DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 392 571 RC 020 453

AUTHOR Salant, Priscilla; Waller, Anita J.TITLE Guide to Rural Data. Revised Edition.REPORT NO ISBN-1-55963-384-0PUB DATE 95

NOTE 156p.

AVAILABLE FROM Island Press, 1718 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Suite 300,Washington, DC 20009 ($22.95).

PUB TYPE Books (010) Guides Non-Classroom Use (055)Statistical Data (110)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC07 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Community Study; Counties; Demography; Information

Seeking; *Information Sources; Local Government;*Nonm.tropolitan Areas; *Public Agencies; RuralAreas; *Rural Economics; Rural Education; *RuralPopulation; *Statistical Data

IDENTIFIERS Bureau of the Census

ABSTRACTThis book aims to acquaint researchers, primarily in

local organizations, with data they can use to describe and betterunderstand rural communities. Chapter 1 describes a few basic dataconcepts for readers who are not experienced data users. Chapter 2provides an overview of major data sources that can be used todescribe rural communities, including the Census Bureau's decennialand current population programs; the Census Bureau's agricultural,economic, and government censuses; personal income data from theBureau of Economic Analysis; and labor market data from the Bureau ofLabor Statistics. The chapter also explains where researchers canfind data issued by these agencies, and where they can find moreinformation by s:ate or region. Chapters 3-5 show how researchers canuse eederal, state, and local data to understand social and economicchange in very diverse rural communities. Data sources cover generalpopulation, education, labor for6e, income, housing, health,industry-specific data, and local government. Sample counties fromthe Economic Research Service County Typology groups are used to putthe data sources in context. Appendices provide postal and electronicaddresses and phone numbers for state and federal offices that houseor collect data, and give details about Census Bureau publicationsand economic census programs. Contains 49 references, 36 data tablesand figures, a glossary, and an index. (Sy)

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About Island PressIsland Press is the only nonprofit organization in the United States whoseprincipal purpose is 'the publication of books on environmental issues andnatural resource management. We provide solutions-oriented information toprofessionals, public officials, business and community leaders, and con-cerned citizens who are shaping responses to environmental problems.

In 1994, Island Press celebrated its tenth anniversary as the leadingprovider of timely and practical books that take a multidisciplinary approachto critical environmental concerns. Our growing list of titles reflects ourcommitment to bringing the best of an expanding body of literature to theenvironmental community throughout North America and the world.

Support for Island Press is provided by The Geraldine R. DodgeFoundation, The Energy Foundation, The Ford Foundation, William andFlora Hewlett Foundation, The James Irvine Foundation, The John D. andCatherine T. MacArthur Foundation, The Andrcw W. Mellon Foundation,The Pew Charitable Trusts, The Rockefeller Brothers Fund, The Tides Foun-dation, Turner Foundation, Inc., The Rockefeller Philanthropic Collabora-tive, Inc., and individual donors.

About the Rural Economic Policy ProgramEstablished in 1985, the Rural Economic Policy Program (REPP) fosters col-laborative learning and innovation to advance rural communiiy and eco-nomic development in the United States. REPP aims to help rural decision-makers better understand how local choices and opportunities fit into thelarger economy, and to speed the adoption of a comprehensive set of publicand private initiatives that will sustain rural progress and improve the livescf rural people. Headquartered at The Aspen Institute in Washington, D.C.,REPP is funded by the Ford and W.K. Kellogg Foundations. The AspenInstitute is an international organization whose programs enhance the abilityof leaders in business, government, the nonprofit sector, academia, and themedia to understand and act upon the issues that challenge the national andinternational community.

For more information about REPP or REPP publications, please write to:Rural Economic Policy Program, The Aspen Institute, 1333 New HampshireAvenue, NW, Suite 1070, Washington, DC 20036. Or call REPP ProgramAssistant Diane Motion at (202) 736-5804.

4

Revised Edition

NMI=

Alm/

Revised Edition

Priscilla Salant and Anita J. WallerRural Economic Policy Program

of The Aspen Institute

,

Washington, D.C. J Covelo, California

6

('opyright 0) 1995 by Island Press

All rights reserwd under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.No part of this hook may he reproduced in any form or by any means without per-mission in writing from the publkher: kland Press, 1718 Connecticut Avenue. N.W.,Suite 300, Washington, D(' 20009.

IS1.AND PRESS is a trademark of The Center for Resource Fconemics.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Salant. Prkcilla.Guide to rural data / Priscilla Salant and Anita J. Waller.

Rev. edp. cm.

Rev. ed. of: A conmiunity researcher's guide to nual data /Prkcilla Salant. 0)1990.

Includes bibliographical references and indevISBN 1-55963-384-0 talk. paper)1. Rural populationUnited States Statistical services,

2. l'nited StatesRural conditions--Statistics. 3. Communitydevelopment --United States. 4. Rural Lievelopment United States.I. Waller. Anita J. II Salant. Prisc na. Communit y. researcher'sguide to rural data. III. Fitle.

11132385.S26 199545 ;7t)330.97.1'04$41714. dc2.0 .2;

C1P

Printed on re,.. Jed, acid tree paper

Manufactured in the 1.nited Statos ot meth a

In 9 S (I 5 4 k 2 I

Contents

List of Tables and Figures xi

Acknowledgments xv

IntroductionBackgroundWhat Are "Rural" Data'?OrgaMiation of the Book

1

Data ConceptsKinds of DataFlow Data Are AvailablePopulation versus Sample Data I()

Census Geography and the otion of Rural I I

Mapping: A New Way to Visualiie Data I6

Public versus Private Data I

2Overview of Sources

The Decennial Census of Population and ilousing 19

Current Population Reports and Surveys 26

Other Censuses 26

Other Surveys from the Census BureauOther Economic Data 28

Labor Market Information ;1

1Vhere to Find Data hoducts.The Freedom Of Information Ad . . ............... .

34

setul Reference Materials and Statistical Compendialaical and Regional Information ;8

Summary ....... ........ ;9

viii Contents

Characterizing Local Population andCommunity Resources

The Get:eral Population 41Education 45Labor Force 48Income 51

Bureau of the Census 51Bureau of Economic Analysk 55Social Security Administration 58

I lousing 59Health 62

4Understanding the Economies of

Rural Communitiesiverview of Local Economic Structure 65

Employment 65Earnings 7 2

Industry-Specific 1)ata 71Agriculture 75Forestry 77MiningManufacturing 82TradeServices 84

The Role of the Federal Government

5Analyzing Government in Rural

CommunitiesLocal Government Structure 89Local Government FinancePublic Employment o 3

Contents

Glossary 97

Appendices 103A. Selected Data Series from the Bureau

of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce 104

B. Selected Items Collected an( Published inthe 1992 Economic Censuses for Counties 1 1 1

C. Regional Rural Development Centers 112

D. Depository Libraries, State Data Centers,and BLS Cooperating Agencies 113

E. Census Bureau Regional Information Servicesand Special Topic Information Centers I 15

E Electronic Data Access 127

References 129

Index 133

',1

List of Tables and Figures

TablesTable 1 The Census Bureau works with individual states to

make annual population estimates for all U.S.counties 42

Table 2 Both natural change and net migration contribute topopulation change 41

Table 3 The Census Bureau publishes school enrollment datain its County and City Data Book 46

Table 4 The decennial census provides demographic detailsabout the local labor force 49

Table 5 BLS works with the states to make labor force esti-mates for counties SO

Table 6 The decennial census provides small-area data on thenumber and characteristics of poor people 54

Table 7 The County and City Data Book includes limitedhealth status and resource data 64

Table 8 Four sources of employment statistics for NicholasCounty, West Virginia 67

Table 9 Which data source is most appropriate depends onthe research question 68--69

Table 10 State Employment Security Agencies publish annualdata on earnings by industry 71

Table II State field offices of the National AgriculturalStatistics Service publish annual production andmarketing data 76

Table 12 Mining data come from the census of mineralindustries 81

Table 13 County llusines8 Patterns adds some detail to ccu.nomic censuses like the census of manufactures 8

Table 14 The census of service industries provides data onindustries that are hecomine more important to sonicrural communities 86

xii Lit of Tables and Figures

Table 15 Government Organization, a report from the censusof governments, is a primer on local governmentsand public school systems 90

FigtiresFigure I Census regions and geographic divisions of the

United States

Figure 2 National geographic relationships I I

Figure 3 Census small-area geography 14

Figure 4 Nonmetro and metro counties in the tinned States I 5

Figure 5 LandView software can be used to generate mapst'or small areas 17

Figure 6 Major sources of data on nonmetro and rural areas . 20

Figure 7 Part of a sample page ftom the 1990 Census ofPopulation Social and Economic. Characteristics(CP90-21 24

Figure 8 Part of a sample page from County BusinessPatterns

Figure 9 Part of a sample page from Local Area PersonalIncome 1969-1992 ;I

Figure 10 Part of a sample p4; from the County and CityData Book 17

Figurc 11 State analysts make intercensal estimates ofpopulation age structure 44

Figure 12 The decennial census is the only source of educa-tional attainment data for counties and subcountyareas 4r,

Figure 13 The decennial census provides detailed informationon the types of jobs people have so

Figure 14 1WA estimates per capita personal income bysource 57

Figure 15 RFA provides detailed component estimates ofgovernment transfer payments

Figure 16 Some states estimate housing numbers by usingbuilding permit data

Figure 17 Researchers can iise IiL\ earnings data to anal/elhe economic structure of individual counties . to,

List of Tables and Figures tiii

Figure 18 The Consolidated Federal Funds Report enables

researchers to track the geographic distribution ofFederal money g7

Figure 19 The Compendium of Government Finances provides

data on local government revenue 91

Figure 20 The Compendium of Government Finances also

provides data on !mai government expenditures 91

Figure 21 The Compendium of Public Employment r; ,vides

data on public service employees and earnings 94

Acknowledgments

The first edition of this book. A Community Rescarclwr:s. Guide to Rural

Data, was funded by a grant from the Rural Poverty and Resources Program

of The Ford Foundation with assistance from the Rural Economic Policy

Program (REPP) of The Aspen Institute. The revised edition was funded with

support from The Kellogg Foundation, again with help from REPP. We grat;!-

fully acknowledge the generous financial support from each of these organi-

/ations and their staffs (present and former). They include Norm Collins,

Cynthia Duncan, Meriwether Jones, and Susan Sechler.In addition, the authors would like to thank the patient and dedicated

employees of Federal agencies who answered our innumerable questions.People at the Census Bureau (especially in the Denver Regional Office) and

the Bureau of Economic Analysis gave us public service at its very best.

Many reviewers and others provided thoughtful comments on the first edi-

tion, and we kept their suggestions in mind as we made our revisions. They

include Peggy Adams, Paul Barkley, Henry Carey. knnabel Cook, Ron Fails,

Peggy Ross Cook, Richard Salant. Barbara Smith, Marty Strange, and

Kathryn Wallman. Deb Schwenson in the Department of AgriculturalEconomics at Washington State University provided invaluable help with thelogistics of preparing a final draft. Thanks also to the staff of the Denver CardCompany for their excellent service.

Special thanks are due to Roger Sonnichsen for his support and for gra-ciously living with the project after it exceeded the bounds of the homeoffice. Thanks also to Deloris and Tom Waller for years of encouragementand enthusiasm. Finally, thanks to the following people for their time whenthey had better things to do: Kay Chapman. Brenda Jepsen, George Gunn.and Dennis Waller.

Introduction

The first edition of this book, A Community Researcher's Guide to RuralData, was prepared at the request of the Rural Economic Policy Program ofThe Aspen Institute and supported with funds from The Ford Foundation.Staff from both organizations recognize that reliable and timely data are aprerequisite for sound planning and development policy. Unfortunately, deci-sion makers in rural communities are often hampered in their work becausethey don't know that such data exist or where to tied them.

Hence, our purpose in writing this book is to acquaint researchers withdata they can use to describe and better understand rural communities. Wehave written primarily for people in locally based organizations, but we hopethat researchers in universities, state government, and policy institutes will

also find the book useful.

Background

Rural America has experienced dramatic demographic and economicchanges in the last several decades. During the 1960s and '70s, populationand employment in rural communities grew and the long-standing gapbetween rural and urban incomes became smaller. Just when many analystswere predicting an economic revival in rural America, the fortunes turnedand news from the heartland became relentlessly discouraging. The incomegap began to grow again and migration from rural to urban areas resumed.

Although population data from the early 1990s show that conditions areimproving in many small towns, national-level statistics still tell of a ruralAmerica that lags behind the rest of the country in income and job growth.Poverty and unemployment rates are higher, education levels lower, and theeffects of recession often more severe. Especially in the Midwest, many ruralplaces are steadily losing popula:ion as people leave in search of better job.;In small communities that have been hard hit economically and lost popula-tion, access to health care, education, and other services is often a seriousproblem.

People who work with and live in rural places aro searching for new devel-opment models that promise more stability and prosperity than in Ow past.While some people still yearn for the "good old days," others agree that iflural communities are to survi ve let alone prosper- they must Prid new

2 Introduction

goods to produce, new services to offer, and new ways of interacting witheach other and the world around them. Many communities are makingprogress toward these goals by finding new ways to cooperate, shareresources, and take advantage of savings that often come with increased sizeI7)* Accomplishing these goals is an enormous challenge that requires reli-

able information and analysis.Unfortunately, data collection efforts have not kept pace with changing

rural conditions. Part of the leason for the gaps in rural data is obvious: thecost of collecting reliable statistical data increases as population becomesmore sparse. To save money, most data collection activities use sampledesigns that yield more information for urban than rural areas. Samplingfates typically used in national surveys produce enough observations to makeestimates with relatively small sampling errors in urban areas but not in ruralareas. Desp.te these problems, a wealth of secondary data is available todescribe rural places, people, and businesses. This book documents thesedata sources for hoth experienced researchers and local deckion makers whoare unfamiliar with statistical data.'

What Are "Rural" Data?

In the context of identifying data sources, "rural- is a geographic conceptbased on two standards defined by Federal agencies that collect statistics.The first standard is the urban/rural designation used by the Bureau of theCensus in its decennial count of population and housing units. According tothe Bureau's definition, an urban area is any incorporated or unincorporatedplace with a population of at least 2,500. Everything else is rural.

The secor,d standard is the metropolitan designation assigned to everyU.S. county by the Office of Man:;.4ement and Budget. Counties are consid-ered nwtropolaan if' they have city with a population of at least 50,000 orclose economiL ties with such a city. All other counties ---2,276 in 1993 arenonmetropolitan. Because the county is the building block of the vast inajor-ity of Federal data systems, nonmetro counties are the building blocks ofrural data systeins, if only by default.

