eos am-1 brochure

8/7/2019 EOS AM-1 Brochure

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NASASEARTH

OBSERVINGSYSTEM

THE FIRST EOS SATELLITE

EOS AM-1


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Table of Contents

1 Background and Science Objectives

6 The EOS AM-1 Mission

8 EOS Interdisciplinary Science Investigations

12 Mission Elements

13 Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer

15 Clouds and the Earths Radiant Energy System

17 Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer

19 MODerate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

21 Measurements Of Pollution In The Troposphere

22 Earth Observing System AM-1 Spacecraft

23 The EOS Data and Information System

25 The EOS Data Calibration Strategy

28 Validation

29 Education and Outreach

31 Glossary, Terms & References

Spacecraft art on front cover by Barbara Summey, Scientific Visualization Studio, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center


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Background and ScienceObjectives

Is the mean temperature

of the ground in any way

influenced by the presence

of the heat-absorbing

gases in the atmosphere?

Svante Arrhenius,

Philosophical Magazine and

J. of Science, 1896

The EOS AM-1 satellite is the flagship of NASAs Earth Science Enterprise. Itwill be the first EOS platform and will provide global data on the state of the

atmosphere, land, and oceans, as well as their interactions with solar radia-

tion and with one another.

One century ago, Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius asked the importantquestion Is the mean temperature of the ground in any way influenced bythe presence of the heat-absorbing gases in the atmosphere? He went on tobecome the first person to investigate the effect that doubling atmosphericcarbon dioxide would have on global climate.1 The question was debatedthroughout the early part of the twentieth century and is still a main con-

cern of Earth scientists today. Other equally important questions have arisenconcerning the health of our planet that also require further scientificinvestigation and are discussed in this brochure.

Arrhenius first climate model was based on Samuel Langleys infraredmeasurements of the temperature of the moon, from which Arrheniusderived the infrared transmissions of carbon dioxide and water vapor. Sincethen, climate models were developed to include other trace gases and manyprocesses in Earths atmosphere, lands, and oceans. But scientists now rec-ognize that climate models using trace gas forcing alone cannot adequatelyexplain temperature trends. To predict future climates we need to introduceinto the models Earth parameters that are highly varying in space and time,

such as clouds, aerosols, water vapor, land use, ocean productivity, and theinteractions between these parameters. Today, the prime tools for measuringthese parameters are highly precise satellite sensors. Consequently, theWorld Climate Research Program, the International Geosphere-BiosphereProgram, and the U.S. Global Change Research Program formed the frame-work for NASAs Earth Science Enterprise. The design and construction ofthe Earth Observing System (EOS) and its associated scientific efforts are theEnterprises main foci.

In 1998, NASA will launch the first EOS satelliteEOS AM-1with fivestate-of-the-art instruments to observe and measure the state of the Earthsystem, and to monitor global environmental changes over time. Each

instrument is uniquely designed to provide data with unprecedented preci-sion, quality, and scope. These data will be processed into continuous long-term measures of the state of the land, ocean, and atmosphere. EOS AM-1smeasurements, together with those of other satellite systems launched byNASA and other international space agencies, begin a new self-consistentdata set that is expected to revolutionize climate change models. Follow-upmissions are planned to extend this data set continously for at least the next18 years.


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In order to understand the Earth as a whole, integrat-ed system, we need long-term measurements of itsvarious environments at specific temporal, spectral,and spatial intervals. Current satellites play an

increasingly important role in global environmentalmonitoring, but often were not designed for the tasksto which they are applied. Yet, the instruments onEOS AM-1 are uniquely designed for comprehen-sive Earth observations and scientific analysis.Comprehensive refers to the wide spectral cover-age provided by the satellites instruments, its widespatial coverage as it collects image data daily overthe entire Earths surface, and its long temporal cov-erage as EOS AM-1 begins a series of Earth observingsatellites designed to measure global climate changeover a minimum of 18 years. Comprehensive also

refers to the multi-disciplinary applications of its sci-ence data products; to the large number ofresearchers worldwide who will utilize EOS AM-1sfreely distributed global data; and to the existingglobal data setssuch as those of AVHRR, CZCS,and Thematic Mapperthat will be extended by EOSAM-1. With the 1998 launch of EOS AM-1, we enter anew era in global environmental change detection.

Why should we look for globalchange?

Changes in the land-ocean-atmosphere-biosphere sys-tem are caused by both natural and human influ-ences. Solar output fluctuations, volcanic emissions,and El Nio are examples of natural processes that

cause interannual variations in global climate.Dramatic climate changes have been documentedduring historical times. In the 15th century, the cli-mate began to cool suddenly by about 1.5C duringthe little ice age, causing disruption of agriculturaland social systems. New evidence continues to accu-mulate showing large and abrupt (decadal) climatechanges in the past.

Human activity has had an increasing impact on theglobal environment. Since Arrhenius 1896 prediction,

the Earths population has almost quadrupled andthe per capita use of natural resources (energy, water,and land) has also grown. Increased population,deforestation and forest fires, and energy and landuse in the last century have resulted in transforma-tion of one-third to one-half of the land surface;increases in concentrations of greenhouse gases (car-

bon dioxide, for instance, has risen by 30 percent);more aerosol particles in the atmosphere; and use ofmore than half of all accessible surface fresh water.2

These changes are associated with increases in globalsurface temperature, as well as changes in spatial and

diurnal distribution of temperature.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Changerecently concluded that ...the balance of evidencesuggests that there is a discernible human influenceon global climate. Now we need to gather dataona global scale over a long period of timeto quantifythe causes and predict the magnitude of the effects of

This series of visible and infrared image data was taken over Bolivia by Landsat satellites 1, 4, and 5. The series shows the rapid conversionof tropical dry forest into large-scale agriculture (Compton Tucker, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center).

What is thereason for this largeinvestment inunderstanding our

planet from space

and what do weexpect to gain?

1975 1986 1992 1996


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natural and human impacts on climate and the envi-

ronment. In short, the ability to differentiate between

natural- and human-induced climate and environ-

mental change will empower us to better act as stew-

ards of our home planet.

Signals of global change and their

causes that are under investigation

Scientists have proven that there has been a steady

increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere since the beginning of the industrial revo-

lution. There is mounting evidence that this and other

atmospheric greenhouse gas increases are causing the

average annual global temperature to rise. If so, cli-

mate warming may result in melting of continental

ice and snow, as well as rising sea levels and increas-

ing weather instabilities. Over the last 20 years, satel-

lite observations have shown that the extent of snow

cover in the Northern

Hemisphere has

decreased in conjunc-

tion with increases in

surface air tempera-

ture.3 Satellites have

also revealed recent

deterioration of

major ice sheets and

an increase in atmos-

pheric water vapor,

both possible indica-tors of current global

climate warming.4

Increases in air tem-

perature are expected

to cause changes in

agricultural practices.

Current models sug-

gest that productivity

is likely to increase

where low tempera-

tures are limiting plant growth and to decrease where

the climate is currently warm and dry.5

What are the benefits of betterunderstanding our planet?

A global monitoring system, coupled with other mea-

surements and data analysis, will give us the tools to

measure the environmental impacts of population

expansion, overgrazing, and biomass burning in the

tropics. To what degree do droughts, overgrazing,

and deforestation affect generation of dust, change in

the land radiative and hydrological properties, and

forcing of climate? Do we know what the effects of

global climate change have been so far and can we

predict them in the future? How does human use of

resources like energy, land, and water, contribute to

climate change? Todays climate models are devel-oped to a stage where, coupled with global observa-

tionsstarting with EOS AM-1they are expected to

be useful for predicting the impact of natural and

anthropogenic forcing of climate.

Besides detecting longer term climate and land use

change, there are more immediate economic and soci-

etal advantages to be gained by the implementation

of an extensive Earth monitoring system. Better infor-

mation on the state of the surface and the atmosphere

will lead to more accurate extended weather forecasts

affecting health, safety, commerce, recreation, agricul-ture, and natural haz-

ard prediction. For

instance, El Nio is

known to disrupt the

patterns of life of

plants and animals in

the Pacific Ocean,

and is second only to

the changing seasons

in its impact on

world climate. The

term El Nio

(Spanish for the

Christ Child) was

coined by South

American fishermen

in reference to the

warm ocean currents

that periodically

appear around

Christmas-time and

can last for months. Nine El Nios have occurred

during the past 40 yearswith each came warmerocean temperatures, reduced oceanic productivity,

and heavy rainfall in many areas of the Earth.

Scientists have shown that El Nio causes droughts

in Africa, Australia, and Southeast Asia, while reduc-

ing the productivity in the Pacific Ocean and thus

impacting the fisheries it supports.6 These dry condi-

tions in Africa, coupled with extensive increases in

local land use, generate a large amount of dust that is

These NOAA AVHRR data products show normal sea surface temperatures(Oct. 1996) and, those near the peak (May 1997) of the 1997 El Nio, one ofthe most severe in this century. Under normal conditions the western tropi-cal Pacific Ocean is a large warm pool of water, while relatively coolwaters occur off the South American coast. During El Nio, warm watersspread across the entire tropical Pacific (Jet Propulsion Laboratory).


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transported thousands of miles westward over theAtlantic Ocean by prevailing winds. In the atmos-phere, dust alters the radiation budget of the Earthand, as it settles out, fertilizes the biota in the AtlanticOcean, the Atlantic islands, and even the Amazonrain forest.

