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Elements of Aeronautics (13AE32)

Unit-1

Part-2 Introduction to Aircraft

Basic components of aircraft

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The modern aircraft has five basic structural components: fuselage, wings, empennage(tail

structures), power plant (propulsion system) and the undercarriage.

i) Fuselage The fuselageis the main body structure to which all other components are attached.

The fuselage contains the cockpit or flight deck, passenger compartment and cargo

compartment.

While wings produce most of the lift, the fuselage also produces a little lift. A bulky

fuselage can also produce a lot of drag. For this reason, a fuselage is streamlined to

decrease the drag. It has a sharp or rounded nose with sleek, tapered body so that the

air can flow smoothly around it.

ii) Wings The wings are the most important lift-producing part of the aircraft.

Wings vary in design depending upon the aircraft type and its purpose. Most airplanes

are designed so that the outer tips of the wings are higher than where the wings are

attached to the fuselage. This upward angle is called the dihedral and helps keep the

airplane from rolling unexpectedly during flight.

The internal volume of the wings can be used for such item as fuel tanks and storageof the landing gear (the wheels and supporting struts).

iii) Empennage (tail structure)

The empennage or tail assembly provides stability and control for the aircraft. Theempennage is composed of two main parts:

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thevertical stabilizer (fin) to which therudder is attached thehorizontal stabilizer to which theelevators are attached.

These stabilizers of the airplane help to keep the airplane pointed into the wind. Whenthe tail end of the airplane tries to swing to either side, the wind pushes against the tail

surfaces, returning it to its proper place. The rudder and elevators allow the pilot tocontrol theyaw andpitch motion of the airplane, respectively.

iv) Undercarriage

Theundercarriageorlanding gearconsists of struts, wheels and brakes. The landinggear can be fixed in place or retractable.

Many small airplanes have fixed landing gear which increases drag, but keeps theairplane lightweight.

Larger, faster and more complex aircraft have retractable landing gear that canaccommodate the increased weight. The advantage to retractable landing gear is that

thedragis greatly reduced when the gear is retracted. When flying on a commercial

airliner you will notice that the pilot retracts the landing gear very soon after the

airplane leaves the ground. This helps to decrease drag as the airplane ascends.

v) Power plant (propulsion system)

The power plant is simply thepropulsion systemand consists of the engines. The solepurpose of the engines is to providethrustfor the airplane.

There are many different types of aircraft engines including: piston, turboprop,turbojet and turbofan. Turbojet and turbofan are jet engines. Some aircraft, notably

gliders, do not have an engine. To take off they must have another source of thrust -

that is, the tow-plane which pulls them into the air. When the engine is mounted on the wings, they are usually housed in a type of shroud

called a nacelle.

Aircraft Axis system

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In flight, any aircraft will rotate about itscenter of gravity,a point which is the average

location of the mass of the aircraft. We can define a three dimensional coordinate systemthrough the center of gravity with each axis of this coordinate system perpendicular to the

other two axes. We can then define the orientation of the aircraft by the amount of rotation of

the parts of the aircraft along these principal axes.

An airplane is of course a three-dimensional shape, therefore it has three axis:

1. Normal Axis2. Lateral Axis3. Longitudnal Axis

Normal axis (yaw)

The Yaw axis is a vertical axis through anaircraft,rocket,or similar body, about which the

bodyyaws;it may be a body, wind, or stability axis. Also known as yawing axis. The yaw

axis is defined to beperpendicularto the body of the wings with its origin at the center of

gravity and directed towards the bottom of the aircraft. A yaw motion is a movement of the

nose of the aircraft from side to side The rudder is the primary control of yaw.

Lateral axis (pitch)

The lateral axis (also called transverse axis) passes through the plane from wingtip towingtips. Rotation about this axis is called pitch. Pitch changes the vertical direction the

aircraft's nose is pointing. The elevators are the primary control of pitch.

Longitudinal axis (roll)

The longitudinal axis passes through the plane from nose to tail. Rotation about this axis is

called bankor roll. Bank changes the orientation of the aircraft's wings with respect to the

downward force of gravity. The pilot changes bank angle by increasing the lift on one wing

and decreasing it on the other. This differential lift causes bank rotation around the

longitudinal axis. The ailerons are the primary control of bank.

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Normally these axes are represented by the letters X, Y and Z in order to compare them with

some reference frame.

Aircraft motions

A yaw motion is a movement of the nose of the aircraft from side to side.

