural

production over recent decades have been achieved largely without major regard to

the erosion of biodiversity (UNEP, 2008).

The biggest driver of terrestrial biodiversity loss in the past 50 years has been habitat

conversion, in large part due to conversion of natural and semi-natural landscapes to

agriculture (UNEP, 2008). Nutrient loading, particularly of nitrogen and phosphorus,

much of which derived from fertilizers and farm effluent, is one of the biggest drivers

of ecosystem change in terrestrial, freshwater and coastal ecosystems (UNEP, 2008).

Climate change is projected to become a major driver of biodiversity loss as well as a

serious challenge to agriculture, whose response, to adapt, will draw upon the

genetic diversity of crops and livestock and the services provided by other

components of agricultural biodiversity (UNEP, 2008).

Many modern practices and approaches to agriculture intensification aiming at

achieving high yields have led to a simplification of the components of agricultural

systems and biodiversity and to ecologically unstable production systems (UNEP,

2008). These include use of monocultures with reduction in cropping diversity and

elimination of crop succession or rotation; use of high-yielding varieties and hybrids

with the loss of traditional varieties and diversity together with a need for high

inputs of inorganic fertilizer; control of weeds, pests and diseases based on chemical

(herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides) treatments rather than mechanical or

biological methods (UNEP, 2008).

Land and habitat conversion to large-scale agricultural production, including

drainage of land and conversion of wetlands has also caused significant loss of

biodiversity (UNEP, 2008). The homogenization of farming landscape with

elimination of natural areas, including hedgerows, woodlots and wetlands, to

achieve larger scale production units for large-scale mechanized production has also

led to decline in biodiversity and ecological services (UNEP, 2008).

The following flow chart describes Risk Assessment steps for sustainable biodiversity

management in agricultural practices based on international literature and practice

(Lovell, 2006).




[38]

2.5.1 Biodiversity risk assessment

LOW RISK

RISK

Are there areas that are

degraded / overrun with exotic

species like lantana, blackberry,

and willow?

NO

HIGH RISK Is there any native vegetation in

your farm?

YES HIGH RISK

YES

Are there areas managed to protect the habitat?

Fenced, spray drift minimized, misapplication of

fertilizer minimized, burning/fire risk, exotic pests NO HIGH RISK

YES

Is there any area where native vegetation could be

established or that includes protected species?

Unsuitable for horticultural production, along access

roads, swappy or waterlogged land, steep slopes

YES HIGH RISK

NO

NO

LOW RISK

RISK

DON’T KNOW

OR UNSURE




[39]

2.6 Waste

Agricultural waste is any substance or object from premises used for agriculture or

horticulture, which the holder discards, intends to discard or is required to discard. It

is waste specifically generated by agricultural activities (UK EA, 2012). For example,

waste which came from a farm shop or a vegetable packing plant would not be

agricultural waste (UK EA, 2012). Some examples of agricultural waste are: (UK EA,

2012):

empty pesticide containers old silage wrap out of date medicines and wormers used tires surplus milk manure sewage sludge organic

Agricultural waste can be spread on land for many reasons. For example, wastes like

organic compost, digestive and food processing can reduce requirements for

manufactured fertilizers (UK EA, 2008). Other wastes can be used to improve the soil

by increasing organic matter content and soil structure (UK EA, 2008). Although the

use of waste as a fertilizer can provide significant benefits, if done incorrectly severe

impacts could be caused on the food chain, soil health, surface water and

groundwater and to sensitive habitats and species (UK EA, 2008). If waste is used as

as a soil improver or fertilizer it must be spread either in accordance with a

registered waste exemption or in accordance with an environmental permit (UK EA,

2008).

Activities involving waste storage, recycling or disposal generally require an

Environmental Permit, however some waste activities pose less of a risk to the

environment and human health so are exempt from requiring an environmental

permit (UK EA, 2008).

The following flow chart describes Risk Assessment steps for sustainable waste

management in agricultural practices, based on international literature and practice

(Lovell, 2006).




[40]

2.6.1 Waste risk assessment

LOW RISK

Can you identify the waste in

your farm?

NO HIGH RISK

YES

Can any of these products be

avoided? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Change inputs and/or practices

to minimize waste NO HIGH RISK

YES




[41]

2.7 Air - Noise

Air pollution issues, particularly odors, dust, smoke and noise, can often be of most significance to immediate residencies (Lovell, 2006). Primary producers need to recognize that some activities can negatively impact neighbors and that at times it may be appropriate to adjust activities as far as reasonable to minimize the impact (Lovell, 2006).

2.7.1 Odor management

Odors can be caused by animal manures, fertilizers and chemicals, waste disposal

sites, composting sites and activities, mulches and waste management equipment

(Lovell, 2006). Therefore cultivation practices must be chose carefully (Lovell, 2006):

Working soil to fine tilth in dry windy weather should be avoided if possible. Pre-irrigation to wet dry soil before cultivation will help to reduce dust.

Use slower cultivation speeds when there is a risk of dust. Uncultivated crop stubble provides protection against wind erosion. Minimize the amount of time soil is left without vegetation or a cover crop. Minimum tillage techniques should be used where practical. Inter-row spacing and headlands should have groundcover whenever

possible.

2.7.2 Dust management

Excessive dust can cause annoyance and in some cases health problems to neighbors

and staff (Lovell, 2006). Dust created around packing sheds can also settle on packed

produce, affecting visual quality and potentially having food safety implications

(Lovell, 2006). The combination of soil type, farming system and weather patterns

contributes to the risk of soil erosion by wind (Lovell, 2006).

Applying mulches to the surface of seedbeds after drilling on sandy soils is an

effective control measure (Lovell, 2006). Use of plastic mulch along plant rows will

also contribute to dust control (Lovell, 2006). Wetting down, sealing and use of

‘minimal dust materials’ (for example blue metal or hardstand) for the surfaces of

frequently used traffic ways (transport delivery and pickup areas, harvested produce

delivery points and forklift routes at the packing shed) will dramatically reduce the

dust problem (Lovell, 2006). Do not apply oil to traffic-ways due to the potential for

it to end up in waterways (Lovell, 2006).

2.7.3 Noise management

Noise many not seem like an environmental management issue for growers,

however Greek legislation for environmental protection includes noise as part of the

definition of the environment. For this reason, noise management is included in the

environmental assurance process for horticultural businesses.




[42]

Suggested practices include (Lovell, 2006):

Identify and consider local government regulations.

Buffer zones are useful to reduce noise and are also helpful to mitigate

impacts of off-target spray application.

Where pumps are located close to residential areas, consider changing from

diesel to electric pumps or creating a sound barrier around the pump. Electric

pumps will most likely be run at night time, when electricity tariffs are lower.

Consider muffling equipment where daytime intermittent noise levels are

excessive. Where normal methods are not sufficient to reduce noise to

acceptable levels, equipment that is continuously operated may require

soundproofing or artificial mounds to help absorb and deflect the noise.

Some forms of seasonal activity, or current and accepted industry practice

like harvesting, may require the use of machinery at night. Where sensitive

places are close to noise and night-time activities occur, consider starting

work closer to the sensitive area and moving away as night falls. The

converse applies for early morning activities.

The following flow charts describe Risk Assessment steps for sustainable odor, dust,

smoke, noise and greenhouse gas emissions management in agricultural practices,

based on international literature and practice (Lovell, 2006).




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2.7.4 Odor management risk assessment

LOW RISK

Do you:

Store manure, fertilizers,

chemical?

Have a produced waste site?

Have other unpleasant odor

producing activities?

NO

YES

Could the activity cause concern

to family, employees, neighbors

or community?

NO

YES

HIGH RISK

LOW RISK




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2.7.5 Dust management risk assessment

LOW RISK

YES

Do any of the following apply to the site?

Soil type is lite to erosion,

Cropping/harvesting activity will leave soil

exposed during windy weather

Site is particularly exposed

NO

HIGH RISK




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2.7.6 Smoke management risk assessment

LOW RISK

YES

Do you burn your waste? NO

HIGH RISK

Are there disposal options other

than burning?

YES

NO HIGH RISK




[46]

2.7.7 Noise management risk assessment

LOW RISK

Does the operation generate

excessive noise?

NO

YES

Are there neighbors close to the

operation? NO

YES

Is the operation running during

sensitive times (e.g. between 10

am and 6 pm, or on weekends)? NO HIGH RISK

YES

LOW RISK

Are there sensitive environmental

areas, particularly with are or

endangered fauna, close to the

operation?

NO

NO




[47]

2.7.8 Greenhouse gases management risk assessment

LOW RISK

YES

Do you:

Undertake regular maintenance of all

equipment, particularly that requiring fossil

fuels and CFCs?

Regularly check insulation?

Strategically apply nitrogenous fertilizers?

Minimize unnecessary journeys and

cultivation passes

NO HIGH RISK




[48]

2.8 Energy

Agricultural and horticultural businesses carry out a wide range of different activities

but there are many common areas where energy is wasted (Lichfield District Council,

2012). There are several low and no-cost measures, as well as those requiring

investment, that farming businesses can put into place to lower energy consumption

and save money (Lichfield District Council, 2012).

Across all farming businesses, the major areas of energy consumption are lighting,

heating, ventilation, air circulation and refrigeration (Lichfield District Council, 2012).

The main areas of energy consumption by broad agricultural activity are (Lichfield

District Council, 2012):

horticulture heating typically accounts for 90 per cent of the energy used in a

greenhouse

pig farming - energy is used in a number of pig farming processes, including welfare and feeding systems, building services and environmental protection, waste management and emissions control

poultry farming - most energy is used for maintaining good environmental conditions for housing the flock

dairy - cooling milk and heating water account for as much as 65 per cent of the energy used, with lighting and pumping also significant consumers

crop stores - the amount of energy required by a crop store is closely linked to the thickness of the insulation and the difference between the storage temperature and the temperature outside

combinable crops - energy is often wasted in storing and drying these crops




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2.8.1 Energy management risk assessment

LOW RISK

Do you monitor the amount of

electricity and fuel you use and

the use to which it is put? NO

YES

Are you using the most efficient

and practical energy source? NO

YES Are these things you can do to

minimize the energy usage of

your operation? YES HIGH RISK

NO

HIGH RISK

HIGH RISK




[50]

3 Environmental impact assessment and control

procedures

3.1 Soil treatment

Tillage is a means to an end and not an end in itself. It prepares the field for the next crop, for seeding, to destroy and cover unwanted plants, to ensure proper aoil drainage and aeration. Bare cultivated soil is vulnerable to wind and water erosion. Therefore, soil treatment must be as limited as possible with the necessary interventions. Excessive tillage increases required energy, inducing large and unnecessary fuel consumption, and also has negative impacts on the soil. In order to maximize tillage benefits and minimize its negative impacts, the following measure will be followed:

The type of crop, soil and agricultural machinery available should be taken into account before tillage. Provision should be taken, for fewer interventions.

Process should take place when the soil is in the "right state for cultivation", i.e. after the first autumn rains. It is desirable to avoid summer plowing, unless it is necessary for perennial weed Control.

Avoid deep tillage below 40 cm, unless it is needed for weed eradication and breaking deep-root impenetrable soil horizon. In the case of deep tillage, due to breakage the reversal soil should not be impenetrable.

Where there is danger of flooding a special method will be used that assures leveling plots using reversible plows.

When slopes are greater than 10%, plowing must be either parallel to the contours or diagonal. Embankments created during contour plowing should be diagonal (uncultivated areas with vegetative cover) with a range of 1-2 m.

Uncultivated soil between parcels and hedges, as well as the natural vegetation of gullies and neighboring forests must be preserved.

Interventions involving water stream rerouting must be implemented only when needed and after appropriate authorization by government authorities.

3.1.1 Crop rotation

Crop rotation is the process of growing different types of crops in the same field in

sequential seasons. It is one of the oldest and most effective cultural control

strategies (PAN Germany, 2012). The succeeding crop belongs to a different family

than the previous one (PAN Germany, 2012). Planned rotation may vary from 2 or 3

year or longer period (PAN Germany, 2012). Some insect pests and disease-causing

organisms are hosts’ specific, therefore crop rotation can contribute significantly to

pest control. Moreover, crop rotation (PAN Germany, 2012):

1. Prevents soil depletion. 2. Maintains soil fertility.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crop_%28agriculture%29



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3. Reduces soil erosion. 4. Controls insect/mite pests. The process is most effective when pests present

before the crop is planted with no wide range of host crops; attack only annual/biennial crops; and do not have the ability to fly from one field to another.

5. Reduces reliance on synthetic chemicals. 6. Reduces the pests' build-up. 7. Prevents diseases. 8. Helps weed control.

3.1.2 Objective – to minimize the potential for water to erode soil


Maintaining soil cover: Soil cover protects the soil from erosion by reducing

the displacement (movement) of soil particles caused by rain or overhead

irrigation droplets, and by slowing the movement of water across the site.

Types of soil cover include:

grassed waterways on drainage and sump areas;

inter-row groundcovers in orchards, vineyards and ground crops;

green manure/cover crops planted between (in space and time)

commercial crops;

organic mulches, plastic, slashed inter-row material or crop residues

spread over the exposed soil; and

products such as PAM (polyacrylamide), PVA (polyvinyl acetate) or

molasses which bind soil together.

Managing soil cover:

avoiding soil tillage (where possible) during times of the year when

heavy rainfall events are likely, especially in tropical areas;

avoiding cultivation of light sandy soils subject to regular flooding; using minimum tillage systems that minimize mechanical disturbance

of the soil; using permanent bed systems that improve soil structure and soil

stability through maintaining or improving soil organic matter levels; planting green manure or cover crops during the period between

commercial crops to cover the soil and increase soil organic matter levels for improved soil structure, stability and fertility;

under sowing or planting in the inter-row area at the same time as commercial crops;

leaving crop residues (where possible) on site until the site is next required;

minimizing the time soil is left exposed between harvest and planting of the next crop; and

establishing permanent grass or vegetation cover on areas that are not cropped.




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Controlling run-off water: Controlling the direction of flow, volume and speed of run-off water on site can minimize soil erosion. Long, gentle slopes are just as prone as short, steep slopes. Good planning and drainage design before planting can prevent problems later.

Improving soil structure: Adding organic matter increases soil resistance to erosion. Organic matter can either be left on the soil surface as a mulch or incorporated into the soil to improve soil organic matter levels and soil structure.

Establishing sediment traps: Sediment traps or ponds (also called silt traps or ponds/sediment retention basins) aim to hold run-off water long enough to allow soil particles to settle. They can be small ponds or weirs, or large dams that capture and re-use run-off water. Artificially constructed wetland systems may be established to capture sediment and remove the nutrient in run-off waters.

Monitoring and recording - Visual inspection: Immediately after a rainfall event, go and have a look at how run-off is flowing across the farm. Is erosion occurring? How dirty (turbid) is the water?

Assessing water turbidity: In addition to a visual inspection of water leaving the property or returning to farm dams, a turbidity tube can be made and used to gauge basic changes in water turbidity. Turbidity meters are also available for more precise assessments.

Assessing soil erosion losses: Place a piece of 100x50 mm timber, or similar, on the ground and, over time, look at the amount of soil that accumulates behind it.

3.1.3 Objective – to minimize the potential for wind to erode soil


Maintaining soil cover: Soil cover protects the soil from erosion by minimizing soil exposure to the physical force of the wind.

Managing soil cover.

Moderating wind speed.

Improving soil structure. o Plenty of organic matter in the soil will strengthen soil structure and

make it less prone to wind erosion.

Monitoring and recording – Visual inspection: Wind erosion can be visually assessed – have a look at an exposed site with light soils on a windy day. However, the effects of erosion are often subtle and require an extended period of time to become obvious. In this case it may not be possible to clearly distinguish between the causes of erosion, but an understanding of your own property, soil type and weather patterns should help you determine the most significant influences so that appropriate control measures can be instigated.

Assessing soil erosion losses: Measuring wind erosion can be difficult because

of its patchy nature.




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Irrigation can be applied immediately prior to, or during, wind events to increase the cohesion between soil particles, thereby reducing erosion (Lovell, 2006). Cultivating so as to leave a rough, raised and very uneven surface.

Planning when setting up new sites, particularly where major ground works are concerned, should include consideration of the likelihood of wind extremes and managing or avoiding the periods when they are likely to occur. Using remnant vegetation or shelter belts within or adjacent to the new site can minimize soil erosion.

3.1.4 Objective – soil structure suitable for root growth, water infiltration,

aeration and drainage needs of the crop.


Cultivation method: Most tillage for fruit and vegetable crops occurs prior to planting to enable suitable contact between the soil and the planted material. This primary tillage is an important part of initial land preparation and cannot really be avoided. Secondary tillage operations should be minimized where possible.

Cultivation timing: The soil moisture content during tillage has an important effect on soil structure. Where the water content is too great, the soil acts like plasticine, smearing and compacting with tillage and traffic. Don’t go onto paddocks with machinery when the soil is wet. Similarly, soils can be too dry to work, requiring excessive amounts of energy to produce a seed bed.

Remedial action: If a hard pan or compaction layer is present, then additional cultivation may be needed depending on whether the cause is cultural or due to sodicity. If the condition is not due to sodicity, cross-ripping under the correct soil moisture levels will help to shatter the pan, loosening and breaking clods that will break down further when exposed to the weather. Increasing organic matter: Increasing organic matter through use of

crop rotations and green manure crops promotes good soil structure. Stubbles and crop residues can also be returned to the soil.

Crop rotation: Using rotations and green manure crops will provide short-term soil structure benefits through better soil aggregation. This helps optimize the soil’s water-holding capacity, ability to hold nutrients, workability and water infiltration.

Monitoring and recording: Soil compaction can be assessed by determining how difficult it is to dig. The assessment should bear in mind any short-term tillage and effects of soil moisture.

Penetrometer (screwdriver) test: A simple test of compaction is to see how far you can push a screwdriver into the soil using reasonable. It is a way of simulating the difficulty that roots have pushing through the soil. Try it after decent rainfall or irrigation.

Visual assessment: Soil compaction affects the ability of plant roots to penetrate the soil and root systems are often stunted. Dig up some plants and assess their root systems and also assess the overall vigor of the plants.




[54]

Stunted or sharply-bent roots mean small, feeble, low-yielding plants that are prone to drought. It can be useful to compare roots from different areas, such as under fence lines where compaction may be less. Take a closer look at the clods and aggregates. Many large clods mean the soil will need to be kept wetter to allow roots to penetrate. Sharp angular aggregates with smooth faces indicate poor structure. Well-structured soils have a range of aggregate sizes (2-10 mm), with irregular or rounded shapes and porous faces.

3.2 Water

Water resources are now considered essential for developing any kind of activity and

the maintenance of ecological balance and life in general. In recent decades the

rapid development of agriculture, resulted in increasing water demands, which

combined with reckless use and pollution have caused serious problems for future

development and sustainability. Future development depends both on the quality

and quantity of irrigation water. As a minimum contribution farmers must

implement and follow all necessary precautions for water resources protection and

efficient management.

Water management considers both the crop’s water demand and the amount of

water available. It also involves management of irrigation to maximize efficient use

of water applied (Lovell, 2006). Drainage water and run-off also need to be managed

to avoid any impact, such as nutrient pollution, on groundwater or waterways and

wetlands (Lovell, 2006). Irrigation efficiency is a term that helps define the

proportion of irrigation water that is actually taken up and used by the crop.

Improvement in irrigation efficiency is normally associated with water savings,

production gains and better long term environmental management. (Lovell, 2006).

Irrigation efficiency is determined by irrigation management factors such as (Lovell,

2006):

ensuring irrigation systems are operating to design specification and applying

water as evenly as possible;

ability to time, or schedule irrigation, based upon crop water needs; and

clear understanding of soils’ water holding, infiltration and drainage capacity.

In order to manage irrigation efficiently, a number of management practices need to

be considered, starting with an understanding of water availability and crop

requirements (Lovell, 2006). There are nine basic steps involved in the efficient

management of irrigation:

Identify: define property goals and implications for water management

Plan

Know your soils




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Design the most suitable irrigation system

Develop a farm water budget

Know your water supply/ies

Do

Determine a basic irrigation schedule

Implement strategies to manage nutrient input and salinity

Monitoring and recording

Monitor, record and evaluate

Check irrigation system performance

3.2.1 Irrigation methods

Surface irrigation with ditches: This method is used for crops such as cotton, maize

vegetables and others. For the success of this type of irrigation the crops must be

sown linearly. This method has significant disadvantages:

high water consumption

nutrient leaching

uneven watering

The aforementioned disadvantages appear more intense in sandy soils, where field slopes are greater than 2-3% increasing surface runoff.

Artificial rain: With this system, water is applied on the field evenly. The rate of

irrigation should be the same as the rate at which the soil absorbs water in order to

prevent surface runoff. For this purpose, the choice of nozzle and provision of

sprinklers should be done in such a way that the intensity of rain is equal to the soil

infiltration rate and the average hourly rainfall is proportional to height, which

corresponds to the soil type of the field. The timing of irrigation should be such as to

prevent leaching into deeper soil layers.

With this system losses may occur because of wrong timing (noon 11 am-3 pm) due

to evaporation, or uneven watering due to weather conditions (strong wind). With

these conditions it is advisable to avoid irrigation. Artificial rain drops break the

structure of the surface soil with high pressure launchers. This system should be

avoided when irrigation water quality is not good because salts and other residues

can collect on plant leaves and shoots.

Drip Irrigation: This method is applied to a part of the soil and specifically in the area

of the root system. Water injections require very small amounts of water, 2-3 liters

per hour and the water is filtered through the soil without surface runoff. Since

irrigation is repeated daily for 2-3 hours to replace evapotranspiration, deep leaching

is avoided.




[56]

This system ensures: full irrigation control, almost zero nutrient loss, functioning on

sloping lands and where water quality is marginally tolerated. Finally, it allows a

gradual, in proper doses, fertigation application. The only drawbacks is the high

initial purchase cost and the high level expertise required for operation and

maintenance.

3.2.2 Objectives - uniform water application to match crop needs and drainage

impacts managed in accordance with environmental, community and

regulatory standards.


Identify your goals: Your goals will largely depend on the crop(s) you are

growing and desired yield and quality. The property goal can be made up of a

series of block or paddock goals.

Know your soils: A soil survey is a fairly comprehensive analysis of soil types

and their distribution across your property. Soil surveys establish a better

understanding of your soil’s ability to hold water and any potential physical

and chemical limitations to growing your crops in that soil.

Design irrigation systems: Crop production will suffer if the irrigation design

or the irrigation method does not suit your property goals or the soil type.

One of the key aspects of design is to match irrigation delivery with water

demand.

Developing a farm water budget: A farm water budget is about making sure

you have enough water to meet the property goals. Water budgeting helps

determine the amount of water you expect to use over the season and

attempts to match this with intended irrigated crop area so that the

horticultural business can check that planned irrigation needs are within

water entitlements.

Know your water supply: Understanding your water requirements and

reliability of water supply is crucial.

Determine a basic irrigation schedule: Irrigation scheduling includes

determining when and how much to irrigate. Growers have traditionally

relied on their knowledge and experience to schedule irrigation. However

many growers are now using other measures such as soil moisture

monitoring, to fine-tune their irrigation scheduling. Irrigation scheduling can

be done by indirect or direct means.

Implement strategies to manage nutrient input and salinity.

Manage nutrient inputs: For nutrients to reach the crop roots and to

avoid losses from over irrigation, fertilizer should be applied when soils

are close to field capacity, i.e. late in the irrigation run. Over-irrigation

or application of a leaching fraction will wash the nutrients past the

root zone.




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Manage salinity: Soil salinity can potentially reduce production by up to

100% due to reduced plant growth. This is because soil salinity makes it

difficult for crops to obtain water and nutrients from the soil. Affected

plants show similar symptoms to under-watering or can show visual

symptoms such as burning on leaves. Soil salinity can also affect the

biological health of the soil which can have serious long-term effects on

soil fertility. Soil salinity testing should be done regularly to monitor

root-zone salinity.

Monitoring and recording - Monitor, record and evaluate: Monitoring,

measuring and recording activities are essential for the overall management

of the property. A range of factors should be monitored and evaluated but

the following are important:

Monitor crop performance: Keeping records of crop productivity is

important to understand the effects of different irrigation practices.

Measuring and recording yield, quality and maturity for each crop

allows yearly comparisons and evolution against the goal of the

property, and helps to refine management decisions.

Document water budget: Record irrigation schedules, amount of water

applied, rainfall, soil moisture and crop evapotranspiration.

Assessment of economic yield: One measure of irrigation efficiency is

through assessment of economic yield. This can be expressed in gross

income per megalitre ($/ML) and/or production water use efficiency

(tones of produce/ML). While no definitive figures exist for these

criteria, historical on-farm or district comparisons will provide useful

benchmarks.

Monitor water quality: Monitoring the quality of your drainage water

can give an indication of nutrient loss.

Check irrigation system performance: You need to regularly check and

maintain your irrigation system to make sure it is operating correctly and

delivering what it should. If the system is not operating at maximum

efficiency, irrigation scheduling and management strategies, such as

controlling salinity, will not be effective.

3.2.3 Objective – water quality is suitable for its intended use on the property

and does not negatively impact downstream water quality.


Check water source quality: This should be a priority when considering new

enterprises. Good data is often available from your water supply

authority/company/State government agency.




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Check quality of water leaving the farm: It is also worth checking the drainage

and run-off water leaving your own property. How does it compare with the

water upstream or your neighbors? If the water is high in nutrients and

turbidity (water cloudiness) then you should consider how fertilizer

management, soil erosion, protecting watercourses and agricultural chemical

management could be improved.

Protect water quality: Water quality is impacted by activities both on and off

farm. It is important to be aware of on-farm activities that can negatively

affect water quality as this may impact the suitability of the water for use on

the farm as well as having significant environmental impacts. Farm activities

may affect water quality by increasing levels of salts, nutrients, suspended

sediment, chemicals or organic matter.

Protect watercourses: Watercourses such as rivers, creeks and streams as

well as their riparian areas (areas on or near creek and river banks) should be

protected. Areas that have significant protected riparian zones have the

ability to capture and filter soil sediment and soluble nutrients, improving

water quality before it leaves the farm. A strip of undisturbed vegetation

should be left to protect waterways.

Soil erosion: Soil erosion is an important issue for both soil protection and

water quality protection. High turbidity of run-off indicates soil loss is

occurring.

Nutrient management: Nutrient management is important to ensure that the

nutrients applied are either used by the crop (some of which will be exported

off-farm in the harvested product) or safely stored in the soil for the next

crop.

Agricultural chemical management: Agricultural chemicals can contaminate

waterways through inappropriate application and storage.

3.3 Chemicals

Plant protection products use must be justified by the existence of an

infestation/disease/pest/weed and the calculated economic losses it might instigate.

it must follow current legislation). Appropriate product selection must abide with

(CAP Directives), the type of crops infested and the type and size of infestation, or

weed existence. Before implementing an IPM, the following prevention measures

must be followed:

Biological control applied before chemical use

Using resistant to disease or reproductive material disease-free material.