El Nio has been linked to 93 and 95 flooding in themidwestern United States.7, 8 Crop yields have beenfound to be correlated with El Nio events. The eco-nomic gains due to improved El Nio forecasts in thesoutheastern United States alone are estimated to bemore than $100 million a year. The ability to forecastEl Nio events is another example of the benefits thatare expected from EOS.

Alarm systems using satellite observations to monitorfire, famine, floods, and volcanoes are currentlyunder development. For example, NASA scientists

are processing data from meteorological satellites innear real time to provide the Famine Early WarningSystem (FEWS) with measurements of the conditionof vegetation in Africa. Efforts like FEWS to mitigate

the effects of disaster events will be more effective asmore accurate and timely observations become avail-able.

The Mt. Pinatubo eruption in 1991 gave scientists anopportunity to predict the expected global tempera-ture impact and, subsequently, validate their predic-

tions with real data. They predicted and confirmedthat for the 2 years following the eruption the result-ing stratospheric sulfate cloud intercepted andreflected back into space a significant part of theincoming solar radiation. Mt. Pinatubo caused, nearlyas predicted, a 0.5C reduction in the surface and tro-pospheric temperatures.9

The EOS AM-1 mission will be complemented byLandsat-7 in 1998, Meteor-3M/SAGE III in 1999, and

Jason-1 and EOS PM-1 in 2000. EOS CHEM-1, ICESat-1, and missions that will continue the AM and PM

main data sequence are currently under develop-ment, or in the planning stage for launch in the nextmillennium. These missions will provide repetitiveand additive measurements to EOS AM-1.

El Nio events cause fluctuations in temperature and rainfall patterns in the Pacific basin and beyond. These periodic variationsthat occur as a result of the interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere in the tropical Pacific region can affect ecosystemsand human lives in far-flung regions of the globe. This ocean-atmosphere phenomenon, known as the El Nio/SouthernOscillation (ENSO), affects climate-sensitive human activities such as agriculture and fisheries. The symbols on this map indicatethe known impacts of the 1982-83 El Nio (NOAA Office of Global Programs).


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Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) image showing the distribution of plant life on Earth, i.e., the Global Biosphere.On land, vegetated areas are shown as dark green and areas of little or no vegetation are brown. Ocean areas rich in phytoplank-ton are shown as red, yellow, and green, and areas of low concentration are blue and purple (SeaWiFS Project, Goddard Space

Flight Center)

5

Physical Climate System

Volcanoes

Ocean Dynamics

Atmospheric Physics/Dynamics

Terrestrial

Energy/Moisture

Biogeochemical System

Terrestrial

Ecosystems

ExtenalForcing

Sun

Marine

Biogeochemistry

CO2Tropospheric Chemistry

Pollutants

Land

Use

Soil CO2Global Moisture

HumanActivities

Stratospheric

Chemistry/Dynamics

Climate Change

Schematic diagram of the Earth system and its interactions, encompassing the physical climate system, biogeochemicalcycles, external forcing, and the effects of human activities [adapted from Earth System Science: Overview, NASA].Projecting the future climate requires understanding and quantitatively predicting how the components and interactionswill change as a result of natural and human activities.


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ice; global surface temperatureday and night;clouds (macrophysics, microphysics, and radia-tive effects); radiative energy fluxes; aerosol prop-erties and water vapor, fire occurrence, and tracegases.

Begin to assimilate data from EOS AM-1 andLandsat-7 into regional process studies and mod-els. Begin to detect annual changes in land useand deforestation.

Generate a new set of state distributions of geo-physical parameters in combination with Jason-1and EOS PM-1 data.

The launch of EOS AM-1 marks the begin-ning of humankinds comprehensive moni-toring of solar radiation, the atmosphere, theoceans, and the Earths continents from a sin-gle space-based platform. Its mission objec-tives stem from NASAs Earth Scienceresearch strategies and the EOS AM-1 instru-ments capabilities. The science priorities ofEOS are to provide global observations andscientific understanding of:

land cover change and global productivi-tyincluding trends and patterns ofchange in regional land cover, biodiversi-ty, and global primary productivity;

seasonal-to-interannual climate predic-tions that improve forecasts of the timingand geographical extent of transient cli-mate anomalies;

natural hazardsincluding disaster char-

acterization and risk reduction fromwildfires, volcanoes, floods, anddroughts;

long-term climate variability, to helpscientists identify the mechanisms andfactors that determine long-term climatevariation and trends, including human impacts;and

atmospheric ozone, to help scientists detectchanges, causes, and consequences of changes in

atmospheric ozone.

Specific objectives of EOS AM-1 and their implemen-tation include the following:

1. Provide the first measurements of the global/sea-sonal distribution of key Earth and atmosphereparameters, which include global bio-productivity(land and oceans); land use; land cover, snow and

The EOS AM-1 Mission

Global maps of the aerosol loading derived from TOMS data (top) overland and ocean, and from AVHRR data over the oceans (bottom). Theregions of high aerosol concentrations are indicated by red colors. Note thedust aerosol advected westward from Africa, and the heavy dust in theArabian Peninsula (Jay Herman, Goddard Space Flight Center and JoeProspero, U. of Miami).


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2. Improve our ability to detect human impacts onclimate, identify fingerprints of human activityon climate, and predict climate change by usingthe updated global distributions of land usechange, aerosols, water vapor, clouds and radia-tion, trace gases, and oceanic productivity in glob-al climate models.

Later, these comparisons will be repeated togeth-er with Landsat-7, SAGE-III, Jason-1, and EOSPM-1 data.

3. Provide observations that will improve forecastsof the timing and geographical extent of transientclimatic anomalies. Investigate the correlation

between the regional and annual variations ofclouds, aerosols, water vapor, biota in land andoceans, fires and trace gases, the radiation field,and major climatic events such as El Nio, vol-

canic activity, etc.

4. Improve seasonal and interannual predictionsusing EOS AM-1 (and later Jason-1 and EOSPM-1) data.

5. Develop technologies for disaster prediction,characterization, and risk reduction from wild-fires, volcanoes, floods, and droughts.

6. Start long-term monitoring of the change in globalclimate and environmental change.

EOS identified high-priority measurements neededfor a better understanding of each of the Earth systemcomponentsthe atmosphere, the land, the oceans,the cryosphere, and the solar driving force. To quanti-fy changes in the Earth system, EOS will provide sys-tematic, continuous observations from low Earth orbitfor the bulk of these measurements for a minimum of18 years. The following is a list of these key measure-

ments; those that will be provided specifically by EOSAM-1 instruments are in bold text.

Discipline

ATMOSPHERE

LAND

OCEAN

CRYOSPHERE

SOLAR RADIATION

Measurement

Cloud Properties

Radiative Energy Fluxes

Precipitation

Tropospheric Chemistry

Stratospheric Chemistry

Aerosol Properties

Atmospheric Temperature

Atmospheric Humidity

Lightning

Land Cover and Land Use Change

Vegetation Dynamics

Surface Temperature

Fire Occurrence

Volcanic Effects

Surface Wetness

Surface Temperature

Phytoplankton & Dissolved Organic

MatterSurface Wind Fields

Ocean Surface Topography

Land Ice Change

Sea Ice

Snow Cover

Total Solar Irradiance

Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance

EOS-AM Instruments

MODIS, MISR, ASTER

CERES, MODIS, MISR

MOPITT

MISR, MODIS

MODIS

MODIS

MODIS, MISR, ASTER

MODIS, MISR, ASTER

MODIS, ASTER

MODIS, ASTER

MODIS, MISR, ASTER

MODIS

MODIS, MISR

ASTER

MODIS, ASTER

MODIS, ASTER


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To ensure that the scientific potential ofEOS is fully exploited, NASA is sponsor-ing Interdisciplinary Science (IDS) investi-

gations under the EOS program. Morethan 70 teams of scientists from variousinstitutions and disciplines are developingtechnologies and models in anticipation ofthe launch of EOS AM-1. Each team iscomposed of specialists in different disci-plines ranging across the atmospheric,

biospheric, and marine sciences. Indeed,important advances in the field of Earthscience have already been achieved by IDSinvestigators so that when EOS AM-1launches, many of the IDS Teams will

already be prepared to assimilate theirfirst products into models.

The following sections discuss just a fewexamples of ongoing research by IDSinvestigators and team members con-tributing to EOS science.

Detection of global changeand its causes

VegetationWe are beginning to realize the scientific

benefits of long-term Earth observationsfrom space. After more than a decade ofexperience using AVHRR data, scientistsare now able to measure year-to-year vari-ations in important properties of theEarths surface, such as vegetation, snowcover, and sea surface temperature.

MODIS and MISR Science Team member RangaMyneni, together with EOS IDS investigators and

other collaborators, detected an increase in surfacegreenness (NDVI) in the northern hemisphere duringthe 1980s using specially processed AVHRR data. Anincrease in the duration of the growing season wasalso detected. This increase is correlated with adecrease in satellite-measured snow cover, surface-measured increases in air temperature, and the sea-sonal amplitude in the atmospheric carbon dioxideconcentration.

In conducting this work, Myneni has had to over-come problems associated with detection of small

year-to-year changes, using measurements of limitedaccuracy. Uncertainty in instrument calibration, inter-ference from atmospheric and surface conditions, andcoarse spatial and spectral resolution are some of theproblems that have had to be dealt with when usingAVHRR data for change detection. These issues areaddressed in the design of the EOS AM-1 (MODIS,MISR) platform, making change detection more accu-rate than in the past.