A pitch motion is an up or down movement of the nose of the aircraft.

A rolling motion is an up and down movement of the wing tips of the aircraft.

Control Surfaces

As aircraft moves in the three dimensions, we need various control devices to control it. The

main control surfaces of afixed-wing aircraftare attached to the airframe on hinges or tracks

so they may move and thus deflect the air stream passing over them. This redirection of the

air stream generates an unbalanced force to rotate the plane about the associated axis.Thereare mainly three types of control surfaces:

i) Ailerons

ii) Elevator

iii) Rudder

i) Ailerons

Aileronsare mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtips and move in

opposite directions. When the pilot moves thestickleft, or turns the wheel counter-clockwise,

the left aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down. A raised aileron reduces lift on that

wing and a lowered one increases lift, so moving the stick left causes the left wing to drop

and the right wing to rise. This causes the aircraft to roll to the left and begin to turn to the

left. Centering the stick returns the ailerons to neutral maintaining thebank angle.The

aircraft will continue to turn until opposite aileron motion returns the bank angle to zero to fly

straight.

ii) Elevator

Anelevatoris a moveable part of thehorizontal stabilizer,hinged to the back of the fixed part

of the horizontal tail. The elevators move up and down together. When the pilot pulls the

stick backward, the elevators go up. Pushing the stick forward causes the elevators to go

down. Raised elevators push down on the tail and cause the nose to pitch up. This makes the

wings fly at a higherangle of attack,which generates more lift and moredrag.Centering the

stick returns the elevators to neutral and stops the change of pitch. Many aircraft use a fully

moveable horizontal stabilizer calledstabilatoror all-moving tail.

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iii) Rudder

Therudderis typically mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, part oftheempennage.When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects left. Pushing the

right pedal causes the rudder to deflect right. Deflecting the rudder right pushes the tail left

and causes the nose to yaw to the right. Centering the rudder pedals returns the rudder to

neutral and stops the yaw.

High lift devices:

In aircraf design, high lift devices is a component or mechanism which increases lift

beyond that obtainable from the main aircraft components. The device may be fixed

component or movable mechanism which is deployed when required.

Devices to increase the lift coefficient by geometry changes (camber and/or chord)

and/or boundary-layer control (avoid flow separation).

a) Flaps, trailing edge devices

b) Slats, leading edge devices

a) Flaps

Flaps increase the wing surface or curve generating more lift with the same speed. They arevery used on low speed operations, mainly during landings and take offs.There are several

types of flaps:

Plain Flap

Split Flap

Flap Zap or Slotted

Flap Fowler

Flap Multi-Fowler

b) Slats

Slatsare aerodynamicsurfaces on the leading edge of the wingsof fixed-wing aircraftwhich,

when deployed, allow the wing to operate at a higher angle of attack. A higher coefficient of

lift is produced as a result of angle of attack and speed, so by deploying slats an aircraft can

fly at slower speeds, or take off and land in shorter distances. They are usually used while

landing or performing maneuvers which take the aircraft close to the stall, but are usually

retracted in normal flight to minimize drag.

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Spoilers

A spoiler (sometimes called a lift dumper) is a small, hinged plate on the top portion of awing intended to reduceliftin an aircraft. Spoilers are used to disrupt or "spoil" the flow of

air over a section of a wing.By doing so, the spoiler creates a controlledstallover the portion

of the wing, greatly reducing the lift of that wing section.

When the pilot activates the spoiler, the plate flips up into the air stream. On this figure, the

airplane's right wing spoiler is deployed, while the left wing spoiler is stored flat against the

wing surface (as viewed from the rear of the airplane). The flow over the right wing will be

disturbed by the spoiler, the drag of this wing will be increased, and the lift will decreaserelative to the left wing. Because the forces are not equal, there is a net twist about the center

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of gravity in the direction of the larger force. The resulting motion will roll the aircraft to the

rightt (clockwise) as viewed from the rear. If the pilot reverses the spoiler deflections (right

spoiler flat and left spoiler up) the aircraft will roll in the opposite direction. We have chosen

to name the left wing and right wing based on a view from the back of the aircraft towards

the nose, because that is the direction in which the pilot is looking.

Spoilers differ fromairbrakes,in that airbrakes are designed to increase drag without regard

to affecting the lift, while spoilers reduce lift as well as increase drag.

Types of aircraft

Lighter than air aerostats

Fig. A hot airballoonin flight

Aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water.

