environmental psychology [iop1503]

Environmental Psychology 2012

http://wikistudent.ws/Unisa

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Environmental Psychology [IOP1503]

1. WHY ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 4

1.1. DEFINITIONS 4

1.1.1. ENVIRONMENT 4

1.1.2. ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 4

1.1.3. INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR 4

1.2. MEANING OF ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 4

1.3. IMPACT WE HAVE ON THE WORK ENVIRONMENT 4

1.3.1. RELATIONSHIP: HUMANS & NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 4

1.3.2. IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENT ON BUSINESS ORGANISATIONS 4

1.4. CURRENT TRENDS INFLUENCING ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 5

1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF ‘ENVIRONMENT’ 5

1.6. BEHAVIOURAL FORMULA 5

1.7. ASSUMPTIONS: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NATURAL ENVIRONMENT AND HUMANS 5

1.8. HOW ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY CAN IMPROVE THE WORLD 6

2. THEORIES IN ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 7

2.1. BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES 7

2.1.1. STIMULUS THEORIES 7

2.1.2. AROUSAL THEORIES 7

2.1.3. STRESS THEORIES 7

2.1.4. CONTROL THEORIES 8

2.1.5. BEHAVIOUR SETTING THEORIES 8

2.2. ENVIRONMENT-BEHAVIOUR RELATIONSHIP 8

2.3. RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 8

2.3.1. RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY 8

2.3.2. RESEARCH METHODS 9

2.3.3. RESEARCH TECHNIQUES 10

3. ENVIRONMENTAL PERCEPTION, COGNITION AND ATTITUDES 12

3.1. ENVIRONMENTAL PERCEPTION 12

3.1.1. DEFINITION 12

3.1.2. PERSONAL INFLUENCES 12

3.1.3. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES 12



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3.1.4. PHYSICAL INFLUENCES 12

3.2. ENVIRONMENTAL COGNITION 12

3.2.1. DEFINITION 12

3.2.2. NON-SPATIAL ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN 12

3.2.3. DESIGN 12

3.2.4. COLOUR CODING 12

3.3. ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES 12

4. EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS 13

4.1. DEFINITIONS 13

4.1.1. STRESS 13

4.1.2. ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS 13

4.2. ASSESSING THE NATURE OF STRESS 13

4.3. PROCESSES INVOLVED IN STRESSFUL SITUATION 13

4.3.1. PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESS 13

4.3.2. PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESS 14

4.4. MEASURING STRESS 14

4.5. RESPONSE TO STRESS 15

4.6. ALLEVIATING STRESS 15

4.7. ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS 16

4.7.1. SOUND 16

4.7.2. TEMPERATURE 16

4.7.3. AIR 16

4.7.4. LIGHT 17

4.7.5. SPACE DENSITY & WORKPLACE ARRANGEMENT 17

5. POPULATION DENSITY, URBANISATION AND CROWDING 18

5.1. POPULATION DENSITY 18

5.2. URBANISATION 18

5.2.1. ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS 18

5.2.2. URBAN SUSTAINABILITY 19

5.3. CROWDING 19

5.3.1. EXPERIENCING CROWDING 19

5.3.2. EFFECT ON INDIVIDUALS 19

6. TERRITORIALITY, PRIVACY AND PERSONAL SPACE 20

6.1. TERRITORIALITY 20

6.1.1. TYPES 20



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6.1.2. FUNCTIONS 20

6.1.3. BENEFITS 20

6.2. PRIVACY 21

6.2.1. TYPES 21

6.2.2. EMPLOYEE PRIVACY 21

6.2.3. FUNCTIONS 22

6.3. PERSONAL SPACE 22

6.3.1. TYPES OF DISTANCES 22

6.3.2. FUNCTIONS 23

6.3.3. INFLUENCING FACTORS 23

6.3.4. ALTERNATIVE WORKSPACE STRATEGIES & SPACE ALLOCATION 23

7. FAVOURABLE WORK ENVIRONMENTS 25

7.1. WORKPLACE ENVIRONMENTS AND EMPLOYEE FUNCTIONING 25

7.2. RESEARCH 25

7.3. WORKER PRODUCTIVITY 26

7.4. JOB SATISFACTION 26

7.5. WORKPLACE DESIGN 26

7.5.1. WORK PATTERNS 26

7.5.2. WORKING SPACES 26

7.5.3. DESIGN PRINCIPLES 27

7.6. CHANGING THE WAY WE WORK 28

8. ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SUSTAINABILITY 29

8.1. SUSTAINABLE FUTURE 29

8.2. GUIDING ENVIRONMENTALLY RESPONSIBLE ACTIONS 29

8.3. SUSTAINABILITY 29

8.4. BEST BUSINESS PRACTICE 30

ANNEXURE 32



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1. Why Environmental Psychology

1.1. Definitions

1.1.1. Environment

� Setting within which behaviour takes place

� Can be unspecified, natural, human-made or work-related.