EOS Interdisciplinary Science Investigations

Geographic distribution of the change from 1982 to 1991 in normalized differencevegetation index (NDVI) of land areas north of 27.75 N, expressed as the averageover the northern active growing season of May through September. The top panelshows NDVI increase in percentage over 10 years, determined by linear regressionof year-to-year northern growing season averaged NDVI. The middle panel showsclimatological NDVI of the active growing season. The bottom panel shows changein spring temperature (March through May) over a 9-year period during the 1980s(1982 to 1990) determined from the average daily thermometer observations. It can

be seen that spring-time warming (bottom panel) over vegetated areas (middlepanel) has caused increased plant growth in the northern high latitudes (top panel)during the 1980s (Myneni et al., 1997).10


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CloudsLow clouds over the ocean affectthe energy balance of the Earth

because they strongly reflectsolar radiation, but are warmenough to have only a smalleffect on the amount of emitted

thermal radiation. Low cloudsare abundant over the oceans,especially in high latitudes andover the eastern margins of theoceans where low sea surfacetemperatures (SST) and atmos-pheric subsidence promote theirformation and persistence. Theamount and optical properties oflow stratiform clouds are deter-mined by atmospheric andoceanic conditions, as well as by

the abundance of cloud conden-sation nuclei such as those aris-ing from the burning of fossilfuels and biomass. These sensi-tivities and the strong effect onthe radiation balance give lowclouds the potential to play amajor role in climate change.

Dennis Hartmanns IDS Team isstudying long-term trends in lowclouds and their relation to SST and other variables toestimate how low-cloud changes have been related tonatural changes in the climate system. The figure

below shows the correlation between low-cloudabundance and SST over the North Pacific and NorthAtlantic oceans during the three decades from 1952 to1981. During this period, rather significant down-ward trends in SST over the mid-latitude oceans have

been accompanied by significant upward trends inthe abundance of low clouds. More recent data fromthe 1980s, however, suggest that these trends havereversedoceans are warming while low-cloud

amounts are decreasing.

The CERES, MISR, MODIS, andASTER Instrument teams, aswell as other EOS IDS teams,are preparing for the new era ofmulti-spectral, multi-angle,high-resolution cloud measure-ments beginning with EOSAM-1 and extending through

the next decade with the launch ofother EOS satellites. With thesenew measurements, scientistsexpect to distinguish between nat-ural variability and multi-yeartrends in global climate, as well asto identify the underlying causes

of these dynamics.

AerosolsAerosolsliquid or solid particlessuspended in the atmospherecanaffect climate by intercepting orreflecting incoming solar radiation,and by affecting cloud micro-physics, cloud brightness, and pre-cipitation. Atmospheric aerosolsare produced by a number of nat-ural and anthropogenic processes,

such as volcanism, fossil fuel burn-ing, fires, and soil erosion.

Using models of dust generation,an EOS Interdisciplinary Investi-gation (Ina Tegen, PrincipalInvestigator) calculated emissionsand transport of mineral dust inthe atmosphere arising fromregions with soils disturbed both

by natural processes and byhuman activities, such as over-grazing, deforestation,and cultivation. Compar-ing the models with satellitedata, the team found that about half of the mineralaerosols present globally in the atmosphere arise as aresult of human activities.

The effect of human-made aerosols on the planetaryalbedo can delay or compensate for carbon dioxide-induced greenhouse warming. In fact, it is suspectedof slowing the increase in the global temperature,decreasing the diurnal temperature range, decreasingwarming in the Northern Hemisphere relative to the

Southern Hemisphere, and decreasingwarming of continents relative tooceans. But there are large uncer-

tainties in the aerosol loading

Severe thunderstorm, composed of ice particles(blue) over the Brooks Range, Alaska, June 7,1995 (top). Tropical biomass burning andsmoke plume, Central Brazil, near the XinguRiver, August 23, 1995 (bottom). These imageswere created from multispectral MAS data with50-meter nadir pixel resolution. Each image rep-resents a composite of three different MAS spec-tral bands, each assigned to a differentred/green/blue (RGB) color (Paul Hubanks,RDC/Goddard Space Flight Center).

This graphic shows the coefficient ofcorrelation between anomalies of stratusplus-stratocumulus cloud amount andsea surface temperature during the sum-mer season (June-August) over the peri-od from 1952 to 1981 (Dennis Hartmann,U. of Washington).

No Data -80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50


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and properties, as well as their spatial and verticaldistribution and variability with time. Consequently,the uncertainties in the aerosol forcing and the influ-ence of aerosols on clouds are considered to be majorweaknesses in current models of climate change.

Identifying the sources of aerosols and their impact

on climate is an important component of EOS and cli-mate research in general. Analysis of global dailysatellite data from EOS AM-1 can provide the overallassessments of the interdependence and interactionsamong aerosols, water vapor, clouds, and the radia-tive forcing. All these quantities are measured fromEOS AM-1 instrumentation. MODIS measures simul-taneously global aerosols, water vapor, and clouds;MISR provides independent measures of aerosolamounts, composition, and radiative properties alongwith three-dimensional cloud characterizations;CERES measures the resulting radiative forcing; and

ASTER and Landsat-7 can provide a zoomed imageof the aerosol and cloud properties in specific loca-tions of major interest. The Aerosol Robotic Network(AERONET) of ground-based, autonomous instru-mentation will make coincident aerosol measure-ments and provide information on their propertiesfor validation of EOS AM-1 aerosol products (BrentHolbens IDS Team).

Assessment of the dusts climate effects requires useof a fully interactive climate model. Other EOSInstrument and IDS Teams (e.g., Fung, Dickinson,

Hansen, Hartmann, Kiehl, Toon, Holben, Ghan, andPickering) will be ready to assimilate aerosol mea-surements from EOS AM-1 into atmospheric andglobal climate models to assess the impacts ofaerosols on climate.

Biospheric productivityPhotosynthetic organisms, like land plants and phy-toplankton, convert solar energy into the chemicalenergy that drives the rest of the biosphere. The mag-nitude of this process is hinted at when one considers

that all of the Earths coal and oil comes from ancientphotosynthesis. This solar-energy-driven biosphericproductivity provides food, fuel, and shelter for

humans. Natural or human process-es that reduce productivity

will have potentiallyharmful social and eco-nomic consequences.Thus, the ability to mon-

itor and model produc-

tivity at regional-to-global scales is a high priority inthe EOS Program.

The Inez Fung IDS Team has processed the AVHRRrecord to produce continuous, time-varying globalmaps of land surface parameters needed as input intoclimate and biosphere productivity models. A vegeta-

tion model coupled with an atmosphere/ocean/icemodel and forced by observed seasonality in vegeta-tion is being used to study the interplay among vege-tation, climate, and the composition of the atmos-phere. Comparisons between measured carbon diox-ide concentrations from a global observation networkand model simulations indicate that the land bios-phere of the Northern Hemisphere is storing a largepart of the carbon dioxide generated by fossil fueland biomass burning every year. The possibility of aconnection between the satellite observations of alonger, greener growing season (Myneni, MODIS and

MISR Instrument Team member) and the terrestrialcarbon sink in the Northern Hemisphere is intrigu-ing.

Soon after the launch of EOS AM-1, the Fung Teamwill use the MODIS land cover and vegetation indexdata, together with EOS Data Assimilation Office(DAO) (Richard Roods Team) meteorological prod-ucts, to generate near-real-time predictions of produc-tivity at 0.25 resolution for the whole globe.Simulations will be tested against ground observa-tions of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration

and meteorology and used to predict near-term agri-cultural and forest production rates.

Other IDS Teams are focusing on the productivity ofcontinents (e.g., Moore, Schimel, and Foley) andoceans (e.g., Abbott and Barton).

Human impactsLarge-scale Earth processes,

such as climate vari-ability and land

cover change, haveobvious impacts onagricultural produc-

tivity. The economicand social costs of dis-

ruption of human activitiesby these processes are often huge. Efforts to monitorand predict these events and their human conse-quences will greatly reduce these costs. The EOSProgram has, therefore, invested in the development


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of approaches that will exploit the unique global,near-instantaneous measurements that satelliteremote sensing can provide for the purposes of moni-toring and forecasting the impacts of these events.

El Nio and food productionThe Rosenzweig IDS Team is developing a set of tools

for prediction and assessment of the impacts of large-scale seasonal-to-interannual climate fluctuations,including El Nio Southern Oscillation (ENSO)events, on important food-producing systems aroundthe world. Improving the quality of such predictionsshould permit farmers, policymakers, and other food-system decision-makers to take appropriate actions tomitigate human deprivation and economic disrup-tion resulting from changes in food pro-duction caused by wide swings in cli-mate.

Specifically, this involves coupling abiological production model with anENSO prediction model and aGeneral Circulation Model (GCM).Retrospective analysis of satellite data overthe past two decades is being used to improve ENSOand crop yield models. With the launch of EOS AM-1,the models will use MODIS surface temperature andvegetation products to predict the ENSO cycle and itsimpact on global agriculture productivity.