They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-

density gas such ashelium,hydrogen,orhot air,which is less dense than the surrounding air.

When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, it adds up to the same

weight as the air that the craft displaces.

Aballoonwas originally any aerostat, while the termairshipwas used for large, powered

aircraft designsusually fixed-wing though none had yet been built. The advent of powered

balloons, Nowadays a "balloon" is an unpowered aerostat and an "airship" is a powered one.

Heavier-than-airaerodynes

Heavier-than-air aircraft, such asairplanes,must find some way to push air or gas

downwards, so that a reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft

upwards. This dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term aerodyne. There

are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust:aerodynamic lift,andpowered liftin the form of

engine thrust.

Aerodynamic lift involving wings is the most common, with fixed-wing aircraft being kept in

the air by the forward movement of wings, androtorcraftby spinning wing-shaped rotors

sometimes called rotary wings. A wing is a flat, horizontal surface, usually shaped in cross-

section as anaerofoil.To fly, air must flow over the wing and generatelift.Aflexible wingis

a wing made of fabric or thin sheet material, often stretched over a rigid frame. A kiteis

tethered to the ground and relies on the speed of the wind over its wings, which may be

flexible or rigid, fixed, or rotary.

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With powered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrustverticallydownward.V/STOLaircraft,

such as theHarrier Jump JetandF-35Btake off and land vertically using powered lift and

transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight.

A purerocketis not usually regarded as an aerodyne, because it does not depend on the air

for its lift (and can even fly into space); however, many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been

powered or assisted by rocket motors. Rocket-powered missiles that obtain aerodynamic lift

at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies are a marginal case.

Fixed-wing

. The most important wing characteristics are:

Number of wingsMonoplane,biplane,etc.

Wing supportBraced or cantilever, rigid, or flexible.

Wing planformincluding aspect ratio, angle of sweep, and any variations along the

span (including the important class of delta wings).

Location of the horizontal stabilizer, if any.

Dihedral anglepositive, zero, or negative (anhedral).

A variable geometryaircraft can change its wing configuration during flight.

Aflying winghas no fuselage, though it may have small blisters or pods. The opposite of this

is a lifting body, which has no wings, though it may have small stabilizing and control

surfaces.

Wing-in-ground-effecttvehicles may be considered as fixed-wing aircraft. They "fly"efficiently close to the surface of the ground or water, like conventional aircraft during

takeoff. An example is the Russian ekranoplan(nicknamed the "Caspian Sea

Monster"). Man-powered aircraftalso rely on ground effectto remain airborne with a

minimal pilot power, but this is only because they are so underpowered in fact, the

airframe is capable of flying higher.

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Rotorcraft

Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinning rotor with aerofoil section blades (a rotary

wing) to provide lift. Types includehelicopters,autogyros,and various hybrids such

asgyrodynesand compound rotorcraft.

Helicoptershave a rotor turned by an engine-driven shaft. The rotor pushes air downward to

create lift. By tilting the rotor forward, the downward flow is tilted backward, producingthrust for forward flight. Some helicopters have more than one rotor and a few have rotors

turned by gas jets at the tips.

Autogyroshave unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant to provide thrust. The rotor is

tilted backward. As the autogyro moves forward, air blows upward across the rotor, making it

spin. This spinning increases the speed of airflow over the rotor, to provide lift. Rotor

kitesare unpowered autogyros, which are towed to give them forward speed or tethered to a

static anchor in high-wind for kited flight.

Cyclogyrosrotate their wings about a horizontal axis.

Compound rotorcrafthave wings that provide some or all of the lift in forward flight. They

are nowadays classified aspowered lifttypes and not as rotorcraft.Tiltrotoraircraft (such as

theV-22 Osprey),tiltwing,tailsitter,andcoleopteraircraft have their

rotors/propellershorizontal for vertical flight and vertical for forward flight.

Wing Configurations

Fixed-wing aircraft can have different numbers of wings:

Monoplane:one wing plane. Since the 1930s most aeroplanes have been monoplanes.

The wing may be mounted at various positions relative to thefuselage:

Low wing:mounted near or below the bottom of the fuselage.

Mid wing:mounted approximately half way up the fuselage.

Shoulder wing:mounted on the upper part or "shoulder" of the fuselage, slightly

below the top of the fuselage. A shoulder wing is sometimes considered a sub-type of

high wing.