1.1.2. Environmental psychology

� The study of human behaviour and well-being in relation to the environment.

1.1.3. Individual behaviour

� Individual reaction to certain environmental stimuli.

1.2. Meaning of environmental psychology

• Multidisciplinary

• Behavioural science – studies human-environment interaction

• Systematic interrelationship – orderly, predictable relationship between dependent

systems

• Environment – setting within which behaviour takes place

• Individual behaviour – individual’s reaction to certain environmental stimuli

1.3. Impact we have on the work environment

1.3.1. Relationship: Humans & natural environment

Human health is affected by environment, genetic factors & personal behaviour

(Healthy People 2010 Study)

� Outdoor air quality (Air pollution)

o Cause premature death, cancer & long term damage to respiratory and

cardiovascular systems

o Reduces visibility

o Damages crops and buildings

o Deposits pollutants in soil and water

� Water quality

o Contaminated water ->cholera etc.

� Toxins and waste

� Healthy homes and communities

� Infrastructure and surveillance

1.3.2. Impact of environment on business organisations

� Vision and strategy of organisation



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Align financial motivation with sustainable development

� Empowering employees with environmental knowledge & skills

� Organisational culture

� Research & development

� Marketing

� Implementation of ethical business practice

1.4. Current trends influencing environmental psychology

• Population trends (population growth)

• Resource depletion and environmental degradation

o Soil erosion & waste

o Depletion of non-renewable resources ( electricity, gas, uranium, fossil fuels)

• Public policy & the environment

o Soil management & reforestation

o Interest in conservation

• Human behaviour

1.5. Significance of ‘environment’

Definition:

• An unspecified physical setting or social backdrop

• Any natural or human-made setting

• Any work-setting determined by a discipline such as building design

1.6. Behavioural formula

A behavioural formula used to

• understand environmental psychology,

• summarising the relationship that exists between

o a person in a particular environment and

o the behaviour or reaction that one could expect from this interaction.

B=f(P,E)

B = Behaviour or reaction

f = Function

P = Person/Organism

E = Environment/ Place/ Setting

1.7. Assumptions: relationship between natural environment and humans

• Earth is the only suitable environment

• Earth’s resources are limited

• Earth has been and is continued to be influenced by human behaviour



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• Effects of land use by humans tend to be increasing

• Sustained life on earth is a characteristic of ecosystems not individual organisms or

populations

1.8. How environmental psychology can improve the world

• Environmental cognition in everyday life – awareness & cognitive maps

• Improving quality of living conditions (Privacy and office layout)

• Green architecture

• Better learning through better design

• Increase effectiveness of government policies and procedures

• Images, media and environmentally responsible behaviour (WWF heroes, earth hour)

• Green design – energy efficiency

o Use natural ventilation to decrease need for air-conditioning

o Solar panels

o Water reservoir

o Waste disposal systems

• Social design – incorporate people’s needs when designing a building (hospital & library)



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2. Theories in Environmental Psychology Explain which factors cause certain behaviour within a particular environment.

Theories give meaning and provide generalisations that give order and meaning to specific

observations about the person-environment relations.

2.1. Behavioural theories

2.1.1. Stimulus theories

� Humans have limited capacity to process information.

� The environment is full of sensory information that guides behaviour

� People pay attention to most important stimuli whilst ignoring less important

stimuli

� Stimuli includes

o Light

o Colour

o Sound

o Heat

o Buildings

o Noise

� Stimulation can vary in

o Meaning – depends on person’s own perceptions

o Amount - intensity, duration, frequency, number of sources.

� Adaptation level – how people respond/adapt – varies per person.

� Benefits

o Can adjust stimuli to enhance performance

� Negative

o Error in judgement

o Ignoring others in need of help

2.1.2. Arousal theories

� Behaviour depends on how ‘stirred up’ a person is

� Performance change depending on whether person is overloaded or deprived of

stimuli

� Optimum performance at intermediate levels of arousal.

2.1.3. Stress theories

� People become stressed if too many environmental features are sensed.