Urban land cover changeUrbanization significantly affects

regional air quality and climate.Higher temperatures in citiesin the summer result inincreased health risks, ener-gy consumption, and air pol-

lution. The Dale QuattrochiIDS Team is using satellite obser-

vations now from Landsat-4 and -5and AVHRR, and later from MODIS, ASTER, andLandsat-7, together with regional climate models to

address issues such as how urban planners mightmitigate these deleterious consequences of urbaniza-tion. Studies so far have shown that vegetation coverand surface albedo of urban areas can have a signifi-cant impact on air temperatures and ozone pollutionlevels, which suggests that appropriate urban plan-ning can reduce energy consumption, ozone pollu-tion, and human discomfort. The team is collaborat-ing with the EPA, Atlanta Regional Commission, andthe Georgia Department of Natural Resources, and is

developing an EOS datauser base among regionalmunicipalities in theUnited States.

VolcanismVolcanic activity not only

injects aerosols into theatmosphere, but also candirectly threaten humanactivities. Remote sensing offers an approach formeasuring the activity of volcanoes globally in nearreal time for hazard detection and climate impactassessment.

The Volcanology (Peter Mouginis-Mark) IDSTeam will produce an almost real-time fire

and volcanic eruption alert usingMODIS data to look for nighttime hot

spots. A list of alarmed pixels will thenbe mapped globally and updated con-

tinuously on the Internet to be used forscientific analysis and human impact miti-

gation. Additionally, this team will generateweekly global inventories of lava flows, forest fires,and the thermal output of human development (e.g.,power plants). MODIS data will be used in conjunc-tion with ASTER, MISR, and Landsat-7 data to trackthe level of activity at specific volcanoes at higherspatial resolution.

FloodsFlooding is a serious hazard to both humans and nat-ural resources. Each year, the cost of floods increasesas humans alter surface hydrology and populateflood-prone regions. Climate variability, such as ElNio cycles, and trends, such as global warming,affect the frequency and intensity of flooding.Satellite observations provide a unique way of mea-suring flood vulnerability and assessing the damagecaused by flooding. The Robert Brakenridge IDSTeam will use EOS AM-1 sensors (MODIS and

ASTER), as well as Landsat-7 and other global datasets, to study interannual-to-interdecadal global vari-ations in flooding and its resulting societal effects.For individual extreme flood events, the researchteam will measure: land area inundated, contributing

basin area, peak discharge, suspended sediment con-centration, meteorological conditions, and geomor-phological factors. The team will also identify condi-tions conducive to flooding before such events occurand monitor conditions during the events.

w

Illinois, Mississippi, and Mi

Rivers near St. Louis, Missouri o29, 1993 (Gumley and King, 19


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12

assumptions and different properties of theproduct. For example, aerosol properties

will be measured by MODIS using itswide spectral range and 1-2 day sin-

gle view coverage, and alsoindependently by MISR

using its multi-angledata, narrower

spectral range,and 2-9 day coverage.

Vegetation properties will bederived from both MODISand MISR data. Water vapor

will be derived indepen-dently from MODIS mea-surements of reflected nearinfrared sunlight and emit-ted terrestrial infraredradiation. The simultane-ously geolocated productswill allow the EOS instru-ment teams to develop

broad science approachesto specific problems. Forinstance, in the case of

deforestation resultingfrom biomass burning, fires

and emitted smoke particleswill be observed by MISR

and MODIS, deforestationand burn scars will be

observed by ASTER andMODIS, emitted trace gasescarbon monoxide andmethanewill be measured byMOPITT, and the radiative forc-

ing of climate will be observed by

CERES.

Each instrument was developed under thesupervision of a science team that also

developed algorithms for analysis of the dataand derivation of Earth system measurements.

The science teams also will validate these productsand use them in their respective scientific investiga-tions.

Mission Elements

OverviewThe EOS AM-1 platform will fly in anear-polar, sun-synchronous orbit so thatit descends across the equator at 10:30a.m. when daily cloud cover over theland is minimal. It will be followed byits PM counterpart in the year 2000; how-ever, EOS PM-1 will fly in an ascending orbit with a1:30 p.m. equatorial crossing time to represent thediurnal variability.

EOS AM-1 is designed to house five instruments forsimultaneous geolocated measurements and for inter-comparison of the new measurement techniques. Forexample, MODIS detailed internal calibrations will

be used, through simultaneous geolocated measure-ments, to help in the calibration of ASTER. TheMODIS and ASTER high-resolution multi-channelobservations of clouds will be used by CERES low-resolution radiative flux measurements, and byMOPITT to determine the location of clouds as wellas their distribution and properties. MISRs multi-angle measurements will determine the angularreflectance properties of land surface features,aerosols, and clouds, all of which will be used by theMODIS, ASTER, and CERES Teams in their dataanalyses.

Since EOS AM-1 is a research facili-ty, some of the geophysical prod-ucts will be derived using morethan one instrument and more thanone pathway, each with a different set of

MODIS

ASTER

CERES

MOPITT

MISR


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point 8.54 from nadir to allow coverage of anypoint on Earth over the spacecrafts 16-day cycle.This mirror is also periodically used to direct lightfrom either of two onboard calibration lamps into thesubsystems telescopea fixed, aspheric refractingtelescope.

The TIR subsystem, built by Fujitsu Ltd., operates infive thermal infrared channels with 90 m resolutionand a 60 km swath width. It contains a scan mirrorthat is used for both scanning and pointing up to 8.54 from nadir. As in the SWIR, this mirror is alsoperiodically used to view the onboard blackbody forcalibration. Light from the TIR scan mirror is reflect-ed into a Newtonian catadioptric telescope systemwith an aspheric primary mirror and lens for aberra-tion correction.

The ASTER instrument operates for a limited timeduring the day and night portions of an orbit. Thefull configuration (all bands plus stereo) collects datafor an average of 8 minutes per orbit. Reduced con-figurations (limited bands, different gains, etc.) can

be implemented as requested by investigators.

The ASTER Team Leaders are Hiroji Tsu in Japan andAnne Kahle in the U.S. For more information aboutthe instrument, see http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov.

ASTER is the highest spatial resolution instrument on

the EOS AM-1 spacecraft, and the only one that doesnot acquire data continuously. ASTER data productsinclude:

spectral radiances and reflectances of the Earthssurface;

surface temperature and emissivities; digital elevation maps from stereo images; surface composition and vegetation maps; cloud, sea ice, and polar ice products; and

ASTER will obtain high resolution (15 to 90 m)images of the Earth in the visible, near-infrared(VNIR), shortwave-infrared (SWIR), and thermalinfrared (TIR) regions of the spectrum.

ASTER is a cooperative effort between NASA andJapans Ministry of International Trade and Industry(MITI), with the collaboration of scientific and indus-trial organizations in both countries. Management ofthe ASTER Team is provided by the Japan ResourcesObservation System Organization (JAROS). As shownin the figure, ASTER consists of three distinct tele-scope subsystems: VNIR, SWIR, and TIR. It is a highspatial, spectral, and radiometric resolution, 14-bandimaging radiometer. Spectral separation is accom-plished through discrete bandpass filters anddichroics. Each subsystem operates in a differentspectral region, has its own telescope(s), and is built

by a different Japanese company.

The VNIR subsystem, built by NEC Corporation, con-sists of two telescopesone that looks backward(along track) and one that looks at nadir. The nadir-looking telescope is a reflecting-refracting improvedSchmidt design and pairs with the backward lookingtelescope to produce same-orbit stereo images. TheVNIR subsystem operates in three visible and near-infrared bands with 15 m resolution and a 60 kmswath width. The telescope pair is pointable cross-track over a 24 angle to increase the revisit fre-

quency of any given Earth location and special targetsof opportunity (e.g., volcanic activity and natural dis-asters). Light from either of two onboard halogenlamps will be used periodically for calibration of thissubsystem.

The SWIR subsystem, built by Mitsubishi ElectricCompany (MELCO), operates in six shortwaveinfrared channels with 30 m resolution and a 60 kmswath width. It contains a pointing mirror that can

13

AST

ER

AdvancedSpaceborneThermal

Emission and ReflectionRadiometer
http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/


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14

observation of natural hazards (volcanoes, etc.).

These simulated ASTER images were made from coregisteredAVIRIS imaging spectrometer data (the VNIR and the SWIRimages), and Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner data (theTIR image). The VNIR image has a spatial resolution of 15 m,and combines ASTER bands 3, 2, and 1 in red, green, and blue(RGB). The SWIR image has a resolution of 30 m, and combinesSWIR bands 8, 6 and 4 as RGB. The TIR image uses bands 14, 12and 10 displayed as RGB, and has a resolution of 90 m. (Images

displayed here are reduced in resolution.) The size of the areadepicted is 12 50 km.

Bad Water in Death Valley is the lowest place in the UnitedStates. It is in the right middle of each image. The three versionsof ASTER data illustrate the different compositional informationavailable in various wavelength regions. For example, the brightred areas in the top image are vegetation patches at FurnaceCreek Ranch and on the Furnace Creek Fan. The turquoise areain the left corner of the middle image depicts ground covered bylimestone fragments. In the thermal image (bottom), surfaceswith the mineral quartz present are depicted in red (ASTERTeam, Jet Propulsion Laboratory).

ASTER Instrument Characteristics

Spectral range

VNIR

SWIR

TIR

Spatial resolution

Duty cycle

Data rate

Mass

Power

0.5-0.9 m

1.6-2.5 m

8-12 m

15 m (VNIR: 3 bands),30 m (SWIR: 6 bands),

90 m (TIR: 5 bands)

8%

8.3 Mbps (avg), 89.2 Mbps (peak)

450 kg

525 W (avg), 761 W (peak)

ICELAND ICE CAP.The Vatnajokull ice cap and its

glaciers are clearly shown inthis simulated ASTER imagecreated from Landsat data.Monitoring of glacial move-ment contributes to under-standing climate change.