High wing:mounted on the upper fuselage. When contrasted to the shoulder wing,

applies to a wing mounted on a projection (such as the cabin roof) above the top of

the main fuselage.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrodynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrodynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrodynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor_kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor_kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor_kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor_kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_lifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_lifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_lifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltwinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltwinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltwinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailsitterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailsitterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailsitterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuselagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuselagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuselagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoulder_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoulder_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20100627_Xenon2_Krakow_1328.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoulder_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuselagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tailsitterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltwinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_lifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor_kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor_kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrodynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopter

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Parasol wing:raised clear above the top of the fuselage, typically bycabane struts,

pylon(s) or pedestal(s).

Low wing Mid wing Shoulder wing

High wing Parasol wing

A fixed-wing aircraft may have more than one wing plane, stacked one above another:

Biplane:two wing planes of similar size, stacked one above the other. The most common

configuration until the 1930s, when the monoplane took over. TheWright Flyer Iwas a

biplane.

Unequal-span biplane: a biplane in which one wing (usually the lower) is shorter

than the other, as on theCurtiss JN-4 Jennyof the First World War.

Sesquiplane: literally "one-and-a-half planes" is a type of biplane in which the lower

wing is significantly smaller than the upper wing, either in span or chord or both.

TheNieuport 17of WWI was notably successful.

Inverted sesquiplane: has a significantly smaller upper wing. TheFiat CR.1was inproduction for many years.

Biplane Unequal-span biplane Sesquiplane Inverted sesquiplane

Triplane:three planes stacked one above another. Triplanes such as theFokker

Dr.Ienjoyed a brief period of popularity during the First World War due to their

manoeuvrability, but were soon replaced by improved biplanes.

Quadruplane:four planes stacked one above another. A small number of theArmstrong

Whitworth F.K.10were built in the First World War but never saw service.

Multiplane:many planes, sometimes used to mean more than one or more than some

arbitrary number. The term is occasionally applied to arrangements stacked in tandem as

well as vertically. The 1907 Multiplane ofHoratio Frederick Phillipsflew successfully

with two hundred wing foils, while the nine-wingCaproni Ca.60flying boat was airbornebriefly before crashing.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasol_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasol_winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabane_struthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabane_struthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabane_struthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Flyer_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Flyer_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Flyer_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_JN-4_Jennyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_JN-4_Jennyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_JN-4_Jennyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuport_17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuport_17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuport_17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_CR.1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_CR.1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_CR.1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_Dr.Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_Dr.Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_Dr.Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_Dr.Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplane_(aeronautics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplane_(aeronautics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_F.K.10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_F.K.10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_F.K.10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_F.K.10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplane_(aeronautics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplane_(aeronautics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio_Frederick_Phillipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio_Frederick_Phillipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio_Frederick_Phillipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caproni_Ca.60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caproni_Ca.60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caproni_Ca.60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane_inverted.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sesquiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_unequal_span.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_wire.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_parasol.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_high.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_shoulder.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_mid.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_low.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caproni_Ca.60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio_Frederick_Phillipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplane_(aeronautics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_F.K.10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_Whitworth_F.K.10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplane_(aeronautics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_Dr.Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_Dr.Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_CR.1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuport_17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_JN-4_Jennyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Flyer_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabane_struthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasol_wing

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Triplane Quadruplane Multiplane

Aspect ratio

Theaspect ratiois the span divided by themeanor average chord.

Low aspect ratio: short and stubby wing. More efficient structurally and higherinstantaneous roll rate. They tend to be used by fighter aircraft, such as theLockheed

F-104 Starfighter,and by very high-speed aircraft (e.g.North American X-15).

Moderate aspect ratio: general-purpose wing (e.g. the LockheedP-80 ShootingStar).

High aspect ratio: long and slender wing. More efficient aerodynamically, havingless induced drag. They tend to be used by high-altitude subsonic aircraft (e.g.

theLockheed U-2), subsonic airliners (e.g. theBombardier Dash 8)and by high-

performance sailplanes (e.g.Glaser-Dirks DG-500).

Low aspect ratio Moderate aspect ratio High aspect ratio

MostVariable geometryconfigurations vary the aspect ratio in some way, either deliberately

or as a side effect.

Wing sweep

Wings may be swept back, or occasionally forwards, for a variety of reasons. A small degree

of sweep is sometimes used to adjust the centre of lift when the wing cannot be attached in

the ideal position for some reason, such as a pilot's visibility from the cockpit. Other uses are

described below.