We emphasize that almost without exception, data on rural places in the!tilted States are h.ked on one of these two definitions. Whe.. it comes to sta-

tistics, the tlesignation of "rural- refers either to if place V ith less than 2,500

'nderlined numbers In parendicses refer io li.fed iii he ketererhy NcLiwnIbis hook beginning ffn page 12"

:Readers intoested in the slalli dnd nutionk tor I ural (Lila Me referred III Rurill/nliiriniaiiin .1% frnts. Our, mins in Oinit ( tom inid Retrictill

4U

What Are "Rural" Data'?

people or to a nonmetropolitan county. Because very few Federal agencies

collect data in a way that yields statistics on places with populations of less

than 2,5(X), most of the data we use to describe "rural" places actually

describes nonmetropolitan counties.Luckily, we can speak a little more precisely about nonmetro counties by

using two classification schemes developed by the USDA's Economic

Research Service (ERS). The first is the Beale coding system. which classi-

fies six groups of nonmetro counties according to how urban or rural their

population is (based on the ('ensus Bureau's definition of "rural") andwhether or not they are adjacent to metropolitan areas (see box). At one end

of the nonmetro spectrum are "urbanized adjacent" counties that have an

urban population of at least 20.000 and are adjacent to a metro area. At the

other end are "totally rural nonadjacent" counties that (1) have no urban pop-

ulation (that is, no place with a population of at least 2,5(X)) and (2) are not

adjacent to a metro area. (Codes for all U.S. counties are available on diskette

from "ERS Alta," Room 228, 1301 New York Avenue N.W., Washington,

DC, 20(X)5-4788. ('all (202) 219-0534 for more information.)The second classification scheme we can use to he more precise about non-

metro counties is the ERS County Typology system, which ERS recently

revised (4). It includes six mutually exclusive economic types. Five ofthemfarming, mining, manufacturing. government, and servicesretlectdependence on particular economic specializations. A sixth type, called

"nonspecialized," includes counties not classified as having any of the five

Beale Nonmetro CountyClassification Number of CountiesUrban population of 20,000 or more,and adjacent to a metro area 133

Urban population of 20,000 or more,and not adjacent to a metro area 113

Urban population of 2,500-19,999,and adjacent to a metro area 611

Urban population of 2,50019,999,and not adjacent to a metro area 641

Completely rural (no places witha population of 2,500 or morel, andadjacent to a metro area 24 /

Ci mpletely rural (no places witha population of 2,500 or more), andnot adjacent to a metro area 525

Total nonmetr o rJountier; 2,2/6

4 Introduction

Definitions used in the ERS County Typology (4)

Economic TypesFarming-dependent Farming contributed a weighted annual average of20 percent or more of total labor and proprietor ,ncome the threeyears from 1987 to 1989. There are 556 farming-dependent counties.

Mining-dependent Mining contributed a weighted annual average of 15percent or more of total labor and proprietor income over the three yearsfrom 1987 to 1989. There are 146 mining-dependent counties.

Manufacturing-dependent Manufacturing contributed a weighted an-nual average of 30 percent or more of total labor and proprietor incomeover the three years from 1987 to 1989 There are 506 manuf acturing-dependent counties.

Government-dependent Government activities contributed a weightedannual average of 25 percent or more of total labor and proprietor incomeover the three years from 1987 to 1989. There are 244 government-dependent counties.

Services-dependent Service activities (private and personal services,wholesale and retail trade, finance and insurance, transportation and pub-lic utilities) contributed a weighted annual average of 50 percent or moreof total labor arid proprietor income over the three years from 1987 to1989. There are 323 services-dependent counties.

Nonspecialized Counties not classified as a specialized economic typeover the three years from 1987 to 1989 There are 484 nonspecializedcounties

Policy TypesRetirement-destination The population aged 60 years and over in 1990increased by 15 percent or more from 1980-90 through in-migration ofpeople. There are 190 retirement-destination counties.

Federal lands Federally owned lands made ;p 30 percent or more of acounty's land area ;r1 1987. There are 270 Federal lands counties.

Commuting Workers aged 16 years and over commuting to lobs out-side their county of residence were 40 percent cr more of all thecounty's workers in 1990. There are 381 commuting counties.

Per,rstent poverty Persons with ooverty-ievel income m the precedingyear were 20 percent or more of total population in each of four years1960, 1970, 1980, and 1990 There are 535 persistent poverty counties.

fransfors-dependent Income froni transfer payments (F ederal, state,and local) contributed a weighted annual average of 25 percent or noreof total personal income over the three years from 1987 to 1989. T hereare 381 transfers.depecident counties

Organiiition of the Book 5

economic specializations. The ERS County Typology scheme also identifies

live overlapping, polii:y-relevant types: retirement-destination, Federal

lands, persistent poverty, commuting, and transfers-dependent.State tables containing the FRS county classification codes, with des::rip-

five profiles of the different county types, are available from the ERSAutoFAX Service. (Dial (202) 219-1107 and request information directory

document number 5600. See the box in ('hapter 4 in the section "Agri-culture- for detaik on using the ERS AutoFAX.) The state tables are also

available via Internet-Bitnet. (E-mail Peggy J. Cook, PROSS(ERS.BITNEI:

or Karen Mizer, KMIZEIWERS.BITNET, for complete information.)With these refinements to commonly used statistical reporting practices,

we can at least begin to describe rural America. The centerpiece of our infor-

mation base is the Census of Population and Housing that is conducted hy the

Department of Commerce every ten years. Using this rich data tile, we candescribe in detail the demographic and economic characteristics of small area

populations. For example, the decennial census allows us to answer ques-tions about work and income distribution, educational attainment, and the

economic well-being of particular types of households.In between the decennial censuses, we supplement our knowledge ahout

rural America with a variety of less comprehensive sources. A few examples

make the point. Estimates from a joint Federal-state program give us a rough

idea of population change in small areas from year to year. The economiccensuses that are conducted every live years permit us to describe the struc-

ture and activity of the most important industries in each county in the United

States (albeit with few dctails). The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates

annual county-level per capita and total personal income and its components.And, data published in the County and City Data Book describe the health

rest wrces and status of county populations.Who needs this kind of data? The answer is: people who analyze and

make decisions about where rural communities are heading. Public and pri-vate community development practitioners, university researchers, elected

ofticlals, and policy makers from the local to the Federal level all use dataand information about rural communities. The purpose of this book is to help

them find what they need,

Organization of the Book

Chapter I describes a few basic concepts for readers who are not experienceddata users. The topics discussed are: primary vs. secondary data; survey vs,administrative data; sample vs. population surveys; the media in which data

are available; census geography; data mapping; and public vs. private data.

6 Introduction

Chapter 2 provides an overview of major data sources that can be used todescribe rural communities, including the Census Bureau's decennial andcurrent population programs; the Census Bureau's agricultural, economic,and government censuses; personal income data from the Bureau ofEconomic Analysis; and labor market data from the Bureau of LaborStatistics. The chapter concludes by explaining where reseaichers can finddata that are issued by these agencies, as well as where they can find moreinformation about their state and region.

Chapters 3, 4, and 5 show how researchers can use Federal, state, and localdata to understand social and economic change in the very diverse commu-nities that make up rural America. Sample counties from the FRS CountyTypology groups are used to put the data sources in context. Th.s classifica-tion scheme enables us to show how various data sources can he used toexplore major rural issues, including the performance of critical economicsectors, population change, !Ind persistent rural poerty.

'rile sample counties are:

Alta la County, Mississippi. a "nonspecialized." "persistent poverty."and "transfers-dependent" county;

Coos County, New Hampshire, a "manufacturing-dependent" county::

Kossuth County, lowa,"farming-dependent" county;

Latah County, Idaho, a "government-dependent" county;

Nicholas County, West Virginia, a "mining-dependent" and "transfers-dependent" county; and

Yavapai County, Arizona, a "services-dependent," "retirement desti-nation," and "Federal lands" county.

The appendices provide readers with postal and electronic addresses andphone numbers for state and Federal offices that house or collect data. Theyalso give details about Census Bureau publications and economic census pro-rams. A glossary at the end of the hook gives definitions of research and sta-

tistical terms and, finally, a reference table on the inside hack cover explainsacronyms used in the text.

Several comments before we begin: First, most of this book concerns datareported by Federal agencies. However, researd :rs who are interested pri-marily in local conditions may: find more up-to-date and detailed data fromstate and private sources (such as local employers). We also encourage peo-ple to pursue contacts in their own communities, as well as state resources(see Appendix I)).

Second, knowing where to find reliable data is only one impertant part ofresearch. Also critical is interpretation and analysk for decision making. Tofind out what kind of analysis has been done on rural communities in your

2 u

Orgtinitation of the Hook 7

state or region, contact your state land grant university, Regional RuralDevelopment Center, or state Rural Development Council. These organiza-tions are discussed itt the end of Chapter 2.

Finally, three caveats about using the data described here: First, the valueof most data lies not with a single statistic for one particular area, but in com-parable statistics for different areas or different time periods. For example, anindividual county's unemployment rate is more telling when compared to therate in surrounding counties because it is put in a relative context. Our sta-tistical indicators are too imprecise to contain "absolute truth" by themselves.

Second, statistics are only as valuable as the questions people ask. Themost carefully collected data are useless if researchers have not asked ques-

tions whose answers inform us about issues that matter. To emphasize thatgood research begins with good questions, data in this book are described inthe context of how they can he used. It is hoped that the illustrative questionswe pose will encourage more substantive and useful research on niral com-

munities.Third, we have tried to provide accurate addresses and phone numbers for

the various information contacts in this hook. However, many agenciesmoe or change phone numbers periodically. If you are unable to reach acontact with the information we provide here, please persevere by callingdirectory assistance or the state or regional office of the agency you are try-ing io contact.

1

Data Concepts

things known or assumed; facts or figures from which coii-elusions can be inferred; information (6.1

statistics . . . facts or data of a numerical kindissembled, classified,and tabulated so as to present significant information about a givensubject t

Kinds of Data

Statistical data come from either primary or secondary sources. Primary dataare those collected directly by a researcher for a specific study, using. forexample, personal or telephone interviews. Secondary Aources are existingdata (cAlected by a government institution or private vendor) that a

researcher uses for his or her particular analysis. This book is solely con-cerned with secondary data sources. To the extent that you find secondarysources inadequate (because of detail, accuracy. or timeliness), you ma y. wantto collect primary data. Methods to c.,nsider include conducting surveyresearch, content analysis. or the case study technique ( Th

Secondary data are collected in either survey form (by the Census Bureau,for example) or administratively in the course of an orgimi/ation's normalbusiness (by the Internal Revenue Service (Ir Social Security Administration.for example). Both survey and administrative data are discussed in this book.

How Data Are Available

Statistical data are typically issued in one or both of two formats. The first is"hard copy,- either in a publication or on ii computer printout. Published dataand computer printouts require no special equipment to use and ate, at leastfor now, the most readily mailable. However, theY are also the bulkiest andofIcti do not contain as much detail as other formats, nor ale they regularlyreissued when data are revised. l'urthermure, hard copy data must be manip

How Data Are Available 9

ulawd or "recombined" by hand. Only occasionally do government agenciesaccept requests for computer printouts of specially tabulated data.

The second format in which statistical data are issued is electronic, that is,computer readable on either diskette. CD-ROM, tape, or "online." Datadiskettes are available from many agencies and are commonly used for rela-tively small data sets. CD-ROMs are compaLt disks with "read-only" mem-ory and much larger storage capacities than diskettes. They are expensive forthe occasional data user and require a special computer drive to use, but theyare increasingly available in libraries, Diskettes and CD-ROMs often comewith utility software that makes them user friendly. In addition, more andinure software is being written to meet the needs of less-specialized users.

Thpes are used only by researchers who have access to a mainframe com-puter and who need very large data sets. They typically require programmingexpertise to use.

Online data tiles can be accessed with a modem device, which makes itpossible for computers to communicate with each other via telephone lines.Using a modem, you can read or obtain online data by connecting your per-sonal computer to one of a variety of online commercial services, such asProdigy or :L'ompuServe. One example of an online database is the ( 'ensusBureau's CENDATA. It is accessible through CompuServe and DIALOGinformation services (see Appendix F. Even without subscribing to a com-mercial service, you can access some online databases on electronic bulletin

Public agencies make data available through theInternet . . .

The Census Bureau and many other agencies are beginning to put dataonline so people with personal computers and a modem no longer needbulky, hard copy reports. For example, CENDATA is the Census Bureau'sonline database. It gives data users access to basic information aboutwhere to go for help with Census data, as well as more detaileo infor-mation, including defii !ions of Census geography, press releases, datafrom the 1990 Census Population and ilousuirt and the 1992 EconomicCensuses, and other Census programs

If you have access to Internet or a commercial service account, you cansend electronic mail and also hook Into computer sites where data andother information are stored Giving complete instructions on how toaccess all the different databases that might be of interest to our readersis beyond the scope of this book ilowever, we have provided narne!;,Internet addresses, and telephone numbers for agencies that provideorihne data (see Appendix H Since more orgawations go online all thetime, we suggest that readec; contact f;pecrf agencin5 to find out wha!data -ire available

10 Data Concepts

board services ( ABS) for the cost of the phone call (long distance in mostcases).

Many agencies use a hybrid of electronic technology that enables datausers to ac:ess hard copies of reports via facsimile or -fax." Usually, thisinvolves calling from the touch-tone phone on a fax machine, selectingnumerical options in response to a recorded menu, and innnediately (or laterwhen you leave your fax number) receiving a hard copy by returr fax.

This book focuses on data that are publicly accessible .!ither in hard copyor electronic format, online, or in depository libraries. Researchers shouldcontact the issuing agency if they require tape files and have thc necessaryhardware and expertise.

Population versus Sample Data

Each decade since 1790, the U.S. Census Bureau has conducted a populationcensus. A census is a count, or enumeration, of the total populatiol in a givenarea. Censuses can include things other than people. Since 1940, tor example,the Census Bureau has also enumerated housing units.

Planning for the 1990 decennial census .1..gan in the early 1980s. Its totalcost was roughly $2.6 billion. By mid- 1990, the Bureau employed about476,0(X) temporary workers in addition to its regular staff. The cost of eachcensus has been increasing. In 1980, the cost per person was about $4, whilein 1990 it was about $10. Much of the increase has been due to more exten-sive follow-up work to improve response rates. Now that the 1990 censuspopulation reports are all issued, data ar t. available t'or areas as small as sin-gle blocks.

Contrast the decennial census with the Census Bureau's Current PopulationSurvey (CPS), a monthly survey that gathers information from a sample ofthe populationabout 50,000-60,000 households. A swnple is "part" of apopulation carefully selected to represent the "whoe" population. TheCensus Bureau and the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) use the CPS sampleto estimate many widely quoted statistics, including the national unemploy-ment rate and the percentage of families with income below the poverty level.

The kind of data collected in the CPS is similar to that in the decennial cen-sus, but because it is comes from ti sample, it cannot be used to anal yr/c areasbelow the regional (and in a ft w cases, the state) level. Estimates aboutsmaller geographic areas are les: reliable because of ihe relatively small sam-ple site.

Sampling is critical to research. By scientifically choosing a sample ofobservations that represents an entire population, researchers save money llid

Census Geography and the Notion of Rural II

time on data collection and analysis. They survey fewer people and theyprocess fewer data.=

To better understand this point, consider the case of poverty estimates fromthe Bureau of the Census. Using only CPS sample data, the Bureau estimatesthe number of persons and families with incomes below the poverty levelfor the nation as a whole, for regions of the country (South and non-South),and for certain demographic groups (such as female-headed households innonmetro areas). The Federal government gets the statistics it needs (andsaves money) by surveying only a representative sample in between thedecennial census years.