These aresimulations of anASTER scene, 60 60 km,taken from an aircraft over Death Valley, CA. The images aredraped over digital elevation data to produce the 3-D perspectiveview. The left image illustrates ASTERs multispectral thermal infrared

bands that will provide new surface compositional information and more accu-rate surface temperature determinations. Colors on the image relate to differences insurface materialsred areas are quartz-rich outcrops and alluvial fans; dark green, gray, and blueareas are other volcanic and sedimentary rock types; light green areas are salt deposits on the valley floor. The right image was producedusing the visible, middle infrared, and short wavelength infrared bands that are used for the color display of the surface compositional infor-mation. Image colors depict different surface materialsgreen areas are vegetated; blue areas are wet or have standing water; orange areasare iron-rich volcanic rocks; brown, pink, blue gray areas are volcanic and sedimentary rocks (ASTER Team, Jet Propulsion Laboratory).


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Research Center (LaRC) in Hampton, Virginia. Theinstrument was built by TRW in Redondo Beach,California. The CERES Team Leader is BruceBarkstrom. More information may be obtained on theCERES Web Page at http://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/ceres/ASDceres.html.

CERES data will be used to:

study cloud radiative forcing and feedbacks; develop an observational baseline of clear-sky

radiative fluxes; determine radiant input to atmospheric and

oceanic energetics models; validate general circulation models; and enhance extended-range numerical weather pre-

dictions.

CERES consists of two broadband scanning radiome-ters that will measure the Earths radiation balanceand provide cloud property estimates to assess theirrole in radiative fluxes from the surface to the top ofthe atmosphere.

CERES is a broadband scanning thermistor bolometerpackage with extremely high radiometric measure-ment precision and accuracy. The EOS AM-1 space-craft will carry two identical instruments: one willoperate in a cross-track scan mode and the other in a

biaxial scan mode. The cross-track mode will essen-tially continue the measurements of the EarthRadiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) mission as wellas the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM),while the biaxial scan mode will provide new angularflux information that will improve the accuracy ofangular models used to derive the Earths radiation

balance.

Each CERES instrument has three channelsa short-wave channel for measuring reflected sunlight, alongwave channel for measuring Earth-emitted ther-mal radiation in the 8-12 m window region, and atotal channel for total radiation. Onboard calibrationhardware includes a solar diffuser, a tungsten lampsystem with a stability monitor, and a pair of black-

body sources. Cold space and internal calibrationlooks are performed during each normal Earth scan.

Both CERES scanners operate continuously through-out the day and night portions of an orbit. In thecross-track scan mode, calibration occurs biweekly. Inthe biaxial scan mode, calibration also occurs biweek-ly, and sun-avoidance short scans occur twice perorbit.

CERES is a Principal Investigator instrument provid-ed by NASA and managed by NASAs Langley

15

CER

ES

CERES Instrument Characteristics

Spectral bands

Spatial resolution at nadir

Duty cycle

Data rate

Mass

Power

Shortwave: 0.3-5.0 m

Longwave: 8-12 m

Total: 0.3 to >200 m

20 km

100%

20 kbps (two instruments)

90 kg (two instruments)

95 W (two instruments)

Clouds and theEarthsRadiant

EnergySystem
http://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/ceres/ASDceres.htmlhttp://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/ceres/ASDceres.htmlhttp://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/ceres/ASDceres.htmlhttp://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/ceres/ASDceres.html


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16

These global data products were taken by the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE)the heritage instrument for CERES. Thedata show a one-year average (from 1985-86) of the cloud forcing of incoming solar radiation and outgoing longwave radiation. Thecolors represent ERBEs measurements in Watts per meter squared (Dennis Hartmann, U. of Washington).

LONGWAVE CLOUD FORCING 1985-1986 (Wm-2)

SHORTWAVE CLOUD FORCING 1985-1986 (Wm-2)

No Data 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

No Data -210 -180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90


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17

onboard calibration effort, a validation program of insitu measurements is planned, involving field instru-ments such as PARABOLA III, which automaticallyscans the sky and ground at many angles, and amulti-angle aircraft camera (AirMISR). Global cover-age by the space-based MISR will be acquired aboutonce every 9 days at the equator. The nominal mis-sion lifetime is 6 years.

MISR is being built for NASA by the Jet PropulsionLaboratory in Pasadena, California. The PrincipalInvestigator is David J. Diner. For more information,check out the MISR Web Site at http://www-misr.

jpl.nasa.gov.

Most satellite instruments look only straight down, ortoward the edge of the planet. To fully understandEarths climate, and to determine how it may bechanging, we need to know the amount of sunlightthat is scattered in different directions under naturalconditions. MISR is a new type of instrumentdesigned to address this needit will view the Earthwith cameras pointed at nine different angles. Onecamera points toward nadir, and the others provideforward and aftward view angles, at the Earths sur-face, of 26.1, 45.6, 60.0, and 70.5. As the instru-ment flies overhead, each region of the Earths sur-face is successively imaged by all nine cameras ineach of four wavelengths (blue, green, red, and near-infrared).

In addition to improving our understanding of thefate of sunlight in the Earths environment, MISR

data can distinguish different types of clouds, aerosolparticles, and surfaces. Specifically, MISR will moni-tor the monthly, seasonal, and long-term trends in:

the amount and type of atmospheric aerosol par-ticles, including those formed by natural sourcesand by human activities;

the amount, types, and heights of clouds; and the distribution of land surface cover, including

vegetation canopy structure.

These data will be used to investigate the influence of

aerosol, cloud, and surface properties on the Earthsreflected radiation budget and climate. Spatial sam-ples are acquired every 275 m. Over a period of 7minutes, a 360 km wide swath of Earth comes intoview at all nine angles. Special attention has beenpaid to providing highly accurate absolute and rela-tive radiometric calibration using onboard hardwareconsisting of deployable solar diffuser plates and sev-eral types of photodiodes. To complement the

MISR Instrument Characteristics

Swath width

Spectral bands

Cross-track pixel size

Duty cycle

Data rate

Mass

Power

360 km

446, 558, 672, 866 nm

275 m off-nadir, 250 m nadir

50% (day only)

3.3 Mbps (avg), 9.0 Mbps (peak)

149 kg

72 W (avg), 135 W (peak)

MIS

R

Multi-angleImagingSpectro-

Radiometer

The MISR Optical Bench (photo top right on this page)This is the science part of the MISR instrument, which includesthe cameras and calibration equipment. The photograph wastaken in October 1996, as MISR was being assembled.Subsequently, the parts that supply power, communications, andtemperature control were added. The entire package was thenencased in a protective housing, which was covered with highlyreflecting thermal blankets.
http://www-misr.jpl.nasa.gov/http://www-misr.jpl.nasa.gov/http://www-misr.jpl.nasa.gov/http://www-misr.jpl.nasa.gov/


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18

This pair of red/green/blue color compos-ite images was taken by the AirMISRinstrument on August 25, 1997, over thearea surrounding Moffett Field, California.They each cover an area approximately 10km on a side and were acquired from aNASA ER-2 aircraft flying at 20 kilometersaltitude in an approximately southwarddirection. Radiometric scaling using pre-flight calibration coefficients and a simpleline-by-line roll correction algorithm have

been applied. The imaged area straddlesthe waters of San Francisco Bay near theinlet of Coyote Creek, mudflats, marshes,tidelands that are in part utilized as saltevaporation ponds, and urban areas ofMountain View, Sunnyvale, and adjacentcommunities that provide a grid of citystreets, buildings, and freeways. North is

toward the top of these images, and thesun is shining roughly from the south. Forthe left image, the camera was pointing at26.1 degrees forward of nadir, whereas thetop image was taken with the camerapointing 26.1 degrees aftward of nadir. Therivers and tidal areas are brighter in theforward-viewing (left) image, illustratingthat these wet surfaces produce mirror-likereflections that are observable at this view-ing geometr (MISR Team, Jet PropulsionLaboratory).

This computer-generated image shows theEOS AM-1 spacecraft, with the MISRinstrument on board, orbiting the Earth.

Direction of flight is toward the lower left.The actual locations imaged by the 9 cam-eras, each with 4 color bands, along theEarth's surface are illustrated here withtranslucent surfaces. The background starfield is also realistic (Shigeru Suzuki andEric De Jong, Solar System VisualizationProject, Jet Propulsion Laboratory).


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19

MODerate-resolution

ImagingSpectroradiometer

MOD

IS

MODIS will view the entire surface of the Earth every1-2 days, making observations in 36 co-registeredspectral bands, at moderate resolution (0.25 - 1 km),of land and ocean surface temperature, primary pro-ductivity, land surface cover, clouds, aerosols, watervapor, temperature profiles, and fires.

MODIS is a whisk broom scanning imaging radiome-ter consisting of a cross-track scan mirror, collectingoptics, and a set of linear arrays with spectral interfer-ence filters located in four focal planes. MODIS has aviewing swath width of 2330 km (the field of viewsweeps 55 cross-track) and will provide high-radiometric resolution images of daylight-reflectedsolar radiation and day/night thermal emissions overall regions of the globe. Its spatial resolution rangesfrom 250 m to 1 km at nadir, and the broad spectralcoverage of the instrument (0.4 - 14.4 m) is divided

into 36 bands of various bandwidths optimized forimaging specific surface and atmospheric features.The observational requirements also lead to a needfor very high radiometric sensitivity, precise spectral

band and geometric registration, and high calibrationaccuracy and precision.

The MODIS instrument has oneof the most comprehensiveonboard calibration subsystemsever flown on a remote sensinginstrument. This onboard calibra-

tion hardware includes a solardiffuser, a solar diffuser stabilitymonitor, a spectroradiometric cal-ibration assembly, a plate-type

black body, and a space viewport.

MODIS operates continuouslyduring the day and night por-tions of each orbit. In normal sci-ence mode, data from all bands

are collected during the day portion of an orbit,whereas only the thermal infrared band data are col-lected during the night portion of an orbit. The instru-ment is calibrated periodically using the three inter-nal targetssolar diffuser, blackbody, and spectrora-diometric calibration assembly.

MODIS is a facility instrument provided by NASAand managed by NASAs Goddard Space FlightCenter (GSFC) in Greenbelt, Maryland. It was built byHughes Corporations Santa Barbara Remote Sensing(SBRS) in Santa Barbara, California. The MODIS TeamLeader is Vincent V. Salomonson. For more details,refer to the MODIS Web Page at http://modarch.gsfc.nasa.gov.

MODIS will measure:

surface temperature (land and ocean) and firedetection;

ocean color (sediment, phytoplankton); global vegetation maps and change detection; cloud characteristics; aerosol concentrations and properties;

MODIS Instrument Characteristics

Spectral range

Spectral coverage

Spatial resolution

Duty cycle

Data rate

Mass

Power

0.4-14.4 m

55, 2330 km swath (contiguous scans at nadir at equator)

250 m (2 bands), 500 m (5 bands), 1000 m (29 bands) at nadir

100 %

6.2 Mbps (avg), 10.8 Mbps (day), 2.5 Mbps (night)

274 kg

162.5 W (avg for one orbit), 168.5 W (peak)
http://modarch.gsfc.nasa.gov/MODIShttp://modarch.gsfc.nasa.gov/MODIShttp://modarch.gsfc.nasa.gov/MODIShttp://modarch.gsfc.nasa.gov/MODIS


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20

(a) Landsat Thematic Mapper(TM) false color image for aregion around Choma,Zambia (WRS: 173/071,acquisition date July 27, 1992)with fire burn scars clearlyidentified as the largedark/black polygons(Jacqueline Kendall, GoddardSpace Flight Center).

temperature and moisture soundings; snow cover and characteristics; and ocean currents.

(a)

(b)

This fire potential index was derived from weekly composites of AVHRR Normalized Difference

Vegetation Index (NDVI) and surface temperature data obtained from NOAA-14 (processed andprovided by EROS Data Center). The image shows regions in 11 of the midwestern United Statesthat are moderately (orange) to highly (brown) susceptible to the outbreak of a wildfire due to dryconditions on the ground. There is low fire susceptibility in those regions colored light tan andgreen. Although this particular image product is still at the experimental stage, the LandDiscipline Group plans to provide global fire susceptibility maps to the public once MODIS data

become available (Ramakrishna Nemani, Lloyd Queen, Jim Plummer, and Steve Running, U. ofMontana).

These images illustrate a planned application of MODIS new 1.375 m cirrus channel (using AVIRIS data): (a) image taken over an ocean-land interface region where the presence of thin clouds obstructs the view of the surface (0.65 m band alone); (b) the same image usingthree bands (red - 0.65 m, green - 0.86 m, blue - 0.47 m), uncorrected; (c) the same image (1.375 m cirrus band alone), observing highclouds only due to the strong water vapor absorption in the lower troposphere in this band; (d) the same image as the one in (b) but correct-ed to provide an unobstructed view of the surface (Bo-Cai Gao, Naval Research Laboratory).

(b) Simulated MODIS 250 mdata derived from the LandsatTM image described in figure(a).


23/41

methane distribution, and provide increasedknowledge of tropospheric chemistry.

21

MOPITT Instrument Characteristics

Spectral bands

Swath

Spatial resolution

Duty cycle

Data rate

Mass

Power

2.3 (CH ), 2.4 (CO), and 4.7 m (CO)

640 km

22 km

100 %

25 kbps (avg), 40 kbps (peak)

184 kg

250 W

4

MeasurementsOfPollutionInTheTroposphere

MOPITT

MOPITT is an instrument designed to enhance ourknowledge of the lower atmosphere and to particu-larly observe how it interacts with the land and ocean

biospheres. Its specific focus is on the distribution,transport, sources, and sinks of carbon monoxide andmethane in the troposphere.

MOPITT is a scanning radiometer employing gas cor-relation spectroscopy to measure upwelling andreflected infrared radiance in three absorption bandsof carbon monoxide and methane. The instrumentmodulates sample gas density by changing the lengthor the pressure of the gas sample in the optical pathof the instrument. MOPITT has a spatial resolution of22 km at nadir and a swath width of 640 km.

MOPITT operates continuously, providing sciencedata on both day and night portions of an orbit.Calibration, using the onboard blackbodies and aspace look, occurs during each normal scan. A longcalibration occurs monthly and provides calibrationat an elevated blackbody temperature.

MOPITT is a Principal Investigator instrument pro-vided by Canada, managed by the Canadian SpaceAgency, and built by COM DEV Ltd. in Cambridge,Ontario. The MOPITT Team Leader is James R.Drummond. Refer to the MOPITT Web Site for moredetails at http://eos.acd.ucar.edu/mopitt/home.html.

MOPITT data will be used to:

measure and model carbon monoxide andmethane concentrations in the troposphere;

obtain carbon monoxide profiles with a resolu-tion of 22 km horizontally and 3 km vertically,with an accuracy of 10 percent;

measure the methane column in the tropospherewith a resolution of 22 km and a precision of

better than 1 percent; and generate global maps of carbon monoxide and

This image represents a simulation of MOPITT Level 2 data show-ing mid-tropospheric carbon monoxide mixing ratios. The imagerepresents the coverage of MOPITT for one day. The atmosphericconditions are for January (Paul Bailey, NCAR).
http://eos.acd.ucar.edu/mopitt/home.htmlhttp://eos.acd.ucar.edu/mopitt/home.html


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System (TDRSS) on Ku band to the TDRSS GroundStation, White Sands, NM. Second, data can be trans-mitted directly to the ground on X band. In bothcases, transmission is scheduled to occur at specifictimes based on the availability of TDRSS, or the prox-imity of a ground station. Continuous direct broad-

cast of MODIS data will be available on X band andcan be received by individual users around the world.

The orientation of the spacecraft is maintained by theguidance, navigation, and control subsystem. Thiscomplex and precise subsystem maintains spacecraftpointing accuracy to within 150 arc-seconds of thedesired pointing direction, and determines pointingto within 90 arc-seconds using star trackers.Additionally, this subsystem provides safe hold con-trol in the event of a spacecraft operational anomaly.

Electrical power to operate all the instruments andspacecraft subsystems is provided by the electricalsubsystem. Power is generated by an advanced, light-weight solar array using gallium arsenide solar cells.This power is then converted into operating voltages,regulated, and distributed to all subsystems andinstruments. Electrical energy is stored in nickelhydrogen batteries to enable the spacecraft to operateon the dark portion of the orbit.

The EOS AM-1 spacecraft supports the operation ofthe five instruments on the mission. All instrumentsare mounted on the nadir-facing deck of the space-craft for a clear view of the Earth.

To support the cooling requirements of ASTER and

MOPITT, the spacecraft provides an advanced tech-nology capillary-pumped heat transport system thattransports heat from the instruments to the passiveradiators mounted on the spacecraft. This advancedheat transport system, developed at NASAs GoddardSpace Flight Center, was tested on the Space Shuttleand is expected to yield significant benefits to thisand future spacecraft.

The science data generated by each instrument aresent to the spacecraft over high-bandwidth communi-cation lines. These data are multiplexed and recordedin a solid-state recorder, then sent to the communica-tion subsystem for transmission to the ground. Thisstate-of-art solid-state recorder is designed to holdapproximately two orbits of data, up to 140Gigabytes, using advanced technology solid-statememory devices.

For transmission to the ground, two communicationscapabilities will be available. First, data can be trans-mitted via the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite

22

TheFirstEOSMorningSatellite

EOS AM-1


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Level 0 production data sets (period covered is speci-

fied by the customer). Level 0 data sets for four of thefive instruments (MODIS, CERES, MISR, andMOPITT) will then be transferred (over the EOS net-works) to the appropriate Distributed Active ArchiveCenter (DAAC) for further processing, utilizing algo-rithms provided by the Instrument Science Teams.Level 0 data for the ASTER instrument will be sentvia physical media to the ASTER Ground DataSystem (GDS) in Tokyo, Japan, for further processing.A set of ASTER Level 1 data products will be sent viaphysical media from the ASTER GDS to the EROSData Center (EDC), where it will be processed to pro-

duce higher level data products.

Eight DAACs representing a wide range of Earth sci-ence disciplines have been selected by NASA to carryout the responsibilities for processing, archiving, anddistributing EOS and related data, and for providinga full range of user support. The EOSDIS utilizes asystem-wide EOSDIS Core System (ECS) that pro-vides uniform support across all DAACs for theseactivities.

The EOSDIS provides the total ground system for

processing, archiving, and distributing science andengineering data from all the EOS spacecraft. EOSDISalso provides the mission operations systems thatperform the functions of command and control of thespacecraft and instruments, health and safety moni-toring, mission planning and scheduling, initial datacapture, and Level 0 processing. Command of all theEOS spacecraft and instruments is done at the EOSOperations Center located at NASAs Goddard SpaceFlight Center (GSFC) in Greenbelt, Maryland.

Data from the EOS AM-1 spacecraft will flow via the

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) tothe TDRSS ground terminals in White Sands, NewMexico, where the data will be captured and recordedat 150 Mbps. The data will be forwarded via a 45-Mbps communications link to the EOS Data andOperations System (EDOS) at GSFC where they willundergo Level 0 processing, which includes elimina-tion of transmission errors and artifacts, separation ofthe raw data by instrument packet identification,removal of duplicate packets, and generation of

23

CIESIN

Human Interactionsin the Environment

GSFCUpper Atmosphere Chemistry,

Atmospheric Dynamics,Global Biosphere, Hydrology,

and Geophysics

EDC

Land ProcessesImagery

ASF

Sea Ice, Polar ProcessImagery (SAR)

ORNLBiogeochemical

Dynamics

JPLPhysical Oceanography

DAAC

NSIDCSnow and Ice,

Cryosphere and Climate

LaRCRadiation Budget

Aerosols, and TroposphericChemistry, Clouds

The EOS Data and Information System(EOSDIS)


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24

The DAACs shown in the following table will process and archive the data from the EOSAM-1 mission.

Computing facilities used by the EOS investigators are called Science Computing Facilities(SCF). These facilities range from individual workstations to supercomputers. They areused to develop algorithmsand models for the genera-tion of data products, toaccess services in EOSDIS, toconduct scientific research,and to perform scientificquality control of the dataproducts. Some SCFs supportthe planning, scheduling,command and control, andanalysis of instrument engi-neering data. Additionally,each EOS instrument teamhas its own SCF. The mainSCFs for EOS AM-1 data areshown in the table at theright.

Teams of scientists world-wide have already been

selected to receive the datato perform research inareas of international con-cern. Additionally, EOSdata and products will beavailable to all users, with-out restriction, at no morethan the cost of dissemina-tion, regardless of theintended use.

Lev

Lev

Lev

Lev

Lev

DAAC

EROS Data Center

(US Geological Survey)

Goddard Space Flight Center

(NASA)

Langley Research Center

(NASA)

National Snow and Ice

Data Center

(University of Colorado)

Location

Sioux Falls, South Dakota

Greenbelt, Maryland

Hampton, Virginia

Boulder, Colorado

Discipline

Land processes data

Upper atmosphere chemistry,

atmospheric dynamics, global

biosphere, hydrology, and

geophysics

Radiation budget, clouds,

aerosols, surface radiation,

land processes, and tropospheric

chemistry

Snow and ice, cryosphere,

and climate

Instrument

ASTER, MODIS

MODIS

CERES, MISR,

MOPITT

MODIS

Distributed Active Archive Centers

ASTER

CERES

MISR

MODIS

MOPITT

Jet Propulsion Laboratory

(NASA)

Langley Research Center

(NASA)

Jet Propulsion Laboratory

(NASA)

Goddard Space Flight Center

(NASA)

National Center for

Atmospheric Research

Pasadena, California

Hampton, Virginia

Pasadena, California

Greenbelt, Maryland

Boulder, Colorado

Science Computing Facilities

Level 0

Level 1

Level 2

Level 3

Level 4

Reconstructed, unprocessed data at full resolution;

all communications artifacts have been removed

Level 0 data that has been time-referenced and annotated

with ancillary information, including radiometric and

geometric calibration coefficients, and geolocation information

Derived geophysical variables at the same resolution and

location as the Level 1 data

Variables mapped on uniform space-time grids, usually

with some completeness and consistency

Model output or results from analyses of lower level data

Processing Levels


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25

Because outer space issuch a harsh environ-ment, the performanceof all satellite sensorsdegrades over time.

Historically, once aninstrument was launched

into space, it was eroded bythe elements in ways that

could not be accurately predictedso that, over time, errors and uncertain-

ties were introduced into the collected data. There isadditional concern that jostling an instrument during

launch and deployment can affect performance. Inanticipation of these problems, EOS sensors will haveunprecedented onboard calibration systems enablingengineers on the ground to characterize their perfor-mance throughout the lifetime of each satellites mis-sion and correct for errors introduced into the data bysystem degradation.

To achieve consistent and accurate measurements thatcan be used to detect climatic and environmentalchange, the signals recorded by the detectors in eachinstrument must be translated into Earth spectral

reflectance and temperature units, or the units ofreflected and emitted radiance by the Earth and itsatmosphere. This translationor calibration of theinstrumentsmust not only be accurate and consis-tent among all of the EOS AM-1 instruments detec-tors, but it must also be consistent with the detectorsof all of the EOS instruments that will follow over thenext 18 years.

Hence, for EOS, calibration is the set of operations orprocesses that are used to determine the relationship

between satellite instrument output values (i.e., digi-

tal counts) and corresponding known values of astandard, which are expressed in SystemeInternationale (SI) units. Calibration of the EOSinstruments requires that the ongoing performance ofeach be carefully characterized. Characterization isthe set of operations or processes used to quantita-tively understand the operation of an instrument andits response as a function of the gamut of operatingand viewing conditions experienced by the instru-ment on orbit. In summary, this effortunparalleled

The EOS Data Calibration Strategy

in other space missionsconsists of the following ele-ments:

pre-flight instrument calibration and characteriza-tion;

pre-flight intercomparison of the performance ofthe instruments;

installation of calibration devices on the instru-ments for on-orbit calibration and characteriza-tion;

on-orbit maneuvers of the EOS AM-1 platform foradditional calibration and characterization;

validation of the calibration by comparing satel-lite observations to simultaneous aircraft observa-tions, and to targets on the Earths surface and inthe atmosphere that have known, stable, or mea-sured physical properties;

analysis of the multiple calibration information,resolution of conflicting information, and formu-lation of the calibration used in the data analysis;and

intercomparison with future EOS platforms.

Pre-flight EOS AM-1 instrumentcalibration and characterization

Pre-flight instrument calibration and characterizationare performed at the instrument builders facilities.They include radiometric and geometric calibration.Radiometric calibration involves determining therelationship between instrument output and radiantinput while the instrument views a calibrated radiantsource. For the solar spectrum (400 to 2500 nm), thecalibrated radiant source is an integrating spherewhich has been calibrated using national standards.For thermal infrared (above 2500 nm), the calibratedsource is a variable temperature blackbody.

Pre-flight geometric calibration involves the determi-nation of the detailed spatial response of each instru-ment band with respect to the nominal instrumenttelescope pointing direction. Geometric calibration isnecessary for converting the instrument radiometricdata into images with known relationships toobserved Earth targets. Pre-flight geometric calibra-tion is performed by the instrument builders andincludes determining the geometrical relationship

between the instrument optical axis and the instru-


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ment alignment cube (i.e., pointing knowledge),instrument fields-of-view, and band-to-band registra-tion.

Pre-flight instrument characterization is performed bythe instrument builder and involves an extensiveseries of well-designed tests. Characterization

includes the quantification of instrument stray light,quantification of ghosting due to internal reflections

by the instrument optical elements, measurement ofpolarization response, assessment of bandpass andcenter wavelength stability, measurements of temper-ature and pressure response, measurement of modu-lation transfer function (MTF), and determination ofscattered light sensitivity.

Pre-flight intercomparison between theperformance of the instrumentsValidation of the radiance calibration scales assigned

to the integrating sphere sources by the instrumentbuilders is accomplished through a set of traveling,ultra-stable transfer radiometers used in a series ofradiometric measurement comparisons. The EOSAM-1 radiometric measurement comparisons includ-ed radiometers from the National Institute ofStandards and Technology (NIST), the University ofArizona, the National Research Laboratory ofMetrology (NRLM/Japan), and NASAs GSFC.Because the radiometric measurement comparisonsare performed on the actual radiant sources used tocalibrate EOS AM-1 satellite instruments, the compar-isons provide a pre-flight cross calibration of the par-ticipating EOS AM-1 instruments. Validation andcross calibration of the radiometric scales assigned tothe blackbody sources by instrument builders areaccomplished using an ultra-stable, thermal infraredtransfer radiometer built by NIST.

On-orbit instrument calibration andcharacterizationThe EOS AM-1 instruments will be radiometricallyand geometrically calibrated on orbit using onboard

calibrators (OBCs). These OBCs include solar dif-fusers, blackbodies, space viewports and, in the caseof MODIS, a monochromator source known as theSpectroRadiometric Calibration Assembly (SRCA).OBCs are used to transfer the pre-flight instrumentcalibration to on-orbit operation and to monitor thelong-term, on-orbit instrument operation. The majori-ty of OBCs are calibrated pre-flight using reflectance,temperature, radiance, irradiance, or detector stan-dards, and carry the pre-flight calibration scale into

orbit. On orbit, OBCs are used to monitor the EOSAM-1 instrument calibration and operation.

Validation of the calibration of OBCs at the subsystemlevel is accomplished through EOS artifact round-robins. For example, a NASA/NIST-sponsored EOSAM-1 pre-flight round-robin on the measurement of

the bidirectional reflectance distribution function(BRDF) of on-board diffuser material was conducted.Participating laboratories include NIST, University ofArizona, JPL, Hughes SBRS, and NASAs GSFC.

On-orbit geometric calibration quantitatively deter-mines the spatial response of an instruments bandsto the instrument optical pointing direction. On-orbit,the EOS AM-1 platform geometric calibration will beperformed by the individual instruments through theuse of ground control points (GCPs), digital elevationmodels (DEMs), geometric test sites on the Earth and,

possibly, the Moon.

On-orbit maneuvers of the EOS AM-1satellite for additional calibrationand characterizationThe Moon will be used by EOS and other remotesensing instruments as a common, stable, on-orbitradiance reference target. The United StatesGeological Survey (USGS) and Northern ArizonaUniversity (NAU) are making radiometric measure-ments of the Moon with the goal of producing a lunar

radiance model that will draw upon lunar radiancemeasurements over a period of 4.5 years. Conse-quently, on-orbit measurements of the Moon by EOSAM-1 and other remote sensing instruments can bedirectly compared to the output of the lunar radiancemodel. In order for EOS AM-1 instruments to viewthe Moon at optimum lunar phase and geometry, acalibration attitude maneuver (CAM) of the EOS AM-1 satellite is planned.

The accuracy and precision of Earth remote sensingdata sets produced by different instruments are only

achieved by the consistent use of common on-orbitcalibration sources and measurement methodologies.EOS AM-1 will perform an on-orbit, pitch-basedCAM to enable the instruments to view deep spaceand the Moon. The deep space view provides CERESand ASTER an accurate determination of the DC off-sets in their thermal bands; and it provides MODISthe opportunity to characterize the dependence ofthermal infrared reflectance on the angle of incidence(AOI) of the scan mirror. Determination of the depen-

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dence of thermal infraredreflectance versus AOI is neces-sary to ensure that all of theMODIS thermal bands are withinor near specification. These on-orbit characterizationsresult in significant

improvements in theaccuracy of the radio-metric data productsfrom these instruments.

The same pitch-basedCAM also provides theEOS AM-1 instrumentsthe opportunity toview the Moon at alunar phase of 22. TheMoon affords the abili-

ty to monitor radiomet-ric responsivity andstability in the visible, near-infrared, and shortwaveinfrared wavelength regions. The appearance of theMoon as a bright target in a dark surround providesEOS instruments an on-orbit target for the determina-tion of scattered light sensitivity, size of source effect,and Modulation Transfer Function (MTF).

Validating the calibrationThe on-orbit calibration will be validated occasionally

by cross-comparing aircraft observations with thoseof the EOS satellites. Additionally, targets on theEarths surface and in the atmosphere that haveknown, stable, or measured physical properties will

be remotely sensed by EOS AM-1 sensors. Discrep-ancies between actual and expected measurementsmay suggest that the calibration has drifted. Knownas vicarious calibration, these on-orbit techniques typ-ically involve deployment of calibrated ground-basedor airborne radiometers on or above a spectrally andspatially homogeneous target to make simultaneousmeasurements during periods of satellite instrument

overpasses. The ground-based and airborne radio-metric measurements are corrected for atmosphericeffects to produce a top-of-the-atmosphere radiancethat can be registered and compared to the measuredsatellite radiance. Participating vicarious calibrationinstruments are absolutely and relatively calibrated

before, during, and after field campaigns using inte-grating spheres, diffuse reflectors with irradiancestandards, and diffuse reflectors with solar illumina-tion. Alternative techniques for vicarious calibration

include the use of known andstable reflectance characteris-tics of molecular scattering inthe atmosphere, and stablespectral properties of oceanglint and clouds in the visible-to-near-infrared parts of the

spectrum.

Intercomparison withfuture EOS sensorsCross-calibration of the EOSAM-1 instruments with eachother and with instruments onfuture EOS satellites is neces-sary for the production of acontinuous 18-year Earthremote sensing data set. Onemethod of cross-calibrating

EOS instruments is to have theinstruments view identical

Earth targets at the same time to compare the result-ing measured radiances to some agreed-upon refer-ence radiance. This type of cross-calibration activity isplanned for MODIS, MISR, and ASTER. Follow-onEOS missions will also use lunar observations,enabling EOS AM-1 to be cross-calibrated with themas well.

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Above: NASAsLockheed ER-2formation flight ofthree high-altituderesearch aircraftover SanFrancisco, CA.

Bottom left:Wallops Flight Facilitys Bell Huey helicopter, carrying twoside platforms with a POLDER instrument, a modularmulti-band radiometer (MMR), an SE-90 spectrometer,infrared thermal (IRT) sensors, and video recording equip-ment. Pictured here, the helicopter is participating in theBOREAS campaign, near Prince Albert, Saskatchewan,

Canada (NASAAmes Research Center).

The Marine Optical Buoy (MOBY) being deployed off the south-west coast of Lanai, HI. The primary purpose of the buoy is tomeasure visible and infrared solar radiation entering and emanat-ing from the ocean. By monitoring variations in the reflected radi-ation, other quantities can be derived, such as the abundance ofmicroscopic marine plants (phytoplankton). Under the direction ofDennis Clark of NOAA, MOBY data will be used to validate bothMODIS and SeaWiFS ocean color products (Ed King, NOAA).


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Validation

In both the pre- and post-launch periods of EOS AM-1, EOS instrument team members and interdiscipli-nary investigators will conduct scientific field cam-paigns to verify the quality and long-term stability ofthe EOS sensors measurements, as well as the validi-ty of the derived geophysical data products. Themagnitudes of any uncertainties and errors in EOSAM-1 data products must be quantified, on both spa-tial and temporal scales, to ensure that the data arescientifically credible and maximally useful.Understanding the uncertainties and errors is alsoessential for future improvement of the algorithmsand Earth observing systems.

To obtain the necessary correlative observationsrequired for validation, the EOS Program will use afour-pronged approach that incorporates the follow-ing:

1. surface-based (in situ) radiance observations andmeasurements at specific test sites obtained aspart of the EOS interdisciplinary, instrument, andvalidation teams investigations;

2. field experiments conducted by EOS interdisci-

plinary, instrument, and validation teams, as wellas participation in, and support of, nationally andinternationally coordinated field programs;

3. coordination with national and internationalobservation sites and networks such as theDepartment of Energy (DoE) AtmosphericRadiation Measurement (ARM) Program, theNational Science Foundation (NSF) Long-TermEcological Research (LTER) sites, and the WCRPBaseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN); and

4. airborne remote sensing measurements usingspecifically designed EOS instrument simulators,such as such as the MODIS Airborne Simulator(MAS), AirMISR, MOPITT Airborne Test Radio-meter (MATR), and MODIS/ASTER AirborneSimulator (MASTER), as well as community air-

borne instruments, such as the Airborne Visibleand Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS).

These highly-focused validation activities will rangefrom vicarious calibration of the basic radiance mea-surements to validation of the higher-order biogeo-physical products such as land cover, ocean chloro-

phyll content, net primary productivity, and the plan-etary energy budgetincluding components of theatmosphere and surface energy budgets. Validation ofthe EOS AM-1 Science Data Products encompassesmeasurements and comparisons made on local-to-regional-to-global scales, including intercomparisonof various satellite-derived parameters and the incor-poration of satellite-derived information into modelsof the Earth system and its components.

EOSDIS will serve as the primary data system forarchiving of Science Working Group for the AM

Platform (SWAMP) validation data. The EOS ProjectScience Office Validation Home Page (http://eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov/validation/) includes the EOSAM-1 Instrument Science Team Validation Plans anda wealth of information on the EOS ValidationProgram.

Pictured at right, these graduate students aremaking measurements of plant productivi-ty in the Canadian boreal forest duringthe 1994 BOREAS campaign. Below, sunphotometers like these were deployedthroughout Brazilin the cerrado andrain-forest regionsto measure optical

thickness during the 1995 SCAR-Bcampaign (David Herring,Goddard Space Flight Center).

MISR Validation Field MeasurementsThese members of the MISR Team are preparing to make field mea-surements at Lunar Lake, Nevada, early on the morning of June 5,1996. Here they are working on a portable instrument that can mea-sure light reflected by the surface in many color bands and at multi-ple view angles. In the course of the day, they carried this instru-ment around the test site in a backpack, taking hundreds of imagesof the surface. During this experiment, they also used instrumentsthat measure sunlight and skylight (Barbara Gaitley, Jet PropulsionLaboratory).

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http://eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov/validationhttp://eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov/validationhttp://eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov/validationhttp://eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov/validation


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While the major goal of NASAs Earth ScienceEnterprise is to increase scientific understanding ofour planet, ESE is not limited to serving the needs ofthe scientific community. Rather, the ultimate productof the program is education in its broadest forms.According to the Earth Science Strategic Plan, one ofthe four goals of the program is to foster the devel-opment of an informed and environmentally awarepublic. Within this context, contributions to theadvancement of public knowledge about the Earthare key to measuring the success of the program.These contributions are being accomplished throughnumerous educational programs, both formal and

informal.

Formal educational initiatives are designed forkindergarten through graduate levels, and includeprograms designed to enhance teacher/facultyknowledge and research skills; provide curriculumsupport in the form of instructional products; provideresearch experiences for students at NASA and relat-ed sites; create programs and products that useadvanced technologies

eos am-1 brochure

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