Straight: extends at right angles to the line of flight. The most structurally-efficient wing,

it is common for low-speed designs, such as theP-80 Shooting Starandsailplanes.

Swept back(aka "swept wing"): The wing sweeps rearwards from the root to the tip. In

early tailless examples, such as theDunne aircraft,this allowed the outer wing section to

act like a conventionalempennage(tail) to provide aerodynamic stability.

Attransonicspeeds swept wings have lower drag, but can handle badly in or near a stall

and require high stiffness to avoid aeroelasticity at high speeds. Common on high-

subsonic and early supersonic designs e.g. theHawker Hunter.

Forward swept: the wing angles forward from the root. Benefits are similar to

backwards sweep, also it avoids the stall problems and has reduced tip losses allowing a

smaller wing, but requires even greater stiffness to avoid aeroelastic flutter as on

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-104_Starfighterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-104_Starfighterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-104_Starfighterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-104_Starfighterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_X-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_X-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_X-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_U-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_U-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_U-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_Dash_8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_Dash_8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_Dash_8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaser-Dirks_DG-500http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaser-Dirks_DG-500http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaser-Dirks_DG-500http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_configuration#Variable_geometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_configuration#Variable_geometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_configuration#Variable_geometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_William_Dunnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_William_Dunnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_William_Dunnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empennagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empennagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empennagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transonichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transonichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transonichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Hunterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Hunterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Hunterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_high_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_low_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quadruplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_high_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_low_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quadruplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_high_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_low_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quadruplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_high_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_low_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quadruplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_high_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_low_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quadruplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_high_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_low_aspect.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Multiplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quadruplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triplane.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Hunterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transonichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empennagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_William_Dunnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_configuration#Variable_geometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaser-Dirks_DG-500http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_Dash_8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_U-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-80_Shooting_Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_X-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-104_Starfighterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_F-104_Starfighterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratio

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the Sukhoi Su-47. The HFB-320 Hansa Jet used forward sweep to prevent the wing spar

passing through the cabin.

Straight SweptForward swept

The angle of sweep may also be varied, or cranked, along the span:

Crescent: wing outer section is swept less sharply than the inner section. Used for

the Handley Page Victor.

Cranked arrow: similar to a compound delta, but with the trailing edge also kinked

inwards. Trialled experimentally on the General Dynamics F-16XL M-wing: the inner wing section sweeps forward, and the outer section sweeps backwards.

Periodically studied, but never used on an aircraft.

W-wing: A reversed M-wing.

Crescent Cranked arrow M-wing W-wing

.

Dihedral:the tips are higher than the root as on theBoeing 737,giving a shallow 'V'

shape when seen from the front. Adds lateral stability.

Anhedral:the tips are lower than the root, as on theIlyushin Il-76;the opposite of

dihedral. Used to reduce stability where some other feature results in too much stability.

Some biplanes have different degrees of dihedral/anhedral on different wings; e.g.

theSopwith Camelhad a flat upper wing and dihedral on the lower wing, while theHanriot

HD-1had dihedral on the upper wing but none on the lower.

Dihedral AnhedralBiplane with

dihedral

on both wings

Biplane with dihedral

on lower wing

In a polyhedralwing the dihedral angle varies along the span.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_737http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_737http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_737http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_(aircraft)#Anhedralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_(aircraft)#Anhedralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilyushin_Il-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilyushin_Il-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilyushin_Il-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopwith_Camelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopwith_Camelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopwith_Camelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanriot_HD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanriot_HD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanriot_HD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_lower_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_anhedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_dihedral.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_W.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_M.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_cranked_arrow.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_crescent.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_forward_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_swept.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wing_tapered.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanriot_HD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanriot_HD-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopwith_Camelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilyushin_Il-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_(aircraft)#Anhedralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_737http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_(aircraft)

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Gull wing: sharp dihedral on the wing root section, little or none on the main section, as

on thePZL P.11fighter. Sometimes used to improve visibility forwards and upwards and

may be used as the upper wing on a biplane as on thePolikarpov I-153.

Inverted gull: Anhedral on the root section, dihedral on the main section. The opposite

of a gull wing. May be used to reduce the length of wing-mounted undercarriage legs or

allow a larger propeller. Two well-known examples of the inverted gull wing are WorldWar II's American F4U Corsair, and the German Junkers Ju 87 Stukadive bomber.