Many of the data sources described in this book are derived from samplesof a population rather than from censuses. How the sample is selected, howlarge it is, and how much variation it contains all affect how much confidencewe can have in the accuracy of sample estimates. A larger, more uniform sam-ple yield , more precise estimates, that is, a smaller sampling error. Weencourage readers who use secondary, sample data to take sampling error into

account; it is typically explained in the technical documentation t'or each data

source.

Census Geography and the Notion of Rural3

The U.S. Census Bureau, which produces much of the data discussed in thishosik, reports statistics for geographical areas ranging from the entire UnitedStates to single city blocks. Some of the areas are g9vernmental units (legallydefined areas such as states and counties), while others are defined by theCensus Bureau to collect and organize the data (such as census tracts andblock groups). Understanding Census Bureau geography is an important partof making the most effective use of the agency's data.

Figure I illustrates the four census regions defined for the United States.They include the West, Midwest, Northeast, and South. Eat.h region is com-posed of two or more geographic divisions or groupings of states. The statesthemselves consist of counties and their equivalonts (3,143 plus 78 in PuertoRico and 91 in outlying areas suL h as Guam and American Samoa).

'For a nontechnical discussion of sampling, see //mi. to rotuluct Your Own urvey(W. Note that some data collected in the decennial census are ako s;unple based SeeChapter 2.

Thi, (1,,cus,,,,N is abstracted Inon "A Guide to Stale and Local Census Geography"

I and Cenvus and I illide 1994

4

1. 1.1

12 Data Concepts

Figure 1 Census regions and geographic divisions of the United States.

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Figure 2 shows the national geogiaphic relationships used by the CensusBureau. Counties are divided into either 111 minor civil divisions (NICI),),which are town and township governmental units (about 30,001) ,)ta11, or 121census county divisions (('CDs). CCDs are statisOcal units destimated h theCensus Bureau in states where MCDs do not exist or are not functioning go%ernments. They total 5,581 (plus 37 boioughs and 411 "census subaleas- iiiAlaska. and 282 "unorgani/ed territories- in various states).

In addition to being divided into counties (and MCI). and ( ( 'I)s q,iICare also divided into ) incorporated places, which are governmental designations; 121 census designated places 1CDPs). which ate uninct it-pirated.closely settled population centers usually with populations of at least 1,000.and 131 consolidated cities, a special governmental unit recogniied ton thefirst time in the 1990 decennial census. Consolidated cities are units ot 11)calgovernment in which the local incorporated government has merged w ith thecounty or M( 'I). Incorporated places and (Di's sometnnes cross (omitsboundaries and are therefore shown sepaiatel hum the L.otint InetaikFigure 2.

Census Geography and the Notion of Rural 13

Figure 2 National geographic relationships.

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In the past, MCDs and CCDs were further divided into either enumerationdistricts (primarily in rural areas) or block groups. Unfortunately, this systemmade legislative redistricting difficult for the states. Districts and block

groups were too laige for precise, small-area population counts, and further-

more, their boundaries did not always coincide with voting districts. To rem-edy these problems, the Census Bureau divided the entire United States into

Hocks for the 1990 Census. The definition of a block is a -polygon with dis-

cernable geographic features." Blocks have no minimum population. In 1990,

the average block size was 70 people.In rural areas, block boundaries may be visible features such as roads, pow-

erlMes, and shorehnes. They may ako include features such as fence lines,canyons, and ravines. Block-level statistics include all those da:a collected onthe Census Bureau's 'short-form" questionnaire (see Chapter 2). This infor-mation is available through all State Data Centers (see Appendix D).

Figure 3 illustrates Census Bureau small-area geography. In this scheme,the county is the largest area. It contains ( ) MCD.; or CCDs, and (2) census

tracts or block numbering areas (BNAs). kach census tract or BNA is made

up of several block groups (Mk) and consists of several individual blocksidentified by a 3-digit number. For example, in I igth 3, BNA #502 has three

14

Figure 3 Census small-area geography.

Data Concepts

Minor Civil Division (MCD) orCensus County Division (CCD)

Jonestownship

Place

-

Census Tract orBlock Grcup (8(.2) Block Numbenng kea (BNA)

Source 1..S. hparlment t,t riuucre. Bureau ot ;he Cen.tis

block groups. The four Hocks numbered 301-304 make up Block Group 3within BNA #502.

In nonmetropolitan coupties, which we discuss below, BNAs have an aver-age population of under 4,000. Block groups average about 700 people, andblocks about 30. In more sparsely populated areas, blocks typically cover alarger geographic area; the reverse is true for more densely populated areast3(, 24).

Block-level data ar: only available on computer tape (Summary Tape FileB) and laser disk (('D-ROM). Many data users like to use the CD-ROM/ 990 Census of Popudwion (mnd Housing Block Statistics, C1)90- 113- I ). To

find opi where hit wks are located and identify a particular location by blocknumber, one inuA look at an actual Census map of the area, beginning withthe county and moving to subsequently smaller geographic divisions.Depository libraries equipped to use CD-ROM usually have correspondingmaps for the state. Alternatively, contact smur regional Census Bureau officeor State Dom Center (see Appendices II and Et.

The Census Bureau uses two other classification schemes that are pertinentto rural data use. As explained in the Introduction, the first scheme classifiesall counties as other metropolitan or nonmetropolitan. The Office ofManagement and Budget (OMB) has designated some 254 metropolitan sta-tistical areas I MSAst. ln New England, MSAs consist of cities and towns, hut

2

Cenmis Geography and the Notion of Rural 15

elsewhere they are made up of one or more whole counties around a largepopulation center, together with adjacent communities which are socially andeconomically integrated with the central county. Integration is measured interms of the number of workers who commute to the central county.

An MSA must have either: (1) a city (i.e., an incorporated place) with apopulation of at least 50,000: or (2) an urbanized area (i.e., a Census desig-nated area with a population of at least 50,000) and a total MSA populationof at least 1(X),000 (75,000 in New England). For the precise definition, see"A Guide to State and Local Census Geography- (34). OMB reviews the offi-cial MSA definition each decade prior to the decennial census.

People who live in metropolitan counties comprise the metro population,while everyone else makes up the nonmetro population. In 1993, OMB classilied 2,276 counties as nonmetropolitan based on 1990 census data. Thesecounties are indicated in Figure .1.

The see(md scheme breaks the total population into either urban or rural.All persons living in urbanized areas Rlefined as central cities and surround-ing densely settled territory with a combined population of at least 50,000) aswell as those living in places with a population of at least 2,500 are classified

Figure 4 Nonmetro and metro counties in the United States.

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I S I k.partmcnt 4,1 .Avriculture, I.conomic Row.o(11 Seihx, Riii,il I.Lonoin), 1)i

lo Data Concepts

as urban. The rest of the population is considered rural. Further .,ubcategoriesare possible, such as "rural fann/rural nonfarm" and "rural places (less than2,500)/other rural (nonplace)."

The metro/nonmetro and urban/rural schemes are based On different con-cepts so they are not interchangeable, almough many people confuse the two.For anyone who uses "rural" data, it is essential to understand that the CensusBureau's urban/rural split actually cuts across the metro/nonmetro spliturban areas exist within nonmetro counties and rural areas exist within metrocounties.

Two useful publications on Census Bureau geography . . .

"A Guide t 3 State and Local Census Geography" (34) includes diagrams,definitions tar all Census geographic areas, and a glossary. It also profileseach state by population, land area, and the number and type of eachgeographic area, including American Indian and Alaska Native Areas(Al/ANAs).

"Maps and More: Your Guide to Census Bureau Geography" (36) is abrochure that defines each type of geographic area, explains small-areaCensus geography in detail, and tells how to read census tract and countyblock maps. It also lists available maps and related data products, anddescribes 1 IGER, the Census Bureau's new system for integrating dataand maps

Mapping: A New Way to Visualize Data

One of the most exciting, recent innovations in information technology is theset of tools that enables data users to show information on maps. Briefly, thistechnology links sociOeconomic or other data to geographic coordinates. Forexample, it is now relatively easy to visually display on a map how povertyrates vary within a county, or how groundwater contamination is concentratedin areas with certain types of agricultural production.

To help automate mapping for the 1990 decennial census, the CensusBureau worked with the U.S. Geological Survey to develop a database of'geographic and map information. The result is the TIGER database, whichstands t'or Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing.The earliest version of TIGER required a large ckImputer with a "digitizer" ordevice that allows the user to convert spatial measurements into digital, com-puter readable data. However, the 1992 TIGER tiles are available on CD-ROM and come with LandView, a public domain software program devel-oped by the Environmental Protection Agency. It allows users to create mapswith a personal computer and then link the maps with selected 1990 censusdata.

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18 1)ala Concepts

Using LandView, data users can generate a map that includes 1990 censustracts, block numbering areas (BNAs), block groups (BGs), and blocks, anddisplays selected, block grouplewl data. Depository libraries that have thenew version of TIGER will also have the Land View software. Even thoughLandView can be used on a personal computer, loading all the data for anygiven geographic area, even counties, takes some time because of the largetiles. If vou want to create a map, call your library ahead of time to let themknow you are coming and to specify the geographic areas in which you areinterested. You can also contact your Census Bureau regional office for help.

A word about LandView: This software is a great step toward making map-ping data available to the general public. I lowever, the Federal government isnot allowed to provide software that competes with commercial vendors.Therefore, while Land View does perform basic map data retrieval and draw-ing functions, it is less sophisticated than other mapping or GIS (geographicinformation system) programs that use TIGER tiles. Figure 5 illustrates thekind of map that can be created for small areas, in this case, for part ofYavapai County, Arizona.

Public versus Private Data

The Census Bureau and other Federal, state, and local agencies are publicdata sources. The data they estimate or collect are produced at public expensein order to carry out some statutorily initiated program or regulation. Theseagencies make data available to the public on a cost recovery basis or free ofcharge, as a public service.

In contrast, private data organizations offer repackaged public data or datathey collect themselves, always for a fee. There are both for-profit and non-profit private data firms. Their main customers are businesses that need easy-to-use, current statistics and forecasts to evaluate consumer markets. One pri-vate demographic firm, for example, sells a database containing current andprojected population estimates by age, sex, income, education, and othercharacteristics for all tip codes, minor civil divisions, and counties in theUnited States.

As a rule, such firms are more reliable for urban areas than for rural, pri-marily because their business clientele are interested in larger, concentratedmarkets, I lowever, some privately issued data products may suit a particularrural researcher's needs. A good place to start hunting for a suitable privatedata vendor is Du, Insider's Guide to Demographic Know-How by DianeCrispell, available from American Demographics Press for $49.95. AmericanDemographics ako publishes an annually updated special report called"Directory of Demographic Products and Services,- which sells for $10. ('all1800)828.1133 for inure information.

Overview of Sources

The core of our knowledge about rural issues comes from the Census ofPopulation and Housing conducted by the Federal government every tenyears. We supplement these decennial census data with other statistics from

the Bureau of the Census and with information from a variety of otherFederal, state, and local agencies (Figure 6).

In the sections below, we describe the most important sources of data that

researchers can use to analyze rural issues. The chapter closes with a discus-

sion of state and regional sources of rural information.

The Decennial Census of Population and Housing

The Census Bureau is the Federal agency that is primarily responsible forcollecting and publishing information about individuals, households, busi-nesses, and governments. Foremost among the agency's activities is thedecennial census, which is an invaluable source of information for two rea-sons. First, it is exceptionally rich in the detail it provides, and second, it isnationally uniform for all geographic areas. In fact, the decennial census isour only nationally uniform, small-area source of data on such important top-

ics as educational attainment, poverty, and occupation. It is important tounderstand that while local organizations, businesses, and government agen-cies often conduct surveys or estimate such information ftom secondarysources, their data cannot be compared to other areas in the country because

they do not use uniform definitions and methods.The U.S. Constitution called for the Federal government to count the pop-

ulation every ten years beginning in 1790. The primary reason for conduct-ing this decennial census was to apportion or divide the number of membersof the !louse of Representatives among the states according to their popula-tion. The second reason was to assess the nation's military and industrialstrength by c( wilting the number of males old enough to fight in the militiaand work in the labor force (,12).

Since 1940, the decennial census has also included the ('ensus of [lousing,

I()

20 Overview of Sources

Figure 6 Major sources of data on nonmetro and rural areas.

E Census of Popil;ation and HousingI (Bureau of the Census, every ten years)

Agriculture, Economic, and Government Censuses(Bureau of the Census, every five years)

Current County r County and I Labor Market RegionalPopulation Business City Data Book Information Economic

Survey Patterns (Bureau of the (Bureau of Informationand other cur-rent programs

(Bureau of theCensus, annual)

Census, Labor Statisticsperiodic) monthly, guar-

System(CD-ROM)

(Bureau of the teriy, annual) (Bureau ofCensus,

monthly andannual)

EconomicAnalysisarr uall

USA Counties(CD-ROM)

(Bureau of the Census, annual)

Administrative and survey data from otherFederal agencies, such as:

National Agricultural Statistics ServiceInternal Revenue Service

! Social Security Administrationt.

Administrative and survey data from stateand local agencies, such as:

Employment securityEducationHealth and Welfare

which counts and collects descriptive information ;Mout the nation's occu-pied housing units.

In Apri! 1990, the Bureau of the Census conducted the 21st decennial cen-sus. As in past censuses, the agency tried to survey every household in theUnited States. Roughly five out of every six households received a "short-form- questionnaire containing the so called "100-percent" items, or corepopulation and housing questions.

The remaining households, numbering roughly 17.7 mi Iltim, received the"long form,- which contained more detailed questions in addition to the same100-percent items as the short form.' I louseholds in rural areas were over-sampled, that is, proportionately more received the long form 11-in-2 insteadof the average so that small area data could be estimated with anacceptable sampling error. Alaska Native villages and American Indian reser

'The issue 14 hils1 Many h011sChOlds should receie the long form was hotly contestedand was finally resolsed in slimmer, 198ti. The Oft ice of Management Budget wantedto reduce the sample rate III the interest ol minium/mg tespondent hurden. liii, Bureau otthe Census land others) argued that the value ot the additional data outweighed respondent burden

The Decennial Census of Population and Housing

vations were also sam-pled at the higher rate to According to the Census Act of 1790, the

ensure a sufficientpurpose of the census was to learn the

num- numbe7 of inhabitants in various geographicher of observations. groupings, "omitting Indians not taxed, and

By law, the Census distinguishing free persons...from all others;Bureau was required to the sex and color of free persons; and the

deliver final population number of free males 16 years of age and

counts to the President older

by December 31, 1990.These counts are used in reapportioning representation in the U.S. Congress.