� Emphasize role of body, emotions and thinking in person-environment

interaction

� Environmental stressors exceeds optimal level -> stress

� Environmental stressor include:

o High population density

o Lack of privacy



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o Pollution

o Noise

� Classification

o Acute stressors (danger)

o Ambient stressors ( background noise)

o Daily hassles (misplacing or losing things)

� Reaction

o Physical – general adaptation syndrome (warning signs – heart rate)

o Psychological – Cognitive evaluation – assess seriousness and cope

2.1.4. Control theories

� The environment imposes real or perceived limitations on person

� Experience loss of control over environment (e.g. traffic jam)

o Psychological reaction – attempt to regain control

o Believe that control cannot be regained – learned helplessness

� Focus on amount of control person has in particular situation

2.1.5. Behaviour setting theories

� Environment makes person behave in a certain way – programmed to behave in

a certain way

� Certain settings make you behave a certain way (library -> quiet)

� Determined by rules and customs

2.2. Environment-behaviour relationship

Important -> Understand why something happens, predict what will happen in future and

control variables.

• Environment influences behaviour directly through variables

• Person’s emotions and thoughts – evaluate situation and determine behaviour

2.3. Research methods and techniques

2.3.1. Research terminology

� Research

o Search for knowledge, systematic investigation to establish facts of a

situation.

o Identify problem

o Putting forward proposed explanation for the problem

o Gather data

o Analyse data

o Reach conclusion

� Attributes

o Characteristics that describe the object being studied

� Variables



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o Logical grouping of attributes. Influence reality and outcome of

research.

o Physical – Noise, pollution, crowding, architecture etc.

o Social/situational – Relationships, activity, type of task etc.

o Person – Person’s abilities, skills, personality, experience etc.

� Causation

o Something causes something else to happen

� Reliability

o Dependable/ trustworthy.

o Degree to which research is consistent

� Validity

o Authentic/ genuine

o Degree to which research measures what it claims/ intends to

measure.

� Experiential reality

o Reality based on experience

o To what extent the experimental conditions represent real life

� Cognition

o Process of thought

� Affect

o Emotional impact

� Observation

o Observation of phenomena in natural setting

o Technique must be systematic, public, repeatable, quantifiable,

reliable and valid.

� Behaviour setting

o Observing environment

o Record observations within setting

o Identify & compare differences

� Behaviour specimen

o Focus on person and his reactions

o Changes in behaviour – changes in environmental response

� Behaviour mapping

o Accurately recording people’s actions in particular space at specific

times

2.3.2. Research methods

� Laboratory experimentation

o Carefully controlled conditions to eliminate non-related variables

o Can manipulate variables and assess outcomes

o Constraints: outcome does not necessarily occur outside lab

o Benefits

� Controlled environment



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� Independent variables manipulated

� Results depend on manipulated variables

� Field correlation studies

o Focus on relationship/ association between 2 or more variable

associated with a natural event or real-world situation

o Constraints

� No conclusions can be drawn re cause of results

� Can only make associations

o Benefits

� No artificial circumstances

� Field experimentation

o Variables are controlled to some degree and natural setting of the

operation is manipulated

o Constraints

� Limited control

o Benefits

� Variable controlled to some degree

� Real situations and natural settings

2.3.3. Research techniques

Measurement techniques/instruments:

Assess applicability based on client needs, behaviour constraints, advantages and

disadvantages

� Self-reporting measures

o People asked to provide information re opinions, beliefs, behaviour

and attitudes

� Questionnaires (surveys)

� Interviews (In-depth Q&A)

� Rating scales

o Instrument that requires the rater to assign the number which is

considered to reflect their perceived value

� Observation (Record – notes and electronic equipment)

o Systematic

o Public

o Repeatable

o Quantifiable

o Reliable

o Valid

o Behaviour setting, specimen and mapping



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3. Environmental Perception, Cognition and Attitudes

3.1. Environmental perception

3.1.1. Definition

The way and means we collect information through our senses

Perceptual error – perception not accurate (differs from reality e.g. stereo types)

3.1.2. Personal influences

� Education, training, past experience of setting

� Adopt perception that is characteristic of profession

3.1.3. Cultural differences

� Cultures – set of beliefs that define code of conduct and values

� Impact on how a person think and interpret

� Western – highly independent, focus on central objects

� Eastern – interdependence, focus on context

3.1.4. Physical influences

� Colour

� Gender

3.2. Environmental cognition

3.2.1. Definition

The way people acquire, store, organise and recall information about the environment.

Spatial cognition – thinking process to assist us in finding our way, i.e. to navigate

3.2.2. Non-spatial environmental design

� Recall place without reference to relative location or distance, e.g. memories of

places visited.

3.2.3. Design

� ‘Way finding’ colour coded maps in shopping centres and work environment

� Rely on landmarks and signs

� Reference point – current location

3.2.4. Colour coding

3.3. Environmental attitudes

A person’s positive or negative views of his environment

Components of attitudes

o Cognitive - what person knows or thinks of a place



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o Affective – emotional aspects

o Conative – Individual’s behaviour and intention towards a place

4. Effects of Environmental Stressors

4.1. Definitions

4.1.1. Stress

� Emotional and physical strain caused by response to pressure from outside world

4.1.2. Environmental stress

� Irritations and frustrations of everyday life

� Potential causes of work stress

o Poor air quality – air conditioners

o Smoking

o Chaos and disorganisation

o Colour

o Background noise

o Poor ergonomics

o Open plan offices

� Lack of privacy

� Distractions

4.2. Assessing the nature of stress

Types of assessments:

� Harm / loss – damage already occurred, concerned with immediate situation

� Threat – future danger, prediction/anticipation helps to prevent occurrence

� Challenge – overcoming stressors, attitude of coping and taking on the challenge.

4.3. Processes involved in stressful situation

4.3.1. Physiological process

� Body’s reaction to stress

� Alarm

o Flight or fight reaction

o Stress hormones prepare body for vigorous muscular activity

� Breathing rate increases

� Blood flow to skeletal muscles increases

� Heart rate increases

� Blood sugar level increases (Diabetes)

� Pupils dilate

� Intestinal muscles relax

� Release adrenaline (Anxiety, depression)



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� Resistance

o Recover from initial stress – attempt to cope with situation

� Exhaustion

o If person is unable to cope or stress persists

4.3.2. Psychological process

� Mental and emotional reaction to stress

� Cognitive (thought) process

o Recollection (remembering) – symbols and anticipated danger are perceived

together with current stressful situation

o Primary evaluation: Anticipation of danger

o Recollection or danger and past experience

o Factors

� Attitude towards sources of stimulation

� Attitude prior to experience

� Knowledge of how to cope

� Knowledge of consequences

� Evaluation of apparent cost involved

� Coping reaction

o After results of reaction to stressors have been evaluated

o Secondary appraisal – search for coping response or options for dealing with the

threat

o Involves the ability to:

� Prevent, avoid or control emotional stress

� Engage in action-orientated behaviour – manage, tolerate or reduce stress

� Consider resources which may help to improve situation

� Evaluate success of coping mechanisms

4.4. Measuring stress

Determine level a potential stressor must reach before the worker stress

Appraisal is influenced by nature of stressor and:

� Stressors may be harmful in certain circumstances, but harmless in others

� Some sources of stress is ever present whilst others are recurring and acute

� Stressors vary in predictability and controllability

Classification:

� Daily Hazards – daily problems, short term

� Disastrous events

o Challenges person’s adaptive ability.

o People resort to social behaviour, connecting with others to cope



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� Major personal life events

o Impact demands great effort to cope effectively

o Unpredictable

o Sudden, powerful

� Ambient stressors

o General environmental conditions

o Continuous and stable

4.5. Response to stress

After effects

Can include:

� Aggressiveness

� Helplessness

� Withdrawal

Victimisation

Direct effect of stressful events on health – no intervention, no control

Strain

Effect on health and illness, when eliminated, illness diminishes

Vulnerability

Personal deficits and social conditions may have negative effect on health

Added burden

Personal variables and social conditions plus added burden contribute to ill health

Chronic burden

Personal characteristics and social conditions cause ill health

Event proneness

Stressful life events are characteristics if individual with ill health

4.6. Alleviating stress

� Attitude towards sources of stress

o Filtering device which controls perception of stress

� Control over stressor

o Sense of control allows person to cope better

o Predict events & determine consequences before it happens

� Hardy personality



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o Fitness levels and personality

o No easily overwhelmed by stressors – seek solutions

� Social support network

o Friends & family

� Relaxation

o Lowers state of arousal, incl. blood pressure and heart rate

4.7. Environmental stressors

Any force or event in the human/natural environment which may cause a person to

experience stress.

Can impact on person’s behaviour, mood, cognitive function, physical health and/or

psychological well-being.

4.7.1. Sound

Noise – unwanted sound (perception, subjective)

Performance will not be affected in office environment when employee:

� Performs routine task

� Need to react to signals at certain definite times

� Informed when to be ready

� When clear visual signs are given.

Performance will be affected when person needs to pay attention to multiple sources

of information or perform more than one task at a particular time.

4.7.2. Temperature

• Moderate by type of clothing & time spent on task

• Core body temperature more important than effective temperature

• Creativity decreases when hot

• Manual labour not easily affected

• Work requiring fine movements and sensitive touch affected

• Energy levels drop quicker in warm conditions

• Productivity levels higher when cooler, even below comfort levels

• Extremophiles – thrives in physically or geochemical conditions that are

detrimental to majority of life on earth

4.7.3. Air

• Quality of air – sealed off buildings, ventilation equipment

• Outdoors – carbon monoxide and other air pollution

• Affect complex tasks more than manual labour

• Sick building syndrome



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4.7.4. Light

• Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) – winter depression, winter blues – less sunlight

• Ultraviolet assists in formation of VitD & calcium processing

• Artificial lighting changed biological rythms

• Optimal light depends on task – proof reading, fine print etc

• Work surface – glare

• Angle of light – defused

• Older workers require more light

4.7.5. Space density & workplace arrangement

• Performance ratings decline - higher office density & closer interpersonal

distances – undesirable & unwanted stimulation

• Open-plan offices

o Conducive to communication,

o Improves supervisory control,

o Effective use of space

o Employees negative – less committed & productive – crowding

o Lack of privacy



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5. Population density, urbanisation and crowding

5.1. Population density

• Number of individual per given unit of land area

• Increased population density -> increased urbanisation

o Starvation

o Pollution

o Communicable diseases

• Population growth v environmental resources

• Resource types

o Continuous resources = not expected to run out, e.g. solar energy

o Renewable resource = naturally regenerate provided capacity to do so is not

hindered – trees

o Non-renewable – limited quantity, when depleted – none left, oil & gas

o Extrinsic – related to humans, e.g. skills & abilities

• Effect of humans on natural environment

o Direct – pollution

o Indirect – urbanisation, squatter camps, habitat destruction, deforestation

o Human behaviour - driving forces

� Population

� Technology

� Culture

o Mitigating forces

� Regulation

� Market adjustment

• Environmental degradation

o Depletion or destruction

o Potentially renewable resources

o Used more rapidly than replenishment rate

5.2. Urbanisation

• Movement of people from rural to urban areas and the growth of urban areas

• Physical growth of urban areas because of global change

• Place heavy demand on essential services

• Lack of space and privacy

5.2.1. Environmental stressors

5.2.1.1. Physical

� Urban sprawl – spreading of city in all directions

� Difficulty in maintaining efficient & effective public transport

� Garbage, sewerage, industrial waste disposal

� Energy shortages



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� Air and noise pollution

5.2.1.2. Social behavioural

� City people less friendly, avoid eye contact

� Coping with excessive stimulation

� Crime

� Unemployment

5.2.2. Urban sustainability

o Practices that facilitate the progress of a place or regions towards the goal of

sustainable living

o Sustainable living – lifestyle attempting to reduce society’s use of natural resources

o Respect rights and property of individuals

o Use local renewable resources & avoid pollution

o Policy & urban planning

� Sustainable architecture

� Sustainable agriculture

o Demands on resources, housing, services & infrastructure

o Balance human development & utilisation of resources

o Less motor orientated – mass transportation

5.3. Crowding

• High population density

• Experiential state determined by whether an individual perceives himself to be restricted

when exposed to limitations regarding their space

5.3.1. Experiencing crowding

o Subjective experience – culture, personality, attitude, emotions

o Coping mechanisms

5.3.2. Effect on individuals

o Diminished performance

� complex tasks

� tasks requiring high rate of information processing

� tasks requiring interaction

o Social behaviour

� Decreased attraction

� Negative impact on unselfishness

� Increased aggression



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6. Territoriality, Privacy and Personal Space Person-environmental special relationships

6.1. Territoriality

� The expression of ownership/occupancy towards an object or space

� Behaviour to govern space

� Lay claim to special environment – e.g. fences, signs, barriers

� Relatively stationary

� Focal point: home and work environment

� Fight to protect

� Territorial markers – protect special environment proclaimed by person in crowded area

o Effectiveness depends on social & physical context of markers

6.1.1. Types

� Primary territory

o Ownership is exclusive for certain period

o Full control

o Territory is ‘off limits”

o Intrusion without permission – serious

o Boundary markers – fences, name plates, personalised objects

� Secondary territory

o Perceived ownership

o Rights not exclusive – can be shares, e.g. pause area

o Not in complete control

o Occupation is temporary

o Boundary markers – unspoken norms & rules, personal markers, e.g. coffee mug

or train seat

� Public territory

o Free access areas, equal right to area

o Open to all outsiders who are not specifically excluded

6.1.2. Functions

� Create social order

� Protect special environment by means of markers

� Organise social behaviour

� Have clearly defined demarcations – reduce hostility & aggression

� Facilitate friendly relationships

6.1.3. Benefits

� Sense of well-being

� Greater feeling of control

� Regulate with who we interact with



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6.2. Privacy

Fundamental human right underpinning human dignity

Privacy is a process by which we regulate our contact with others

� Space free of interruption, intrusion, embarrassment or accountability

� Territoriality sets limits on intrusion to protect privacy

� Optimisation process

o Balance between too much (social isolation) & too little privacy (crowding)

� Selective control

o When interaction takes place

� Interpersonal boundary control

o Whom to interact with and related to which topics

o Acquaintance v friend

6.2.1. Types

� Solitude – being alone

� Intimacy – group privacy

� Anonymity – not want to be personally identified

� Reserve – creation of psychological barrier against intrusion

6.2.2. Employee privacy

Types

� Intrusion

o Intentional intrusion on another person’s private affairs/concerns

o E.g. taking photos, phone calls

� Appropriation

o Use of another person’s name or likeness for commercial or economic benefit

o E.g. use person’s name in proposals after person left employment

� Public disclosure of private facts

o Unreasonable publicity is given to another person’s private life

o E.g. HIV status

� False light

o Person publicly placed in false light

Managing employee privacy

� Background checks

� Employee handbook – written policies (inform of potential intrusion, e.g. e-mail scanning)

� Advance notice of searches

� Appropriate application forms and interview inquiries

� Restricted information control



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6.2.3. Functions

� Achievement of development of self-identity

� Management of personal interaction between self and social environment

� Mechanisms

o Verbal (incl. rate & intensity of speech)

o Non-verbal - gestures

6.3. Personal space

� The region surrounding a person which they regard as psychologically theirs

� Invisible boundaries at unfixed distances

� Highly variable

� Invasion leads to discomfort, anger or anxiety

� Body is focal point

� Withdraw when invaded

6.3.1. Types of distances

Social learning theory : personal space is gradually learned behaviour resulting from

person’s history or reinforcement.

� Intimate

o Close ->Protecting, lovemaking, wrestling

o Far

� Individuals on very close terms, very good friends

� Whispering & touching distance

� Personal

Public

C: 3.5-7m

F: 7m

Social

C:1.2-2m

F:2-3.5m

Personal

C:45-75cm

F: 75-120cm

Intimate

C:0-15cm

F:15-45cm



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o Close

� Familiar people & on good terms

� Good friends or couple

� Absence of physical contact

o Far

� Social interactions between friends and acquaintances

� Discuss personal interests

� Social

o Close

� Interaction between unacquainted individuals & business

interaction

o Far

� Formal & impersonal business interactions

� Public

o Close

� Speaker and audience

� Lecturer & 30-40 people

� Loud voice

o Far

� Ordinary people meet important public figures

6.3.2. Functions

� Self-protection – use space to avoid threat to self

� Communication – distance indicates relationship between speakers and nature of

activity

� Close distance – communicates interest & desire to audience

� Far distance – communicates lack of intimacy and desire to avoid interaction

6.3.3. Influencing factors

� Individual differences – culture, gender, personality

� Social/situational factors or variables, e.g. attraction between individuals

6.3.4. Alternative workspace strategies & space allocation

Flexible work area designed to support work that are either space saving or space

neutral.

� Space saving initiatives – reduce occupancy costs by improving densities

� Neutral initiatives – support new work processes

� Encourage collaboration & sharing of information

� Status minimised

� Team environment

o Flexible work are designed to support work teams as they expand or

shrink, e.g. team suites

� Non-territorial office



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o No fixed working space

o Allocate available desk space

o Hoteling – provide office space to employees on as-needed basis

o Shared offices

o Reduce physical office space needed, lowering overhead costs

� Home-based telecommuting

o Working from home(WFH), Working at home (WAH), e-work

o Flexibility in working location and hours

o Reduce traffic congestion, saves fuel

o Reduce staff turnover, absenteeism & improves employee morale

� Telework centre

o Recreation of physical & technical work spaces closer to employee’s home

o Satellite office centre

� Virtual office

o Non-traditional work setting

o Off site

o Technologically driven



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7. Favourable work environments

7.1. Workplace environments and employee functioning

• Work environment communicates organisation’s values, incl employee satisfaction

• Quality designs & values contribute towards creativity

o Special dynamics, lighting, technology, finishes and equipment

• Create culture of creativity and innovation

• Direct influence on employee attitudes, expressions and performance

• Workspace should support employees

• Functional comfort

o Includes the physical environmental characteristics and the psychological aspects

of workers’ likes and dislikes

o Linking satisfaction with employee productivity

• Affect

o Work performance

o Commitment to employer

o Creation of new knowledge

7.2. Research

Satisfaction Territoriality/ Belonging Productivity

Ambient

environmental

conditions

Do people like the

lighting, noise level

and thermal

comfort?

How do conditions such as

daylight, natural ventilation and

control over internal conditions

affect the way people feel

(appropriation, commitment)

about their work and work

space?

Does changing the

environmental

conditions help

people work faster

and better?

Furniture & office

layout

Do people like their

furniture, location,

access to meeting

rooms and on-site

services?

How do moves, changes and

other reconfigurations of

workspace affect people’s

feelings about their sense of

privacy and social status?

Does changing

furniture layout,

location of meeting

space, territory and

bathrooms help

people to work

faster and better?

Process issues

(e.g. user

participation)

Do people report

more satisfaction

with the work

environment if they

have been involved

in space-related

decisions?

How does involving workers in

making decisions about their

work space affect their feelings

of ownership and belonging and

increase employee loyalty?

Do environments

designed to meet

organisational goals

and objectives

increase the

company’s “bottom

line”?



26

7.3. Worker productivity

• Amount of goods and services that a worker produces in a given amount of time

• Sustainable design

o Optimise site potential

o Minimise non-renewable energy consumption

o Use environmentally preferable products

o Protect & conserve water

o Enhance indoor environment quality

o Optimise operational and maintenance practices

7.4. Job satisfaction

• How content person is with his job.

• Linked to motivation

• Influences

o Management style and culture

o Employee involvement

o Empowerment

o Autonomous workgroups

• Measurement

o Rating scales

o Questions: rate of pay, work responsibilities, variety of tasks, promotional

opportunities, work itself, co-workers

• Little impact

o Team work

o Job rotations

o HR practices

7.5. Workplace design

7.5.1. Work patterns

� How we work differently

Out of office In office

� Work at home

� Visit & work in other offices

� Visit customers, suppliers

and other third parties

� Work at desk (telephone, PC)

� Talking with neighbours

� Meeting rooms

� Taking breaks and socialising

� Stretching legs, walk and think

7.5.2. Working spaces

� Patterns of space we use

� Hotelling

o Full sized cubicle with network, phone & power connection



27

o Likely to be used for a day or more at a time

o May be booked ahead of time

� Touchdown

o Small space with network and power connection (phone optional)

o Used for short periods of time

� Desk sharing

o Desk/cubicle assigned to limited set of users

� Cave and commons

o ‘Caves’ – minimised private spaces

o ‘Commons’ – common working areas

� Huddle space

o Small informal meeting area for 2-5 people

� Booth

o Rectangular table for 2-4 people with high partitions on three sides

o Easily accessible with degree of privacy and intimacy

� War room

o Room or space assigned to a team

o Includes permanent project elements, e.g. timelines on walls

� Meeting room

o Space with tables, chairs, walls and a door

o People can make noise, project and generally communicate as a team

� Storage

o Place for putting things away

7.5.3. Design principles

� Basic guidelines for workplace design

� Allow people to do job with maximum effectiveness and comfort

7.5.3.1. Support work of individuals

� Individuals must be motivated and given the required resources

� Support the job – standard cubicles not always efficient

� Proximity

o Adequate storage at desk

o Nearby services (tea room, bathroom, printers)

o Teams near other teams with similar interest, customers

o Functional specialists and operational teams connected

7.5.3.2. Support work of groups

� Able to easily work together

� Create community – use of boundaries

� Link communities – low boundaries, wide entrances

� Design collaboratively – involve teams in design (buy in and optimise

space for their needs)



28

7.5.3.3. Create motivating environment

� Light and comfort

o Natural light & colour

o Comfortable & ergonomic furniture

� Social spaces

o Shared space – beneficial and useful by majority

o Encourage interaction

o Clear signage

7.5.3.4. Reflect company values

7.5.3.5. Economic

� Balance cost & benefit

� Avoid white elephants, opulence and waste

� Maximise utilisation

� Use standards to reduce cost

7.5.3.6. Psychological principles

� Stimulation – increased alert, creativity & productivity

o Interesting, varying and changing

� Socialisation – sense of belonging

o Open plan, lower barriers

� Identity

o Logo’s, slogans, messages

� Control

o Certainty, completions & predictability

7.5.3.7. Physical principles

� Temperature

� Air

� Sound

� Lighting (access to windows and natural light, brightness, glare)

7.6. Changing the way we work

• Push towards using renewable sources of energy – ‘cleaner’ energy

• Educate business – long term costs of dumping material in the environment

• Congruency of organisational and environmental ethics

• Designing work spaces which are conducive to employee wellness

• Organisation sustainability - guidelines



29

8. Environmental Psychology and Sustainability

8.1. Sustainable future

• Source of problem ( e.g. release of pollutant)

• Receptor (Something that could be damaged)

• Pathway – connecting source and receptor

• Business benefits and threats if sustainability is ignored

Opportunities Threats

Reduced cost Green taxes

More profit Risk of prosecution

New markets Customer requirements

Positive public relations Negative public relations

Employee morale Campaigns from environmental protection

agencies

8.2. Guiding environmentally responsible actions

• Dealing with environmental problems

o Technological solutions – e.g. methods to dispose waste

o Behavioural changes – e.g. conservation of resources, recycling

• Human side of environmental issue

o Social issues – caused by human behaviour and influence human lives.

• Environmental psychology = positive contribution

o Environmental issues impacts on economic growth and development

o Research environmental problems and suggest solutions

o Meet with government & assist policymakers to understand psychology an

emotions affecting the environment & sustainability

o Teach environmentally responsible practices and improve awareness

• Sustainability challenges – Belief that

o Environmental growth is equal to development

o Consumption of goods leads to happiness

8.3. Sustainability

• Ability to endure

• Sustainable development

o Development which meets needs of present without compromising on future

generations to meet their own needs.

Source Pathway Receptor



30

o Holistic view of interdependent relationship between people and natural

environment & impact on each other

o Use of resources should be controlled –

� greatest possible return for

� largest number of consumers

� over longest period.

• Culturally & technologically specific – approach differs from country to country

• World Summit on Sustainability focus areas (Jhb 2002):

o Access to clean drinking water and sanitation

o Greater access to modern energy sources, increased use of alternative &

renewable resources & reduction of over consumption

o Agricultural productivity & reduction of land degradation

o Health – reduction of hazardous waste materials & pollution

o Biodiversity & ecosystem management

• Solar Home Project – Shell & Engen

• Durban Municipality

o Open space planning

o Solid waste management

o Wastewater management

o Air quality management

8.4. Best Business Practice

• Standard way of doing things – used by multiple organisations in management

• Methods that consistently showed positive results

• Benchmark or standard to strive for

• Characteristics

o Innovative – new & creative solutions to common problems

o Makes a difference – positive & tangible impact

o Results are sustainable

o Potential for replication

o Inspiration to generate policies & initiatives elsewhere

• BBP

o Raising awareness

o Increasing protection and cooperation

� Legislation and entrench in culture

� International protocols – Kyoto & Copenhagen Accord

o Involving management – effective management system include

� Thorough shared understanding of environment

� Cycle of planning, implementation, monitoring, evaluation & feedback

� Involvement and buy in of stakeholders

� Allocation of necessary resources & capacity building

� Accountable, transparent description of management system functions



31

o Training & education

o Participation of all stakeholders

o Identification of appropriate environmental psychology values

� Values - > determinants of attitudes and behaviours

Protecting

the

environment

Social

power

Awareness

of world

beauty

Respect

for

tradition

Unity with

nature

Honourable Benevolent Influential Helpful

Humble Broad

minded

Successful Capable Polite

o Cognisance of threats & risks

• Reasons why sustainability should be pursued

o Morality (ethical values & principles)

o Survival

o Organisational benefits

• Core values for sustainable development

o Sustainable stakeholder balance – long term balance between stakeholder

interests

o Learning excellence

o Process performance excellence

o Shareholdercracy – respect for all stakeholders

o Transparency



32

Annexure MCQ’s

• Arousal theories are not one of the behavioural theories which are important when trying to

find out what has caused certain behaviour within a particular environment.

• The organisation’s commitment to the environment is reflected by creating a culture where

behaviour translates into becoming action

• Using tiles instead of bricks to pave a hallway outside a hospital is an example to social

design because, although bricks are popular for paving, a brick floor is uncomfortable and

painful for patients when they are transported over them

• Behaviour setting theories focus on limitations imposed by environment.

• Density differs from crowding in that density is a physical situation, while crowding is

experiential

environmental psychology [iop1503]

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