Destruction of overwintering forms of pests and diseases in winter.

Implementation of appropriate crop rotations.




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Monitoring of pests, weeds and diseases in the area, to allow timely pesticide

application.

3.3.1 Storage

Plant protection products must be stored in a special cool and well ventilated and

insulated storage room away from water resources. Furthermore, users should

adhere to the labeling instructions, as well as national legislation incorporating

Directive 91/414/EEC.

3.3.2 Application

In order to prevent environmental impacts from chemical application, the following

measures should be taken:

Application should be as well calculated and as accurate as possible with an

even spray distribution for optimum results with minimum environmental

impacts.

Application should be conducted in such a way as to avoid the emergence of

resistance.

Application of granular formulations, by incorporating grains in the ground to

avoid the risk taken grains from birds, unless the integration reduces

effectiveness.

Maintaining appropriate security zones during application ensuring

protection of adjacent hedges, bird nests, aquatic vegetation, surface waters

and other important environmental data.

Application should be conducted during appropriate periods in order to avoid

impacts on beneficial insects.

Prohibiting the use of toxic substances to bees when plants are blooming.

The spray equipment must be in good condition, well regulated and

monitored at regular intervals.

3.3.3 Objective – agricultural chemicals are used in accordance with labeling or

permit instructions; and all chemicals, including fuels and oils, are stored,

handled, applied and disposed of in a manner that minimizes

environmental impacts.

Suggested practices include:

Minimize application and apply appropriate IPM plan.

Safe storage: Agricultural chemicals can contaminate watercourses if not

stored appropriately. Any new chemical storage should meet the highest

standards of design and construction. Existing chemical sheds may need to be

improved.




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Safe transport: Ensure chemical containers are leak-proof and adequately

secured when transporting on farm or between farms.

Dealing with spills: It is a good idea to have an emergency plan in place to

deal with spills of different chemical groups, in order to be prepared if it ever

happens.

Mixing and application: Responsible use of pesticides and chemicals. Ensure

at least one person in the business has completed an accredited chemical

user’s training course and ensure all staff that apply pesticides have adequate

training.

Minimizing spray drift: There are many strategies to minimize or prevent the

chances of spray drift, starting with how you establish new horticultural sites.

Weather conditions: Wind speed in the spray release zone is an important

factor in determining spray drift. Meteorological measurement of wind speed

is taken 10 m above ground, so care is needed in interpreting weather advice

and actual wind speed at nozzle height.

Protecting water supplies: Ensure pesticide cannot be back-siphoned into the

water supply when filling spray tanks by installing an anti backflow device or

pumping from a separate tank filled from the main water source.

Consider community relations: Disputes involving environmental nuisance

(for example issues related to application of agricultural chemicals, noise or

dust) can lead to a breakdown of good neighborly relations.

Disposal of pesticide containers: Under various State regulations, businesses

are required to dispose of empty chemical containers safely. When

purchasing, ask if used pesticide containers can be reused, returned, refilled

or recycled.

Disposal of surplus spray and washings: Avoid leftover pesticide by carefully

calculating how much is needed for the area to be sprayed.

Disposal of old, de-registered or unwanted pesticide concentrates: Unwanted

chemicals, such as those that are no longer registered for use, should not be

stored on farm for longer than is necessary to arrange for their disposal.

Use and disposal of other chemical products: If rat and mouse baits are used,

ensure they are enclosed in bait stations to prevent native birds and animals

eating them. Dispose of used rodenticides or other pesticide baits, as well as

carcases, in accordance with the product label. If carcases are being buried

and the label does not give any special instructions, take care to bury them so

that there is no risk of polluting surface or groundwater, and where dogs or

native animals will not dig them up. Some bait have been developed that do

not cause secondary poisoning.

Storing and handling fuels and oils: Take reasonable steps to secure

vulnerable tanks against interference; this may be as simple as locking pumps

or taps. Bund above-ground fuel tanks and provide some form of leakage




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protection for underground tanks. Materials for soaking up any spillages

should be available at the storage area.

3.4 Nutrient Management

The frequency of nutrient enrichment operations should be chosen according to the

following factors:

1) Soil texture: Light texture soils require more frequent fertilization than clay

heavy soils.

2) Soil moisture: Irrigated olive trees require more frequent fertilization than

naturally irrigated olive groves.

3.4.1 Instructions for inorganic fertilizer use

When choosing the day for application, the following factors should be considered:

1) Wind speed: Do not fertilize during strong wind blowing.

2) Relative humidity: The application of hygroscopic fertilizer is recommended

during dry days, with low relative humidity.

3) Air temperature: The application of nitrogen fertilizers should be avoided in

hot, dry days, but particularly in calcareous soils.

4) Fertilizer should not be applied at a distance < 5 m from river the banks and

lakes and 0.5 m from irrigation canals, drainage, wells.

3.4.2 Fertilizer application management tools

Fertilizer application is achieved through spraying machines and irrigation.

Fertilizer: The choice of fertilizer is recommended based on their suitability

for a particular use. It should also be kept in good condition with regular

maintenance and control (regulation) uniform application of fertilizer at least

once a year.

Sprayers: The application of foliar fertilizer spraying is done using machines

similar to those used for spraying pesticides.

Irrigation system: The application of water-soluble or liquid fertilizer can be

done through the irrigation system wherever possible.

During fertigation the following measures should be taken in order to minimize

environmental impacts:

Install appropriate filters to prevent the network from blocking due to

insoluble particles of fertilizer, any sediment etc.




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Installation of appropriate check valves to prevent the contamination of

source water from fertilizer.

Diversion of clean water (no fertilizer) at the end of the irrigation system

cleaning.

3.4.3 Fertilizer storage

Fertilizer storage shed should be clean, dry and separate from pesticides and general

agricultural products or food. However, if this is not practical, they should be stored

in a separate area within the shed, distinctively marked for fertilizers. Also, fertilizers

should be stored in bags and storage must be secluded from water sources keeping

minimum distance of 5 m from water bodies, streams, boreholes and wells.

Additionally, especially for liquid fertilizers, measures must be taken outside the

store and the packaging and transportation.

3.4.4 Objective – to effectively manage nutrient inputs to meet crop

requirements and soil characteristics.


Selecting nutrient types and amounts: Objective methods such as soil testing,

plant tissue testing and sap testing, combined with yield data and visual

assessments of crop or tree health, provide the basis for good fertilizer

management. Fertilizers should be applied efficiently, taking seasonal

conditions into account. This means applying just enough nutrients for good

crop growth without providing excess nutrients which may be lost off farm

into groundwater and surface waterways.

Soil and sap testing: Soil testing is a useful way to objectively measure the

nutrient status of your soil. It is a particularly valuable nutrient management

tool before planting a crop or orchard. Ongoing soil testing (say every one to

three years) also provides valuable insights into longer-term trends in soil

properties that may alert managers to developing sustainability problems.

Soil organic carbon decline or the build-up of high available phosphorus levels

are examples of this.

Nutrient budgeting: Nutrient budgeting can help growers better understand

the whole nutrient cycling and transformation system. This can lead to the

design of more sustainable, integrated nutrition strategies.

3.4.5 Objective – to ensure nutrient application methods and timing maximize

benefits to the crop and minimize potential negative environmental

impacts.





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Type, timing and rates of application. Fertilizers need to be applied when

they are most beneficial to the crop. As a general rule, applying small

amounts regularly is less likely to cause off-site losses from leaching and run-

off. Schedule fertilizer applications according to seasonal conditions, cropping

cycle and periods of greatest use by the crop. For instance, young vegetable

crops require small amounts of nutrients until they begin to grow rapidly.

Fertilizer application: Accurate placement of fertilizers helps plants access to

nutrients required. Choose the right equipment and adjust it correctly to

make sure the fertilizer is applied to the area where it will most effective and

it will have the least impact on the environment.

Equipment care and calibration: Brand new spreaders can have poor

spreading patterns, and with use and ‘wear and tear’ even a well-setup

spreader can become inaccurate. Therefore, fertilizer application equipment

needs to be carefully calibrated and maintained to make sure it is capable of

spreading fertilizer evenly at the correct rate.

Storage: All fertilizers including animal manures should be stored in such a

way that nutrient leaching into surface waterways and groundwater is

prevented. Inorganic fertilizers should be stored in a covered area away from

waterways. Manure heaps should also be covered to reduce leaching through

rain.

Disposal of packaging: Used fertilizer packaging should be stored in a manner

that prevents contamination and environmental harm and meets

government waste disposal regulations.

3.5 Biodiversity

3.5.1 Objective – native vegetation, wildlife and ecosystems are appropriately

maintained, managed and where possible and practical, contribute to

regional biodiversity priorities.


Identify native vegetation on your property: An initial assessment should try

to identify any local native vegetation (including naturally occurring trees,

shrubs, herbs and grasses) still left on the farm (exclude plantations and

vegetation established for commercial purposes). Dead trees should be

included as important components as they provide habitat for native animals

and insects. Create an inventory/file of this information.

Consider surrounding properties: No farm works in isolation of its neighbors.

Just because you haven’t found any native vegetation on your property

doesn’t necessarily mean there is no native biodiversity, or that you can




[64]

ignore the impacts your farm operations may have on surrounding

properties. Look for native birds and listen for frogs – chances are both are

present, indicating that suitable habitat is located in surrounding areas.

Assess special importance: Check for plants that are considered

important because of their rarity, they are particularly subject to

threats, or may support other significant features (e.g. as a drought

refuge for native animals).

Check biodiversity laws and regulations.

Assess off-farm impacts and threats: Site development or

redevelopment works need to be assessed for their potential

impacts on the existing environment.

Risk management: The suggested practices for managing biodiversity on

growers’ properties help growers balance production requirements with the

existence of native animals on their land.

Practical management of native vegetation: Once you have found out which

native plants are on your property (including their significance) you will have

some idea about how to priorities your actions to protect them. These

actions may include:

fencing off areas to exclude vehicles, people and stock. Select fence types that enable native animals to have access to natural drinking water sources and to move between habitats;

leaving dead trees standing and logs, branches, twigs and rocks on the ground as homes for birds, insects and other animals; and

not cleaning up places with native vegetation. By not tidying up understory grasses, shrubs and fallen trees, birds and beneficial native animals will have places to hide from introduced predators or competitors or as a food source.

Consider options for increasing on-farm native vegetation: Think about planting windbreaks and shelterbelts using local native species. Shelterbelts and windbreaks may be best placed on the property boundaries and developed with consideration of establishing interconnecting wildlife corridors.

Soil biodiversity: Soils contain many living organisms ranging from

microscopic bacteria and fungi to burrowing animals. All play a part in

maintaining natural soil processes, which are vital for maintaining the

chemical and physical fertility of soil. Biodiversity can be improved in

production areas by strategies such as inter-cropping or alley cropping

(growing two or more crops in the same area), rotations with a range of crops

and cover crops, or by simply being more tolerant of weeds.




[65]

3.6 Energy Management

3.6.1 Objective – energy inputs are known and reduced wherever feasible in the

production system.


3.6.1.1 Irrigation

Pumping water for irrigation is one of the main ways energy is used in horticultural

production.

Growers can use less energy and save costs by carefully choosing the type of

irrigation equipment they use. Keeping irrigation equipment in good condition can

also save energy. Irrigation pump engines should be serviced and well-tuned.

3.6.1.2 Vehicles and equipment

Maintain and service vehicles and equipment regularly to ensure efficient operation.

Well-maintained equipment operates better and costs less to run. This is good both

for business and the environment. Keeping engines tuned can cut greenhouse gas

emissions by up to 15%. It is a good idea to have a regular maintenance program for

all the equipment, machinery and vehicles used on your farm. Maintenance intervals

will vary to suit levels and conditions of use for each vehicle and piece of equipment.

3.6.1.3 Fuel

Try to save fuel. Every liter of petrol or diesel saved greatly lowers greenhouse

emissions and reduces production costs. Keep track of fuel use and set targets for

saving fuel. Another good idea is to switch from diesel/petrol to LPG or compressed

natural gas in cars, trucks and motor bikes. This can cut greenhouse gas emissions by

10 to 15%. Use a percentage of bio fuels, which come from renewable resources.

3.6.1.4 Lighting

By using energy-efficient lighting you can save money and help the environment at

the same time. For example, energy efficient compact fluorescent bulbs have about

one-quarter lower wattage and about eight times the life of standard incandescent

bulbs. This saves energy and lowers maintenance costs. Replacing mercury vapor

yard lights with energy-efficient, high-pressure sodium lights can sometimes greatly

cut electricity usage and costs.




[66]

3.6.1.5 Renewable resources

The efficient use of renewable energy resources such as hydro-electricity, solar or

wind power should be targeted since the use of non-renewable sources, such as

fossil fuel, is not sustainable in the long term.

Minimize use of fossil fuel for power generation, for example:

optimize field operations, including transportation from field to

packhouse,

carefully select equipment, and

ensure proper and timely maintenance of equipment.

Minimize the input of synthetic fertilizers and consider alternative organic

and renewable fertilizer technologies taking into account crop needs,

fertilizer cost and comparative costs (including fuel use) of delivery and

spreading.

Review practicality of best current waste re-use, recycling and disposal

technologies available.




[67]

4 Environmental impact assessment of prototype

“Adapt2Change” greenhouse

4.1 Land and soil

Impacts on soil can be divided into direct and indirect:

Direct: Land occupation from the greenhouse facilities. These impacts are

permanent but of a small scale considering the structures’ dimensions and

light structure. Furthermore, soil quality characteristics will not be altered in

any way, since all agrochemicals and fertilizers will be specially stored and

handled in an appropriately insulated area.

Indirect: According to calculations, production output of a hydroponic system

is 65% higher than regular traditional ground crop production. This might

have an indirect long term impact in reducing pressure for intensive

agricultural production in the surrounding area by setting a good example for

local farmers.

4.2 Water

The proposed project includes a water recycling subsystem, which collects

condensed water vapors from the climate conditioning subsystems and uses them

for irrigation. This innovative approach will reduce water demands significantly and

therefore the greenhouses’ impacts on the area’s water resources quantity will be

minimized.

Moreover, as mentioned before, all agrochemicals and fertilizers will be carefully

stored and therefore water bodies will not in any way be affected.

4.3 Chemicals

Hydroponic cultivation developed in this project will use organic farming products

for crop protection and lubrication, minimizing the use of chemicals. Also, given that

the greenhouse is a closed "ecosystem" separated from the outside environment

and that irrigation water is recycled, any chemicals used will not in any way affect

the surrounding environment.




[68]

4.4 Nutrients

The proposed Adapt2Change project will use fertigation for lubrication. With this

process, all necessary nutrients will be applied through irrigation, with an automatic

hydroponics control system. In this way nutrients cannot be transferred through run

off or leaching, preventing soil or water contamination.

4.5 Biodiversity

The prototype greenhouse is a closed organic hydroponic cultivation system

separated from the surrounding environment, with zero impacts on biodiversity.

Increased production of the proposed hydroponic system can become a good

example for farmers in the area and indirectly decreasing pressures for intensive

farming.

4.6 Waste

Waste produced by a hydroponic production unit include:

crop residues (at end of season),

plastic and paper packaging of pesticides and fertilizers,

culture media,

plastic greenhouse cover.

Crop residues will be led to a composting plant located close to the standard glass.

Composting crop residues will minimize greenhouse waste volume, while producing

organic soil conditioner that can be used in conventional or organic crops. This waste

management system will contribute significantly in the reduction of greenhouse crop

residuals waste, while indirectly benefiting traditional crops in the surrounding area

by applying compost material and minimizing fertilizer use.

Plastic and paper packing: Special bins for temporary storage of plastic and paper

waste will be placed inside and outside the greenhouses. At regular intervals, the

bins will be emptied and the waste transferred to the nearest municipality recycling

bin. Therefore, this type of solid waste will not in any way pollute the environment

but it will be recycled.

Culture media: Inert substrates will be used to support plants, always in accordance

with the instructions given by the respective supplier. At the end of their life cycle,

they will be stored in a designated area within the greenhouse and then delivered to

the manufacturer for recycling.




[69]

Plastic greenhouse cover: Greenhouse plastic covering has a life span of 5 to 10 years

depending on the manufacturer. Every time it is replaced, the old one will be driven

to a solid waste collection station and final disposal will be at the plastic recycling

factories.

4.7 Air

The proposed greenhouses will have no significant effect on air quality, because they lack sources of air pollutants (dust, smoke etc). Noise generated from the machinery, though not intense, should be monitored during operation in order to check if noise legislation requirements are met.

Increased agricultural production from the proposed hydroponic system may indirectly contribute to a reduction in the demand for intensive farming in the surrounding area, which is a source of dust, noise and exhaust from agricultural machinery.

4.8 Energy

The highest greenhouse energy requirements stem mainly from heating. Thus, greenhouse heating in the proposed project will be primarily powered by shallow geothermal energy. The use of shallow geothermal energy provides low cost energy for climate control with the use of a renewable resource. Therefore, conventional energy sources will be only required for the hydroponics equipment operation (pumps, etc).




[70]

5 Environmental risk assessment for the prototype

“Adapt2Change” greenhouse

The following risk assessment flow charts include steps that have not been implemented yet in the project (grey boxes). The prototype greenhouse has fewer environmental impacts than common horticulture.




[71]

5.1.1 Water management risk assessment

Are you aware of the

anticipated water volume

required for planned

production?

NO HIGH RISK

YES

Does water availability in the

area meet this requirement? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Is your irrigation system

working to design

specifications? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Is the irrigation scheduling

system in place? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Are there strategies to manage

nutrient input and salinity? NO HIGH RISK

YES

LOW RISK




[72]

5.1.2 Risk assessment of irrigation water quality

Has your water been

tested for:

pH, nutrient levels,

salinity, dissolved

oxygen, turbidity

NO

Is the irrigation water known to be:

Acid

High in nitrogen or phosphorus content

Saline

Low in dissolved oxygen

Turbid

Are these problems occurring in the region?

NO

LOW RISK

YES

HIGH RISK YES

Did test results meet

national guidelines?

NO

Is the source of irrigation water

known to be affected by any

other potential risk (heavy

metals, agricultural chemicals?)

NO LOW RISK

YES YES

HIGH RISK




[73]

5.1.3 Risk assessment of downstream water quality

Are watercourses passing through

the property protected?

Are fertilizers, agricultural

chemicals and fuels stored so as

to minimize the risk of polluting

surface or ground water?

NO HIGH RISK YES

Is the risk of contaminating

watercourses addressed when

applying and handling fertilizers,

agricultural chemicals, fuels and

releasing used packing shed

water?

NO HIGH RISK

YES

LOW RISK

Has the risk of soil erosion been

assessed and any necessary

control measures

implemented?




[74]

5.1.4 Chemical use risk assessment

Have you investigated

alternatives or environmentally

friendlier options to agricultural

chemicals?

NO HIGH RISK

YES

Are chemicals, fuels and soils

stored safely and according to

law, including an appropriate

spill kit?

NO HIGH RISK

YES

Are chemical mixing facilities

designed to contain / prevent

spread of any spillage? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Are strategies in place to

minimize spray drift? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Do you use: agricultural,

cleaning, sanitizing chemicals,

fuels, oils?

NO

YES

LOW

RISK




[75]

LOW RISK

Is personnel working with

chemicals appropriately trained

and are chemicals applied safely

effectively and according to

law?

NO HIGH RISK

YES

Are surplus chemicals (spray

and tank washing) and obsolete

chemicals disposed of safely

and according to law?

NO HIGH RISK

YES

Are empty chemical containers

(including plastic and metal

drums and paper and plastic

bags) stored and disposed of

safely and according to law?

NO HIGH RISK

YES




[76]

5.1.5 Spray drift risk assessment

Is the wind speed between

3 and 15 Km/h?

AND

Is the temperature lower

than 30oC?

AND

Is relative humidity

moderate (40-100%)?

NO

Are there neighbors or other crops nearby?

NO

LOW RISK

YES

HIGH RISK

YES

Are there sensitive

environmental areas

nearby (wetlands,

national park, special

habitat)?

NO

YES

HIGH RISK

HIGH RISK




[77]

5.1.6 Nutrient management risk assessment

LOW RISK

RISK

Do you know the type and

quantity of nutrients your crop

needs? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Do you know what nutrients are available to

your crop from your soil/substrate? Take

into account:

Major and minor nutrients Soil texture, ph, salinity, organic matter and crop residues Quality of irrigation water

NO HIGH RISK

YES

Are you losing nutrients

through leaching, surface water

run off, wind erosion? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Are fertilizer applications/soil amendments causing

other environmental pollution such as heavy metal

contamination or soil acidification? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Have you developed a nutrient

budget, farm budget nutrition? YES HIGH RISK NO




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5.1.7 Nutrient application risk assessment

LOW RISK

RISK

Are fertilizer application

methods and timing chosen to

maximize benefit to the crops

and minimize potential negative

environmental impacts?

Consider : run-off, leaching,

volatilization

NO HIGH RISK

YES

Is fertilizer application equipment:

Calibrated and maintained? Checked for accuracy of distribution?

NO HIGH RISK YES




[79]

5.1.8 Biodiversity risk assessment

LOW RISK

RISK

Are there areas that are

degraded / overrun with exotic

species like lantana, blackberry,

willow?

NO

HIGH RISK Is there any native vegetation in your farm?

YES HIGH RISK

YES

Are there areas managed to protect the habitat?

Fenced, spray drift minimized, misapplication of

fertilizer minimized, burning/fire risk, exotic pests NO HIGH RISK

YES

Is there any area where native vegetation could be

established or that includes protected species?

Unsuitable for horticultural production, along access

roads, swampy or waterlogged land, steep slopes

YES HIGH RISK

NO

NO

LOW RISK

RISK

DON’T KNOW

OR UNSURE




[80]

5.1.9 Waste risk assessment

LOW RISK

Can you identify the waste in

your farm?

NO HIGH RISK

YES

Can any of these products be

avoided? NO HIGH RISK

YES

Change inputs and/or practices

to minimize waste NO HIGH RISK

YES




[81]

5.1.10 Odor management risk assessment

LOW RISK

Do you:

Store manure, fertilizers,

chemicals?

Have a waste site?

Have other unpleasant odor

producing activities?

NO

YES

Could the activity cause concern

to family, employees, neighbors

or community?

NO

YES

HIGH RISK

LOW RISK




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5.1.11 Dust management risk assessment

LOW RISK

YES

Do any of the following apply to the site?

Soil type is lite to erosion,

Cropping/harvesting activity will leave soil

exposed during windy weather

Site is particularly exposed

NO

HIGH RISK




[83]

5.1.12 Smoke management risk assessment

LOW RISK

YES

Do you burn your waste? NO

HIGH RISK

Are there disposal options other

than burning?

YES

NO HIGH RISK




[84]

5.1.13 Noise management risk assessment

LOW RISK

Does the operation generate

excessive noise?

NO

YES

Are there neighbors close to the

operation? NO

YES

Is the operation running during

sensitive times (eg. Between 10

am and 6 pm, or on weekends)? NO HIGH RISK

YES

LOW RISK

Are there sensitive environmental

areas, particularly with

endangered fauna, close to the

operation?

NO

NO




[85]

5.1.14 Greenhouse gases management risk assessment

LOW RISK YES

Do you:

Undertake regular maintenance of all

equipment, particularly requiring fossil fuels

and CFCs?

Regularly check insulation?

Strategically apply nitrogenous fertilizers?

Minimize unnecessary trips and cultivation

passes

NO HIGH RISK




[86]

5.1.16 Energy management risk assessment

LOW RISK

Do you monitor the amount of

electricity and fuel you use and

the use to which it is put? NO

YES

Are you using the most efficient

and practical energy source? NO

YES

Are these things you can do to

minimize the energy usage of

your operation? YES HIGH RISK N

O

HIGH RISK

HIGH RISK




[87]

6 Determination of changes in environmental

pressures from the prototype “Adapt2Change”

greenhouse operation

6.1 Land – Soil

Positive result: Land occupation minimization. The installation of hydroponic

greenhouse crops can result in a reduction of environmental pressures on soil and

land use because less area is used to produce the same amount of product

compared to conventional culture.

Negative result: Soil compaction. With land coverage by a structure such as

hydroponic greenhouse, the soil is compressed significantly. If ever will be used

again in conventional farming will have a serious problem of compression.

6.2 Water

Positive result: The use of the innovative water recycling system will result in

significant reduction in water use, compared to a conventional crop. This will save

many cubic meters of water each growing season to produce the same quantity of

goods.

6.3 Chemicals

Positive result: Cultivation in the “Adapt2change” greenhouse will be organic. Thus,

no chemical methods for attacking diseases of plants. It will be made utilization only

of biological enemies. In this way, the reduction of the environmental load will be

significant.

6.4 Nutrients

Positive result: In hydroponics, the plants fertilized according to their real needs

through modern systems of automatic irrigation - fertilization. Thus, it is no wasting

fertilizer and there is absolutely no pollution of groundwater. Therefore, provide a

significant reduction of environmental load.

6.5 Biodiversity

Positive result: The greenhouse is a closed system without any influence on the

surrounding environment. Therefore has no effect on biodiversity of the area in

which it is installed.




[88]

6.6 Waste

Negative effect: Hydroponic culture produces a large volume of solid waste

consisting of organic material (greens), substrates, packaging, plastic covers. This

volume is much larger than that of a conventional crop and organic waste produced

should be composted while other material (plastic, metal, paper etc) should be

recycled.

6.7 Air

The greenhouse facility does not have any air pollutant emissions. Noise generated

by ventilation fans, is perceived only from a very small distance (<20 m) with minimal

environmental impact on noise levels.

Considering emissions and noise produced from conventional crop operations for

the same production output, the “Adapt2change” project contributes to a significant

alleviation of environmental impacts on the areas atmosphere.

6.8 Energy

Energy consumption required for the greenhouse operation is greater than that of a

conventional crop, largely due to its heating needs. Certainly the use of shallow

geothermal energy reduces these pressures and the proposed use of the U-shaped

heat pipe can achieve an additional 75% reduction in heating requirements.




[89]

7 Reproducibility and transferability of technology

7.1 Reproducibility

The proposed construction can be used in other areas that meet the following

criteria:

Limited water resources.

Lack of productive land.

Winter climate conditions allow greenhouse operation with no excessive

energy requirements.

Possibility of geothermal energy exploitation.

7.2 Transferability of technology

In order to use the same construction in other areas, there is a need for innovative

technology, which can be easily diffused through this project and this includes:

Geothermic technology

Hydroponics

Water recycling

Greenhouse biological cultivation

Of course, if someone wants to establish a construction like the “Adapt2change”

project, one must have thorough knowledge of the aforementioned technology and

the ability to integrate it into a fully functional – productive greenhouse bio-

cultivation.




[90]

8 Eco friendly procedures and products

8.1 Procedures

8.1.1 Hydroponics

Hydroponics is an eco friendly cultivation method with the following positive

environmental impacts:

Maximum utilization of the genetic potential of plants.

Optimum fertilizer control.

Visible improvement in crop quantity and quality.

Significant time reduction between growt, flowering and fruiting for a great

variety of plants.

Efficient partitioning of space.

Maximum success rate for propagation.

Huge savings on fertilizers, and more importantly, water in a time of

increasing water scarcity.

Total absence of herbicides.

In contrast, problems inherited from conventional cultivation methods include:

Sterile or depleted soils due to intensive cultivation (fatigue monoculture,

low fertility, salinity, etc).

Soil transmitted diseases are extremely harmful and difficult to deal with.

Salt or pesticide accumulation in intensively cultivated areas.

Why grow with Hydroponics:

Impressively greater productivity compared to conventional crops.

Excellent product quality.

Environmentally friendly farming.

Lower cost per kg of product.

Hydroponic growing achieves:

Ideal ratio of nutrients adjusted according to plant growth.

Ideal plant nutrition resulting in high productivity and excellent quality.

Isolation from dangerous soil pathogens, since the cultivation is isolated from

the ground with plastic sheets.

Avoiding damaging and costly chemical treatments. Cultivation in bags

(growbags) has no soil preparation requirements (plowing, chemical

disinfectants fungicides application, herbicides and pesticides) especially in

areas with high salt content (electrical conductivity > 1,5 dS / m).




[91]

With the upcoming environmental crisis and water scarcity, closed

hydroponic systems can certainly be a solution .

Common agriculture is the biggest water consumer. Hydroponics with water

recycling can fully exploit the available water balance with minimum

environmental impacts on water resources.

Heating costs are reduced. Water evaporation is always accompanied by

energy consumption for heating in a greenhouse. With hydroponics, water

evaporation is negligible because soil is isolated and thus heating needs are

reduced.

8.1.2 Geothermal energy use

Geothermal reservoirs of low to moderate temperature are used for heating homes,

offices and greenhouses, aquaculture and food-processing plants and other

applications (US DOE, 1998). These applications provide energy cost savings for the

consumer and produce only a very small percentage of the air pollutants emitted by

burning fossil fuels (US DOE, 1998).

Geothermal energy does not depend on climate conditions (Babi et. al., 2007)

because it exploits ground heat capacity. Since there are no fuel expenses,

geothermal energy does not depend on the international energy markets either

(Babi et. al. 2007). Because of its special character, geothermal energy is an

appropriate source for power generation, heat supply, cooling, energy storage,

agricultural uses, fish farming, water desalination, tourism and health purposes (Babi

et. al., 2007). Geothermal energy involves the lowest specific investment cost for gas

reduction in comparison to other renewable energy sources.

Geothermal energy is available for the consumer anytime, whenever there is need

for it: 24 hours a day irrespective of the time of day or night, independent of

weather and climate conditions (Babi et. al., 2007). It offers the basis for general

energy supply from renewable sources.

8.1.3 Water recycling

The project’s water recycling system can save up to 90% of greenhouse irrigation

needs. Recycling water reduces pressures on water resources, while providing high

quality greenhouse agricultural products. Water recycling as a process is also linked

to the control of environmental conditions within a greenhouse by balancing

temperature and humidity.

8.1.3.1 Water recycling expected results

Greenhouses are used as solar heat collectors, where water can be found in both

vapor and liquid state. In its liquid state, water can be found in the hydroponic

system and in the cooling pad and pad reservoir. Liquid water can be easily handled




[92]

and recycled with standard equipment and procedures. The Adapt2Change project

provides an innovative approach to water vapor recycling and reuse. Unlike

traditional greenhouse units, the prototype Adapt2Change project provides the

alternative to reuse – recycle water in its vapor state. The process is based on the

humidification – dehumidification system operations. There are two main sources of

water vapor within the greenhouse unit:

Water vapors from the cooling pad.

Water vapors from plant transpiration.

Traditional dehumidification-humidification methods

Excess humidity is usually more problematic in the spring and fall seasons when the

weather is cool and moist (BC MAFF, 1994). High humidity is not likely to occur

during freezing weather, since the relative humidity of the outside air is very low (BC

MAFF, 1994). The traditional method to battle high humidity was based on a

combination strategy of venting to exchange moist air with drier outside air, and

heating to reduce relative humidity levels, raise plant surface temperature and warm

the incoming air (BC MAFF, 1994). Glass panes and other cold surfaces in the

greenhouse serve as natural dehumidifiers when the outside air is colder, but this, of

course, can cause problems with dripping (BC MAFF, 1994).

Although dehumidification is sometimes expensive, it is usually easier to reduce

humidity levels than to increase them (BC MAFF, 1994). Raising humidity levels

without using excessive water requires some sort of evaporative device such as

misters, fog units, or roof sprinklers, all of which add water vapors to the air, or

screens that help hold in the water that is being evaporated from the plant canopy

(BC MAFF, 1994). Traditionally evaporative cooling and screening are often used

together (BC MAFF, 1994).

Adapt2Change innovative water vapor recycling and reuse

Condensed water production estimation: Humidity is a potential water source for

modern greenhouse horticulture. Unlike other sources, humidity found within the

unit needs to be converted from vapor to liquid. Humidity within any greenhouse

unit acts as a thermal energy carrier. Thus energy is the limiting factor for recycling –

reusing total available humidity.

The project’s introduced method uses shallow geothermal energy to dehumidify air

and retrieve water. The amount of water produced by this process can be calculated

using the following criteria:

Set minimum humidity level within the greenhouse unit:

o The minimum humidity level is set to 60%.

Set the maximum humidity level within the greenhouse unit:




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o The maximum humidity level is set to 90%.

Define the maximum cooling power available for vapor condensation:

o In winter time available nominal power for vapor condensing is 35

KW.

o In summer time available nominal power for vapor condensing is 70

KW.

Define the internal temperature of the greenhouse unit:

o Range of temperature is set from 12 – 24Co.

The limiting factor in water recycling is energy, thus only a percentage of

humidity may be condensed into water.

o The maximum available energy is:

In winter time available nominal power for vapor condensing

is 35 KW.

In summer time available nominal power for vapor condensing

is 70 KW.

Specific latent heat (L) expresses the amount of energy in form of heat (Q)

required to completely affect a phase change of a unit of mass (m), usually 1

kg of a substance as an intensive property (Wikipedia, 2012):

From this definition, the latent heat for a given mass of a substance is

calculated by

Where (Wikipedia, 2012):

Q is the amount of energy released or absorbed during the

change of phase of the substance (in kJ or in BTU),

m is the mass of the substance (in kg or in lb), and

L is the specific latent heat for a particular substance (kJ-

kgm−1 or in BTU-lbm−1), either Lf for fusion, or Lv for

vaporization.

Latent heat for water condensation in the temperature range of −40°C to

40°C is approximated with the following empirical cubic function:

Lwater(T) = (2500.8 – 2.36T + 0.0016T2 – 0.00006T3)J/g

o where temperature is taken to be the numerical value in °C.

The maximum amount of condensed water produced will be 300 Liters per day and

the average daily production is expected to be 150 Liters per day.




[94]

8.1.3.2 Water recycling economics

General description of prototype Greenhouse units: The prototype greenhouse

units are complex systems. Humid air – water circuit in the closed greenhouse is

powered by solar thermal energy and water is the basic means of thermal load

transfer. The energy and water cycle in the closed greenhouse follows the next steps

(Figure 2-1):

An air recycling cooling duct around the greenhouse is installed containing two air-

to-water heat exchangers, which cool and/or heat the air. The process begins with

the increase of air temperature inside the greenhouse, triggering plant transpiration

and the addition of cool air through the installed cooling system as shown in Figure

2-1, while increasing humidity.

Summer operation

The cooling system’s aim is to absorb excess greenhouse thermal load and

trap heat into humid air.

On the surface of each heat exchanger, the cooling of humid air creates

condensation, releasing additional thermal energy and distilled water.

The cool and dry air falls back into the greenhouse in two stages in order to

protect plants.

o In the first stage cool and dry air enters the anteroom. In the

anteroom, air is mixed with hot and humid air.

o In the second stage, mixed air enters the greenhouse, where it is

heated and humidified triggering the cycle again.

The proposed shallow geothermal system provides the necessary energy for the

proposed cooling and condensation system air. The heat pump also provides

additional cooling energy in order to successfully condense vapors and produce

distilled water.

Winter operation

During winter, the shallow geothermal subsystem provides the necessary

energy for heating in the greenhouse.

The dehumidification process takes place even during winter time and it uses

a U-shaped heat pipe.

Heated dry air flows back into the greenhouse in two stages in order to

protect plants.




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o In the first stage hot dry air enters the anteroom. In the anteroom, it

is mixed with cold humid air.

o In the second stage, mixed air enters the greenhouse, where it is

cooled and humidified triggering the cycle once again.

This concept has significant advantages compared to standard greenhouse water –

energy management systems. On one hand, humid air allows excess thermal energy

storage at a given temperature, because of the use of latent heat in addition to

sensible heat. This higher energy density of humid air means that the same amount

of energy can be transported by much lower air volume flow, which can be sustained

by forced buoyancy. On the other hand, the evaporation and condensation

processes increase the efficiency of the heat transfer.

Separation of the greenhouse and the heat exchanger (placed outside the

greenhouse and into the duct) allows more room for both elements and further cost

reduction. Additionally, the evaporation and condensation processes open the

possibility for water purification as part of the water recycling system. Moreover, the

energy collected in the heat exchanger is transferred to the soil through the shallow

geothermal system, thus achieving even greater energy saving.

Figure 8.1 Block diagram of the main system

In order to estimate the cost of water recycling, it is necessary to distinguish the

parts of the unit that correspond only to the water recycling function. Thus it is

crucial to identify the infrastructure that is dedicated to vapor condensation.




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According to energy calculations for greenhouse heating, the required heating load is

35 KW. The remaining installed 35 KW is dedicated to vapor condensation and water

recycling. Air duct, sensors, cooling pad, central monitoring, hydroponic system etc

are standard greenhouse infrastructure. The water recycling unit requires the

following additional parts and infrastructure:

35 KW of shallow geothermal field.

o 350 m of boreholes and geo-exchanger (4 boreholes of 120 m depth

each)

o One additional heat pump on 35 KW nominal power.

Humidity sensors, temperature and water level measurements.

Software module for water recycling unit management.

The total amount of water expected to be recycled is 60 tons per year.

The following example investigates three scenarios comparing three different types

of greenhouses. For simplicity, all types refer to the same greenhouse structure with

different heating – cooling and water recycling functions. All types use the same

closed greenhouse structure.

TYPE 1: Standard

o Heating with fossil fuels.

o Water for irrigation.

TYPE 2: Geothermal powered

o Heating from shallow geothermal field.

o Water for irrigation.

TYPE 3: Geothermal powered with water Recycling like the Adapt2Change

project

o Heating – cooling from shallow geothermal field.

o Water recycling unit

Table 8.1 shows relative costs for each type.

Table 8.1 Relative costs

Greenhouse Type Relative Costs TYPE 1:

Standard TYPE 2:

Geothermal powered TYPE 3:

Geothermal powered with water recycling

Greenhouse A A A Heating B 8B 16B Heating

operation C C/5 C/4

Water management

D D 3D

Water costs E E E/5




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Where:

A = Cost of closed standard greenhouse unit.

B = Cost of fossil fuel Heating installation (yearly)

C = Cost of fossil fuel Heating operation (yearly)

D = Cost of water management installation

E = Cost of irrigation water (yearly)

With a 10 year period for equipment depreciation, the yearly costs for every type of

greenhouse unit can be estimated with the following formulas:

Type 1:

CostType1

Type 2:

CostType2

Type 3:

CostType3

8.1.4 Waste reduction and recycling

An agricultural establishment produces many types of solid waste in its daily

operations (US EPA, 2012). It is important that these wastes are identified and

managed properly to protect the environment (US EPA, 2012). Waste hierarchy is

the key to good waste management practice and will help reduce costs (US EPA,

2012). The hierarchy promotes a logical process to consider in turn (US EPA, 2012):

Avoid - Is the product or service that produced the waste needed and can it

be avoided?

Reduce – consider ways of minimizing waste.

Re-use – is there a way of making use of waste.

Recycle – recycling waste is a preferred option compared to disposal.

Recover – waste to energy may be an option.

Dispose – this should be the last option considered.

The following recommendations cover how best to store agricultural waste products

(ADAS Ltd, 2007):




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Store Agricultural waste products together at one site to ease

collection/loading.

Segregate by product type and packaging/ non-packaging.

Store Agricultural waste products in a suitable container, where possible, to

protect the material from rain and wind, e.g. use a fertilizer bag liner or a

dedicated bin.

Store Agricultural waste products in a sheltered location protected from rain

and wind, preferably undercover.

Secure Agricultural waste products to avoid it blowing away.

Compact Agricultural waste products where possible to aid with collection

and to reduce space required on site (e.g. in a bin or a bag liner).

Squash and fl at pack packaging e.g. sacks and fertilizer bag outers, and tie

into manageable bundles.

All bags/liners should be labeled with their contents (and any contract

number provided by a collector).

Store on a firm surface, preferably on concrete. This reduces the likelihood of

bagged waste ripping and slipping, as well as keeping the plastic cleaner.

Keep storage time to a reasonable minimum (The Waste Regulations

stipulate a maximum of 12 months except for small quantities intended for

recycling).

8.2 Eco friendly Products

8.2.1 Greenhouse organic farming

Organic farming is a system that excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides,

and growth regulators (Greer and Diver, 2000). Organic greenhouse vegetable

production has potential as a niche market for out-of-season production and as a

sustainable method of production (Greer and Diver, 2000). Soil-based systems are

readily adaptable to certified organic production, but special care must be taken for

soil-borne disease control, while soilless systems can also be adapted to organic

culture, and systems like bag culture are easy to get into (Greer and Diver, 2000).




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9 Included standards

9.1 Good Agricultural Practices (G.A.P.)

Horticulture involves a wide range of different production systems for different crop

plants in a very wide range of environments (Nichols, 2006). As such, there is no

doubt that one model will not fit all, particularly when a social component is also

incorporated into the equation (Nichols, 2006).

Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) involve the integrating of four major pillars,

namely

environmental sustainability,

social responsibility,

economic efficiency,

food safety.

Unfortunately, in many GAP scenarios (e.g. in the USA, Europe, and Japan) food

safety has taken a major role and other pillars have been either disregarded or

considered less important (Nichols, 2006). This is not to suggest that food safety is

unimportant; in fact, it should be considered an absolute necessity, but not at the

expense of the other three pillars (Nichols, 2006).

The key in GAP is to develop a process based on Hazard Analysis Critical Control

Points (HACCP) to establish the critical control points (also called critical failure

points) in the production process, where compliance is mandatory (Nichols, 2006).

Good examples of this is traceability down to the specific crop (Nichols, 2006):

record keeping,

site history and management,

crop protection,

harvesting, etc.

In EurepGAP there are 12 compliance criteria, and in the UK Assured Produce GAP 13

criteria, which essentially follow the afore mentioned topics (Nichols, 2006).

Currently, GAP is a consumer-driven (supermarket-driven) program, and there is an

urgent need for farmers to take title to some of this system, if only to ensure that

they are not locked out of important export markets (Nichols, 2006).

9.2




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9.3 Soil

In greenhouse production, soil-based systems have a greater number of constraints

because there are many more risks involved in growing in soil compared to growing

in soilless media (hydroponically) (Nichols, 2006). For example, the use of animal

manure (to improve soil structure) may have some potential microbiological risks,

while the requirement to fumigate the soil with chemicals (such as methyl bromide

or chloropicrin) pose their own hazards(Nichols, 2006).

The use of hydroponic systems such as rockwool or coir, or entirely liquid-based

systems such as aeroponics, deep flow or NFT, reduce such risks.

9.4 Crop protection

Crop protection is not currently a major concern in temperate climate greenhouse

operations (Nichols, 2006). Major diseases can be controlled by reducing air

humidity (easily achieved by a combination of judicious heating and ventilation)

while soil-borne pathogens are controlled by sound hydroponic practices combined,

if necessary, with the use of grafting onto resistant rootstocks (Nichols, 2006). Pests

are now controlled by means of either biological control systems (e.g., Encarsia for

white fly) or by the use of “soft pesticides” (Nichols, 2006).




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9.5 Sustainability

At this time, standard greenhouse production in temperate climates must be

considered to be non-sustainable (Nichols, 2006). Large quantities of energy are

used not only to keep the crop warm in the winter, but also to control humidity (and,

thus, reduce disease levels) and to provide supplementary carbon dioxides to

enhance crop growth and productivity (Nichols, 2006).

The energy used to provide heating is not sustainable, and the use of natural gas to

provide carbon dioxide to improve crop growth, even when the ventilators are open,

is a gross misuse of a non-renewable resource (Nichols, 2006). In fact the only really

sustainable component in standard greenhouse crop production in temperate

climates is the efficient use of water and fertilizer (Nichols, 2006). Greenhouses are

major users of fertilizer, and there is a very real danger of ground-water

contamination when growing in the soil or using hydroponic systems that “water to

waste”.

By using recirculation systems as introduced in the Adapt2Change project, the level

of ground-water contamination can be minimized. Recirculation hydroponic systems

are also five times more efficient (in water and nutrients use) in producing crops

than furrow irrigated field-grown crops (Nichols, 2006). For every cubic meter (1.3

cubic yard) of water, tomatoes in the field produce about 18 kg (~40 lb.) of fruit,

whereas in an environmentally controlled greenhouse with recirculation nutrient

solutions the figure is about 65 kg (~143 lb.) of fruit (Nichols, 2006).

9.6 Social responsibility

A key component in GAP is ensuring that crops are produced in a socially responsible

manner. This means that there is no exploitation of labor and if children assist in

producing the crop, this must not be at the expense of their education.

9.7 Economic efficiency

It should be axiomatic that any enterprise is profitable. However, this is not always

the case, and it is a GAP requirement that the enterprise is profitable, at least in the

long term.

9.8 Hygiene

Good hygiene is an essential component of GAP, in order to reduce the risk of

microbiological contamination of the product. This includes the provision of clean

toilets and washing facilities and personnel training in personal hygiene.




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9.9 Record keeping

GAP involves record keeping allowing auditors to evaluate procedures and

traceability of any product




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environmental impact assessment of prototype greenhouse installation_draft

Technology