Cranked: tip section dihedral differs from the main section. The wingtips may crank

upwards as on the F-4 Phantom II or downwards as on the Northrop XP-56 Black Bullet

(Note that the term "cranked" varies in usage. Here, it is used to help clarify the

relationship between changes of dihedral nearer the wing tip vs. nearer the wing root. See

also Cranked arrowplanform.)

Gull wing Inverted gull wing Upward cranked tips Downward cranked tips

Blended bodyor blended wing-bodya smooth transition occurs between wing and

fuselage, with no hard dividing line. Blended wing body(BWB or Hybrid Wing Body,HWB[1])craft have no clear dividing line between the wings and the main body of the

craft. Reduces wetted area (entire surface exposed to airflow) and can also reduce

interference between airflow over the wing root and any adjacent body, in both cases

reducing drag. The Lockheed SR-71 spyplane exemplifies this approach.

Fig. Blended body

Twin boom layout

A twin-boom aircraftis characterised by twolongitudinalbooms (extendednacelle-like

bodies) fixed to its main wing on either side of itscentre line.The booms may contain

ancillary items such as fuel tanks and/or provide a supporting structure for external ancillary

items. Typically, twin tailbooms provide mounting points for one or more tail surfaces,

although on some types such as the Rutan Model 72 Grizzlythe booms run forward of the

main wing. The twin-boom configuration is distinct from twin-fuselagedesigns.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PZL_P.11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PZL_P.11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PZL_P.11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polikarpov_I-153http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polikarpov_I-153http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polikarpov_I-153http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blended_wing_body#cite_note-burl-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blended_wing_body#cite_note-burl-1http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Longitudinalhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Longitudinalhttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Longitudinalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacellehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacellehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacellehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked_down.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_inverted_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked_down.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_inverted_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked_down.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_inverted_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked_down.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_inverted_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked_down.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_cranked.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_inverted_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monoplane_gull.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacellehttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Longitudinalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blended_wing_body#cite_note-burl-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polikarpov_I-153http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PZL_P.11

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Fig: De Havilland Vampire

Canardrefers to an arrangement in which a small forewing or foreplane is placed ahead of

the main wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. The term "canard" may be used to describe the aircraft

itself, the wing configurationor the foreplane.

Stealth aircraft

Stealth aircraftare designed to avoid detection using a variety of advanced technologies that

reduce reflection/emission of radar infrared,visible light, radio-frequency (RF)spectrum, and

audio, collectively known as stealth technology. Development of stealth technology likely

began in Germany during World War II, the planned Horten Ho 229being described as the

first stealth aircraft. Well-known modern examples of stealth of U.S aircraft include the

United States' F-117 Nighthawk(19812008), the B-2 Spirit, the F-22 Raptor, and the F-35

Lightning II.

Stealth technologyalso termed LO technology(low observable technology) is a sub-

discipline of military tactics and passive electronic countermeasures, which cover a range

oftechniquesused with personnel, aircraft, ships, submarines, missilesand satellitesto make

them less visible (ideallyinvisible)to radar, infrared, sonarand other detection methods. It

corresponds to camouflagefor these parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.

STOL aircraft

A short takeoff and landing(STOL) aircraft is anaircraftwith shortrunwayrequirements

fortakeoff and landing.Many STOL-designed aircraft also feature various arrangements foruse onrunwayswith harsh conditions (such ashigh altitudeor ice). STOL aircraft, including

those used in scheduled passenger airline operations, have also been operated fromSTOL

portairfields which feature short runways.

Eg. Zenith STOL CH 701

STOVL aircraft

A short take-off and vertical landing aircraft(STOVL aircraft) is a fixed-wing

aircraftthat is able totake offfrom a short runway (or take off vertically if it does not have a

heavy payload) andlandvertically (i.e. with no runway).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisiblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisiblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisiblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoff_and_landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoff_and_landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoff_and_landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_altitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_altitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_altitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STOLporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STOLporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STOLporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STOLporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STOLporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STOLporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_altitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeoff_and_landinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisiblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology

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Eg.VTOLjet aircraft (such as theHarrier jump-jet)andtiltrotors(such as theV-22

Osprey), among others.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTOLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTOLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTOLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrier_jump-jethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrier_jump-jethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrier_jump-jethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrier_jump-jethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTOL