epidemiological investigation on parasitic diseases of buffaloes (bubalus bubalis) in kurigram...

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION ON PARASITIC DISEASES OF BUFFALOES (Bubalus bubalis) IN

KURIGRAM DISTRICT OF BANGLADESH

A THESIS

BY

MD. ABDULLAH AL MAMUN

EXAMINATION ROLL NO. 07/VPAR/JD/08MREGISTRATION NO. 28633

SESSION: 2001-2002SEMESTER: JULY-DECEMBER, 2008

MASTER OF SCIENCE (MS)IN

PARASITOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF PARASITOLOGYBANGLADESH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

MYMENSINGH

1

NOVEMBER 2008EPIDEMIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION ON PARASITIC

DISEASES OF BUFFALOES (Bubalus bubalis) IN KURIGRAM DISTRICT OF BANGLADESH

A THESIS

BY




Submitted to The Department of Parasitology

Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensinghin partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE (MS)IN

PARASITOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF PARASITOLOGYBANGLADESH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

MYMENSINGH

2

NOVEMBER 2008

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION ON PARASITIC DISEASES OF BUFFALOES (Bubalus bubalis) IN

KURIGRAM DISTRICT OF BANGLADESH

A THESIS

BY




Approved as to style and content by

(Prof. Nurjahan Begum) Supervisor

(Prof. Dr. Md. Motahar Hussain Mondal)Co-supervisor

(Prof. Dr. Md. Motahar Hussain Mondal)Chairman

Defence Committeeand

Head, Department of ParasitologyBangladesh Agricultural University

Mymensingh

3

NOVEMBER 2008

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author always likes to bow his head to almighty Allah for his never-ending blessing for successful completion of the work. All praises and deepest sense of gratitude be to almighty Allah, the supreme authority of this Universe, who enabled the author to complete this thesis.

The author wishes to express the deepest sense of gratitude, sincere appreciation, indebtedness and best regards to his respected teacher and research supervisor Professor Nurjahan Begum, Department of Parasitology, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh for his scholastic and dynamic guidance, constant inspiration, cordial consistence, affectionate feeling, sympathetic supervision and constructive criticism in all phases of this study and preparing the manuscript.

The author is ever grateful and immensely indebted to his honorable and respected teacher and research co-supervisor Professor Dr. Md. Motahar Hussain Mondal, Head, Department of Parasitology, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh for his valuable advice and encouragement throughout the period of this study.

The author finds his great pleasure to express his sincere thanks and gratitude to Professor Dr. M. Hafezur Rahman, Assistant Professor Anisuzzaman and Assistant Professor Thahsin Farjana for their encouragement, kind and constant cooperation, valuable advice and proper direction throughout the course of the study.

The author is grateful to his beloved parents Md. Abdus Sobur and Most. Monowara Begum, all members of his family and relatives for their sacrifices, blessings and encouragement throughout his study period.

The author would like to extend thanks to his friends, room-mates, hall-mates and senior and junior brothers for their good wishes and co-operation to conduct this research work.

The author likes to express his cordial thanks to the demonstrator Md. Jalal Uddin, Mrs. Hosne Ara (Sr. Lab. Tech.), Md. Kamal Uddin (Lab. Tech.), Md. Joynal Abedin (Office Attendant) and all other staffs, Department of Parasitology, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh for their assistance and cooperation during the research period.

Finally, the author extends his profound thanks to Md. Anawarul Hasan Khan (Swapan), Khan Enterprise, BAU for computer composing of the manuscript.

4

The AuthorNovember 2008

LIST OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO.

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 4

2.1 Buffalo rearing and its importance 4

2.2 Prevalence of endoparasites in buffaloes 7

2.2.1 Prevalence of helminths 7

2.2.2 Prevalence of enteric protozoa 13

2.3 Prevalence of ectoparasites in buffaloes 15

2.4 Prevalence of blood parasites in buffaloes 17

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 19

3.1 Study period 19

3.2 Study area 19

3.3 Selection of buffaloes 19

3.4 Examination of buffaloes for ectoparasites 19

3.5 Collection of ectoparasites 21

3.6 Preservation of samples 21

3.7 Identification of ectoparasites 21

3.8 Collection of faecal sample 21

3.9 Examination of faecal sample 22

3.9.1 Modified Stoll’s Dilution Technique 22

3.10 Collection, staining and preservation of blood samples 23

3.11 Blood smear Examination 23

3.12 Statistical analysis 23

4. RESULTS 24


4.1.1 Overall prevalence 24

5

4.1.2 Age related prevalence of endoparasites 25

4.1.3 Sex related prevalence 25

4.1.4 Seasonal prevalence 26

6

LIST OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO.

4.2 Prevalence of ectoparasites in buffaloes 27


4.2.2 Age related prevalence of ectoparasites 27





4.3.2 Age related prevalence of blood protozoa 29



5. DISCUSSION 45



5.1.2 Age related prevalence 46



5.2 Prevalence of ectoparasits in buffaloes 49


5.2.2 Age related prevalence of ectoparasites 49


5.2.4 Seasonal dynamics of ectoparasitic infestation in buffaloes 51



5.3.2 Age related prevalence of blood protozoa 53


5.3.4 Seasonal prevalence of blood parasitic in buffaloes 53

6. CONCLUSION 55

7. REFERENCES 56

7

LIST OF TABLES

SL. NO. TITLE OF THE TABLES PAGE NO.

Table 1 Overall prevalence of endoparasites of buffaloes in Bangladesh 31

Table 2 Age related prevalence of endoparasites of buffaloes in Bangladesh 33

Table 3 Sex related prevalence of endoparasites of buffaloes in Bangladesh 34

Table 4 Seasonal prevalence of endoparasites of buffaloes in Bangladesh 35

Table 5 Overall prevalence of ectoparasites of buffaloes in Bangladesh 36

Table 6 Age related prevalence of ectoparasites of buffaloes in Bangladesh 37

Table 7 Sex related prevalence of ectoparasites of buffaloes in Bangladesh 38

Table 8 Seasonal prevalence of ectoparasites of buffaloes in Bangladesh 38

Table 9 Overall prevalence of blood parasites of buffaloes in Bangladesh 39

Table 10 Age related prevalence of blood parasites of buffaloes in Bangladesh 40

Table 11 Sex related prevalence of blood parasites of buffaloes in Bangladesh 41

Table 12 Seasonal prevalence of blood parasites of buffaloes in Bangladesh 41

8

LIST OF FIGURES

SL. NO. title of the figures PAGE NO.

Figure 1 The flow diagram-showing research out line 20

Figure 2 Overall prevalence (%) of endoparasites of buffaloes in Bangladesh 32

Figure 3 Overall prevalence (%) of ectoparasites of buffaloes in Bangladesh 36

Figure 4 Overall prevalence of blood parasites of buffaloes in Bangladesh 39

Figure 5 Buffalo grazing on marshy paddy field just after harvesting. 42

Figure 6 Preserved ectoparasites in70% alcohol. 42

Figure 7 Ova of Schistosoma spindale 42

Figure 8 Ova of Schistosoma indicum 42

Figure 9 Anaplasma marginale stained with Giems’s stain (100×) 43

Figure 10 Anaplasma marginale stained with Giems’s stain 43

Figure 11 Babesia sp. stained with Giems’s stain (100×) 43

Figure 12 Theileria sp. stained with Giems’s stain (100×) 43

Figure 13 Haematopinus tuberculatus showing sternal plate 44

Figure 14 Haematopinus tuberculatus 44

Figure 15 Boophilus microplus 44

Figure 16 Haemaphysalis bispinosa 44

9

ABSTRACT

Epidemiology of parasitic diseases of buffaloes was studied in Kurigram district of

Bangladesh from November, 2007 to October, 2008. A total of 236 buffaloes were

examined, among them 61.02%, 61.86% and 12.27% were found infected with

endoparasites, ectoparasites and blood parasites, respectively. Nine species of endoparasites

were identified, of them four species were trematodes, namely, Fasciola gigantica

(22.46%), Paramphistomum cervi (29.24%), Schistosoma indicum (1.27%), Schistosoma

spindale (0.85%); three species were nematodes namely, Toxocara vitulorum (2.54%),

Strongyles (0.85%), Strongyloides sp. (0.42%) and two species were protozoa, namely,

Eimeria sp. (3.39%) and Balantidium coli (37.29%). No cestodes were detected. Three

species of ectoparasites were identified of which, two species were arachnids, namely,

Boophilus microplus (13.98%), Haemaphysalis bispinosa (11.44%) and one species was

insect namely Haematopinus tuberculatus (51.27%). No mites were detected. During this

study, three species of blood parasites were recorded, all were protozoa, namely, Anaplasma

marginale (8.89%), Theileria sp. (2.12%) and Babesia sp. (1.69%). No filarial worm was

detected. Among the endoparasites and ectoparasites mixed infection was common but in

case of blood parasites only single infection was observed. In this investigation, prevalence

of parasites in relation to age, sex and seasonal dynamics were also studied. Except

cetoparasites, relatively higher prevalence of parasites was observed in rainy season

followed by summer and winter seasons. Significantly (p<0.01) higher prevalence of ecto

and blood parasites were recorded in female animals than males whether males and females

were almost equally (odd ratio 1.08) susceptible to endoparasitic infection. In the age

groups, young (< 2 to 5 years) were mostly susceptible to endo and blood parasites whereas

buffalo calves (0.5-2 years) were more susceptible to ectoparasites. In the present study,

EPG (Egg Per Gram of Feces) was also determined. The range of EPG was 100-5000 for B.

coli whereas it was 100-1200 for F. gigantica. Overall mean ectoparasitic burden was

2.31±1.31 per square inch of heavily infected area. The highest parasitic burden was

recorded in case of H. tuberculatus (3.49±2.29) followed by B. microplus (1.85±0.94) and

H. bispinosa (1.59±0.69).

10

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The world population of buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) has been estimated at over 172

million head, more than 97% (167.6 million) of which are in Asia and the Pacific

region, mainly in India (97.7 million), Pakistan (25.5 million) and Bangladesh (0.83

million) (FAO, 2004). About 98% of buffaloes in the region are raised by small

farmers owning to less than two hectares of land and less than five buffaloes

(Mudgal, 1992). In general, the water buffalo is regarded as more productive,

healthier and more useful than the cow, especially for the poorest “backyard”

farmers in Asia (Bhat, 1999). According to the 1997 FAO report, the buffalo are

recognized as “Black Gold of Asia” (Khushk and Memon, 2004). In comparison to

research on cattle, research on water buffaloes has been much neglected (Johan,

2001-2002).

Both the swamp and river type buffaloes are found in Banglasesh (Latif, 1994).

Buffalo is considered to be a multipurpose animal and in some parts of the country,

especially in the hilly areas and low lying marshy land, the farmers are more

dependent on buffaloes than cattle. They are extensively used for agricultural land

preparation (ploughing and laddering), inter-cultural operation (racking), carting and

transportation of goods (mainly agricultural products) in rural areas, threshing and

crushing of sugarcane and oil seeds in the country (Rahman and Islam, 1992). The

buffaloes are also the source of protein. Buffalo meat is nutritionally superior than ox

meat (Ranjhan, 1992). In addition to milk, meat and draft facilities, buffaloes provide

organic wastes like dung and urine for fuel and fertilizer, dead animals and bone for

feeding of poultry and hides, horns and tallow for industrial use. The buffaloes work

slowly and without any argument. The working life of buffalo is longer than that of

11

cattle, usually more than 17 years and up to 25 years of age. Because of this

excellent draft and pulling capacity, buffaloes are called the living tractor of the East

(Cockrill, 1968).

In Bangladesh, among many causes, parasitism is thought to be a major cause that

hindering the development of livestock population (Jabber and Green, 1983). Unlike

bacterial and viral diseases, the diseases caused by parasites are of great importance.

Parasitic diseases are also emphasized for their pathogenicity and economic

importance in animals by the experts both from the government and

nongovernmental organizations. The losses due to parasites in the form of mortality,

lowered general health condition, retarded growth, lower output of work, decrease in

the production of milk and meat (Faiz, 1972). In Pakistan, parasitic diseases,

including tick born diseases, are considered a major obstacle in the health and

product performance of cattle and buffaloes. Ticks comprise a burning veterinary

problem because they transmit diseases, induce paralysis or toxicosis and cause

physical damage to livestock (Razput et al., 2005).

In developed countries, the data on epidemiology of various helminthiasis are

published in an efficient manner as an aid to combat infections more effectively. In

contrast, in developing countries, little published information exists and data on the

epidemiological aspect of helminthic infections. Helminth parasitism, especially,

gastrointestinal parasitism is one of the major health problems severely limiting the

animal productivity in dairy animals. In spite of significant production losses, which

may run into millions of rupees (Shah and Chaudhry, 1995) the problem is neglected

due to its chronic and insidious nature (Sanyal, 1998).

The diverse agroclimatic conditions, animal husbandry practices and pasture

management largely determines the incidence and severity of various parasitic

12

diseases in a region. Epidemiological pattern of the parasitic diseases in the different

agroclimatic zones of the country would provide a basis for evolving strategic and

tactical control of these diseases. The present study examines the status of parasites

in buffaloes and its management in the Bangladesh. Little information is available

regarding the epidemiology of all types of parasites in buffaloes; however, what data

are available indicate that further study of the prevalence and intensity of parasites in

buffaloes is needed.

The parasitic favour of buffaloes from different regions of Bangladesh was not

investigated thoroughly. Therefore the present study was undertaken with a view to

fulfill the following objectives-

i. To investigate the overall prevalence of parasitic diseases (ecto, endo and

blood parasites) of buffaloes in Kurigram district of Bangladesh.

ii. To study the prevalence of parasitic diseases in relation to age and sex of the

buffaloes and seasonal dynamics of the year.

13

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Available literatures on key factors that influence the prevalence of the parasitic

diseases of buffaloes are reviewed in this chapter. The main purpose of this chapter

is to get up-to-date information regarding the research works addressed here.

Important information related to the present study was represented below. For

obtaining the distinct evidences and key information, the whole review of literature

on the research title “Epidemiological investigation on parasitic diseases of

buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) in Kurigram district of Bangladesh” has been

conveniently brought under following headings. These are outlined below-

Buffalo rearing and its importance

Prevalence of endoparasites in buffaloes

Prevalence of helminths

Prevalence of enteric protozoa

Prevalence of ectoparasites in buffaloes

Prevalence of blood parasites in buffaloes

2.1 Buffalo rearing and its importance

Sebastian et al. , (1970 ) reported buffalo is a more efficient milk producer than an

indigenous cow in India.

Parikh (1988) reviewed that Asian civilization is primarily based on agriculture,

mostly growing rice, wheat, coarse grains, sugar cane and pulses as principal crops

and 30–50% of bovine are used for draft operations.

Agarwal and Tomar (1998) reported that in Asia, buffalo played a significant role

in overall socioeconomic development through its milk, meat, hides and draft power

14

for agricultural operations. River buffalo produces more milk than the swamp

buffalo. Average lactation yield in the best known dairy breeds, Murrah and Nili-

ravi, is around 2000 liters although elite buffalo with up to 6000 liters also exist in

India, Italy and Pakistan, which indicates its great potential for milk production.

Saadulla (1998) cited that buffalo is mostly known as Majjh or Bhains in the Indian

subcontinent. Of the 158 millions buffalo in the world, 153 millions are water

buffalo, primarily found in Asia and more than half are in India. The author also

cited that from their home in India, they were carried to Egypt by Arabic invaders in

the 9th century for meat, milk and draft power and subsequently to Europe by

pilgrims and crusaders in the middle ages.

World Bank (1998) report suggested that Bangladesh government is supporting

women's organizations to rear livestock for milk in the pattern of Swayam Krishi

Sangam; a nongovernment organization microcrediting woman in southern India to

rear buffalo. The profits from Grameen-modeled microfinance businesses in

Bangladesh increased borrower's consumption by 18% per year and the percentage

of poverty was reduced by 70% within a few years of joining.

Hoffmann (1999) suggested that approximately 20% of the value of an animal is in

the draft power it supplies. However, these outputs often don’t appear in the figures

showing the value of livestock to a country. For more than 5000 years, buffalo have

been used for draft. Buffalo dung is an excellent source of fertilizer for growing

crops and is used all over the world. Approximately 40% of the value of an animal

could be in the manure it produces.

15

Hibler (2000) reported that buffalo are particularly suited to work on wet fields with

a strong body, broad hooves, flexible pastern and fetlock joints.

Rasali (2000) observed that growth was not uniform in all buffalo rearing countries

in Asia. Although spectacular increases were observed in South Asia, countries in

eastern Asia exhibited a considerable decline in buffalo population, which is a matter

of concern.

Ali (2002) observed in Bangladesh that 22.7% and 0.7% of people surveyed use

dung energy for household and commercial purposes, respectively.

Karanth (2002) reported that buffalo dung is extensively used as fuel for cooking in

India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and in almost all countries. The first European pioneers

on the Great Plains of the USA also used dried buffalo dung, called buffalo chips, for

fuel because of the lack of wood.

Faostat (2003) reported that buffalo meat is very popular in most buffalo loving

countries. Out of 242 630 374 tons total world meat, 3 089 875 tons comes from

buffalo. India is the world's largest buffalo meat producer having approximately

14 000 buffalo slaughterhouses. Leather is another major contribution to the world

market irrespective of type. Apart from direct input in the form of leather goods, the

industry provides jobs to millions of people. Fresh buffalo hide production in the

world is 833 566 tons. The author also suggested that world buffalo population

increased by 91% between 1961 and 2001. It was 148 183 900 in 1990 and

166 419 000 in 2002, a gross increase of 12.31%.

2.2 Prevalence of endoparasites in buffaloes

2.2.1 Prevalence of helminths

16

Bhuyan (1970) recorded fasciolosis in 90.90% buffaloes, 60% cattle, 12.92% goats

and 8.34% sheep in Bangladesh by faecal sample examination.

Chowdhury (1970) recorded Neoascaeis vitulorum, Trichuris globulosa, Trichuris

tadrosi, Bunostomum phlebotomum and Bunostomum bovis from the gastro-

intestinal tract of buffaloes of different ages.

Prokopic et al. (1976) found five cestode species parasitizing ruminants for the first

time in Afghanistan viz. Moniezia benedeni, M. expansa, Avitellina centripunctata,

Stilesia globipunctata, and Thysaniezia giardi.

Dewan et al. (1979) observed the 80% mortality rate of buffalo-calves due to

Neoascaris vitulorum infestation in some areas of Mymensingh district.

Islam (1982) recorded the presence of hydatid cyst in buffaloes of different age

groups in Mymensingh, Bangladesh. The lowest percentage (8.85%) was found in 0-

3 years old but the highest percentage (68.97%) was found in 9 years old buffaloes.

Islam (1989) recorded incidence of different parasites by examination of faeces were

as follows: Fasciola gigantica 18.9%, Paramphistomes 29.5% Schistosoma indicum

1.6%, S. spindale 13.9%, S. nasalis 4.5%, Strongyloides sp. 14.8%, Capillaria sp.

8.5%, Oesophagostomum sp. 6.6%, Hookworm 8.1%, Trichostrongylus sp. 11.25%,

other Strongyles (Haemoncus and Mecistocirrus sp.) 15.20%, Toxocara vitulorum

9.7%, Eimeria zurnii 2.3% in buffaloes of Bangladesh.

Hossain (1991) carried out an investigation at Kanihari Union Mymensingh district,

Bangladesh during the period from September 1989 to June 1990 and identified

fasciolosis 12% and mixed fluke infection 10.10% in water buffaloes of 138 clinical

cases. Necropsy examination of 25 carcasses revealed hepatic fasciolosis in 24% 17

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Prokopic%20J%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

cases. By faecal sample examination of 356 animals, 12% F gigantica and 14%

amphistome infection was recorded.

Islam (1991) conducted an epidemiological study of fasciolosis in Dinajpur,

Bagerhat, Chapinawabgonj and Sirajgoni districts of Bangladesh from November

1988 to June 1991 and recorded an overall rate of infection fasciolosis in live

domestic animals 16.30% and amongst buffalo, cattle and sheep/goat the infection

rate was 20.20%, 16.80% and 13% respectively.

Islam et al. (1992) conducted an investigation to detect the presence of parasites in

water buffaloes in Bangladesh during September 1988 to August 1989 and examined

a total of 480 live buffaloes and 180 visceral samples from Dhaka, Mymensingh,

Bogra and Rajshahi areas. The authors reported an overall 18.9% F. gigantica and

29.50% Paramphistomum spp. infection by faecal examination and 46.6% F.

giganitca and 48.1% Paramphistomum spp. infection on post-mortem examination.

Motaleb (1996) studied the status of parasitic diseases in buffalo, cattle and goat in

Anwara, Chittagong and reported that 38.5% (52 to 135) buffaloes, 36.28% (119- of

328 cattle and 13.3 (6 to 45) goats were infected with Fasciola giganitca.

Alim (1997) conducted an exploratory study on the epidemio-pathology of

fasciolosis in buffaloes from December, 1996 to November, 1997 in Bangladesh and

recorded on overall 50.65% infection on fecal sample examination. He also reported

that female animals were susceptible (52.65%) than the males (47.76%). No age

limit for infection and highest rate of infection was found in the buffaloes of above

10 years of age (65.63%).

18

Jithendran and Bhat (1999) reported that Fasciola was endemic throughout the

year, with a higher percentage infection in buffaloes than in cattle in Himachal

Pradesh, India. Other fluke and nematode infections showed a seasonal pattern in

prevalence, with a small peak in March and April followed by a high peak in July

and September. The faecal egg counts (eggs per gram) of flukes (Fasciola/

amphistomes) ranged from 50 to 300 in cattle and 50 to 400 in buffaloes, with high

loads during the rainy and post-rainy seasons. The GI nematode egg counts

(excluding Toxocara) revealed a similar trend, with the overall monthly mean epg

ranging from 85 to 1720 in cattle and 90 to 1625 in buffaloes, with a high peak

during the months of July to September. On coproculture of positive samples, the

nematode infections in order of prevalence were: Strongyloides, Trichostrongylus,

Haemonchus, Oesophagostomum, Bunostomum and Mecistocirrus.

Van et al. (2000) observed the overall prevalence of Strongyles infection was 53%

for cattle and 28% for buffaloes in Mindanao, the Philippines. The prevalence

decreased with increasing age in both animal species. Faecal egg counts were

significantly lower in buffaloes than in cattle. Adult animals had lower egg counts

than calves. This age effect was most pronounced in buffaloes. Six genera of

Strongyles nematodes were identified from the faecal cultures in both animal

species, Mecistocirrus, Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Cooperia, Bunostomum and

Oesophagostomum.

Azam et al. (2002) investigated the prevalence of ecto and endoparasites of buffalo

calves in 50 buffalo farms in Khadagzai area of Dir district in North West Frontier

Province, Pakistan, in April and May [year not given]. Faecal examination of calves

(n=118: age <less or =>1 year) revealed that 64.41% of the calves were positive for

internal parasites. The worm load varied significantly (P<0.05) among the farms and

was high (1600-3600 EPG) in 2%, moderate (800-1600 EPG) in 22%, low (200-800 19

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Van%20Aken%20D%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Bhat%20TK%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Jithendran%20KP%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

EPG) in 34% and negligible (less than 200 EPG) in 42% of farms. Among the calves

examined, 50.84% had a worm burden of 200-800 EPG and 13.56% had a worm

burden of 800-1600 EPG. A high worm burden (1600-3600 EPG) was observed only

in 0.85% of the calves. Six species of nematodes and one species of trematode were

identified. No cestodes infection was encountered during the study. The incidence of

Trichostrongylus species was 21.19%, followed by Trichuris (9.32%), Haemonchus

(8.47%), Strongyloides papillosus (5.93%), Ostertagia (5.08%), Toxocara vitulorum

(1.70%), Fasciola (5.93%) and mixed infections (6.78%).

Azhar et al. (2002) reported 25.59, 26.16, 13.7 and 10.5 per cent infection rate of

fasciolosis, respectively in slaughtered buffaloes at livestock farms, veterinary

hospitals and in household buffaloes in Punjab province, Pakistan. Overall highest

(24.0%) seasonal prevalence in all types of buffaloes was recorded during autumn,

followed by spring (20.0%), winter (13.0%). While the lowest (9.0%) was recorded

during summer. It was noticed that a higher infection rate was recorded in older

buffaloes than in youngsters (below 2 years of age) where as sex showed no

significant difference. Buffaloes of either sex are equally affected.

Bachal et al. (2002) recorded the prevalence of helminths in buffalo calves as 47%.

Out of these, only 18% buffalo calves excreted eggs in their faeces that ranged from

100-400 eggs/g (epg) while 7, 13, 5.5 and 3.5% calves excreted eggs in faeces that

ranged from 401-800, 801-1200, 1201-1600, 1601 and above eggs/g, respectively.

Further, they observed that 43 and 4% buffalo calves were positive for nematodes

and trematodes, respectively, but mixed infections were observed in 1.5% calves.

Cestodes were not detected in any samples examined. Four different species of

helminths were identified, the species were: Toxocara vitulorum (33%), Ostertagia

ostertagi (8%), Trichuris ovis (2%) and Fasciola gigantica (4%). The highest egg

20

http://scialert.com/asci/author.php?author=Bachal%20Bhutto

counts were recorded in 1-120 days old calves. A slightly higher prevalence

(48.30%) of helminths was found in female than in male (45.12%) calves.

Mureli et al. (2002) observed that the most common parasites of buffalo and cattle

were Coccidia, Strongyles, Trichuris, Strongyloides, Toxocara and Moniezia in

Malaysia. Moniezia infection was prevalent among buffalo calves. Farm

management factors such as rearing system, size of farm, grass and water sources,

overcrowding, drainage and manure disposal system showed a significant effect

(P<0.01) on helminthiasis level.

Morsy et al. (2005) investigated on natural infection with Fasciola species in

Tamyia Center, Egypt by stool examination and reported 20% infection in buffaloes.

Garippa (2006) reported 14.8% prevalence of Cystic Echinococcosis (CE) in cattle,

with no viable cysts recovered, and 10.5% in water buffaloes, with a fertility of

1.4%.

Haridy et al. (2006) showed that buffaloes were infected with Fasciola sp. (17.7%)

and Paramphistomum cervi (10%) in Al-Santa Center, Egypt.

Asif et al. (2007) recorded the overall prevalence of helminthiasis was 51% in cattle,

47% in buffaloes, 62% in sheep and 52% in goats, with nematodes being the most

common helminths in an irrigated area of lower Punjab, Pakistan. The prevalence of

helminths was higher in young animals compared with adults in cattle (P<0.0001),

buffaloes (P<0.0001), sheep (P<0.059) and goats (P=0.010). The prevalence of

different species of helminths also varied in different age groups, with Toxocara

vitulorum being higher in calves than adults both in cattle (P=0.017) and buffaloes

21

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Asif%20Raza%20M%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Haridy%20FM%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Garippa%20G%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Morsy%20TA%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

(P<0.0001). Sex-wise prevalence of helminths was higher in males than females for

buffaloes (P<0.0001) and sheep (P=0.014) in contrast to cattle and goats.

Condoleo1 et al. (2007) detected gastrointestinal Strongyles (33.1%), Strongyloides

spp. (3.1%), Fasciola hepatica (7.1%), Dicrocoelium dendriticum (2.4%),

Paramphistomidae (7.1%), and Moniezia spp. (2.4%) in buffaloes of central Italy

Iqball et al. (2007) recorded Toxocara vitulorum, Fasciola hepatica, Haemonchus

contortus, Bunostomum phlebotomum, Ostertagia circumcinta, Oesophagostomum

radiatum, and Trichostrongylus spp. through standard coprological examination

procedures of dairy animals of Nestle milk collection areas of Punjab (Pakistan).

Racioppi et al. (2007) reported the recent appearance of Fasciola hepatica

parasitizing different buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) populations in the province of

Corrientes. These animals share pastures with Bos taurus, Bos indicus and their

crossbreds. The author also observed 28.5% positivity and a tendency to expand to

other cattle.

Ravindran et al. (2007) reported the prevalence of visceral schistosomiasis by worm

counts from the mesentery of domestic ruminants of the hilly district of Wayanad,

located in Kerala, one of the states in South India. They found 57.3, 50, and 4.7% of

cattle, buffaloes and goats, respectively, had visceral schistosomiasis upon slaughter

at a municipal slaughter house in Kalpetta.

Shazly et al. (2007) reported the overall rates of infection of fasciolosis were

12.31%, 9.73%, 17.84% and 5.40% in cows, buffaloes, sheep and goats respectively

in Dakahlia Governorate, Egypt. The mean eggs per gram stool were 22, 13.6, 148.3

and 8.6 for cows, buffaloes, sheep and goats. The mean numbers of Fasciola

22

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22el-Shazly%20AM%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Ravindran%20R%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

worms/liver/animal were 69.1, 62.7 and 208.1 for cows, buffaloes and sheep

respectively.

2.2.2 Prevalence of enteric protozoa

Fusco et al. (1997) conducted a study in 42 buffalo calves from one breeding farm in

Southern Italy infected by 7 different Eimeria species, to assess the dynamics of

oocyte elimination [date not given]. Weekly examination of each animal was

conducted from second to twelfth week of age when 100% of the subjects have shed

the oocysts. E. bareillyi and E. zuernii were detected as early as second week of age

from the faeces of 100 and 20% of the positive subjects, respectively. The other

species detected were E. ellipsoidalis and E. subspherica (third week), E.

auburnensis (fourth week), E. bovis (fifth week) and E. pellita (sixth week). None of

the subjects showed severe clinical symptoms related to coccidial infection.

NAVIDPOUR AND HOGHOOGHI (1998) REPORTED THE

INFECTION RATE OF TOXOPLASMA GONDII OF

BUFFALOES UNDER THE AGE OF A YEAR, ABOVE A

YEAR FEMALE, AND MALE WERE 10.8%, 4.7%, 12.1%,

AND 5.3%, RESPECTIVELY IN IRAN TESTED BY THE IFA

TEST.

Penzhorn (2000) examined faecal specimens collected in the Kruger National Park

from 103 African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) up to 1 year old and 283 buffaloes

older than 1 year for the presence of coccidian oocysts and nematode eggs. Most

specimens from animals older than 1 year had negative coccidian oocyst counts.

23

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Penzhorn%20BL%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

Positive specimens from younger animals had significantly higher coccidian oocyst

counts than those from older animals.

Azam et al. (2002) recorded that 72% of the buffalo calves were suffered from

intestinal protozoan infection in Khadagzai area of Dir district in North West

Frontier Province, Pakistan. Most of these (85%) had mixed infections of coccidia

and amoebae and the remaining 15% were infected with coccidia only. 55.93% of

the calves studied were positive for ectoparasites. The prevalence of ticks, lice, mites

and mixed infections was 5.08, 34.75, 11.86 and 4.24%, respectively.

Bastianetto et al. (2007) reported that coccidiosis is responsible for significant

economical losses in buffaloes around the world as a consequence of its high

mortality rate and interference in nutrient absorption.

Condoleo1 et al. (2007) tested for the presence of copro-antigens of C. parvum

using a commercially available ELISA in the water buffalo in central Italy. Out of

the 90 farms, 22 (24.4%) resulted positive. With respect to animals, out of the 347

faecal samples, 51 (14.7%) were found to have antigens of C. parvum. The results of

the logistic regression model showed a positive association between the positivity to

C. parvum and the high number of buffaloes on farms.

Nalbantoglu et al. (2008) first time identified eleven different Eimeria species and

one Isospora species were in 78 (75%) out of the 104 water buffaloes as follows: E.

zuernii (55.1%), E. auburnensis (44.9%), E. bovis (44.9%), E. ellipsoidalis (28.2%),

E. ankarensis (16.7%), E. subspherica (16.7%), E. alabamensis (11.5%), E.

cylindrica (10.3%), E. bareillyi (5.1%), E. canadensis (5.1%), E. brasiliensis (3.8%),

and Isospora spp. (46.2%) in the Province of Afyon, Turkey.

24

2.3 Prevalence of ectoparasites in buffaloes

Mollah et al. (1970) reported that presence of Haematopinus tuberculatus (33.5%)

in buffaloes in Dhaka and Mymensingh District of Bangladesh.

Miranpuri (1988) recorded a total of 13 ixodid tick species, Boophilus microplus,

Haemaphysalis bispinosa, Haemaphysalis cornupunctata, Haemaphysalis himalaya,

Heamaphysalis montgomeryi, Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum, Hyalomma

dromedarii, Hyalomma marginatum isaaci, Hyalomma (Hyalommina)

brevipunctata, Hyalomma (Hyalommina) hussaini, Nosomma monstrosum,

Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides, and Rhipicephalus turanicus from 424 buffaloes

in the northwestern states of India. Ten tick species, Amblyomma testudinarium,

Boophilus microplus, Haemaphysalis anomala, Haemaphysalis arborensis,

Haemaphysalis bispinosa, Haemaphysalis intermedia, Haemaphysalis nepalensis,

Haemaphysalis neumanni, Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides, and Rhipicephalus

turanicus parasitising 194 buffaloes in the northeastern states of India. The author

also reported Anaplasma marginale and Babesia bigemina in 6.2 and 2.6%,

respectively, of buffaloes tested in the northeastern states, and 14.9 and 4.7%,

respectively, in the northwestern states of India.

Islam (1989) reported Haemaphysalis bispinosa (8.1%) and Haematopinus

tuberculatus (34.6%) in buffaloes of Bangladesh.

Chowdhury (1992) recorded 7 species of ectoparasites of buffaloes. The recorded

ectoparasites of buffaloes in order of predominance were Haematopinus tuberculatus

52.85%, Boophilus microplus 21.71%, Haematobia exigua 19.42%, Sarcoptes

scabiei 17.42%, Psoroptes natalensis 7.71%, Haemaphysalis bispinosa 7.42% and

Chrysomyia bezziana (Larvae infection) 4.85%. In the present study Haematopinus

tuberculatus was main pest of buffaloes in Mymensingh. The incidence of

25

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Miranpuri%20GS%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

ectoparasites of buffaloes were variable on the basis of age and seasons. It was

recorded that most of the pest affected much the younger hosts.

Bouattour et al. (1999) identified a total of 14 ticks (Ixodidae) species of domestic

animals in Tunisia. The author reported tick population varied in different climatic

condition and also to the species of animals.

Coronado (2001) reported Boophilus microplus as the main vector of A. mariginale.

They also observed intrauterine infection of fetus with A. marginale.

Islam et al. (2006) recorded five species of ixodid ticks namely, Boophilus

microplus (56.3%), Haemaphysalis bispinosa (11.3%), Rhipicephalus sanguineus

(14.7%), Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum (15.0%) and Amblyomma testudinarium

(2.8%) of domestic animals in Bangladesh. The data showed that Boophilus

microplus occurred predominantly on cattle (42.4%). The other hosts involved were

buffaloes (12.5%), goats (25.5%) and pigs (8.2%). The population density of these

ticks was significantly (p < 0.01) influenced by the changing of seasons.

Veneziano1 et al. (2007) found 11.0% (14/127) of the farms and in the 4.5%

(34/762) of the animals were infected with Haematopinus tuberculatus in water

buffalo farms in central Italy. The presence Haematopinus tuberculatus should be

routinely considered because it is a cause of serious health, production and economic

damages in intensive breeding buffaloes.

2.4 Prevalence of blood parasites in buffaloes

Lalchandani (2001) reported 39.21 percent buffaloes infected with different blood

protozoa (Anaplasma, Babesia and Theileria). The prevalence of anaplasmosis,

babesiosis, theileriosis, babesiosis + anaplasmosis, anaplasmosis + theileriosis,

Babesiosis + theileriosis and anaplasmosis + babesiosis + theileriosis was 20.11,

5.97, 2.39, 6.77, 1.19, 1.39 and 1.39 percent respectively.

26

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Islam%20MK%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Bouattour%20A%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

Ahmad et al. (2002) found that 6.78% and 10.45 of the cattle and buffaloes

respectively were positive for T. evansi in Malaysia. Several factors such as location,

herd management and vector incidence have a bearing on the prevalence of T.

evansi infection.

Latif et al. (2002) reported the infection rate with Theileria parasites in ticks

collected from buffalo-grazed pastures was high and produced fatal theileriosis in

susceptible cattle in the Highveld of Zimbabwe. Similarly, adult R. appendiculatus

ticks artificially fed as nymphs on the buffaloes produced fatal infections in

susceptible cattle.

Singla et al. (2002) reported babesiosis in a Murrah buffalo, 3 years of age, in India

in the 4th month of its 4th lactation presented with high rise of temperature

(103.50F), haemoglobinuria and decrease in milk yield from 12 kg to 4 kg daily. The

animal was infested with Boophilus microplus.

Daiz et al. (2003) carried out a study to determine the prevalence of A. marginale in

Venezuela by indirect immunofluorescence test (IFA) and buffy coat examination.

Through the IFA technique, a prevalence rate of 95.4% was observed; whereas by

the buffy coat examination, 56.9% positive to A. marginale. There were no

significant difference between the presence of A. marginale and the sex and age of

the animals.

Rajput et al. (2005) conducted a comparative study on the prevalence of Anaplasma

parasite on ticks carrying buffaloes and cattle. Five hundred blood samples of both

animals (250 of each) were collected. The author revealed that 205 (41%) animals

had Anaplasma parasites, out of which 89, 44 and 72 animals had Anaplasma

marginale, Anaplasma centrale and mixed infection respectively. Infected buffaloes

and cattle were 75 and 130 respectively. The infection in female was 53 and 92 in

buffaloes and cattle respectively. Twenty-two and 92 blood samples of male were

found positive in buffaloes and cattle respectively. Comparative study revealed that

27

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Rajput%20ZI%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Latif%20AA%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

the cattle were 26.82% more susceptible than buffaloes. The parasite prevailing

percentage in female of both animals was slightly higher than that of the male.

Maharjan and Mishra (2006) observed the prevalence of trypanosomiasis in 16 of

240 (6.67%) in domestic animals of Makawanpur district of Nepal out of which 9 of

105 were (8.57%) cattle; 5 of 75 (6.67%) buffalos, and 2 of 15 (13.3%) dogs, while

none of the goats and pigs acquired infection. The disease was found maximum

during rainy season 9 of 82 (10.98%) with higher prevalence among cross breeds

than that of local breeds.

Tamasaukas et al. (2006) concluded that trypanosomiasis due to T. vivax in

buffaloes had a high seroprevalence in dual purpose systems at Guarico state,

Venezuela. The average seroprevalence was 29.5%, with a distribution of 75% in

adult animals. Seroprevalence rates were 75 and 25% in female and male buffaloes,

respectively.

28

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Mishra%20DR%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Maharjan%20M%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Study period

The investigation was carried out during the period from November, 2007 to

October, 2008. Although there are six seasons in Bangladesh but only three seasons

are prominent such as summer (March-June), rainy (July-October) and winter

(November-February). So, the experimental period was divided into these three

seasons for the convenience of the study.

3.2 Study area

Samples were collected from the different areas of Kurigram district for the

convenience of the study and availability of the buffaloes. Morphological

examination was conducted in the Department of Parasitology, Bangladesh

Agricultural University, Mymensingh.

3.3 Selection of buffaloes

Two hundred and thirty six buffaloes were selected randomly. The age of the

buffaloes were 6 months and above. During collection of samples the age, sex,

breed, place of farming and season of the year were carefully recorded.

3.4 Examination of buffaloes for ectoparasites

The selected buffaloes were thoroughly investigated by close inspection for the

detection of ectoparasites and clinical manifestations relevant to ectoparasitic

infestation.

29

Experimental design

30

Selection of Buffaloes

Collection of feces

Collection of ectoparasites

Collection of blood from ear vein

Collection of data from

buffalo owners

Preservation of feces in 10%

formalin

Preservation and preparation of

permanent slides

Preparation of slides stained with Giemsa’s

stain

Examination of feces using Stoll’s method

under microscope

Examination under microscope and identification

Examination under microscope and identification

Statistical analysis

Figure 1. The flow diagram-showing research out line

3.5 Collection of ectoparasites

Ticks and lice were collected from the different parts of the body of the individual

buffalo by hand picking. When required, small camel hair brush dipped in ethanol

was used for the collection of ticks. The point of attachment was smeared with

ethanol. Adequate precautions were taken to preserve the mouth parts and

appendages of the ectoparasites during collection.

3.6 Preservation of samples

Ticks and lice were preserved in 70% alcohol in clean, well-stopped glass vials and

labeled properly.

3.7 Identification of ectoparasites

Presumptive identifications were made while preserved in ethyl alcohol under

stereoscopic microscope and final identifications were made under compound

microscope. For this, collected arthropods were processed for permanent mounting

using methods suggested by Cable (1967). Lice were identified following the

methods suggested by Herms and James (1961). Ticks were identified as described

by Soulsby (1982).

3.8 Collection of faecal sample

The buffaloes were selected randomly irrespective of age, sex, condition/ nutritional

status and level of husbandry from the buffalo reared areas as mentioned above.

Most of the buffaloes in the rural areas are reared in free range grazing system. The

age of the buffaloes was determined from the official record book, or by

interrogating the farmers, or by examining the teeth. After taking all the relevant

information, the faecal samples were collected directly from the rectum of the

animals. Before collection, the animals were restrained properly and all possible

hygienic measures including wearing of apron, hand gloves and gumboot were taken 31

to avoid contamination. Fresh faecal samples were also collected from the ground

when the animals were found in the act of defecation. A total of 236 samples were

collected. About 20-25 grams of faeces were collected from each buffalo. Each

sample was kept in separate polythene bag, tied carefully and numbered properly and

the samples were preserved in 10% formalin. The correctly labeled and properly

numbered polythene bags containing the faecal samples with all required information

were brought to the laboratory and examined.

3.9 Examination of faecal sample

The fecal samples were examined by Modified Stoll’s Dilution Technique as

described by Soulsby (1982).

3.9.1 Modified Stoll’s Dilution Technique

This technique was following for total egg count per gram of faeces (EPG) as

described by Soulsby, (1982). The technique was as follows:

i. The faecal sample was first well mixed and then 3 grams of faces were

weighed with the help of a balance and weight box and put in 100 ml

graduated beaker.

ii. The beaker was then filled with water up to 42 ml mark.

iii. Some small glass beads were added.

iv. The feces was thoroughly mixed with water by magnetic stirrer.

v. The mixture was then strained with a coffee strainer.

vi. The strained mixture was again shaken and 0.15ml of mixture was taken with

a 1 ml special pipette and put on a glass slide and covered with a cover slide.

Care was taken to avoid bubble formation

vii. The slide was then placed under a microscope and the eggs were identified

and counted. The total number of eggs of parasites found in the slide was

multiplied by 100 to get the Eggs Per Gram of Feces (EPG).

32

3.10 Collection, staining and preservation of blood samples

Blood samples were collected from ear vein of the suspected buffaloes and thin

smears were prepared on clean glass slides. To prepare a thin smear, a small drop of

blood was placed on the side of a properly clean, dry, grease free glass slide and thin

smear was made with the help of another even edged glass slide by applying even

pressure. The smears were then air dried for 10 minutes and fixed with absolute

acetone free methyl alcohol, stained with Giemsa’s stain and air dried (Cable, 1967).

3.11 Blood smear examination

The stained slides were examined under compound microscope in higher

magnification (40× and 100×) with oil emersion for detection of protozoa as

described by Cable (1967). Identification was based on the morphology as described

by Levine (1985) and Soulsby (1982). Anaplasma sp. was identified according to the

morphological description given by Soulsby (1982).

3.12 Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were carried out by Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS)

using F test. To compare the prevalence of parasites in both sexes, data were

analysed by using paired sample t-test (Mostafa, 1989). Odd ratio was calculated

according to the formula given by Schlesselman (1982).

33

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS


4.1.1 Overall prevalence of endoparasites

During this study (November 2007 to October, 2008) a total of 236 buffaloes were

examined through fecal sample examination, of which 144 (61.02%), were found

infected with one or more species of endoparasites. A total of nine species of

endoparasites (ova/eggs) were identified, of them four species were trematode,

namely Fasciola gigantica (22.46%), Paramphistomum cervi (29.24%), Schistosoma

indicum (1.27%), Schistosoma spindale (0.85%), three species were nematode

namely Toxocara vitulorum (2.54%), Strongyles (0.85%), Strongyloides sp. (0.42%)

and two species were protozoa namely Eimeria sp. (3.39%) and Balantidium coli

(37.29%). No cestodes were detected. From this experiment, it was observed that,

prevalence of B. coli. (37.29%) was the highest whereas Strongyloides sp. (0.42%)

was the least (Table 1, Figure 2).

In this study, EPG (Egg Per Gram of Feces) was also determined. The range of EPG

varies among the parasites. EPG count was the highest in case of B. Coli infection

(100-5000) followed by Fasciola gigantica (100-1200), Paramphistomum cervi

(100-500), Eimeria sp. (100-300). Toxocara vitulorum (100-200) and the other

parasites had the same EPG (100). Mean EPG count was also high in case of B. coli

(452.27±359.22) followed by that of Eimeria sp. (250.00±130.93); F. gigantica

(201.88±142.18), Paramphistomum cervi (186.95±119.95) and Toxocara sp.

(116.67±40.83). A low parasitic burden was found in case of Strongyles species,

Strongyloides sp., S. indicum and S. spindale (100.00±0.00).

34

4.1.2 Age related prevalence of endoparasites

Age of the host had an effect on the prevalence of endoparasites of buffaloes.

Prevalence of endoparasites were significantly (p<0.01) higher (65.85%) in young

animals aged > 2-5 years than in buffalo calves aged 0.5 to 2 years (63.16%) and in

older animals aged > 5 years (59.66%). Calculated odd ratio implied that young

animals were 1.30 and 1.12 times more susceptible to infection than older animals

and calves, respectively. On the other hand, calves and older animals were almost

equally (odd ratio 1.16) susceptible to endoparasitic infection. Older animals were

infected by highest 8 species of parasites followed by young (7 species) and calves

(5 species) of parasites but F. gigantica, Paramphistomum cervi, B. coli, Eimeria sp.

and T. vitulorum were common among the age groups (Table 2).

In calves (0.5 to 2 years), prevalence was relatively higher in case of B. coli

(38.89%), followed by that of Fasciola gigantica (22.22%), T. vitulorum (16.67%),

Paromphistomum sp. (11.11%) and Eimeria sp. (5.56%). In young animals (> 2 to 5

years), B. coli was the main endoparasite recorded (41.46%) followed by

Paramphistomum cervi (36.59%) and F. gigantica (17.07%). In older animals (>5

years), prevalence was also higher in case of B. coli (35.59%), followed by

Paramphistomum cervi (29.38%); F. gigantica (23.73%); Eimeria sp. (2.82%);

Toxocara vitulorum, Strongyles and S. indicum (1.13%) and Strongyloides sp.

(0.56%).

35

4.1.3 Sex related prevalence of endoparasites

In this study, it was detected that prevalence of endoparasites were slightly higher

(p<0.01) is male (61.34%) than the female (59.52%) animals. Male buffaloes were

1.08 times more vulnerable to endoparasitic infection than females. It was interesting

that, S. spindale was only detected in female animals. In both the sexes, prevalence

was the highest in case of B. coli infection (37.11% in male and 35.71% in female)

followed by Paramphistomum cervi (29.38% in male and 28.57% in female), F.

gigantica (24.23% in male and 14.29% in female), Eimeria sp. (2.58% in male and

7.14% in female). The other parasites were found in negligible percentages (Table

3).

4.1.4 Seasonal prevalence of endoparasites

In the present study, it was observed that seasons of the year had a profound effect

on the prevalence of endoparasites in buffaloes. Prevalence of endoparasites was

significantly (p<0.01) higher in rainy season (71.70%) followed by summer

(58.90%) and winter (57.27%) seasons. In this study, it was also revealed that

buffaloes were 1.77 and 1.89 times more susceptible to endoparasitic infection in

rainy season than summer and winter seasons, respectively. On the other hand, in

summer and winter season buffaloes were almost equally (odds ratio 1.07) prone to

endoparasitic infection (Table 4).

In rainy season, prevalence were relatively higher in case of B. coli (54.72%),

followed by that of Paramphistomum cervi (45.28%); F. gigantica (13.21%); S.

spindale (3.77%); T. vitulorum, S. indicum and Strongyloides sp. (1.89%). Eimeria

sp. and Strongyles species were not found in rainy season. Interestingly, S. spindale

was only detected in the rainy season. In summer season, prevalence was higher in

case of B. coli (30.14%) followed by Paramphistomum cervi (28.77%), F. gigantica

36

(26.03%), Eimeria sp. (5.48%), T. vitulorum (2.74%) and both S. indicum and

Strongyles species (1.37%). No Strongyloides sp. was detected. In winter season,

prevalence was higher in case of B. coli (33.64%) followed by F. gigantica

(24.55%), Paramphistomum cervi (21.82%), Eimeria sp. (3.64%), T. vitulorum

(2.73%). Stronglyes and S. indicum were the least (0.91%).

4.2 Prevalence of ectoparasites in buffaloes

4.2.1 Overall prevalence of ectoparasites

During this study, a total of 236 buffaloes were examined, of which 61.86% were

found infested with one of more species of ectoparasites. A total of 3 species of

ectoparasites were identified, of which 2 species were arachnids namely

Haemaphysalis bispinosa (11.44%) and Boophilus microplus (13.98%) and 1 species

was insect namely Haematopinus tuberculatus (51.27%) (Table 5, Figure 3).

In this study, mean parasitic burden was also determined. The range of parasitic

burden in case of H. tuberculatus was 1-13 per square inch of heavily infested area

followed by that of B. microplus (1-4) and H. bispinos (1-3). Mean parasitic burden

was also high in case of H. tuberculatus (3.49±2.29) followed by that of B.

microplus (1.85±0.94) and H. bispinosa (1.59±0.69). From this experiment, it was

found that prevalence of H. tuberculatus (51.27%) was the highest whereas H.

bispinusa (11.44%) was the least.

4.2.2 Age related prevalence of ectoparasites

Age of the host had an effect on the prevalence of ectoparasites of buffaloes.

Prevalence of ectoparasites was significantly (p<0.01) lower (58.52%) in older

animals aged > 5 years than in young aged > 2 to 5 years (70.73%) and in calves

aged 0.5 to 2 years (73.68%). Calculated odd ratio implied that young animals were

37

1.71 times more susceptible to ectoparasitic infestation than older animals. On the

other hand, buffalo calves were 1.16 and 1.98 times more vulnerable to ectoparasitic

infestation than young and older, respectively (Table 6).

In all the age groups, prevalence of H. tuberculatus was the highest. In calves (0.5 to

2 years), prevalence was relatively higher in case of H. tuberculatus (68.42%)

followed by that of H. bispinosa (15.79%) and B. microplus (5.26%). In young

animals (> 2 to 5 years), prevalence was also higher in case of H. tuberculatus

(63.41%) followed by that of H. bispinosa (17.07%) and B. microplus (14.63%). In

older animals (> 5 years), prevalence was higher in case of H. tuberculatus (46.59%)

followed by B. microplus (14.77%) and H. bispinosa (9.66%).

4.2.3 Sex related prevalence of ectoparasites

From this study, it was revealed that prevalence of ectoparasites were comparatively

higher (p<0.01) in female (85.71%) than the male (56.70%) buffaloes. Female

buffaloes were 4.58 times more susceptible to ectoparasitic infestations than the male

buffaloes. In male buffaloes, prevalence was higher in case of H. tuberculatus

(46.39%) followed by B. microplus (12.89%) and H. bispinosa (10.82%). In female

buffaloes, prevalence was also higher in case of H. tuberculatus (73.81%) followed

by H. bispinosa (26.19%) and B. microplus (19.05%) (Table 7).

4.2.4 Seasonal prevalence of ectoparasites

In the present study, it was observed that season of the year had a significant

(p<0.01) effect on the prevalence of ectoparasites in buffaloes. Prevalence of

ectoparasites was the highest in winter season (80.00%) followed by summer

(50.68%) and rainy (39.62%) seasons. In this study, it was also revealed that

buffaloes were 6.09 times more susceptible to ectoparasitic infestations in the winter

38

season than in rainy season. But in summer season, buffaloes were 1.57 times more

vulnerable to cetoparasitic infestations than rainy seasons. On the other hand, in the

winter season buffaloes were 3.89 times more prone to ectoparasitic infestations than

in summer season (Table 8).

In all the seasons, prevalence was the highest in case of H. tuberculatus but varies

significantly among the seasons. In rainy season, prevalence was 28.30%, 13.21%

and 9.43% in H. tuberculatus, H. bispinosa and in B. microplus, respectively. In the

summer season, the rate of infestation was 38.96%, 17.81% and 8.22% in H.

tuberculatus, B. microplus and H. bispinosa, respectively. On the other in winter

season, the prevalence of H. tuberculatus, H. bispinosa and B. microplus was

70.91%, 17.27% and 13.64%, respectively.


4.3.1 Overall prevalence of blood parasites

During this study (November, 2007 to October, 2008), a total of 236 buffaloes were

examined for blood parasites, of which 12.71% were found positive. A total of 3

species of blood parasites were detected, all were protozoa namely Anaplasma

marginale (8.89%), Theileria sp. (2.12%) and Babesia sp. (1.69%). No filarial

worms were detected. Only single infection was detected, no mixed infection was

observed (Table 9, Figure 4).

4.3.2 Age related prevalence of blood parasites

From this study, it was revealed that age of the host had a significant (p<0.01) role

on epidemiology of blood parasites. Prevalence of blood parasites was lower

(5.26%) in calves aged 0.5 to 2 years than older animals aged > 5 years (12.50%)

and in young animals aged > 2 to 5 years (17.07%). Calculated odd ratio implied that

young were 3.70 times more susceptible to blood parasites than calves. But the older

39

animals were 2.57 times more vulnerable to infection than calves. On the other hand,

young animals were 1.44 times more prone to infection than older animals (Table

10).

In all the age groups, prevalence of anaplasmosis was the highest. In buffalo calves

(0.5 to 2 years), A. marginale (5.26%) was the only organism detected. In young

animals (> 2 to 5 year), the rate of infection of A. marginale, Theileria sp. and

Babesia sp. were 12.20%, 2.44% and 2.44%, respectively. In older animals (> 5

years) 8.52%, 2.27% and 1.70% infection of A. marginale, Theileria sp. and Babesia

sp., respectively were recorded.

4.3.3 Sex related prevalence of blood parasites

In this study, it was revealed that prevalence of blood parasites was comparatively

higher in female (23.81%) than the male (10.31%) buffaloes. Female animals were

2.72 times more susceptible to blood protozoan infection than males. In both the

sexes prevalence of Anaplasma marginale was the highest whether prevalence of

Babesia sp. was the least. 7.73%, 1.55% and 1.03% infection of A. marginale,

Theileria sp. and Babesia sp., respectively were recorded in male animals. On the

other hand, the rate of infection was 14.28%, 4.76% and 4.76%, respectively for A.

marginale, Theileria sp. and Babesia sp. in females (Table 11)

4.3.4 Seasonal prevalence of blood parasites

In the present study, it was observed that seasons of the year had a profound effect

on the prevalence of blood parasites. In buffaloes, prevalence of blood parasites was

the higher (p<0.01) in rainy season (16.98%), followed by summer (12.33%) and in

winter (10.91%) seasons. In this study, it was also revealed that buffaloes were 1.45

and 1.67 times more susceptible to blood parasitic infection in rainy season than in

40

summer and winter seasons, respectively. On the other hand, buffaloes were almost

equally (odds ratio 1.15) susceptible to infection in summer and winter seasons

(Table 12).

In all the seasons, prevalence of anaplasmosis was the highest. In rainy season, the

prevalence of A. marginale, Theileria sp. and Babesia sp. were 11.32%, 3.77% and

1.89%, respectively. On the other hand in summer season, the prevalence of

anaplasmosis was 9.59% and the prevalence of Theileria sp. and Babesia sp. was the

same (1.37%). In winter season, buffaloes were equally susceptible to Theileria sp.

and Babesia sp. (1.82%) whether the prevalence of A. marginale was 7.27%.

Table 1. Overall prevalence of endoparasites of buffaloes in Kurigram, Bangladesh

Name of parasites No of animals affected (N=236)

Percentage (%)

Egg Per Gram of Feces (EPG)

Range Mean±SD

F. gigantica 53 22.46 100-1200 201.88±142.18

B. coli 88 37.29 100-5000 452.27±359.22

Paramphistomum cervi 69 29.24 100-500 186.95±119.95

Eimeria sp. 8 3.39 100-300 250.00±130.93

T. vitulorum 6 2.54 100-200 116.67±40.83

S. indicum 3 1.27 100-100 100.00±0.00

S. spindale 2 0.85 100-100 100.00±0.00

Strongyles 2 0.85 100-100 100.00±0.00

Strongyloides sp. 1 0.42 100-100 100.00±0.00

Total 144* 61.02 100-5000 178.57±88.12

* = Total no. of animals affected is less than the summation of individual infection because same animal was infected by more than one type of endoparasites

N = Total animals examined

41

42

Figure 2. Overall prevalence (%) of endoparasites of buffaloes in Kurigram, Bangladesh

Table 2. Age related prevalence of endoparasites of buffaloes in Kurigram, Bangladesh

Age Name of parasites recovered

No. of animals affected

Percentage (%)


Odds ratio

Range Mean±SD

Buffalo Calves (0.5-

2years)

n=19

F. gigantica 4 22.22 100-200 125.00±50.00

Young vs Calves =

1.12

B. coli 7 38.89 100-900 347.06±264.85


Eimeria sp. 1 5.56 500-0.00 500±0.00

T. vitulorum 3 16.67 100-200 133.33±57.74

Subtotal= 12* 63.16 100-900 259.74±102.26

Young (>2-5 years)

n=41

F. gigantica 7 17.07 100-1400 300±286.48

Young vs Older =

1.30

B. coli 17 41.46 100-1000 347.06±264.85


Eimeria sp. 2 4.88 100-200 150.00±70.71

T. vitulorum 1 2.44 100-100 100.00±0.00

S.indicum 1 2.44 100-100 100.00±0.00

S.spindale 2 4.88 100-100 100.00±0.00

Subtotal= 27* 65.85 100-1400 184.34±108.68

Older (>5 years)

n=176

F. gigantica 42 23.73 100-1200 193.04±192.85

Calves vs Older =

1.16

B. coli 63 35.59 100-5000 347.06±264.85


Eimeria sp. 5 2.82 100-300 150.00±70.71

T. vitulorum 2 1.13 100-100 100.00±0.00

Strongyles 2 1.13 100-100 100±0.00

S. indicum 2 1.13 100-100 100.00±0.00

Strongyloides sp. 1 0.56 100-100 100±0.00

Subtotal= 105* 59.66 100-5000 160.43±83.39

Level of significance (0.0002)**

n = Total animals examined* = Total no. of animals affected is less than the summation of individual infection because

same animal was infected by more than one type of endoparasites** = Means p<0.01

43

Table 3. Sex related prevalence of endoparasites of buffaloes in Kurigram, Bangladesh

Parameters Name of parasites No. of animals affecte

d

Percentage %


Odds ratio

Range Mean±SD

Male

n=194

F. gigantica 47 24.23 100-1300 242.18±201.89

Male vs Female =

1.08

B. coli 72 37.11 100-5000 622.60±454.02


Eimeria sp. 5 2.58 100-500 130.93±75.00

T. vitulorum 4 2.06 100-200 40.82±116.67

Strongyles 2 1.03 100-100 100.00±0.00

S. indicum 2 1.03 100-100 100.00±0.00


Subtotal= 119* 61.34 100-5000 182.06±120.56

Female

N=42

F. gigantica 6 14.29 100-1400 206.00±148.00

B .coli 15 35.71 100-5000 450.00±431.03


Eimeria sp. 3 7.14 100-500 250.00±130.93

T. vitulorum 2 4.76 100-200 116.67±40.82

S. spindale 2 4.76 100-100 100.00±0.00

Strongyles 0 0.00 100-100 100.00±0.00

S. indicum 1 2.38 100-100 100.00±0.00


Subtotal= 25* 59.52 100-5000 178.97±96.89




44

Table 4. Seasonal prevalence of endoparasites of buffaloes in Kurigram, Bangladesh

Season Name of parasite No. of animals affecte

d

Percentage (%)

Egg Per Gram of Feces (EPG) Odds ratioRange Mean±SD

Rainy

n=53

F. gigantica 7 13.21 100-1200 201.88±112.18

Rainy vs

Summer = 1.77

B. coli 29 54.72 100-5000 452.27±405.63


S. spindale 2 3.77 100-100 100.00±0.00

T. vitulorum 1 1.89 100-200 116.67±40.82

S. indicum 1 1.89 100-100 100.00±0.00


Subtotal= 38* 71.70 100-5000 192.96±113.09

Summer

n=73

F. gigantica 19 26.03 100-1200 217.39±256.74

Summer vs

Winter = 1.07

B. coli 22 30.14 100-5000 471.18±332.51


Eimeria sp. 4 5.48 100-300 250.00±130.93

T. vitulorum 2 2.74 100-200 120.00±44.72

Strongyles 1 1.37 100-100 100.00±0.00

S. indicum 1 1.37 100-100 100.00±0.00

Subtotal= 43* 58.90 100-5000 204.87±126.54

Winter

n=110

F. gigantica 27 24.55 100-1200 192.59±123.80

Rainy vs

Winter = 1.89

B. coli 37 33.64 100-5000 302.70±236.27


Eimeria sp. 4 3.64 100-300 275.00±170.78

T. vitulorum 3 2.73 100-200 133.33±57.74

S. spindale 1 0.91 100-100 100.00±0.00

Strongyles 1 0.91 100-100 100.00±0.00

Subtotal 63* 57.27 100-5000 183.21±102.44




45

Table 5. Overall prevalence of ectoparasites of buffaloes in Kurigram, Bangladesh

Name of parasites No. of animals affectedN= 236

Percentage (%) Parasitic burdenRange Mean±SD

H. tuberculatus 121 51.27 1-13 3.49±2.29

B. microplus 33 13.98 1-4 1.85±0.94

H. bispinosa 27 11.44 1-3 1.59±0.69

Total= 146* 61.86 1-13 2.31±1.31


* = Total no. of animals affected is less than the summation of individual infestation because same animal was infested by more than one type of ectoparasites

47

Figure 3. Overall prevalence (%) of ectoparasites of buffaloes in Kurigram, Bangladesh

Table 6. Age related prevalence of ectoparasites of buffaloes in Kurigram, Bangladesh

Age of animals

Name of parasites recovered


Percentage (%)

Parasitic burden Odds ratioRange Mean±SD

Buffalo calves (0.5-

2years)

n=19

H. tuberculatus 13 68.42 1-13 3.48±2.30

Calves vs Young =

1.16

B. microplus 1 5.26 1-4 1.85±0.94

H. bispinosa 3 15.79 1-3 1.59±0.69

Subtotal= 14* 73.68 1-13 2.31±1.31

Young (> 2-5 years)

n=41

H. tuberculatus 26 63.41 1-13 3.49±2.30

Young vs Older = 1.71

B. microplus 6 14.63 1-4 1.83±0.95

H. bispinosa 7 17.07 1-3 1.61±0.67

Subtotal= 29* 70.73 1-13 2.33±1.31

Older (>5 years)

n=176

H .tuberculatus 82 46.59 1-13 3.65±2.36

Calves vs Older = 1.98

B. microplus 26 14.77 1-4 1.85±0.97

H. bispinosa 17 9.66 1-3 1.41±0.62

Subtotal= 103* 58.52 1-13 2.31±1.32

Level of significance P=0.0014**

n = Total animals examined

* = Total no. of animals affected is less than the summation of individual infestation because same animal was infested by more than one type of ectoparasites

** = Means p<0.01

48

Table 7. Sex related prevalence of ectoparasites of buffaloes in Kurigram, Bangladesh

Parameters Name of parasites No. of animals affected

Percentage (%)


Male

n=194

H. tuberculatus 90 46.39 1-13 3.37±2.40

Female vs Male =

4.58

B. microplus 25 12.89 1-4 1.80±0.91

H. bispinosa 21 10.82 1-2 1.29±0.47

Subtotal= 110* 56.70 1-13 2.15±1.26

Female

n=42

H. tuberculatus 31 73.81 1-8 3.81±1.94

B. microplus 8 19.05 1-4 2.00±1.07

H. bispinosa 11 26.19 1-3 2.10±0.74

Subtotal= 36* 85.71 1-8 2.64±1.25

Level of significance 0.0071**


* Total no. of animals affected is less than the summation of individual infestation because same animal was infested by more than one type of ectoparasites

** = Means p<0.01Table 8. Seasonal prevalence of ectoparasites of buffaloes in Kurigram, Bangladesh

Season Name of parasites


Percentage (%)


Rainy

N=53

H. tuberculatus 15 28.30 1-5 2.87±1.25

Summer vs Rainy = 1.57

B. microplus 5 9.43 1-2 1.40±0.55

H. bispinosa 7 13.21 1-3 1.57±0.79

Subtotal= 21* 39.62 1-5 1.95±0.87

Summer

N=73

H .tuberculatus 28 38.36 1-8 3.18±1.83

Winter vs Summer =

3.89

B. microplus 13 17.81 1-4 2.00±1.00

H .bispinosa 6 8.22 1-2 1.25±0.50

Subtotal= 37* 50.68 1-8 2.14±1.11

Winter

n=110

H .tuberculatus 78 70.91 1-13 3.71±2.56

Winter vs Rainy =6.09

B. microplus 15 13.64 1-4 1.87±0.99

H. bispinosa 19 17.27 1-3 1.69±0.70

Subtotal= 88* 80.00 1-13 2.42±1.42

Level of significance 0.0001**

n = Total animals examined* = Total no. of animals affected is less than the summation of individual infestation because

same animal was infested by more than one type of ectoparasites49

** = Means p<0.01Table 9. Overall prevalence of blood parasites of buffaloes in Kurigram, Bangladesh

Name of parasites No. of animals affectedN=236

Percentage (%)

A. marginale 21 8.89

Theileria sp. 5 2.12

Babesia sp. 4 1.69

Total= 30 12.71


Figure 4. Overall prevalence of blood parasites of buffaloes in Kurigram, Bangladesh

50

Table 10. Age related prevalence of blood parasites of buffaloes in Kurigram, Bangladesh

Age of animals Name of parasites identified


Percentage (%)

Odds ratio

Buffalo Calves (0.5-2years)

n=19

A. marginale 1 5.26

Young vs Calves =3.70


Babesia sp. 0 0.00

Subtotal= 1 5.26

Young (>2-5 years)

n=41


Young vs Older =1.44


Babesia sp. 1 2.44

Subtotal= 7 17.07

Older (>5 year)

n=176


Older vs Calves = 2.57


Babesia sp. 3 1.70

Subtotal= 22 12.50

Level of significance p=0.0017**


** = Mean P<0.01

51

Table 11. Sex related prevalence of blood parasites of buffaloes in Kurigram, Bangladesh

Parameters Name of parasites identified


Percentage (%) Odds ratio

Male

n= 194


Female vs Male = 2.72


Babesia sp. 2 1.03

Subtotal= 20 10.31

Female

n= 42



Babesia sp. 2 4.76

Subtotal= 10 23.81



** = Mean P<0.01

Table 12. Seasonal prevalence of blood parasites of buffaloes in Kurigram, Bangladesh

Seasons Name of parasites identified


Percentage (%)

Odds ratio

Rainy

n=53


Rainy vs Summer = 1.45


Babesia sp. 1 1.89

Subtotal= 9 16.98

Summer

n=73

A. marginale 7 9.59

Summer vs Winter = 1.15


Babesia sp. 1 1.37

Subtotal= 9 12.33

Winter

n=110

A. marginale 8 7.27

Rainy vs Winter = 1.67Theileria sp. 2 1.82

Babesia sp. 2 1.82

Subtotal= 12 10.91



** = Mean P<0.01

52

53

Figure 5. Buffalo grazing on marshy paddy field just after harvesting.

Figure 6. Preserved ectoparasites in70% alcohol.

Figure 7. Ova of Schistosoma spindale Figure 8. Ova of Schistosoma indicum

54

Figure 9. Anaplasma marginale stained with Giems’s stain (833×)

Figure 10. Anaplasma marginale stained with Giems’s stain

Figure 11. Babesia sp. stained with Giems’s stain (833×)

Figure 12. Theileria sp. stained with Giems’s stain (833×)

55

Figure 13. Haematopinus tuberculatus showing sternal plate

Figure 14. Haematopinus tuberculatus

Figure 15. Boophilus microplus Figure 16. Haemaphysalis bispinosa

CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION


5.1.1 Overall prevalence of endoparasites

The research work indicates that, the water buffaloes are very much susceptible to

endoparasitic infection. About 61.02% buffaloes were found to be infected with

endoparasites, of them prevalence of B. coli (37.29%), Paramphistomum cervi

(29.24%), F. gigantica (22.46%), Eimeria sp. (3.39%), T. vitulorum (2.54%), S.

indicum (1.27%), S. spindale (0.85%), Strongyles (0.85%) and the least

Strongyloides sp. (0.42%) were recorded. Similar studies were conducted by some

other scientists in Bangladesh and in abroad. Similar findings were reported by

Azam et al. (2002) who revealed that 64.41% of the buffaloes were positive for

internal parasites in Pakistan. Slightly lower prevalence were observed by Motaleb

(1996) and Bachal et al. (2002) who recorded 38.5% and 47% buffaloes suffered

from different types of helminths in Bangladesh and in Pakistan, respectively.

The present finding is in agreement with the earlier findings of Hossain (1991),

Morsy et al. (2005) and Shazly et al. (2007) who recorded 24%, 20% and 9.73%

infection of fasciolosis in Bangladesh and Egypt, respectively. Islam (1991) reported

that Fasciola infection in buffaloes varies from place to place and recorded 12.5%,

28.8% and 17.3% infection in Dinajpur, Bagerhat and Chapainawabgonj district,

respectively. Bhuyan (1970) recorded fasciolosis in 90.90% buffaloes, which is

much higher than the present finding.

Islam et al. (1992) reported an overall 18.9% F. gigantica and 29.50%

Paramphistomum spp. infection by fecal sample examination in buffaloes, which

supported the present findings. Hossain et al. (1991) reported slightly lower

56

prevalence of F. gigantica (12%) and amphistome (14%) infection in buffaloes of

Bangladesh by fecal sample examination. Alim (1999) reported that overall 50.65%

Fasciola infection in buffaloes in different parts of Bangladesh which was much

higher than the present finding. Van et al. (2000) observed that overall prevalence of

Strongyles infection were 53% for buffaloes in Mindanao, the Philippines. These

finding is also higher than the current findings. Haridy et al. (2006) reported 17.7%

Fasciola and 10% Paramphistomum infection in buffaloes in Al-Sanla centre, Egypt.

Condoleol et al. (2007) detected 33.1% Strongyles, 3.1% Strogyloides sp. and 7.1%

Paramphistomum cervi in buffaloes in central Italy. Ravindran et al. (2007) reported

50% buffaloes having visceral schistosomiasis in India. This finding is much higher

than the present findings.

In this experiment, no cestodes were detected which supported the findings of Azam

et al. (2002) and Bachal et al. (2002) but Condoleol et al. (2007) and Prokopic et al.

(1976) reported the buffalo cestodes in Italy and Afganistan, respectively. Azam et

al. (2002) reported that 72% of the buffalo calves were suffered from intestinal

protozoan infection in Pakistan which is much higher than the present finding.

Nalbantoglu et al. (2008) reported 75% of water buffaloes were suffered from

different Eimeria spp. in Turkey. The variations among the findings might be due to

the difference in the sample size, selection of samples, techniques of sample

collection, period and place of study, environmental factors, breed of the animals etc.

5.1.2 Age related prevalence of endoparasites

During the study, it was revealed that, age of the buffaloes had a significant (p<0.01)

effect on endoparasitic infection. Young animals (65.85%) were more susceptible to

infection than calves (63.16%) and older animals (59.66%), which supported the

findings of Asif et al. (2007) who reported the higher prevalence of helminths

57

infection in young animals compared to adults in buffaloes of Pakistan. The present

finding is also in agreement with the earlier report of Azhar et al. (2002) who noticed

that higher infection rate was recorded in buffaloes aged > 2 years of age than the

buffaloes aged < 2 years. But the present finding is in contrast to the previous reports

of Alim (1997) who observed that infection rate of fasciolosis increased with the

increase of age. The cause of this variation in the prevalence of infection in different

age groups of buffaloes is difficult to explain but it might be due to an

immunological phenomenon as it was stated by Baily (1971) who suggested that the

fasciolosis is not as self limiting in the buffaloes as this in the cattle.

5.1.3 Sex related prevalence of endoparasites

There was significant (p<0.01) difference in the rate of infection in between the male

and female buffaloes. It was observed that, the prevalence of endoparasites was

slightly higher in male (61.34%) than in female animals (59.52%) which supported

the findings of Asif et al. (2007) who reported the higher prevalence of endoparasites

in males than females for buffaloes in Pakistan. But this report is in contrast to the

previous report of Bachal et al. (2002) who reported a slightly higher prevalence

(48.30%) of helminths in female than in male (45.12%) in buffalo calves. Alim

(1997) also reported that females (52.65%) were more susceptible to Fasciola

infection than male (47.76%). On the other hand, Azhar et al. (2002) reported no sex

variation. He noticed that buffaloes of either sex were equally affected. This

disparity among the findings can not be explained exactly but it might be assumed

that hormonal influence may be associated with this. Methods of study, selection of

samples and breed of buffaloes may also be associated with this.

5.1.4 Seasonal prevalence of endoparasites

Seasonal fluctuation of the year had a significant (p<0.01) effect on the prevalence of

endoparasitic infection in buffaloes. A relatively higher infection with endoparasites

58

were observed in rainy season (71.70%), followed by summer (58.90%) and winter

(52.27%) seasons. The present finding is much higher than the previous reports of

Azhar et al. (2002) who reported the overall highest (24.0%) seasonal prevalence in

all types of buffaloes during autumn, followed by spring (20.0%), winter (13.0%),

while the lowest (9.0%) was recorded during summer in Pakistan. The present

finding is in agreement with the earlier reports of Islam (1989) who reported the

prevalence of fasciolosis by feces examination was 28.6%, 18.7% and 11.7%,

respectively, during winter, summer and rainy season. But the author reported the

much higher prevalence of Strongyloides sp. during winter (17.1%), summer (20%)

and in rainy season (8.3%). The contrast in between the present and earlier findings

can be explained by the fact of variation in the geographical location of the

experimental area and also the methods of study. Moreover, in this study, year was

divided into three seasons but in other parts of the world there were four seasons. So,

this difference in the division of seasons had made some over lapping of months and

seasons. Therefore, that might have created some contradictions. However, the

highest prevalence in rainy season may be due to high humidity and heavy rainfall

which favors the parasitic growth and multiplication.

59

5.2 Prevalence of ectoparasits in buffaloes

5.2.1 Overall prevalence of ectoparasits

The research work revealed that the buffaloes were very much susceptible to

ectoparasitic infestation. About 61.86% buffaloes were found to be infested with

ectoparasites, of them prevalence of H. tuberculatas was the highest (51.27%)

followed by B. microplus (13.98%) and H. bispinosa (11.44%). Similar findings

were reported by some other scientist in Bangladesh. Mollah et al. (1970), Islam

(1989) and Chowdhury (1992) reported 33.5%, 34.6% and 52.85% prevalence of H.

tuberculatus in Bangladesh, respectively. On the other hand, Islam (1989),

Chowdhury (1992) and Islam et al. (1992) reported 8.1%, 7.42% and 11.3%

prevalence of H. bispinosa, respectively in the country which exactly supported the

present findings. But the present findings is in contrast to the previous findings of

Chowdhury (1992) and Islam et al. (2006) who reported 21.71% and 56.3%

prevalence of B. microplus, respectively in the country which is much higher than

the present findings. During this experiment no mite was detected but Chowdhury

(1992) detected 17.42% and 7.71% prevalence of Sarcoptes scabei and Psoroptes

natalensis, respectively in Bangladesh. This difference in the present and past

findings might be due to the methods of study and selection of samples.

5.2.2 Age related prevalence of ectoparasites

From this study, it was revealed that age of the host had a significant (p<0.01) effect

on ectoparasitic infestation. Buffalo calves were comparatively more susceptible

(73.68%) than young (70.73%) and older animals (58.52%). It was observed that,

susceptibility decreased with the increase of age. Similar studies were conducted by

some other scientist in Bangladesh. Islam (1989) reported that prevalence of H.

tuberculatus was the highest (65.8%) in the age groups less than < 2 years of age

which supported the present findings. During this experiment it was observed that 60

prevalence of H. bispinosa was the highest (17.07%) in the young (> 2 to 5 years).

This finding is in agreement with the earlier reports of Islam (1989) who recorded

highest (15.4%) prevalence of H. bispinosa in the buffaloes aged between 2-4 years.

But the author did not report in any case of B. microplus infestation. The present

finding is in contrast with the earlier reports of Chowdhury (1992) who recorded the

higher (60%) prevalence of H. tuberculatus in the young (2-4 years) whether highest

(8%) prevalence of H. bispinosa in the calves (< 1 year). Chowdhury (1992) also

reported the higher (24%) prevalence of B. microplus in the buffaloes aged between

1-2 years which is much higher than the present findings. These variations among

the present and previous studies might be due to the place and method of study,

geographical locations, selection of samples etc. It is very difficult to explain exactly

the frequent occurrence of ectoparasitic infestation in calves. But it may be assumed

that the less developed immune system of the calves may be responsible for the

higher prevalence of ectoparasitic infestation. On the other hand, buffaloes

developed immunity with the increase of age, so susceptibility decreased with the

increase of age.

5.2.3 Sex related prevalence of ectoparasites

From this study, it was found that the prevalence of ectoparasites were significantly

(p<0.01) higher in female (85.71%) animals than the male (56.70%). But the

prevalence of endoparasites was slightly higher in males than the female. This

disparity might be due to the methods of study, selection of samples and parasitic

species variation. In both the male and female groups, H. tuberculatus was the main

pest. Although the exact cause of higher prevalence of ectoparasitic infestations in

female buffaloes can be explained but it can be hypothesized that some hormonal

influences may be associated with this phenomenon. Lloyd (1983) reported that

higher level of prolactin and progesterone hormones make the individual more

61

susceptible to any infection. Moreover, stresses of production, such as, pregnancy

and lactation make the female animals more susceptible to any infection.

5.2.4 Seasonal dynamics of ectoparasitic infestation in buffaloes


ectoparasitic infestations in buffaloes. A relatively lower infestation with

ectoparasites was observed in rainy season (39.62%) followed by summer (50.68%)

and winter (80.00%) season. The present finding is supported by the findings of

Islam (1989) who reported the higher incidence of H. tuberculatus and H. bispinosa

in winter season. Chowdhury et al. (1992) also supported the present findings. He

also recorded the higher incidence of H. tuberculatus in winter season. During this

study, it was observed that the higher prevalence of B. microplus and H. bispinosa

was observed during winter and summer, respectively, which is in contrast to the

findings of Chowdhury (1992) who recorded the higher prevalence of B. microplus

and H. bispinosa in summer and winter, respectively. The contrast in between the

present and earlier finding can be explained by the fact of variation in the

geographical location of the experimental area, topography and composition of soil

type temperature and humidly. However, the highest prevalence in winter season

might be attributed to favourable climatic condition in winter supplemented by little

hygienic care like washing, grooming etc.

62


5.3.1 Overall prevalence of blood parasites

The research work highlights that, the buffaloes of Bangladesh are susceptible to

blood parasitic infection. About 12.71% buffaloes examined were found to be

infected with blood parasites, of them prevalence of A. marginale was the highest

(8.89%) followed by Theileria sp. (2.12%) and Babesia sp. (1.69%). No mixed

infection was recorded. The present findings is much lower than that of Razput et al.

(2005) and Buriro et al. (1990) who recorded 30% buffaloes were infected with

Anaplasma sp. in Pakistan. Lalchandani (2001) also reported that 39.22% buffaloes

infected with different types of blood protozoa (Anaplasma, Babesia and Theileria).

In Bangladesh, Islam (1992) only reported the presence of Trypanosoma theiliri

(0.4%). This difference may be attributed to the differences in climatic condition and

intensity of tick infestation in the area. However, methods of study may also be

responsible for the variation. During this experiment, samples were randomly

collected from the animals whether the animals were suffered from tick infestations

or not or either the animals showed any clinical signs. In this study, it was observed

that infestations of ticks were so low. But Tabanus sp, was found in most of the

buffalo sheds although their prevalence was not determined. Ristic (1968) reported

that Tabanus sp. can transmit the Anaplasma organism. So, in this study, it was

suggested that Tabanus might play a vital role in transmission of Anaplasma

organism. Moreover, the study area was in the border area and the border is not strict

enough. So, the free entrances of Indian buffaloes are more common, which may

also be the source of blood parasites.

63

5.3.2 Age related prevalence of blood parasites

During the study, it was revealed that, age of the buffaloes had a significant (p<0.01)

effect with blood protozoan infection. Young (> 2 to years) were mostly susceptible

(17.07%) followed by older (> 5 years) (12.50%) and buffalo calves (0.5-2 years)

(5.26%). Buffalo calves were less susceptible to the infection due to phenomenon

"Inverse Age Resistance” (Soulsby, 1982). Prevalence was peak in young animals

and gradually decreased with the increase of age as older animals develop immunity

against the organisms.

5.3.3 Sex related prevalence of blood parasites

From this study, it was observed that prevalence of blood parasites were significantly

(p<0.01) higher in female animals (23.81%) than the male (10.31%). Rajput et al.

(2005) also reported the higher prevalence of anaplasmosis in female (30.28%) than

in male (29.33%). Although the exact cause of higher prevalence of blood parasitic

infection in female buffaloes can not be explained but it can be by hypothesized that

some hormonal influence may be associated with this phenomenon. Lloyd (1983)

reported that higher level of prolaction and progesterone hormones make the

individual more susceptible to any infection. Moreover, stresses of production such

as, pregnancy and lactation make the individual more susceptible to any infection.

However, methods of study may also be associated with this variation.

5.3.4 Seasonal prevalence of blood parasites in buffaloes


blood parasitic infections. A relatively higher infection with blood parasites were

observed in rainy season (16.98%) followed by summer (12.33%) and winter season

(10.91%). It was surprised that prevalence of blood parasites was higher in rainy

season although the vector species were found lowest in rainy season. This 64

difference might be due to the methods of study and selection of samples. It might be

happened that, Tabanus sp. was responsible for this high prevalence rate as during

this experiment Tabanus sp. was found more during the rainy season. Moreover,

highest prevalence in rainy season may be due to high humidity and heavy rainfall

which created the favourable condition for the organisms.

65

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

In this study, epidemiology of parasitic diseases of buffaloes was studied. Prevalence

of endoparasites was studied by examination of feces only. But it was difficult to

species wise identification of the parasite (like strongyles) through ova detection. So,

it would be better to examine the suspected organs for the detection of whole

parasites. During this study, prevalence of ectoparasites was also determined. Only

two species of ticks and one species of lice were determined but no mites and flies

were recorded. Further studies should be conducted to identify these species of

parasites. Prevalence of blood parasites were also determined in the present study by

blood smear examination. But it would be better, if a sero-surveillance could be

conducted. Result of sero-surveillance (detection of antibody against blood parasites)

would give an idea about the endemic stability. Besides, in this study, actual losses

due to parasitic diseases in buffaloes in terms of mortality, morbidity and treatment

cost have to be determined. But it would help to justify the necessity of control

program against the parasitic diseases. So, further study should also be conducted to

assess the economic losses due to parasitic diseases of buffaloes and to find out

effective control strategies against it.

REFERENCES66

Agarwal, S.K and Tomar, O.S. 1998. Reproductive Technologies in Buffaloes.

Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, India.

Ahmad, H.B.; Wahab, A.R.A.; Zaini, C.M. and Chandrawathani, P. 2002. The

incidence of Trypanosoma evansi in cattle and buffaloes around Ipoh. In:

Proceedings of the 12th Federation of Asian Veterinary Association Congress.

pp. 26-28.

Ali, M.E. 2002. Energy consumption pattern in rural Bangladesh-the opportunity for

New Zealand: a household survey. Discussion Paper no 02.10, Department of

Applied and International Economics, Massey University, New Zealand.

Alim, M.A. 1997. Some epidemio-pathological aspects of fascioliasis in buffaloes in

Bangladesh. MS Thesis, Submitted to the Department of Parasitology,

Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh.

Asif, R.M.; Iqbal, Z.; Jabbar, A. and Yaseen, M. 2007. Point prevalence of

gastrointestinal helminthiasis in ruminants in southern Punjab, Pakistan.

Journal of Helminthology. 81(3):323-328.

Azam, M.; Siddiqui, M.M. and Habib, G. 2002. Prevalence of parasitic infection

in buffalo calves in Khadagzai, district Dir. Pakistan Veterinary Journal.

22(2): 87-90.

Azhar, M.; Chaudhry, S.H.; Tanveer, A. and Haji, A.H. 2002. Epidemiology of

fasciolosis in buffaloes under different managemental conditions. Veterinarski

Arhiv. 72 (4), 221-228.

67

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Yaseen%20M%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Jabbar%20A%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Iqbal%20Z%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Asif%20Raza%20M%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

Bachal, B.; Sharif, P.; Rahamatullah, R. and Aijaz, H.S. 2002. Prevalence of

Gastro-intestinal helminths in Buffalo calves. Journal of Biological Sciences.

2(1): 43-45.

Baily, W. S. 1971. Report to the Government of the Philippines on a Pilot project for

the control of liver fluke on carabaos in sorsogon province. Food and

Agriculture Organization, Rome, United National Development Programme,

Report No. TA 2995.

Bastianetto, A.P.; Cunha, L.V.; Teixeira, A.C.P.P.; Bello, R.C. and Leite 2007.

Epidemiology of Eimeria sp. infection in buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) bred in

Minas Gerais, Brazil. Italian Journal of Animal Science. 6(2): 911-914.

Bhat, N.P. 1999. Buffaloes. In: Payne, W.J.A., Wilson, T.R. eds., An Introduction to

Animal Husbandry in the Tropics. Blackwell Science Oxford (Oxfordshire),

UK, pp. 815.

Bhuyan, M.A. 1970. A survey of helminths parasitizing the livers of domesticated

animals in East Pakistan. M.Sc. (Vet. Sci.) Thesis, Faculty of Veterinary

science, East Pakistan Veterinary University, Mymensingh.

Bouattour, A.; Darghouth, M.A. and Daoud, A. 1999. Distribution and ecology of

ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) infesting livestock in Tunisia: an overview of eighth

years field collections. Parassitologia . 41(1): 5-10.

Buriro, S.N., Phulan, M.S., Arijo, A.G., Memon, A.B., 1994. Incidence of some

haemo-protozoans in Bos indicus and Bubalus bubalis in Hyderabad. Pakistan

Veterinary Journal. 14(1):28-29.

68

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Daoud%20A%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Darghouth%20MA%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Bouattour%20A%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://scialert.com/asci/author.php?author=Aijaz%20Hussain%20Soomro

http://scialert.com/asci/author.php?author=Rahamatullah%20Rind

http://scialert.com/asci/author.php?author=M.Sharif%20Phullan

http://scialert.com/asci/author.php?author=Bachal%20Bhutto

Cable, R.M. 1967. An Illustrated Laboratory Manual of Parasitology. 4th edition,

Burgess Publishing Co. Minneapolis 15, Minnesota, pp. 127-132.

Chowdhury, M.W.H. 1992. External parasites of buffaloes in Mymensingh

districts. MS thesis, Submitted to the Department of Parasitology, Faculty of

Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh.

Chowdhury, S.A. 1970. Survey and toxonomy of the intestinal nematode specially

of the genera Trichuris, Capillaria, Neoascaris, Agriostomum and

Bunostomum of cattle and buffaloes in Bangladesh. M.Sc. (Vet. Sci.) Thesis,

Faculty of Veterinary science, East Pakistan Veterinary University,

Mymensingh.

Cockrill, W.R. 1968. Key animals in Asia’s economy. Span. 9: 12-15.

Condoleo1, R.U.; Veneziano, V.; Bruni1, G. And Cringoli, G. 2007. Distribution

of helminths in buffalo farms from central Italy. Italian Journal of Animal

Science. 6(2): 920-922.

Coronado, A. 2001. Boophilus microplus as the main vector of Anaplasma

marginale. Ravista Cientifica, Facultab-de-Ciencias Veterinarias,

Universidad-del-Zulia. 11: 408-411.

Dewan, M.L.; Hossain, M.I. and Baki, M.A. 1979. Pathological investigation on

the mortality of buffaloes of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Veterinary Journal.

13(1-2): 1-7.

Diaz, D.; Valera, Z.; Andrade, E.; Parra, O. ; Escalona, F. ; Ramirez, R. and

Andrade, E. 2000. Prevalence of Anaplasma marginale in cattle from La

69

Pinata sector, La Canada be Urdaneta Country, Zulia state, Venezuela,

Revista-Cientifica, Facultad-de-Ciencias-Veterinarias, Universidad-del-Zulia.

13: 193-198.

Faiz, M.A. 1972. Report on investigation into the epidemiology of parasites

Diseases in East Pakistan. In: Activities of Research Section of Directorate of

Livestock Services, Bangladesh, 1968-1972.

FAO, 2004. Statistics. http://apps.fao.org/faostat/collections.

Faostat, 2003. Faostat Agriculture Data . Food and Agriculture Organization

Statistics, Rome, Italy.

Fusco, G.; Guarino, A.; Merola, A.; Veneziano, V.; and Cringoli, G. 1997.

Natural diffusion of Eimeria spp. in buffalo calves. Proceedings of 5th World-

Buffalo Congress, Royal Palace, Caserta, Italy, 13-16 October, 1997. pp. 569-

573.

Garippa, G. 2006. Updates on cystic echinococcosis (CE) in Italy. Parassitologia .

48(1-2):57-59.

Haridy, F.M.; El-Sherbiny, G.T. and Morsy, T.A. 2006. Some parasitic flukes

infecting farm animals in Al-Santa Center, Gharbia Governorate. Tropical

Animal Health and Production. 36(1): 259-64.

Herms, W.B. and James, M.T. 1961. Medical Entomotogy. 1st edition, The Mac

Millan Co., New York.

70


http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22El-Sherbiny%20GT%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract


http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Garippa%20G%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://apps.fao.org/faostat/collections

Hibler, M. 2000. Water buffaloes: 150 million strong, long neglected, Asia's ‘Living

Tractor’ is now attracting much scientific interest. Archive report 110394.pdf,

International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada.

Hoffmann, D. 1999. Asian livestock to the year 2000 and beyond. Working paper

series 1/2, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.

Hossain, M.I. 1991. A survey on the disease of domestic water buffaloes at Kanihari

(Senbari) Union of Mymensingh district in Bangladesh Proceedings of the

workshop on Bangladesh Agricultural University Research Progress. pp. 344-

347.

Hossain, M.I.; Rabbani, S.M.B. and Fazlul Haque, A.K.M. 1991. Pathological

investigation on buffalo diseases in Bangladesh: pattern and control of

Neoascaris vitulorum infection. Bangladesh Veterinarian. 8: 77-78.

Iqbal1, M.U.; Sajid, M.S.; Hussain, A. and Khan, M.K. 2007. Prevalence of

Helminth infections in Dairy Animals of Nestle Milk Collection Areas of

Punjab (Pakistan). Italian Journal of Animal Science. 6(2): 935-938.

Islam, A.W.M.S. 1982. Hydatidosis in buffaloes in Bangladesh. Review of Science

and Technology, 1(2): 435-442.

Islam, F.M.S. 1989. Incidence of parasites of buffaloes in some areas of

Bangladesh. MS thesis, Submitted to the Department of Parasitology,

Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh.

71

Islam, F.M.S.; Rahman, M.H. and Chowdhury, S.M. 1992. Prevalence of

Parasites of Water Buffaloes in Bangladesh. Asian Australasian Journal of

Animal Sciences. 5(4): 601-604.

Islam, K.S. 1991. Studies on the Epidemiology of Fasciolosis in Bangladesh.

Annual Report (BLRI) Component). From November 1988 to June 1991.

Presented at BARC Auditorium, October-1991.

Islam, M.K.; Alim, M.A ; Tsuji, N. and Mondal, M.M.H. 2006. An investigation

into the distribution, host-preference and population density of Ixodid ticks

affecting domestic animals in Bangladesh. Tropical Animal Health and

Production. 38: 485-490.

Jabber, M. and Green, D.A.G. 1933. The status and potential of livestock within

the context of Agricultural Development Policy in Bangladesh. The

University of Wales. Aberystwyth, United Kingdom. p. 113.

Jithendran, K.P. and Bhat, T.K. 1999. Epidemiology of parasites in dairy animals

in the North West Humid Himalayan Region of India with particular

reference to gastrointestinal nematodes. Tropical Animal Health and

Production. 31(4): 205-214.

Johan, B. 2001-2002. Tropical Ecology and Environmental Management BI0380,

2001/2002. Project Report: Water Buffaloes-Ecology and Usefulness in

Africa. http://www.evp.slu.se/trop_ecology/JohanB_proj.htm.

Karanth, G.K. 2002. Hinduism and Livestock in India. Institute for Social and

Economic Change, India.

72

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Bhat%20TK%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Jithendran%20KP%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

Khushk, A.M. and Memon, A. 2004. Daily “Dawn” Karachi. http://www.dawn.

com/2004/ 09/27/ebr16.htm.

Lalchandani, C.L. 2001. Efficacy of various drugs against blood protozoa in

Kundhi buffaloes. Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam (Pakistan),

SAUT, Collation, p.76.

Latif, A.A.; Hove, T. ; Kanhai, G.K. and Masaka, S. 2002. Buffalo-associated

Theileria parva: the risk to cattle of buffalo translocation into the Highveld of

Zimbabwe. Tropical Animal Health and Production . 34(1): 275-279.

Latif, M.A. 1994. Buffalo production in Bangladesh: problems and prospects.

Proceedings of the 1st Asian Buffalo Association Congress, January 17-21,

Khon Kaen, Thailand.

Levine, N.D. 1985. Veterinary protozoology. 1st edition, Iowa State University Press,

Ames, USA. pp. 291-328.

Lloyd, S. 1983. Effect of pregnancy and lactation up on infection. Veterinary

Immunology Immunopathology. 4: 153-176.

Maharjan, M. and Mishra, D.R. 2006. Trypanosomiasis in domestic animals of

Makwanpur district, Nepal. Annual New York Acadamic Science. 1081: 320-

321.

Miranpuri, G.S. 1988. Ticks parasitising the Indian buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and

their possible role in disease transmission. Veterinary Parasitology. 27(3-4):

57-62.

73

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Miranpuri%20GS%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Mishra%20DR%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Maharjan%20M%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Masaka%20S%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Kanhai%20GK%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Hove%20T%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Latif%20AA%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

Mollah, M.A.; Huq, M.M. and Shaikh, H. 1970. A survey on the prevalence of

lice of cattle and buffaloes of Dhaka and Mymensingh district, East Pakistan.

Bangladesh Veterinary Journal. 4(1-4): 3-9.

Morsy, T.A.; Salem, H.S.; Haridy, F.M.; Rifaat, M.M.; Abo-Zenadah, N.Y. and

Adel, K.M. 2005. Farm Animals' fasciolosis in Ezbet El-Bakly (Tamyia

Center) Al-Fayoum Governorate. Tropical Animal Health and Production .

35(3): 25-32.

Mostafa, M.G. 1989. Methods of statistics, Fourth edition, Karim Press and

Publications, Dhaka, pp. 296-298.

Motaleb, M.A. 1996. The status of Parasitic Diseases in Animals (Cattle, Buffaloes

and Goats) and their Possible Remedies in Anwara, Chittagong. MS Thesis,

Faculty of Veterinary science, Bangladesh Agricultural University,

Mymensingh.

Mudgal, V.D. 1992. Buffalo Meat. In: Encyclopedia of Food Science Technology

and Nutrition. Academic Press, London, UK, p.521.

Mureli, T.; Wahab A.R.A.; Chandrawathani, P.; Mahendran R. and Zaini,

C.M. 2002. Gastrointestinal parasites among cattle and buffalo calves and its

relation to the farm management in Perak. In: Proceedings of the 12th

Federation of Asian Veterinary Association Congress, 26-28 August, 2002,

Selangor.

Nalbantoglu, S.; Sari1, B.; Cicek, H. and Karaer Z. 2008. Prevalence of coccidian

species in the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in the Province of Afyon,

Turkey. Acta Veterinarian Brno. 77: 111-116.74

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Adel%20el-Kadi%20M%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Abo-Zenadah%20NY%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Rifaat%20MM%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract


http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Salem%20HS%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract


Navidpour, S.H. and Hoghooghi, N. 1998. Seroprevalence of anti-Toxoplasma

gondii antibodies in buffaloes in Khoozestan province, Iran. Veterinary

Parasitology. 77(2-3): 191-194.

Parikh, J.K. 1988. Bangladesh: agriculture, biomass, and environment. In: Parikh,

J.K. and Nijhoff, M. eds, Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Dordrecht,

The Netherlands. pp. 331– 364.

Penzhorn, B.L. 2000. Coccidian oocyst and nematode egg counts of free-ranging

African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the Kruger National Park, South Africa.

Journal of South African Veterinary Association. 71(2): 106-108.

Prokopic, J.; Blazek, K.; Moravec, F. and Amin, A. 1976. Cestodes of ruminants

in Afghanistan. Folia Parasitology, 23(2): 127-129.

Racioppi, O.; Moriena, J.D. and Alvarez, G.A. 2007. Fasciola hepatica: New

buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) parasites in the province of Corrientes, Argentina.

Journal of Animal Science. 6(2): 948-950.

Rahman, S.M. and Islam, M.R. 1992. Draught Animal Power in Bangladesh. Asian

Livestock. Vol. XVII, No. 2. pp. 15-16.

Rajput, Z.I.; Hu, S.H.; Arijo, A.G.; Habib, M. and Khalid, M. 2005.

Comparative study of Anaplasma parasites in tick carrying buffaloes and

cattle. Journal of Zhejiang University Science. 6(11): 57-62.

Ranjhan, S.K. 1992. Nutrition of River Buffaloes in Southern Asia. In: Tullon,

N.M. and Holmes, J.H.G. (editor), Buffalo Production. Elsevier Science

75

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Khalid%20M%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Habib%20M%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Arijo%20AG%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Hu%20SH%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Rajput%20ZI%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Amin%20A%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Moravec%20F%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Blazek%20K%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Prokopic%20J%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Penzhorn%20BL%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=PublicationURL&_tockey=%23TOC%235191%231998%23999229997%2344385%23FLA%23&_cdi=5191&_pubType=J&view=c&_auth=y&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=e27512b9835ab05d68a4e27eebaef11f

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03044017

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03044017

Publishers. B.V.P.O. Box 2,111,000 A.E. Amsterdam. The Netherlands. pp.

111-134.

Rasali, D.P. 2000. Recent trends in buffalo production in Nepal – a review. Buffalo

Newsletter, Bulletin of the FAO Inter-regional Cooperative Research Network

on Buffalo for Europe–Near East, 14: 6– 10.

Ravindran, R.; Lakshmanan, B.; Ravishankar, C. and Subramanian, H. 2007.

Visceral schistosomiasis among domestic ruminants slaughtered in Wayanad,

South India. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public

Health. 38(6): 8-10.

Ristic, M., 1968. Anaplasmosis. In: Weinman, D., Ristic, M. (Eds.), Infectious

Blood Diseases of Man and Animals, Vol. 11. Academic Press, New York,

USA. pp. 473-542.

Saadullah, M. 1998. Buffalo Production in the Tropics. Bangladesh Agricultural

University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh.

Sanyal, P.K. 1998. Integrated gastrointestinal parasite management in dairy animals

in Gujarat by self medication. Journal of Veterinary Parasitology. 12: 17-20.

Schlesselman, J.J. 1982. Case-Control Studies. 1st edition, Oxford University Press,

New York, pp. 174-177.

Sebastian, L.; Mudgal, V.D. and Nair, P.G. 1970. Comparative efficiency of milk

production by Sahiwal cattle and Murrah buffalo. Journal of Animal Science.

30: 253– 256.

76

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Subramanian%20H%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Ravishankar%20C%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Lakshmanan%20B%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Ravindran%20R%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

Shah, H.L. and Chaudhry, R.K. 1995. Parasitism in dairy animals in India: Present

status and its impact. In: Proceedings of the workshop on control strategy

against gastrointestinal parasites in dairy animals in India using medicated

urea molasses blocks. (NDDB, Anand, India), pp. 1-5.

Shazly, A.M.; Wafa, S.A.; Haridy, F.M.; Soliman, M.; Rifaat, M.M. and Morsy,

T.A. 2007. Fasciolosis among live and slaugtered animals in nine centers of

Dakahlia Governorate. Journal of Animal Science, 32(1): 47-57.

Singla, L.D.; Jasmer, S. and Aulakh, G.S. 2002. Babesiosis in an unusual case of

Murrah buffalo with six functional teats. Buffalo Bulletin. 21(3): 55-58.

Soulsby, E.J.L. 1982. Helminths, Arthropod and Protozoa of Domesticated

Animals, 7th edition, Bailliere Tindal and Cassell Ltd., London, pp. 35-740.

Tamasaukas, R.; Roa, N. and Cobo, M. 2006. Trypanosomosis due to

Trypanosoma vivax in two buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) farms of Guarico State,

Venezuela. Revista Cientifica, Facultad-de-Ciencias Veterinarias,

Universidad-del-Zulia. 16(6): 575-578.

Van, A. D.; Dargantes, A.; Valdez, L.; Flores, A.; Dorny, P. and Vercruysse, J.

2000. Comparative study of strongyle infections of cattle and buffaloes in

Mindanao, the Philippines. Veterinary Parasitology. 28(1-2): 33-37.

Veneziano1, V.; M.; Santaniello1, S. and Carbone1, S. G. 2007. Lice

(Haematopinus tuberculatus) in water buffalo farms from central Italy. Italian

Journal of Animal Science. 6(2): 926-927.

77

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Vercruysse%20J%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Dorny%20P%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Flores%20A%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Valdez%20L%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Dargantes%20A%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Van%20Aken%20D%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstractPlus



http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Rifaat%20MM%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22Soliman%20M%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract


http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22el-Wafa%20SA%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=Search&Term=%22el-Shazly%20AM%22%5BAuthor%5D&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVAbstract

World Bank, 1998. Fighting poverty with microcredit: Experience in Bangladesh.

World Bank, Dhaka.

78

epidemiological investigation on parasitic diseases of buffaloes (bubalus bubalis) in kurigram...

Documents

buffaloes materials

acknowledgementthe author

research period

epidemiological investigation

nurjahan begum supervisor

07vparjd08m registration

cordial thanks

research work