By April 1. 1991, the Bureau delivered census figures accurate to the block

level for purposes of state congressional redistricting. Other tabulations and

publications were completed by the end of 1993 (24). (See Appendix A for a

detailed list of Census reports that contain data for rural areas.)The 1990 short form contained questions about:

Population HousingName Number of units in structure

Household relationship Number of rooms in unit

Sex Tenure (owned or rented)

Age Value of home or monthly rent

Marital status Congregate housing (meals included in rent)

Race Vacancy characteristics

Hispanic origin

Tips on Community Research: How to Locate and Use DataFind a well-informed, helpful reference librarian who can assistyou in tracking down documents, phone numbers, and personalcontacts. Try your public library first, but if help is unavailable, go tothe library at the nearest community college.If no one in your community can help you find the data you need,call the source. Keep calling until you net what you need Referencebooks like those discussed later in this chapter are Intended to helpyou find people to call.Read the technical documentation that accompanies each of yourdata sources. 'This material explains how the data were collected anddefines terms used in the doc,Iment It may be helpful to review thequestionnaire that .was used to collect the data Some agencies willmake questionnaires available upon request

Be precise in your use of research terms. Make sure ye., under-stand the definitions of terms you use to describe the characteristicsof your community, such as labor force, unemployment rate, aridpoverty level Refer to the cilossary at the end of this book, as wbll asto the documentation that accompanies your data source

22 Overview of Sources

The 1990 long form contained questions about:

PopulationSocial characteristics:Educationenrollment and

attainmentPlace of birth, citizenship,

and year of entry to UnitedStates

AncestryLanguage spoken at homeMigration (residence in 1985)DisabilityFertilityVeteran status

Housing

Year moved into residenceNumber of bedroomsPlumbing and kitchen facilitiesTelephoneAutos, light trucks, and vansHeating fuel, water source, and method

of sewage disposalYear structure builtCondominium statusFarm residenceShelter costs, including utilities

Economic charatieristics:Labor forceOccupation, industry, and class of workerPlace of work and commuting to workWork experience and income in 1989Year last worked

Figure 7 illustrates part of a sample page from the 1 990 Census of Popu-lation and Housing report, Social and Economic Characteristics, for YavapaiCounty, Arizona.

Data from the decennial and other censuses are now available on CD-ROM. Compared to the Census Bureau's printed reports, its CD-ROM fileshave more geographic detail but less detail on population characteristics fiirsmall areas.

Included in the Bureau's CD-ROM Ides is a simple retrieval programcalled GO that's easy to use even for people with few computer skills.Typing "GO" from the CD-ROM drive starts the program and gives a listof menu options. The user first selects a geographic areafiir example, aspecific county----and then chooses either summary characteristics or indi-

vidual data items, such asnumber of households orracial characteristics. (Inthe case of decennial cen-sus data, summary socialand economic character-istics include populationnumbers, education, Po-

'The Census Bureau's regional offices per;odically offer training workshops on different data topics -for example, how toaccess data on CD-ROM. Contact yourregional office for the schedule and locationof training sessions (see Appendix H.

3 6

The Decennial ('ensus of Population and !lousing 23

Who uses census data?Decision makers at all levels of government and in businesses andcommunity-based organizations use summary statistics from the decen-nial census. Here are some examples:

Federal administrators use social and economic census data aboutcommunities to allocate billions of dollars worth of government pro-grams, including Community Development Block Grants, agriculturalresearch, cooperative extension, and Headstart.

State transportation officials use census data about commuting pat-terns to plan for new highways.Social service agencies use census data to identify areas with highconcentrations of elderly people, single parent households, and othergroups that may need special assistance.Economic development organizations use cr 'sus data about education, housing, and community infrastructure 1,.) compare conditions inlocal communities and identity opportunities for development

The Census Bure3u makes a special effort to help the public use theirproducts Customer Services staff people in the Data User ServicesDivision (DUSD) answer questions and make referrals to specialists.DUSD also sells printed reports and data files from the Bureau's cen-suses and surveys Call them at 1301) 451-4100.

The symbol "(D)" is the Census Bureau's guarantee ofconfidentiality.By law, the Census Bureau must keep individual responses to its ques-tionnaires confidential. No other agency, including the Internal RevenueService and the Immigration and Naturalization Service, has access tocensus records. And when the data are released to the public, they arecombined in such a way that we cannot recognize any individual familyor per son 1 he same guarantee of confidentiality applies to businessesNo data are released that might permit r;orocione to identify the opera-tions of an IndivIduill business The symbol "(Dr in a Census reportmeans that data have been "suppressed," that is, they have not beenprinted I fence, intorrn;ltion about individual re,monses 15 not disclosed

Bu';iness data that are presented by industry group are frequently suppreTied for nir al arr ?as and nonmetro counties Ihis is because the numbor of busines;e', in each industry (1, 1,; -,o IOW that p.orticular firm',Would tio ed.;\,/ to w)t

Fig

ure

7P

art o

f a s

ampl

e pa

ge fr

om th

e 19

90 C

ensu

s of

Pop

ulat

ion

Sm

-i,V

and

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note

.qc

Cha

rm-t

eris

licy

(CP

90-2

).

Tab

le 1

54.

Labo

r F

orce

Cha

ract

eris

tics

by R

ace

and

His

pani

c O

rigin

:'IV

J C

on.

/Thr

esho

ld a

nd c

ompl

emen

tary

thre

shof

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e 1,

000

pers

ons

Dat

e ba

sed

on s

ampl

e an

d su

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t to

som

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yana

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ty, s

te te

xtfo

r de

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of s

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ls s

ec te

xt)

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nty

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n In

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cyn

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n or

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or A

lcut

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any

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'

LAB

OR

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S

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tos

16 v

eers

aa

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In la

bor

forc

e Per

cent

of p

erso

ns )

6 ye

ars

ond

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ed fo

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han

labo

r fo

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Em

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t wor

tr 3

5 or

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urs

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mpl

oyed

Per

cent

of c

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n la

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labo

r fo

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per

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Fem

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peer

s ad

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In la

bor

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and

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labo

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in la

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yew

s ...

...

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nem

ploy

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r fo

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63 9

101

239

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941

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612

2 77

339

379

49 1

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342

38 7

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52

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7717

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101

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10 7

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6 4

5 9

13 7

6 2

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244

126

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1M92

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'89

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124

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4122

113

1..

.

._J

The Decennial Census of Population and Housing 25

How to read data in a Census Bureau report . . .

Figure 7 illustrates pact of a typical table produced by the Census Bureau.In the Arizona volume of Social and Economic Characteristics, Table 154covers seven pages and includes data for each of the state's 15 counties.The purpose of Table 154 is to report data on the labor force characteris-tics of people in different racial groups arid those who are of Hispanic ori-gin.

The first line of data, "Persons 16 years and over," includes all peoplewho are at least 16 years of age in each racial and Hispanic origin group.In Yavapai County, for example, there are 83,980 white persons 16 yearsand over, 1,239 American Indians, Eskimos, or Aleuts, and so on. Notethat since racial and Hispanic groups under a certain size are not includedin this table, there is no total column Hence. we cannot find out the totalnumber of persons 16 years of age and older from Table 154 However,by checking the Table Finding Guide at the beginning of the volume, welearn that data on the total labor force is reported in Table 144.

'The 12th line in Table 154 covers females who are at least 16 years orolder Researchers who want to know the labor force characteristics ofmales 16 years and over by race and Hispanic origin need to subtract line12 (female um line 1 (all)

Row lab(i,s are indented (or reverse indented) to indicate subgroupsand percentages. For example, line 1 includes all people 16 years andover, line 2 (reverse indented) includes only people 16 years and overwho are in the labor force, and line 3 (indented further) shows the percentage of people 16 years and ,r who are in the labor 'once (line 2divided by line 1). Line 10 includes persons age 16 years and over whoare not in the labor force. Hence, line 2 plus line 10 (not in labor force)equals line 1.

Note that terms used in the table, such as "civilian labor force," aredefined in the report appendices Check the definitions before using thedata to describe the characteristics of your community.

verty status. housing, and labor force statistics.) A tahle with the selected datais then displayed on the screen and can also he printed or downloaded to adiskette. Sonic libraries are also equipped to use EXTRA('T, a more complieated Census Bureau program that allows users to read data for inure thanone geographic area at a time (for example, the number of families below the

povert level for two or more ,..00mics). Sonic libraries also have moresophisticated, commercial sot tware programs that can he used with CDROM files.

"Census. CDR()%1 and You! New I loriions for Microcomputer Vsers of( 'ensus Bureau I )ata- is a booklet that go, es an 0\ ert iew of data a.iilable urn

yq and the sof tware that can be used to read and manipulate the data.

Single copies are tree, Order fiont Customer Son ices at 1.10l 457-4 I DR

26 ON cr. lc% of Sources

Current Population Reports and Surveys

The Census Bureau also collects demographic information in between thedecennial censuses, so-called "intercensal- information. Under a contractwith the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the agency conducts the CurrentPopulation Survey (('PS) for which they interview a sample of between50,000 and 60,0(X) households every month. CPS data are the basis for estimates on employment, unemployment, poverty, income, education, andmany other population characteristics.

Because CPS data are from a relatively small sample, they are not t;vaifable below the regional level (except for some of the larger states). Hoy\ ever,they are useful for tracking national and regional (South and non-South)trends between the decennial censuses, Some reports, for example, "Income.Pover and Valuation of Noncash Benefits: IW)3,- also make metro/nonmetro breaks in the data and therefore give us a bird's-eye ..iew of conditionswithin the nonmetro porlation.

For more up-to date information about population change tind per capitaunincy income in counties and subcounty areas, the Censlis Bureau cinoperates with state agencies under the Federal -State Cooperative Program forPopulation Estimates. In addition, many states make their own estimatesabout more detailed characteristics of local populations, such as age. race.and ethnicity. These annual statistics enable researchers to ans%ker questbmsabout how the composition of the local population is changing.

Other Censuses

In addition to the decennial census of population and housing, the Censuslimeau conducts national agriculture, economic. and go%ernment censusestv.ice each decade in the years ending in "2- and "7." Most of these censuses

ield data tor counties, and in some cases. tor ahcountv areas.Reports from the l992 censuses .ire being released as Oils hook Ioes to

press. Those in the lq92 series that have the title "Geoglaphii Semies''

i\ piLalk contain the most small-area data i see Appendi[Mike the population census. %%Inch uses thy household as its unit of

obserY ation, the agriculture and economic censuses survey establishmentsIhe Census Bureau defines an eArnildrshnicnt as I -business in industrial unitat a single physical location that produces or distribute., p, , enfonnius

serkvs" 091. Fstahlishment lists ;ire tompiled from a arlet:, adnunistiah \ e ources and are Updated L'olitinthill

FM its census ot ai7ocultuic, the Census B11142,111 tiles III \ cS thc opelato; ot een estahlishment in the rniteil States \\Inchhad non ponenfiall had,at least S1.000 ut wric.iilttual product salcs in the pieceding \ ear I he ;ii:rt

Other Censuses 27

The Standard Industrial Classification, or SIC, system is a standardscheme for grouping establishments by the type of economic activ-ity in which they are primarily engaged. Researchers in and out ofgovernment use this system because it is so comprehensivevirtuallyall establishments can be classified.

The SIC system is hierarchical, which means it goes from very generalto very specific. Its broadest level has ten divisions: agriculture, forestry,and fishing; rilining; construction; manufacturing; transportation, com-munications, electric, gas, and sanitary services; wholesale trade; retailtrade; finance, insurance, and real estate; services; and public adminis-tration.

Each division is subdivided into "2-digit" major groups, "3-digit" indus-try groups, and "4-digit" industries. For example, "Services" (SIC 70-891is one of the ten divisions. A subdivision within Services includes.

SIC LevelMator industry group 72Industry group 721Industry 7211

ExamplePersonal servicesLaundry, cleaning, garmentsPower laundries, famiiy and commer-cial

Another major industry group in the Services Division is SocialServices, SIC 83. Advocacy groups, community development organiza-tions, and regional planning agencies zre grouped in "Social Services,Not Elsewhere Classified," SIC 8399.

The Census Bureau and other agencies publish data about establish-ments at the most detailed SIC level possible without disclosing confi-dential information.

The most recent edition of thi Standard Industrial ClassificationManual was published in 1987. It is available in many public libraries andis for sale by the National Technical Information Service INTISI.

cultural census yields county-level (as well as state- and national-level) dataon number and type of farms, land in farms, operator characteristics, value ofagricultural sales, selected operating expenses, and other characteristics. The/992 Census of Agriculture, published on a state-by-state basis, was releasedin 1994.

For its economic censuses, the Census Bureau organizes establishmentdata by geographic area and type of economic activity or Standard IndustrialClassification (SIC), a system which has been defined by the Office ofManagement and Budget. Since the Census Bureau cannot disclose informa-tion about individual establishments, fewer statistics tue available for smallareas. Appendix H shows the types of economic data that are available at the

county level.Economists use data from the economic censii and other SMUTS to esti

mate the gross domestic product (GDP), pmductivity. and other measures of

28 Overview of Sources

economic activity. Researchers can use the data to find out, for example, howvarious industries contribute to the local economy in terms of payroll, thepurchase of supplies and other inputs, and the value of products and servicessold outside the area.

The Census of Governments is conducted every five years and is supple-mented by annual and quarterly surveys. Unlike the economic censuses, thegovernment censuses are not covered by the disclosure limitation that sup-presses information about individual observations. Thus, the level of detail inthe government census reports is greater.

Data on revenue sources, expenditures, tax bases, and employment areIvailable for roughly 850)0 units of local government including counties,,nunicipalities, townships, school districts, and special districts. Private firmsthat sell products or services to local governments use these data to ident4marketing opportunities. Community researchers can use them to understandhow their local government is structured and how various government unitsgenerate revenue and spend money.

Other Surveys from the Census Bureau

The Census Bureau's economic activities also include several surveys--forexample, the Annual Survey of Manufacturers and the Survey of Minority-Owned Business Enterprises. In general, these surveys yield little or nosmall-area data. The exception is County Business Patterns (CBP), which isissued annually and is based on data from establishment surveys and admin-istrative records. CBP presents natiorv:1-, state-, and county-level businessdata by 2-, 3-, and 4-digit SIC codes. CBP can be used to answer questionsabout the number of employees and firms in particular industries. Because itis published annually, researchers can keep track of year-to-year changes inthe structure of local economies. Figure 8 illustrates part of a sample pagefrom CIIP for Nicholas County, West Virginia.

Other Economic Data

The Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA I is another agency in the U.S.Department of Commerce that makes economic estimates that are useful fordescribing nonmetropolitan (and other) counties. Inlike the Census Bureau,BEA does not conduct surveys or censuses itself. hut uses administrative andsurvey information collected by others to make its estimates Of persomilincome (by type and industry) and emplt)yment.

