Environmental Sciences: Towards a Sustainable Future Chapter 19

Hazardous Chemicals: Pollution and Prevention

Chapter Introduction

Lake LeBarge Fish, birds, and mammals

all over the arctic are showing signs of POP Persistent Organic Pollutant) burden. DDT, toxaphene, chlordane,

PCBs, dioxins. Being passed along the food

chain to the Inuit People. Biomagnification/bioac-

cumulation. Potential for long-range transport.

Where are the POPs coming from? The arctic climate of Lake Lebarge is

a remote, pristine environment that is receiving the burden of POPs from other areas of the world. The unique climate promotes the

process of “cold condensation” as the pollutants attempt to pass over the area.

Health Effects: The toxins are stored in the fat of the fish and

mammals eaten by the Inuit people. Immune system disorders Disruption of hormones Over time, cancer.

Regulations: Over a 30 year period, regulations surrounding the

production, transport, use, and disposal of chemicals “mushroomed”.

Lesson 19.1

Toxicology and Chemical Hazards

Toxicology The study of the harmful effects of

chemicals on human health and the environment.

Acute: short term, high level. May occur upon ingestion or contact

Chronic: long lasting. Carcinogenic: cancer causing.

Toxicology regulatory organizations:

Regulated by: EPA FDA

Information provided by: The NTP (1978): National Toxicology

Program.

NIEHS/NTP/IRIS National institute of Environmental Health

Sciences: Provides an annual report listing all

carcinogenic agents. National Toxicology Program:

Also provides data to health professionals on chemicals.

Integrated Risk Management System: Toxic chemicals data made available through the

EPA Information located on the Internet

Environmental Defense Non-profit organization. Links science, economics and law to

combat environmental problems. Produces a “scorecard” of an exhaustive

web based profile of over 11,200 chemicals including information on uses and their manufacturer.

Dose and Response Dose: level of exposure multiplied by

the length of time for exposure. Response: some acute or chronic effect

or the development of tumors. Exposure: via home, workplace, food,

water, or surrounding environment. LD50: A test that determines the dose at

which 50% of the test organisms die.

Threshold Level The level below which no ill

effects are observed.

Carcinogens

The EPA basically takes a no tolerance approach to carcinogens. Zero-dose, zero-response

No discrete threshold level is acceptable.

HAZMAT’s A chemical that presents a certain

hazard or risk EPA categorizes based upon the

following properties. Ignitability- easily catches fire. Corrosivity: corrode storage tanks Reactivity: chemical instability. Toxicity: injurious to health when ingested or

inhaled

How are HAZMATS transported and stored?

Storage containers and vehicles that transfer HAZMATs must be properly labeled.

HAZMAT’s

Radioactive materials which are probably most hazardous, are treated as an entirely separate category from the four on the previous slide.

Total Product Life Cycle All the products we use throughout the

day are products of chemical technology.

TPLC=all the steps from obtaining the raw materials to final disposal of the products we use. Many products are directly introduced to

the environment (pesticides, fertilizers, road salts, etc.)

More than 80,000 chemicals are registered for commercial use within the US.

Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) Emergency planning and community right-to-

know act (EPCRA) 1986; Also known as SARA title III (superfund amendments and reauthorization act).

Pollution Prevention Act (1990) Industries must report locations and quantities of

toxic chemicals stored on site and releases of toxic chemicals.

Does not cover small business like dry cleaners, gas stations or HHW (household hazardous wastes).

Releases its information via the Internet

Pollution Prevention Act-1990

Mandates collection of data on toxic chemicals that are treated on site, recycled, or combusted FOR ENERGY.

TRI

Although it is the disasters that get the news attention, the amount of toxics entering the system via homes and businesses is far greater and presents much more health risk.

Toxics Release Inventory In 1998 (text edition 8):

628,000 tons of toxic chemicals released to the air

112,000 tons of toxic chemicals released to the water

1,247,000 tons of hazardous wastes resulting from production of goods

Toxics Release Inventory In 2004 (text edition 10):

1,549 million pounds (774,500 tons) of toxic chemicals released to the air.1 ton (short)=2000 lbs.

241 million pounds (120,500 tons) of toxic chemicals released to the water

26.1 billion pounds (1.3 million tons) of hazardous wastes resulting from production of goods

The “good” news

Over the 18 years since the TRI has been in effect, the quantities of virtually all categories of toxic waste have kept going down. Declined by 68%

Threat from toxic chemicals Large portion of the chemicals

introduced to the environment are broken down by natural processes. Diluted enough, they pose no threat. Two major classes do not degrade

easily: 1. heavy metals and their compounds 2. synthetic organics, both tend to bioaccumulate and magnify.

Heavy Metals

Lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, tin, chromium, zinc, copper.

Used in metal-working, paint, and pesticides, among other products

Heavy Metals

Soluble in water and readily absorbed by body.

Interfere with enzyme function. Example: mental retardation

from lead poisoning.

Synthetic Organics

Chemical basis for plastics, synthetic fibers and rubber, solvents, and pesticides.

Resistant to biodegradation. Major health effects: carcinogenic

and mutagenic.

Synthetic Organics Halogenated hydrocarbons are a particularly

troublesome class. At least one of the hydrogen atoms is replaced

with a halogen atom (group 17).Chlorine (most common)

Chlorinated hydrocarbon.BromineFluorine Iodine

Widely used in plastics, pesticides, solvents, electrical insulation.

Halogenated Hydrocarbons

The Dirty Dozen (table 19-1 p.490) Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs).

Aldrin Hexachlorobenzrene

Chlordane Mirex

DDT Toxaphene

Dieldrin PCBs

Endrin Dioxins

Heptachlor Furans

Dirty Dozen:

The 12 POPs have been banned or highly restricted as a result of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants signed by 151 countries and entered into force in May 2004.

PERC: Perchloroethylene: Halogenated

Hydrocarbon Found in dry cleaning solvents, industrial

cleaning operations, shoe polish, and other household products.

Health effects: enters ground water easily and causes neurological impairment, dizziness, fatigue, headaches, unconsciousness, liver and kidney damage, human carcinogen…

Phase out by 2020

MTBE Methyl tertiary butyl ether

Oxygenate added to gasoline Suspected carcinogen Nasty odor

Energy Policy Act of 2005 did not grant money for cleanup efforts therefore it is being withdrawn and substituted with ethanol.

Minimata Early 1970’s, Japan, small fishing village. 1950’s cats began showing symptoms of

spastic movements. Thought to be particular to felines. Same symptoms plus retardation, insanity,

and birth defects started to appear in humans. Acute mercury poisoning. Local industry was dumping into a nearby

river.

Lesson 19.2

A History of Mismanagement

Public Outrage Worsening pollution and increasing

recognition of adverse health effects pushed congress to pass the Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Clean Water Act of 1972.

This turned industry to land disposal (“loophole”).

Land Disposal

Three Methods Deep-well injection Surface impoundments Landfills

With safeguards, all have some merit, but without, they inevitably cause ground water pollution.

Deep-well Injection figure 19-7 p. 493 Drilling a “well” into dry porous

material below groundwater. Almost impossible to guarantee that

wastes will not escape and contaminate groundwater. Declining rate of use: 685 mill tons in

1988 to 113 mill tons in 1998 to 250 million pounds in 2004 (2000 pounds =ton).

Deep-well Injection

Surface Impoundments Excavated depressions (“ponds”) into

which liquid wastes are drained and held. Inadequate seals allow wastes to

percolate into groundwater, big storms cause overflows, volatile materials evaporate into the atmosphere.

Today they are strictly temporary storage sites for hazardous materials.

Surface Impoundments

Landfills Concentrated or solid hazardous

wastes are put into drums and buried in landfills.

Secure landfill: one that is properly lined, capped and monitored. Midnight dumping: illegal dumping

in dark hours of hazardous wastes.

Landfills: Orphan Sites

Some companies stored wastes on their own land and then went out of business abandoning their land and leaving behind the wastes. “Valley of the drums” (VOD) in

Kentucky Figure 19-11 p. 495.

Landfills

RCRA

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 1996

EPA conducted a survey of surface impoundments. Results released in 2001 Surveyed the scope of impoundments, the

characteristics of the wastes they managed, and the potential risks posed.

BDATS

Best-demonstrated available technologies.

Treatment standards for wastes established by the EPA.

Love Canal Near Niagara Falls New York School and homes were build on top of a

chemical waste dump. The surface began to collapse, exposing

barrels of chemical wastes. Fumes and chemicals began seeping into

cellars. People reports serious health problems.

Toxic Chemical Waste Problems

Cleaning up old wastes Managing new wastes Avoiding future wastes

Lesson 19.3

Cleaning up the Mess

Cleaning up Old Wastes Safe Drinking Water Act 1974

Amended in 1986 to allow EPA to set standards for MCL’s (max contam. levels) and jurisdiction over ground water and sets MCL’s for 90 contaminates.

Amended again in 1996 to provide small municipalities greater flexibility in water treatment and monitoring and required the EPA to assess risk, cost, and benefits before proposing regulations (this info not in ed. 10)

Cleaning up Old Wastes Continued Groundwater remediation

Developing and growing technology. Drilling, pumping out contaminated

water, purifying it and pumping it back in.

Cleaning is mandatory, however, if it is not possible because the contamination is extensive, it may be classified unsafe for drinking.

Cleaning up Old Wastes Continued Comprehensive Environmental

Response, Compensation, and Liability act 1980 (CERCLA) or aka (Superfund) Trust for the identification of chemical

waste sites, protection of ground water, remediation, and cleanup of the site.

How Super Is The Superfund? AKA CERCLA: Comprehensive Environmental

Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 Advanced cleanup technology

Incineration to burn off contaminants in soil Cleaning soil with detergent Bioremediation-inject soil with oxygen and organisms. Phytoremediation- uses plants to stabilize soil from further

movement.

Pays for the clean up through a tax on chemical raw materials Provide a trust for the identification of abandoned chemical

waste sites, protection of ground water near the site and remediation of ground water.

At what cost

In order to continue CERCLA it is estimated that it would cost between $14 and $16.4 billion to clean up the remaining nonfederal listed sites in the 2000-2010 decade.

Setting Priorities Because the task of cleaning up toxic sites

is too great to take care of all at once, the following priorities have been set: Identify the toxic waste sites and test them

for ground water contamination. Isolate wastes if they are present. Sites with severe threats are listed on the

NPL (National Priorities List) and are scheduled for total cleanup.

The Cleanup Technology

Contain wastes in drums. Drums can then be picked up.

The bigger problem is if the wastes get into the soil. Soil is excavated, cleaned and returned.

VOD: EPA contained the soil, remedial work completed in 1989 and VOD was taken off the NPL in 1996

Brownfields-cleanup and return to useful land for development.

Lesson 19.4

Managing Current Hazardous Wastes

Managing New Wastes Clean air act 1970 and clean water act 1972

(noted earlier) NPDES permits for discharge into water sources.

Helps to monitor who is discharging what into the waterways.

Those companies having discharge permits are required to report to TRI all discharges.

Small firms, homes, and farms are exempt from regulation.

Other factors contributing to pollution come from non-point sources.

Resource conservation and recovery act (RCRA) 1976

All disposal facilities must have permit Pretreatment of toxic wastes

Convert to forms that will not leach. “Cradle to grave” tracking of toxic wastes

Generator of waste to transporter to operators of the waste must sign forms at each step to ensure amounts are transferred accurately. These forms are submitted to the EPA.

Managing New Wastes Underground storage tank legislation

Leaks found early. Department of transportation

regulations (DOT) Specifies the type of containers and

methods of packing to be used in transport.

Each container and transport vehicle must have the proper placard labeling.

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)-

“worker’s right to know”. 1970 Requires businesses, industries, and

laboratories to make available both information regarding hazardous materials and suitable protective equipment.

MSDS: material safety data sheet. Must accompany the shipping storage and

handling of more than 600 chemicals

Emergency Planning and Community Right- to-know Act (EPCRA); also known as Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA title III)-helped to protect citizens from dangers. Companies that handle in excess of 5 tons of any

hazardous material to keep a complete accounting of storage sites, feed hoppers, etc.

Information goes to a local emergency planning committee which is reruired in every governmental jurisdiction and is made up of local fire, police, hospitals and other groups that may be involved in an emergency

Managing New Wastes Toxic Substances Control Act

(TSCA) 1976-submission of a pre-manufacturing report to EPA before new chemicals are manufactured in bulk. Environmental and human health

effects assessed. May lead to product restrictions.

REACH

From the European Union Registration, Evaluation and

Authorization of Chemicals. Screening of chemicals for toxicity

(including those not now tested in the US)

Lesson 19.5

Broader Issues

The Largest hazardous Waste Landfill Located in the Emelle, Alabama.

90% African-American Receives wastes from Superfund sites in every

state. Choctaw reservation in Philadelphia, Mississippi

was targeted to become a 466-acre haz-waste landfill.

The pattern is to place waste sites in “minority” areas.

Environmental Justice EPA defines it as “the fair treatment and

meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.

No group should bear a disproportionate share of the negative environmental consequences resulting from industrial, municipal, and commercial operations.

Several recent studies have shown that all across the US, waste sites and other hazardous facilities are more likely than not to be located in towns and neighborhoods where most of the residents are non-white.

This is a matter of political power, and those in power would like to have the sites as far from their backyards as possible.

Executive order 12898 Clinton, 1994. Focused federal attention on the

environmental justice issue. EPA responded by establishing the EJ

program in 1998.

Basel Convention International agreement that places a ban

on most international toxic- waste trade.

Nations that have signed and ratified, along with nations that have signed but have not ratified the agreement.

Pollution Control

Involves adding a filter or some other device at the “end of a pipe” to prevent pollution from entering the environment.

Pollution Prevention Minimization/elimination-changing

production process, materials used, or both to avoid.

Substitution-finding nonhazardous substitutes.

Reuse-distill and reuse solvents instead of discarding.

Wet-cleaning: explores the concept of water-based cleaning for dry-cleaning companies.

Green products

Products that are more environmentally friendly .

4 Ways to Address Chemical Pollution:1. Pollution prevention

2. Recycling

3. Treatment

4. Safe disposal

Major Hazardous Waste Laws-fig.19-17 p. 504