Each year, BEA releases a CD-ROM, Regional Economic InformationSyvem I. which contains county-level personal income data from 19h9

4 )

Figu

re 8

Par:

of

a sa

mpl

e pa

ge f

rom

Cou

nty

Bus

ines

s Pa

tteni

s,

Tab

le 2

.C

ount

lesE

mpl

oyee

s, P

ayro

ll, a

nd E

stab

lishm

ents

, by

Indu

stry

: 199

2con

.lE

usee

lle m

elt g

over

nmen

t 'm

Plo

yeef

l, re

kem

PlO

WIIN

, and

eol

fom

pter

yod

jaer

sone

.S

ize

clas

s 1

to 4

incl

udes

est

ablis

hmon

ta h

avin

g pa

yrol

l but

no

ompl

oyee

s du

nng

mid

-Mar

ch p

ay w

ad(0

) de

nOW

S fi

gure

s w

rgeo

ld tO

avo

id c

lIscA

miN

dat

a fo

r in

divi

dual

com

pani

esF

or e

xpla

natio

n of

term

s, s

tate

men

t on

rolia

bOly

, and

com

pwab

any

with

oth

er d

ata,

see

intr

oduc

tory

text

I

SIC

code

Industry

ofN

t.mbe

rdinploydeS

for

*sti

incl

udin

gM

arch

12

Pay

roll

(91,

000)

Tot

alnu

mbe

r olst

ablis

h-m

ents

Num

bor

of e

stab

lishm

ents

by

arnp

loym

ontu

e cl

ass

Firs

t Qua

rter

Ann

ual

1 to 4

5 to 9

10 to 19

20 to 49

100

50 to

to99

249

250 to

499

SO

O to99

9

1,00

0 orm

ore

NIC

HO

LAS

Tot

al6

977

29 9

3712

4 32

163

234

414

872

all

10I

1.

Agr

icul

tura

l Gen

teel

., fo

rest

ry, a

nd fi

shin

g23

4448

11

I2

--

--

-.

,

Min

ing

1 31

414

513

SI 3

2960

117

1015

34

--

12C

oal m

inin

g1

374

t 4 2

8553

339

45a

69

153

I12

2B

itum

inou

s co

al a

nd Ig

nite

min

ing

I 080

11771

45 5

1135

64

712

33

--

1221

Bitu

min

ous

coal

and

lign

ite s

uiia

ce44

05

330

21 8

4811

-6

22

1-

-12

22B

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s co

al u

nder

grou

nd60

35

989

22 8

9419

34

I9

2-

-

124

Coa

l rim

ing

"ew

es.

208

1 90

06

271

7'

22

i-

I-

Con

stru

ctio

n30

062

44

722

4633

93

-i

--

-19

Gen

eral

con

trac

tors

and

ope

ratr

ve b

uild

ers

102

408

3 41

624

147

3.

151

Gen

eral

bui

ldin

g co

ntra

ctor

s87

372

3 25

118

95

3_

16H

eavy

con

stru

ctio

n, e

xcep

t bui

ldin

g18

)ID

)(D

)4

3-

-.

152

Hea

vy c

onst

ruct

ion,

exc

ept h

ighw

ay..

18)

(D)

(DI

32

-

BE

ST

CO

PY

AV

AIL

AB

LF

30 Overview of Sources

to the most current year available (see box on page 56 for more information).These CD-ROM files replace the annual printed report, Local Area PersonalIncome. LAPI will continue to be published once every five years, mostrecently in 1994. It will contain data from 1969 to the most recent referenceyear, so it will be a good source of historical information. However, it willonly include three statistics for each county: population, per capita personalincome, and total personal income. Figure 9 illustrates part of a sample pagefrom IAPI for Latah County, Idaho.

BEA county income data are widely used to analyze the industrial struc-ture of local economies and to evaluate the impact of various public and pri-vate programs. Researchers can use BEA data to find out how total and percapita income is changing in their county, and to what extent local residentsdepend On different sources of income (for example, wages and salaries,retirement payments, and interest and dividend income).

BEA makes its personal income and other data accessible to local usersthrough its Regional Economic Information System (REIS) and the BEAUser Groups. REIS includes data files, computer programs, and staff respon-sible for the regional BEA databases. REIS responds to spec ific data requestsand also distributes BEA data at no cost to over 200 members of the BEAUser Groups around the country. Members of the User Groups (typicallylocated in government agencies and universities) distribute data free ofcharge or at minimal cost within their own state. Resear,:hers can locate BEAUser Groups in their state by calling REIS at (202) 606-5360.

BEA also publishes a monthly report called Survey of Current Business.The Aprii issue of the Survey includes annual personal income data by countyand current business statistics, including consumer and producer priceindexes.

BEA has a fax-based service that allows customers to access news releasesand other information 24 hours a day. information is available on regionaleconomic trends and includes some county-level data. Dial I -900-786-2329from a fax machine's touch-tone telephone and respond to the recordedinstructions. Each call costs $0.65 per minute.

For more information on REA's information services, order the free publi-cation "A User's Guide to REA Information" from Public Information Office,Order Desk 13E-53, BEA, 1441 L St. NW, U.S. Department of Commerce,Washington, DC 20230 or call (202) 606-9900. BEA also publishes a free listof teleptume contacts for data users.

Another important source of economic information about rural communities is the Economic Research Service (FRS) in the U.S. Department ofAgriculture. I 'sing data primarily collected by other agencies, ERS carries()Lit research on the production and marketing of major farm ctimim)dities:foreign agriculure and trade; economic use, conservation, and developmentof natural resources; trends in rural population, employment, and housing;

4.4

Figu

re 9

Part

of

a sa

mpl

e pa

ge f

rom

Loc

al A

rea

Pers

onal

Inc

ome

1969

4992

.

Lat

in C

ount

y19

69_.

....

.

1970

1971

1972

i 973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

Tot

al p

erso

nal (

ncom

e (t

hous

ands

of d

olla

rs)

68,1

0274

,985

82.4

2594

.012

112.

298

137.

284

133.

260

151.

212

158,

325

186.

194

205,

657

231.

465

Tot

al p

opul

atto

n (t

hous

ands

1..

...

24 4

25.1

26 3

27 5

27 5

27 7

27 4

27 6

27 8

28 1

28 3

28 9

Per

osp

(ta

pers

onal

mcc

eme

(dol

lars

).

2.79

02.

988

3,13

03

418

4 07

84.

957

4.87

05.

483

5.69

26.

621

7,27

88.

015

..

...

.

1981

1982

1983

'984

'985

'986

1987

'988

t 989

1990

1991

1992

Tot

al p

erso

nal m

oons

9ho

u5an

ds o

t dol

lars

)24

9,24

624

6,15

427

2,14

328

7,88

030

3,40

332

3,78

433

3 92

035

6824

404.

281

433,

065

451.

966

487.

546

Tot

al p

opul

afio

n (T

hous

ands

).

29.2

30 0

30 2

30 2

30 6

30 0

30 1

29 9

30 2

30 6

311

31 8

Per

cap

ta P

erso

na)

ncom

e (d

olla

rs)

8,49

18,

217

9.01

79,

545

9,90

6(0

733

1..0

3011

9,4

13,3

77'

.1 1

3414

.527

15,3

47

Lim

n] C

ount

y

1969

1970

197,

1972

1973

1974

1975

'976

'977

1979

1979

1980

Tot

al p

erso

nal (

ncom

e ()

hous

ands

of d

olla

rs)

14 s

ea16

537

1829

521

344

24 7

7426

238

28 2

0933

554

3' 2

794,

362

49 9

7957

779

Tot

al p

opul

atto

n (t

hous

ands

)5

55

65

76

I6

36

46

46

56

77

07

37

5P

er c

ap4a

per

sona

l Inc

ome

(doo

rs2

688

2 94

93

I 90

3 50

53

96'

4, '

84

392

5 '6

75

540

5894

6858

7664

1981

1982

'983

'984

'985

'986

'987

'988

1989

'990

1991

1992

Tot

al p

erso

nal (

ncom

e 11

h0u5

e4ds

cIcl

olla

ta60

644

62 7

0964

689

66 9

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32 Overview of Sources

The Rural Economy Division (RED) of ERS is the largest Federalagency devoted entirely to research on rural issues. RED economists,sociologistS, demographers, political scientists, and geographers analyzenational and regional trends affecting rural communities. Their researchis intended to inform policy makers and program managers at all levelsof the public and private sectors.

Each of RED's four branches focuses on a unique aspect of ruralAmerica. For more information, call the branch chief whose phone num-ber is listed below.

The Population, Labor, and Income Branch monitors indicators of ruralwell-being, including farm household income, rural poverty, and therural workforce (202) 219-0533.

The Rural Industry Branch studies industrial structure as well as thelinks between rural economies and larger national and internationaleconomies (202) 219-0527.

The Farm Business Economics Branch collects and disseminates current information and future prolections on the economic health of thefarm sector and is the central data collection program for ERSresearch (202) 219-0001.

The Finance and Development Branch studies the effects of key ser-vices and resources on the economic development of rural communi-ties, and is especially concerned with the effects of Federal policieson rural communities (202) 219-0721.

RED publishes a magazine called Rural Development Perspectives,that presents results and implications of new research by ERS and otheranalysts A one-year subscription (three issues) costs $14. The agencyalso publishes Rural Conditions and Trends, a periodical about rural andnational economic trends. For example, the Spring 1994 issue includedarticles on national economic growth, rural employment growth; ruralhousehold income; and rural poverty and population. An annual sub-scription 12 issues) costs $13. Both publications can be ordered fromERS/NASS, 341 Victory Drive, Herndon. VA 22070, 18001 999-6779 .

rural economic adjustment problems: and performance of the agricul-tural industry. Although most ERS reports and analyses address regional andnational issues, the agency's broad expertise makes it an invaluable andunique resource far those concerned with rural communities.

Reports is a periodic FRS catalog that lists all current agency researchreports and other publications. To be placed on the free mailing list forReports, contact the ERS's Information Division, Room 237, 1301 New YorkAve. NW, Washington, DC 20005-4789 or call 1800) 999-6779. The Infor-mation Division also issues a free diskette that contains a -Finder's Advisors'System.- The DOS-formatted diskette includes a complete listing ofFRS data products, information specialists, and publications. No program-

4

Where to Find Data Products 33

ming knowledge is required to use the system and free updates are sent onrequest. To order, contact Jim Horsfie Id at Room 724, 1301 New York Ave.NW, Washington, DC 20005-4788, call (202) 219-0698, or e-mail(J!AIN@ ERS.BITNET).

Labor Market Information

Another important source of information about rural communities is the

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), which is the Federal government's princi-

pal data gathering agency on the subject of labor economics. BLS surveys

businesses, works with the Census Bureau on the Current Population Survey,and cooperates with state agencies to produce a wealth of labor force statis-

tics. I. BLS annual, quarterly, and monthly data, economists and otheranalysts can track the level of economic activity in the country as a whole

and in specific regions; gauge the health of individual industries; and com-pare wage rates and earnings among specific demographic groups. Usingannual county-level estimates prepared by BLS and individual state:;,

researchers can learn how many people are working in various industries,how much they earn, and ton a monthly basis) how many people are unem-ployed.

Two BLS programs yield small-area dataEmployment. Wages, andContributions (ES-202) and Local Area Unemployment Statistics. For moreinformation on BLS, see Major Programs of the Bureau of Labor Statistics(46) or call Information Services at (202) 606-7828. BLS provides a free listof telephone contacts for data users and also makes press releases and timeseries data available on Internet (see Appendix F). Non-Internet users canaccess limited information by dialing directly into an electronic bulletinboard service for the price of the call at (202) 606-7060.

Where to Find Data Products

Data products issued by the Federal government including reports, computer-accessible files, microfiche, and maps) are available at various locations in

eVerV state. Most accessible are the 1,300 public libraries that belong to the

Federal depository library program. These libraries receive selected Federal

publications that then ,,tafl believes will he useful to local patrons. Appendix

D lists one Federal Ii...positoly librar.y tor each state and the District ofColumhia,

An additional 120 public libraries are designated as Census depositorylibraries. 1 heir function is to cosine that Census Bureau publications arcwidely available to the public. 'Ili lurid the depository librarv closest to you,

164,

34 Overview of Sources

call the library listed for your state in Appendix D or Data User ServicesDivision at the Census Bureau, (301) 457-41(X). See the beginning of thischapter for tips on what to do if your local library does not have what youneed.

Other sources of Federal data products are agencies belonging to the StateData Center (SDC) program, which has offices in all states, the District ofColumbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. This program typi-cally includes a state executive or planning office as the lead agency, a majorstate university and/or state library, and a network of affiliates throughout thestate. The Census Bureau provides the lead agencies with Census productsand training. In return, the SDCs are responsible for disseminating Censusproducts free of charge or at low cost to data users throughout the state. Theservices offered by individual SIX's vary according to local leadership andfunding. A list of SDC lead agencies is included in Appendix D.

Two government agencies sell data products on a cost recovery basis.These products include hard copy, microlicl.1e, and computer readablereports. The agencies are: (1) the Government Printing Office (GPO), Super-intendent of Documents, P.O. Box 371954. Pittsburgh, PA 15250-7954, (202)512-1800, and its branches around the country; and (2) the National Tech-nical Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield. VA22161, (703) 487-4763. GPO generally sells printed reports, while NTISsells electronic data products and typically distributes more technical reports.NTIS is also responsible for making some government data tiles available tothe public. More historic data may also he available from the Center forElectronic Records, National Archives and Records Administration, 8601Ade lphi Road, College Park, MD 20740, (303) 713-M30.

The Freedom of Information Act

Not all of the data collected by the Federal government are made available tothe public as a matter of course. For example, administrative data collectedin the process of running various public programs are not routinely publishedor issued in any other form. Even so, these data are very often availablethrough the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA). This law gives any personthe right to request and receive documents, files. and other records from anyFederal agency, subject to certain restrictions (such as national security ).

To make a FOIA request, it is important to know specifically what inforIllation you want and which agency has it. The process is relatively simple,and while requests are sometimes denied, they can he appealed. Forsample request letters and more information, either contact the Freedomof Information Clearinghouse, P.O. Box 19.167, Washington, DC 20036,(202) 833-3000, or see "A Cititen's Guide on t !sing the Freedom of Infor-

.1b

Useful Reference Mater als and Statistical Compendia 35

mation Act and the Privacy Act of 1974 to Request Government Records,"U.S. Government Piinting Office, Washington, DC, 1993.

Useful Reference Materials and Statistical Compendia

The Census Bureau produces four reference publications to inform data usersabout its activities and reports. The most comprehensive reference publica-tion is the annual Census Catahw and Guide, which provides a productoverview and index, abstracts of all recent products, ordering informationand forms, and sources of assistance. The catalog can be purchased t'or $22from the Government Printing Office in Washington, D(7, and is also avail-ablt; in many libraries.

The "Monthly Product Announeement- updates references cited in the cat-alog and is available at no cost from the Buceau's Customer Services Divi-sim at (301) 763-4100, or online through CFNDATA.

"Census and You- is a monthly newsletter about new products and issuesof interest to data users. For example, the June 1994 issue included articlesabout the growth of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa; the number and character-istics of "latch key- children; recently published Census reports on Federalexpenditures hy states and communities; and the demographic characteristicsof people with professional degrees. A one-year subscription to "Census andYou" can he purchased from the Government Printing Office for $21. Partsof this report are also available online through CENDATA.

"Census '90 Basics" is one booklet in the Bureau's 1990 CPH-1 series ofpublications on products from the decennial census. It describes the desi:nloci content of !he 1990 census. It also discusses Census geography and datapeoducts, and lists major printed reports by title, content, and geographicareas. "Census '90 Basics- is free from Customer Services at the Census

Bureau.'Flu:Winder for the Nation- is an occasional series of pamphlets that

describi: the range of Census materials available on topics such as popula-tion, housing, and foreign trade. Factfinder Number 22, issued in October1991, describes data available for small areas, including counties, cities, andcounty subdivisions (31). Issues in the series are available from CustomerServices at the Census Bureau for a nominal charge. (See the Census Cinah,gand Guide for a complete listing.)

The County and Citv Data Book (CCM?) is an invaluable compendium id.socioeconomic data from the most recent censuses of population and hous-ing. government, and agriculture; economic censuses; and other solirt:e`,.Although it gives little historical data, the (VD!? is useful because it providessuch a wide range of data hir small areas. Data are presented for cinintics,incorporated cities w; h 25,000 or more, and incorporated places and MCD.,

Overs.iew of Sources

with 2,500 or more. The CCDB is issued periodically. The most recent edi-tions were published in 1983, 1988, and 1994.

The 1994 CC1)8 presents over 2(X) data items for counties, including:

Area (1990), population (1992), and percent population change(1980-1992);

Population characteristics (1990);

Number and size of households (1990);

Vital statistics (1988) and health care (1990 and 1991);

Ilospital beds (1991), social welfare programs (1990), and crime(1991);

Education levels (1990);

Money income (1989);

!lousing (1990) and building permits (1992);

Civilian labor force (1991) and employment by industry (1990);

Personal income (1990) and farm earnings (1990);

Agriculture (1)87). manufacturing (1987), wholesale trade (1987),retail trade (1987), taxable service industries (1987);

Banking (1992), Federal funds and grants (1992), and local govern-ment finances (1986-1987);

Government employment (1990) and elections (1991).

Part of a sample page from the county table in the CCDB is shown in Figure 10.Roughly two-thirds of the items listed above are also presented for cities

with a population of 25,000 or more, and three items are presented for placeswith populations 2,500 and above (1990 population. 1989 per capita moneyinoune, and 1989 median hmsehold inc(mle I.

The most recent CCD/1 is available on CD-ROM and diskette, as well asin published format. The printed version is available from the GovernmentPrinting Office for $40. Call Census Bureau Customer Services for the latestordering information at (202) 457-4100.

USA Counties is a statistical abstract supplement issued only on CD-ROM.Ipdated annually, it provides time-series data for counties from the 1970 to

1990 Censuses of Population and Housing; Economic Census data from1972, 1977, 1982, and 1987; and over 2,500 data items for each county in the

nited States. t'ser notes provide information about changes in methodologythat affect the results of tinw-series analysis.

Information U.S.A. is a private company that publishes helpful referencematerials for researchers. Lesko's Info Power (formerly InfOrmationis a catalog of information resources in the Federal government. Although

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3g Overview of Sources

some of the material in the book is out of date, it is still a valuable guide toagencies and experts. The company also publishes The Federal DatabaseFinder (revised edition due out in 1995). Check your local library or contactInformation U.S.A., P.O. Box E, Kensington, MD 20895, (301) 924-0556.

Congressional Information Service (CIS), another private firm, publishesmany useful indexes to reports from the Federal government and from states,municipalities, and private companies. The American Statistics Index (ASI),t'or example, enables researchers to find statistics produced by Federal agen-cies. ASI classifies statistics by subject, type of data breakdown (for exam-ple, metro/nonmetro), and publication title. Many college and universitylibraries have the ASI, and it is also available on CD-ROM and onlinethrough DIALOG. The Statistical Reference Index (SRI) classifies statisticsthat have been published by state agtmcies, universities, and private sectororganizations. SRI is also available in published format or CD-ROM (but notonline). For a free catalog of CIS products, write CIS. Inc., 4520 EastWestItighway. Suite 800, Bethesda, MD 20814-3389, or call (800) 638-8380.

Local and Regional Information

Finding secondary data is not the only part of researching rural issues. Offen,researchers need to learn what analysis has already been conducted on theircommunity and region. A good place to start is at one of the four RegionalRural Development Centers, located in Oregon. Iowa, Mississippi, andPennsylvania. The centers disseminate and sometimes elaborate on researchconducted by land grant universities. Each one has a newsletter that profilesrecent work and available resources. For a combined report of the centers'publications and projects, contact any one of the regional offices listed inAppendi x C.

In addition to the four centers, another useful contact for analysk of ruralissues is the Rural Information Center (RIC) at the National AgriculturalI.ihrary (NAL) in Beltsville. Maryland. The RI(' provides information and

A little research from RIC goes a long way ...In 1990 1 Mine in New Mexico \Nati if)01.11 t do`,0 \Noticing VvI91 arerponal development organization, the minino Company asked thre RuralInformation Center to help it find markets fei zeolite, a rriirn'rr it couldproduce in great quantity RIC staff performed a literature searrn thatyielded new information on the llY,t; f zeohte As a result, the notnpanyidentifed six new markets, kept twelve exyWng iobi;, hired enongh newemployeer; to staff double shiftr.;, and significantly increased plantwager; (Information provided by USDA r;taff and from 21, I

Summary 39

referral services to local officials, community development professionals,and private citizens. The staff can answer questions on topics such as currentUSDA research, Cooperative Extension Service programs, and economicdeelopment funding sources. They also conduct database searches and helppeople use the NAL collection. You can contact the RIC through your countyor state extension office, by telephone at (0O) 633-7701, or by mail at NAL,RIC, Room 304, 10301 Baltimore Blvd., Beltsville, MD 20705-2351.

The NAL also operates the Agricultural Library Forum (ALF), an elec-tronic bulletin board that provides access to RIC' publications and other ruraldevelopment information. See Appendix F for access information

Finally, other good contacts for rural information are the Rui al Develop-ment ('ouncils that have been established in most of the fifty states. Togetherwith a National Council, these state councils make up the National RuralDevelopment Partnership (NRDP), established to coordinate existing resour-ces and support collective action betweeri public and private organizations.The state councils are intended to bring together Federal, stati., tribal, andlocal governments, and the private sector (profit, nonprofit, and community-based organizati)ns) to identify and remove barriers to rural development.The national and state councils work together to link resources that can beapplied in more than one rural area or state.

For more information, write the NRIM at 300 7th Street SW, Suite 714,Washington, DC 20024-4703, or call (202) 6902394. A list of state councilsand information about the program can he accessed on Internet throughgopher (RI RDEl: I !SI M.GOV).

Summary

The Census Bureau, Bureau of Economic Analysis, Bureau of LaborStatistics. and Economic Research Service provide researchers with a core ofrural information that can he supplemented by the land gnint universities.Regional Rural Development Centers, Rural Information Center, and StateRural Development Councils. 'the next three chapters illustrate howresearchers can use data from these and other, more specialized sources tounderstand local population and community resources, economies, and goy-

11111C111 s.

3

Characterizing LocalPopulation and Community

Resources

During the 1980s, net migration in nonnietro counties was negative .ilmostone nnllion more people moved away from nomiletro cou.lues than moYedinto them. Between 1990 and 1992, .10Weer, the trend w as reversed .111w1st

400,(XX) more people moved into nonmetro counties than moved away frontthem.

These net migration figures are the aggregate numbers on which demographers and other analysts base estimates about oyerall trends in ruralAmerica. he problem with numbers like these is that th hide the greatdiversity of rural places. Like the very Ncrd rurol. they imply that there isone kind of rural community in Amcrica. undifferentiated by site, lok anon.or economic base. Too often. aggregate numbers preYent us from vreA ngsocial and economic organi/ation along a set of continuums from t'ae suburbs of densely populated urban areas to remote. sparsely settled regions.from diversified small cities to single-industr y. towns; from persistentpoverty to newly acquired wealth. The word rural has been used to embodyall these extremes and many places in between.

As readers of this hook probably understand firsthand, local. small areastatistics are critical to discovering new opportunities for development ( )nkhy kin ing the specific circumstances and characteristics of a particularplace can community leaders :nap a future within the national and international context. Mige specifically., leaders at the local It:Ye] need to know thecharactetistics of community residents, such as the population silt' and itsage structure. To strengthen ;ind diversify their local economy. leaders needto understand their community's resources. such as edik animal and otherlabor force characteristics, and distribution ot income This explainshow researchers can f ind information like this using data trom the CcnsusBureau and other Federal and state sources.

The General Population 41

The General Population

Demographyor the science of populationis concerned with the size,geographic distribution, compwation, and change of human populations ( 18).Demographic change in a particular community depends on the population'scharacteristics (for example, the number and age of local residents) as wellas on broader social and economic trends in the nation as a whole (such asincreased female labor force participation or improved standards of living).

Demographic change affects the local economy by shifting the demand forgoods and services. For example, if the number of families with young chil-dren increases, the community may need more day-care facilities, classroomspace, and teachers. Conversely, if the number of elderly people grows, thecommunity may need specialized transportation, more geriatric care, and anew nursing home. Community leaders need to understand these changes sothey can plan for future development.

The broad question that should be asked is: what is happening to the sizeand characteristics of the local population and why? Some specific questionsare:

What is the age di:nibution of the local population and how i it

changing'?

Are any :pecific groups of people likely to increase or decrease innumber?

Are people Waving the community in greatc, numbers than they arecoining in?

Where are tlwy coining from and going to?

Knowing where people are moving from and to can help a commu-nity or a state prepare for the future. For example, if local retirees aremigrating to communities !n the Sun E3elt, community leaders might tryto offer better services for the elderly lf, on the other hand, people ofworking age are lea,winq to find lobs in urban areas, the best strategymight be to give more support to husiney,es !lot expand ;ob opportunitim; for tLe Inc al labor force

(king r!-; ma:;ter file of ail iru,orne tax rffilArn`i, ttJ? Internal Revenue-;(?rvIce .ount5 the number of in and out migrants !r, and from dlliourtier, and states for every two year period f or each county, the

agency calculates how many people moved in (and where they camefrorii0 and how mdny moved nut (and where they went) Computer printout!, ut the,,e data ;ire avdilable for SG 00/county from thoof Inriunw niyiinon, CH!), 1'0 1),(0, 'Jf;()H, W,Hiington, PC ?0012I:i)021 H/4 0410

42 Characterizing ILA)cal Population and Community Resources

In between the decennial censuses, the first place to look for answers toquestions like these is a new series called Population Paper Listings (PPL).This series replaces reports in the P-25 series. It consists of computer-generated printouts and electronic media (diskettes) that data users purchaseon a per-request basis.

The PPL series is produced by a cooperative Federal and state programthat estimates the population of states, counties, and metropolitan areas annu-ally, and the population of places and other governmental units every twoyears. Data are available separately for eaa state, two to three years after thereference period. The estimates are benchmarked on census data (that is, cen-sus data are used as reference points) and are developed using administrativerecords from state health departments, the Internal Revenue Service, andother agencies. For a list of ['Pl. printouts and diskettes, contact thePopulation Division, Statistical Information staff at (301) 457-2422.

Table 1 uses PPL data to show 1990-1992 population levels for the sixsample counties. Note that these numbers are estimates and should he inter-preted with care (see box on page 43).

How did it happen that three counties gained and three counties lost pop-ulation between 1990 and 1992? To answer this question, we look at twocomponents of population changenatural change and net migration.

Natural change is the difference between the number of births and thenumber of deaths. Fertility, population age structure, and life expectancy allaffect the rate of natural change. All other things being equal, a younger pop-ulation will experience a larger (positive) natural change than an older pop-ii ion.

Table 2 shows the 1990-1992 components of population change for the sixsample counties, again using PPL data. All the sample counties, exceptYavapai, experienced natural increases in population. They did not all gainpopulation, however, because of net migrativm, the second and most variable

Table 1 The Census Bureau works with individual stales to make annual popula-tion estimates for all U.S. counties.

( 'ouni

April19911

(census)

Jul,191)1

(estimate)

Jul

1992

testinhue )(*flange

( estimate I

Allah, MS 1).4,1)41 1S,s15 18,182 uo

Coos, till 1.1,828 14,7.12 1-1,372 Sh

Kossuth. IA 18,591 IS,250 18,123 -468.atah, 7 11.11 11,768 1.1s1

Nicludas, \,k 26,77 c 26.7.)8 26,992 21 7

Ya' 1111,11.1 111.871 116,1)81 S. 4)1

.Soun e I S 1)epartmeni 111 I iipiiiiru,. Bureau of t

The General Population 43

Table 2 Both natural change and net migration contribute to population change.

April Net Net July

1990 Resident Resident natural Net total 1992

County (census) births deaths change migration change (estimate)

Attala, MSCoos, NIlKossuth, IALatah, IDNicholas, WVYavapai, AZ

18,481 672 448 224 -323 -99 18,382

34,828 946 849 97 -553 -456 34,372

18,591 529 457 72 -540 -468 18,123

30,617 1,003 432 571 580 1,151 31,768

26,775 738 587 151 66 217 26,992

107.714 2,723 2.812 -89 8,456 8,367 116,081

Sr,arve: Depantnent of Commerce. Bureau of the Census

--------An important caveat: Numbers like those in Tables 1 and 2 are onlyestimates and should be interpreted carefully. In his article, "How toEvaluate Population Estimates," William O'Hare of the PopulationReference Bureau provides the following rules of thumb about countyand subcounty estimates (111'

Moderately growing populations can be estimated more accuratelythan rapidly growing or declining populations.

Averaging several population estimates (from private data companies,for example) is usually more accurate than relying on only one esti-mate

Adjusting estimates to match an independently durived control totalreduces error. This meails that population estimates for countieswithin a state, for example, are more reliable if they are forced to sumto an estimate of the state population that has been derived indepen-dently

It is easier to est;rnate changes over a short period of time than overa long period of time

The populations o' sma; ola, es are more likely to be overestimatedthan the populatinr s (-)4 argr, ,reas

component ot population change. Net migration is the difference between thenumber of people who move into an area and the number or people whomove out. Migration is affected by the economy in the form of employmentopportunities newcomers are attracted by a growing economy that providesmore .jobs, while people are likely to leave and look 1.01 jobs elsewhere when

the economy is shrinking.Attala, Coos, and Kossuth ci.onties experienced net out-migration between

1990 and 1992 (Table 2). In I .atah, Nicholas, and Yavapai counties, however,

44 Characterizing Local Population and Community Resources

net nngration was positive; the number of people moving in was greater thanthe number moving out.

Natural change and migration work together to determine net total change.In Attala, Coos, and Kossuth counties, natural increase was not large enoughto compensate for net out-migration between 1990 and 1992; therefore pop-ulation decreased. In Yavapai County, in-migration more than compensatedfor the natural decrease, resulting in a positive net total change of over 8 per-cent. {_Allah and Nicholas counties experienced natural increase and net in-migration, and therefore their total populations increased 4 percent and I per-cent, respectively.

Because age, distribution is so important in explaining both populationchange and the kinds of goods and services needed by local residents, moststates make county-level, age group estimates in between the censuses. Acommon way of presenting these data is to use an age pyramid like the onein Figure I I . Here, data from the Arimna State Data Center are used toillustrate the age structure of Yavapai County. As a services-dependent,retirement-destination county, Yavapai has relatively few young people, anda relatively high proportion of older residents.

Figure 11 State analysts make intercensal estimates of i)opulatitm age structure.

Age85 and up

80-8475-7970-7465-6960-6455-5950-5445-494C-4435-3930-3425 2920-2415 1910 14

5 9Under 5

Males

Yavapai County, Arizona: 1993

1=IMMEFemales

11111111111110011111C

111110111111iMeMene

IIMION111111111141.1eNC

4 2 0 2 4 6

Yir,ont.ign ()t iii

i/til,t it pattnwnt to I St% irii )

r,

Education 45

EducationEducation is an investment that brings economic returns both to the individ-ual and to society as a whole. Rural communities are paying particular atten-tion to education in the 1990s as they strive to improve the quality of thelocal labor force, attract new industries, and diversify their economies.

Commonly asked questions about local education concern attainment,enrollment, finance, and achievement. For example:

How many adults have completed high school? How many havecompleted four years of college?

Is school enrollment changing so that we may need fewer (or inure)schools and teachers?

What percentage of the community's school system revenues comefrom local sources?

How well do local test scores compare to those of students in othercommunities?

Attainment data measure years of school completed. For substate regions,they are available only from the decennial census and are provided for per-sons in the 18-24 year age range and for those 25 years of age and older. The

Census Bureau tabulates attainment data by a variety of demographic char-acteristics, including sex, race, and rural/urban residence status. Figure 12illustrates how these data can he used.

As we can see, the populations of Attala and Latah counties differ dramat-ically in terms of educational attainment. In Maki, the nonspecialized,persistent-poverty county, 21 percent of adults age 25 and over have com-pleted less than nine years of school. Thirteen percent have finished college.In Latah, the government county whose economy largely depends on a landgrant university, only five percent have completed less than nine years of

school, and 43 percenthave completed college.

To get up-to-date en-rollment data for a par-ticular community, thebest plaLe to go is thelocal school system. Re-searchers who want tocompare data front dif-ferent areas can use theCounty and Oly Ihita

Hook 'COM. ahle 3shows 1990 enrollment

The primary Federal source of educationdata is the National Center for EducationStatistics (NCES). NCLS is housed in theOffice of Lducational Research and Improvernent (OF RI) in the Department ''do(..,irion Information Services, anotI divi;iorl of th0 Of RI, handle:; all requeros fordata generated by NCE.S. If you want inforelation about nationdl trends and the Id le.;1

ror;pdri:(i. cd11 IHOO) 424 if(tP !()

iyo your nor!,, p!iiinr1 ni r rr,Thng '1 'orroe piAil:r:rit,on';

46 Characterizing Local Population and Community Resources

Figure 12 The decennial census is the only source of educational attainmentdata for counties and suhcounty areas.

9th-12th grade,no diploma

28%

Adults Age 25 and Over (1990)

Less than9th grade

21%

H Sdiploma

27%

Some college,no degree

21%

Advanceddegree 3%

Assoc orbachelor s degree

10

Some college,no degree

11%

Attala County, Mississippi

H Sdiploma

23%

9th-12th grade.no diploma

8%

Assoc orbachelor's degree

27%

Latah County, Idaho

14?-te. S CInlimerc. Buredu (,1 thv Cc:m..1.1s i42)

Less than9th grade

8%

Advanceddegree

16%

Table 3 The Census Bureau publishes school enrollment data in its Count.% andCity Data Book

Elementary and High Schoolenrollment. 1990

Iiigh School('ourtt total Percent Public dropouts'

Attala, MS .1,604 91.8 125

('oos, NH 5,875 95.1 10Kossuth, IA 3,626 78.8 .14

I ,atah, II) .6.40 90.5 55

Nicholas, WV 5,300 97,1 2.39

Yavapai, Al 15.2.4.1 05.1 (117

IVOR presents these data on the him, of the county in v. hub the district school superintendent's office is located. Because some districts cross county lines, the count y. affili-anon is not alvs.1. 1 accurate. High school dropouts are persons lb to 19 years old notenrolled In school and not !ugh school graduates.

S 1 )cpartincrn of Cmp.mict,c,

o

Education 47

data from the CCDB for the six sample counties.) Alternatively, they can con-tact an agency within the U.S. Department of Education called the NafionalCenter for Education StatisCcs (NCES). NCES collects enrollment data fromthe states and publishes state totals in their annual report, Digest of EducationStatistics. District-level data are available from NCES on a paid requestbasis.

The Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI) published areport in 1994 titled "The Condition of Education in Rural Schools." It sum-marizes research on a variety of issues related to rural schools, includingFederal and state policy, conditions for educators, and student performance.Supporting tables include state, regional, and national data on a variety ofindicatorsfor example, the number of rural schools by enrollment size, per-centage of public school students enrolled in rural schools, and availabilityof courses. The report is available for $10 from the Superintendent ofDocuments, U.S. Government Printing Office (stock number 065-000-00653-7).

Finance is another important education issue. The Census Bureau collectssome school finance data in the Census of Governments, which is conductedin years ending in "2" and "7." The Compendium of Gmernment Finances,for example, ieports total and per capita expenditures on education andlibraries (see Chapter 5).

More detailed finance data are typically available from state educationagencies. Specifically, these agencies should be ahle to provide district-levelinformation about how much school funding comes from local, state, andFederal sources, and how much money is spent per pupil on materials,adnnnistration, and instruction. (NCES publishes similar data for states.)

Finally, researchers may be interested in data on students' achievement orproficiency in various skills. These data come from standardized tests (theScholastic Aptitude Test, for example) and are usually collected for individ-

NCES conducts a variety of national surveys (both annual and lon-gitudinal) to measure the health of the nation's educational system.Some of its data files allow analyses by metro/nonmetro status. Theannual report called The Condition of Education, for example, includesselected indicators for schools classified as rural, suburban, and urbanResearchers interested in obtaining data on specific characteristics ofschools in rural communities should contact NUS directly i he agencyalso mthl F, hes a variety of reports on school finance and attainment, andsome data are available electronically on tape For a listing, consult, theperiodic reports, Programs eir0 Plam; of the Ndtionai Center fortdiication Stati:ifie:; arid "(:urrrint nod f orthcormod Publ«:ations fiothreport!; aro available free of chary) from NC) while :i,uttpliet; la,;tWOO) 424 1616

48 Characterizing Local Population and Community Resources

ual districts by state education agencies. People who want to compare theirdistrict to larger areas should consult the NCES report Digest of EducationStatistics. The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) isanother NCES program that monitors the skills of primary and secondary stu-dents in a variety of subjects (as well as data about school and teacher char-acteristics). The NAEP survey yields state-level data and is conducted everyother year. Reports based on NAET survey data usually carry the title TheNation's Report Card and are available in depository libraries or throughNCES.

Labor Force

Economic development in a community is governed partly by the numberand characteristics of people who work and the types of jobs they do--whether they are secretaries or doctors, mechanics or librarians. Develop-ment is also related to the industries that employ local residents. (Industrialstructure is discussed in Chapter 4.) Questions that might he asked about thelocal labor force include:

flow many people are either working or looking for work?

Are certain groups of people either coming into or leaving the laborforce?

What is the occupational makeup of the local labor force?

The first place to look for detailed labor force data is the decennial census.The Census Bureau classifies all persons who are at least 16 years old aseither in the labor force (that is, in the armed forLes, employed in the civi-ian labor force, unemployed, or actively seeking employment) or out of thelabor force. County and some subcounty data are reported by sex, race, typeof community (rural/urban), and type of residence (farm/nonfarm). Table 4illustrates how these data are presented for Nicholas and Kossuth counties.

The labor force participation ratethat is, the percentage of people whoare working or looking for work---is one indicator of potential economicgrowth. A low rate sug-gests that increased jobopportunities could draw The decennial census is the only sourcemore people into the work of small-area data on employment byforce, while a higher rate occupation. Many states supplement cen

nun occupation statistict; With state levelindicates Mat few addi estanate!; Contact you! state employmenttional people may he will ,alcurily agency tor More information tseeing or able to work. ln Appendix f)lNicholas County, the la

Labor Force 49

Table 4 The decennial census provides demographic details about the local laborforce.

Item

1990

Nicholas('ounty

KossuthCounty

Persons 16 years and older 20,328 13,932

Armed Forces 8 7

Civilian labor force 9,934 8,473

Percentage of persons 16 years and okkr" 49 61

Employed 8,575 8,153

1.!nemployed 1,359 320

Percentage of civihan labor force 14 4

Not in labor force 10,356 5,452

Males 16 to 19 years 858 412

Employed 156 152

nemployed 91 13

Percentage of males 16 to 19 years oldwho arc in the labor force and unemployed 37 8

Not in labor force 611 247

"Labor force participation rate.SounT: U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau ot the Census(-Ql.

bor force participation rate for persons 16 and older is 49 percent. In Kossuth,

it is 61 percent.The decennial census also provides extensive information on characteris-

tics of employment, including detailed occupational groups (types of jobs),detailed industry groups (types of employers), and six classifications ofweeks worked per year. These data give researchers their most precise pic-ture of where and how much people are working. Figure 13 shows how wecan use occupational data f rom the decennial census to compare jobs held hyrural and urban residents in Latah County. In general, rural people are morelikely than urban people to have blue collar occupations, like those classifiedas -production, craft, and repair- and -operators, fabricators, and laborers."

More up-to-date information about labor force status is aailable at thecounty level t.rom the Bureau of I .abor Statistics (BI,S which estimates the

si/e of the total lahor force and the number of employed and unemployed residents on a monthly and annual basis. These statistics are issued so eralmonths alter the reference period on microfiche in the series I 'nemp/ovmentin Srate8 and hula Arr'a8. 'Fable 5 illustrates how these data are presented forKossuth County.

50 Characterizing Local Population ard Commlnity Resources

Figure 13 The decennial census provides detailed information on the types ofjobs people have.

Latah County, Idaho (1990)

irrnrg ficrestry 7Operators

fabricatorslaborers

Production. craft.

f;rirvice -

Technical sales,afIrrirn support

Managerial,professional

. j

Urban Rural

10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Percentage of persons employed

S Deporiment ot Commerce, Bureau t)t thc Censu. 142.1

Table 5 works s lit the states to make labor force estImates lit tammties.

.1,1mtar

1.eltalais%larch

Ill

Itinc

Ko.suth 1,0,k a tJantiat Junk', 1992

Pl'r.on,,it tolce

'I

petsons

8,1sIl(.,s 1

8. I

S,1S 111 s

I 1 5

SIll 1211 1

'Puri enkwe pvrsons ir the lah)(11 liii v \au ale.Sour, e I S 1>eraltmcnt it I ot ilsir SlitItli S 71

6 .1

Income 51

BLS publishes up-to-date labor force data in the quarterly reportcalled Employment and Earnings and will include rural data starting in1996. BLS's annual report, Geographic Profile of Employment andUnemployment, contains state-level labor force and demographic datathat allow researchers to answer questions about the characteristics ofpeople who are working -;nd of those who are unemployed, and ques-tions about occupations and industries in which the unemployment rateIs especially high. BLS's Monthly Labor Review (MLR) provith:s recentresearch results as well as BLS statistical updates. For example, theJune 1994 issue included three articles that focused on the 3f1ectt; o'recession; while other articles discussed married mothers wo!k pitterns; growth of jobs in the poultry industry; and current st,,:tlabor force, productivity, and injury and illness MLR is av,tilablo S

for $25/year Check the depository library nearest you fo!tions

The Federal government allocates funds for its emploment and economicdevelopment programs on the basis of BLS unemployment estimates likethose in Table 5. BLS works with the states to make thes,.. estimates.Estimation procedures are explained in each issue of the periodicalbnploymeni and Earnings. BLS cautions data users about using its estimatesfor historical analyses, particularly at the county level oi over time periodsduring which the agency has changed its data collection methods.

In addition to being available on microfiche, recent BI,S county-levellabor force estimates are also published in the County wul City Data Bookand in reports ny state employment y.icurity agencies: they arc also availablethrough Internet (see Appendix F) or by calling BI,S at (2(12) (06-6391.

Income

Income statistics are widely used measures ot is.onomic well .being, butwhich statistie is most useful (1t.pevds on the particular research question. Figexample, it might be imporioilt 0, know:

!low much total inci 'toe (1,ies tho communo% reeme .10(1 w hat is thea\ crag,: of per cat.tita

I low ei..nlY this tr,come distributed ainon. local resident.'"

Where doe. local income Uriginale'.' I )11 people earn it, reedi e itttiwettiment, Of does II Oink' in the form 01 plopert income

ttnete.1; '

To tiusver questions like these, it is impottant to under stand what eachinL rune ,iatistic actually measures.

52 Characterizing Local Population and Community Resources

Personal income, a figure reported by the Bureau of Economic Analysis,is the broadest measure of income. It is defined as the total income, bothearned income (such as wages) and unearned income (such as interest),received by, or on behalf of, all residents of a particular area. Hence, BEA'stotal personal income estimates measure how much money local residentshave available to spend before taxes (for example. state and Federal incometaxes and individual contributions to Social Security).

Total personal income does not measure how individuals or families arefaring, in so far as an increase in total income, for example, could result froman increase in population. Thus we use per capita personal income (total per-sonal income divided by population) to indicate the relative level of an area'sincome, controlled for the population of the area.

The Census Bureau uses a different concept of income, that is, moneyincome. Money income is the sum of all cash income, including wages andsalaries, net self-employment income, interest, dividends, rent, SocialSecurity payments, public assistance, and other minor types of income.Earnings income is reported before personal income taxes, Social Security,etc.

The Census Bureau reports median and mean family income, as well asper capita income. Median income is the middle level, that is, the level atwhich half of thc populHon have lower incomes and half have higherincomes. Mean income is the average amount of income received by eachfamily (total money income divided by the number of families).'

BEA's personal income is more comprehensive than the Census Bureau'smoney income for two reasons. First, personal income is based on adminis-trative governnwnt records, while money income is based on incomereported by individuals (and households or families) in response to surveysor censuses. Money income, therefore, depends on accurate estimates by therespondents. Second, Nrsonal income includes some noncash components,such as the value of fringe benefits received by workers hut paid by employ-ers, and return on investment in an owner-occupied home. Because of thesedifferences, personal income estimates for an area are usually higher thanmoney income estimates.

Another widely used income measure is the percentage of the population(individuals, households, or families) that have money income below thepoverty levelthe so-called poverty rate. Each year. the U.S. Office ofManagement ank: Budget (OMB) establishes a series of poverty incomethreshold ,. for different family size.;, ages of household heads, and rxo

'Household income is sometimes used insicad ol Lund!, inLoinc. A household consistsill all people living in a single dwelling, Vhcreas a tinnily corals!. Ilf 1%0 or more related

Gf.;

Income53

graphic locations. These poverty thresholds come from an index developed

in 1964 by the Social Security Administration. The index is based on evi-

dence from the USDA's 1955 Survey of Food Consumption that found fam-

ilies with three or more people spend roughly one-third of their money

income on food. Hence, the poverty level for these families was set at three

times the cost of the so-called "economy food plan,- with modifications for

smaller families. Many aralysts consider this method of measuring poverty

to be outdated (in part because of the assumption about how much money is

spent on food), but they have not been able to agree on a more satisfactory

method.Each year, OMB revises its poverty thresholds to reflect changes in the

Consumer Price Index (('PI). This means that poverty rates can be compared

from one time period to the next. When using other income measures, it is

always important to find out whether they are expressed in real (sometimes

called constant) dollars, which are adjusted by an index such as the CPI, or

in current, unadjusted dollars. In addition, researchers should note that

income measures are rarely adjusted by an index that reflects price changes

in individual regions or subpopulations. The CPI, for example, is derived at

the national level.'In summary, there are several commonly used income statistics, total and

per capita personal income, mean and median money income, and thepoverty rate. In the following section, we illustrate how these statistics can

be used.

Bureau of the CensusBased on sample data collected in the decennial census, the Census Bureau

estimates four money income measures at the county level: mean income,

median income, per capita income, and percentage below poverty. Data are

provided for persons and families and, in some cases, for households. At the

county level, Mese statistics are only available every ten years and are not

available from any other public source.As noted above, the Census Bureau estimates of money income are ba:.;ed

on people's responses to the decennial census long-form questionnaire.Money income excludes nonmonetary income, such as the value of food

stamps, housing subsidies, and employers pension contributions. It also

excludes one-time income such as loans and capital gains or losses.

Table 6 illustrates how we can use Census data to find out the number and

111.1/4; k111,111\, lictiNt-, an index ol tilanlie tor itko population iti one tor

uthan consilmeis (CPI 1' and one tor urban sAil,!a: tiiIttI 111(i tit.] It .11 \a,oikeis

I lie CPI I k tistit Iii dtipls1 income figures Nil 'Iit'i,lttt ittiltirliltIp iii price (have tor

rural consumets i made For mnitire Ini0f111,111(111, Ntl: 1461

54 Characteriiing Imeal Popubtion and Community Resources

Table 6 The decennial census pnwides small-area data on the number and ehaac-teristies of poor people.

Item rotal

Attala ('ounty, Mississippi 114/49)

Vs'hite Rural I arm

Thtal number of persons 18,481 11.081 7,32') 11,501 t7t)Persons with income

below pmerty 5,512 1,955 1.5,5 1,5;2 s4Poverty rate .10''i 1 S',; 4S'.; .; 1 c; 22';

Thtal numher of families 5,05S 3,247 1,S01 ;,2 I I 11 7

Families with incomebelow poverty 1.27" 431 S41 S20 14

Poverty rate 25(.; 13,7, 47'.; 2fr'; 12';

Se nave S Department itt Ciimmert:e. Bureau ot tire Censtei. ChHes 6, li6t. cS, 21N. ', :16

Consumer Income (Series P-60 from the Census Bureau) is the bestsource of intercensal income estimates for individuals, families, andhouseholds in the United States. Based on the March supplement tothe Current Population Survey, Consumer Income enables us to foHowtrends in the level and distribution of income, and in the characteristicsof people at different income levels. All estimates are presented for thenation as a whole, and selected estimates appear for regions, states, andby metroThonmetro residence

Researchers interested in poverty, for example, can refer to the P 60'eport, Income, Poverty, and Valuation of Nutroasn Benefits (This reportcombines three previous publications Money Income and PoveftvStatus of Persons in the United States, Valuation of Nogoash Bettef;tsand Pnverty in the United States) Some of the questions that can neansweied using this report are'

How does the poverty rate in nonmetro counhes compare to that torInner cities?

What are the demographic characteristics of people who are ,ro!'likely to be poor) F or example, in which region (South or non rii(iiithido they live, how large are their famiiies, and how old are they '

P 60 reports are issued periodically B. .ause of funding nuts, fovverdata tab!es wnil ro published in the combined report than methree Mor e detaiie,! data (..an tie ordered by bbnne in i coio tort iedi;eiabasis from the Poverty and Weaith Branch at (3011 /6.3.85/8 or froni !heIncome Branch of th(; floivong and Household I cortoreil,ltiviiiion at the censiii; at 1;1011 /63 of, hi Portion,; et theitto .iinii 1\,6111;Ittit, vior.troniCally vi Internet l'4'e(:uionme, c.;en,icies it :?011 4')/ 4100 to order individeal

65

Income 55

Between decennial census years we often want to know the povertyrate for areas smaller than those covered by Census Bureau publi-cations. Researchers use several techniques for estimating these sta-tistics. Some start with decennial census data on the social and eco-nomic characteristics associated with being poor. Then they make morecurrent county estimates based on the presence of these particular char-acteristics in the local population. Others use data from the CurrentPopulation Survey to make estimates, either for one specific year at thestate level or for a several-year average for specific demographic groupsin individual states. (See (9), (12), and (14) for examples of these tech-niques.)

All of these analyses should be regarded wi,h great caution. They areestimates based on estimates, since decennial census poverty statisticsare derived from a sample rather than the whole population. Hence, theyare sublect to multiple sources of error Nevertheless, they are useful asapproximations and may be very helpful in guiding program and policydevelopment in the absence of more precise statistics

characteristics of people with income below the poverty level. In 1989, 30percent of all persons in Attala County had income less than the povertylevel, compared to 13 percent nationwide. Poor people in Attala County weredisproportionately black, and farm residents were less likely to be poor thanother rural residents. Note that the data refer to 1989, the year before tl;e mostrecent decennial census. This is because respondents answered the question."What was your total income from all sources in the last year?"

Between past decennial censuses, the Census Bureau has published itsirregular P-25 series, bawl Populathm Estinunes. P-25 reports includedpopulation and per capita income estimates for counties and subcounty areas.Unfortunately, the series has been temporarily discontinued while the CensusBureau revises its estimation methodology. Call the !lousing and I louseholdEconomic Characteristics Division (Small Area Income and Povert/Statistics staff) at (301) 763-8413 for more information on what is currently'available.

The Census Bureau reports its larger area, intercensal income estimates inConsumer Income, Series P60. These reports are based on the March sup-plement to the Current Population Survey. They provide infomiatiim aboutpeople at various income leve is and on the relationship of income to age, ses,race, fannly si/e, education, occupation, and other characteristics.

Bureau of Economic AnalysisThe Bureau of Economic Analysis alsu reports income data that are useful

for analyting nonmetro counties. These county level data are by products ofBEA's responsibility to monitor and measure the performance of the national

56 Characterizing Local Population and Community Resources

BEA distributes a CD-ROM called Regional Economic InformationSystem. Updated each year, the CD-ROM contains data on total and percapita personal income, income by type, and earnings by type and majorindustry. Data are presented for the United States, eight BEA regions,states, and counties. Earnings data are reported at the 2-digit SIC levelfor states and the 1-digit level for counties. (See Chapter 2 for informa-tion about the SIC coding system.) Also available on CD-ROM for coun-ties are component estimates of transfer payments, .farm income andexpenditures, and full- and part-time employment by 1-digit SIC. The CD-ROM is available from BEA user groups in each state and from Federaldepository libraries; its cost is $35. To order, call REIS at (202) 606-5360,or write to the Public Information Office, Order Desk, BE-53, Bureau ofEconomic Analysis, 1441 L St NW U.S. Department of Commerce,Washington, DC 20230.

ecom)llly. The agency's county estimates are widely used to evaluate theimpaLt of pubhc programs, allocate Federal funds, project tax revenues, andevaluate markets for new products. Researchers can use the estimates to mea-sure and track income received by the local population and as a frameworkfor analyzing the local economy.

Each year and for all counties, BEA tabulates total personal income, whichis current income received by residents from all sources. The agency mea-sures personal income before taxes (like the Census Bureau) hut after contri-butions to various retirement programs. Unlike the Census Bureau, BEAincludes some noncash income such as food stamps and employer-paidhealth insurance. The agency reports persooal income by source on a place-of-residence basis. This means, for example, that income data are reportedt'or people who live in Coos County, not for people who work in CoosCounty. The two groups of people are different if workers commute acrosscounty lines,

The major categories of inconk included in the BEA data are:

Earnings (wage and salary incoine, proprietors' incinne fmm farniand nonfarm sources, and various employer contributions);

.111.,A issues its national estimates of personal :come tirt, on a monthly basis, v. ithina I OA' weeks of the end of every month. State level personal moque estimates are issued011 a quanerly basis, approximately two months after the end of the previous quarter at

which time the national estimates are already being revised. State level annual personalIncome estimates al e issued about six months after the end of the calendar year. vx Mr estimates for several sears revised at the same time Finally, county level estimatesare rele:.sed about I 8 months atter the scar to K Inch they refer, at vx filch time the estimatesfor several previous years are also rev I d. It you need recent quarterly :stilliates that havenot been released on CD R()M, contact IWA's Regional Ft:minim. Information System(WAS) or a REA user group.

Income 57

Personal investment income (dividends, interest, and rent); and

Transfer payments (retirement-related, unemployment insurance,public assistance, and miscellaneous).

BEA obtains most of its wage and salary data from tax and statisticalrecords supplied by state employment security agencies. Aggregate data onnonfarm proprietors' income are obtained pvimarily from the InternalRevenue Service. (The IRS does not release individual tax returns.) Farmproprietors' income estimates are based on IRS aggregates, Census ofAgriculture county data, and selected annual county data prepared by thestate offices affiliated with USDA's National Agricultural Statistics Service(NASS).

13 FA estimates data on transfer payments, investment income, and propri-etors income on a place-of-residence basis. It estimates data on other com-ponents of earnings (wages and salaries, other labor income, and employercontributions) on a place-of-work basis. To reconcile these differences, theagency makes adjustments that reflect the intercounty commuting patterns

reported in each decennial census.

Figure 14 BEA estimates per capita personal income by sotirC..

Six Sample Counties (1992)Dollais per capita

20.000$18,685

1

15 000

$12.215

10,000

fi 000

11.10 vp,

$17,359

1 ----I

kny,titti

$15,347 $15 375

12 901

0 Trwl,fors 0 DivIdonfl,,, Pk Npl parnIn(),

1),T,irtimn1 c, IIij,iij I I \11.11%,1,

58 Characterizing Local Population and ('IlnlniuIlIts Resources

Figure 15 BEA provides detailed component estimates of government transferpayments.

Yavapai County, Arizona (1992)

Retirement anddisabihty$297 447,000

Ot $3 175r9np17

Velwans 7 50v3 30,1

[ncurne fralffirrar,S.Y 263 000

Medtcal pAyments$25,0s1.003

Sour( e I S C1,111111cr,C, 11M111, A11,1111, t4,

The advantage of BEA data is that they are comprehensive, reported ingreat detail, and readily accessible through BEA user groups. The disadvan-tage is that they are based on administrative and survey data collected byother agencies, and as such they reflect an assortment of complex adjust-ments. Call REIS staff at 1202) 606-5360 if you need information about howvarious adjustments are made.

Figure 14 shows how researchers can use BEA personal income data tobetter understand the rekdive importance of various income sources.

BEA also makes detailed county-level estimates of various types of trails-fel' payments. Community leaders and development practitioners are becom-ing more aware of the economic stimulus pros ided by such payments,including retirement income and welfare benefits. Figure 15 shows, forexample, that retirement and disability insurance is the largest component oftransfer payments in Yavapai Count, accounting for user !skin-thirds ot totalgosennnent transfers. Income maintenance payments (such as public assislance) are a small component, accounting for only about fis e peNetif

Social Security AdministrationEach year, the Social Security Administration (SSA ) publishes intoona

lion about heneficiaries of the ()Id Age, Survivors, and Disability. Insurance

Housing 59

Program (OASD1). The data include the number of beneficiaries in eachstate, county, and zip code, and the aggregate dollar amount of benefits by

type. (See the reports OASDI Beneficiaries by State and County and OASDIBeneficiaries by ZIP ('ode.) Using administrative data, SSA reports thesenumbers roughly 12 months after the reference year. Researchers can use theintOrmation if they want more detail on retirement and disability incom:-... thanBEA provides. (BEA reports the same data in REIS, but in less detail.) Notall of the SSA publications use the same methods to avoid disclosing data, soread the introduction to each report before using the data or contact SSA stafflisted in the front of each report. For ordering information, write to the Chiefof Publications Staff, Office of Research and Statistics, Social SecurityAdministration, 4301 Connecticut Ave. NW, Room 209, Washington, DC2(X)08.

Housing

Some research indis:ates that substandard housing is more common in ruralareas than in urban areas, but measuring the quantity and quality of housingin small communities is complicated by a lack of data. The Census Bureau,t'or example, only reports information on housing units that are occupiedyear-round, and thus negtccts units that are seasonally occupied by migrantworkers. Further, the Censu.i Bureau liniits its questions on housing qualityto inquiries about the presence of selected facilities and equipment. Broaderindicators of housing quality--such as structural deficiencyare availableonly from the American Housing Survey ( AHS). Unfortunately, the AHSsample is too small to provide geographical detail for particula rural c(im-munities.

Evaluating the quality of rural housing is also limited by our ability toobjectively measure what constitutes substandard- housing. The HousingAssistance Council (I1AC) notes, for example, that while the number of rural

The American Housing Survey is a good source of larger-area ruralhousing data. The AHS is conducted jointly by the Office of PolicyDevelopment and Research of the U S Department of Housing andUrban Development and the Bureau of the Census Ihe NIS provider;urban/rural and metro/nor)metro cross tabHlations by geographic regionEvery four years, extra cases are added to the sample in rural areas toproduce better estimates of rural houring characteristics The Af iS is particidarly useful in that it provides more data on housing quality than theder;onmal nem;us AW, tefmrts are published bfennally on a requnalbri`;15 in the Consu:; Bureau Series H

t

I ti

60 Characterizing Local Population and Community Resources

Housing Characteristics of Rural Households: 1991 (H-121-93-51 isone of the Current Housing Reports issued jointly by the Census Bureauand the U S Department of Housing and Urban Development. It containsdata for the United States and regions on the geographic distribution andphysical characteristics of rural housing, as well as on the social and eco-nomic characteristics of rural householders. Data are presented for ruralplaces that are: inside and outside metro areas, adjacent and nonadja-cent to metro areas; and farm and nonfarm T he report costs $4 and canbe ordered from Customer Services at (3011 457-4100.

housing units without plumbing facilities and the number that are over-crowded has clearly declined in recent years, the number of mobile homeshas increased dramatically. HAC suggests that mobile homes may not hesubstandard in the traditional sense, but the national star.lards that regulatetheir construction do not uniformly guarantee durability or thermal protec-ti)n. Hence mobile homes arc often of lower "quality" than conventionalhousing (7).

With these shortcomings in mind, researchers can begin to describe thequantity and quality of rural housing. In trying to design effective housingdevelopment strategies, community leaders might ask questions like the fol-lowing:

Do the sire and characteristics of local housing units meet the needsof residents'?

Do residents own or rent their homes'?

What is the quality of the local housing and how has it changed inrecent years'?

In general, the data we use to answer these questions are available from thedecennial census. Between censuses, local planning and community actionagencies can often provide Imre up-to-date information. For more details,see I.!nited States Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census, "Amerlean Housing Survey: !lousing Data Between the Censuses," 1992 (22).

The first place to look for information about the number and characteristics of local housing units is the decennial census. According to the CensusBureau, a housing unit is "a house, apartment, flat, mohile home, a group ofrooms, or a single room, occupied or intended for occupancy as separate living quarters; that is, the occupants do not live and eat with any other personsin the building, and there is direct access to the unit from the outide or froma common hall" i22). "Ilie Census Bureau tabulated a complete count of allhousing units from its 19911 census, available down to tlw block level. All

Housing 61

respondents were asked whether they live in a mobile home or trailer, one-family house, or apartment building.

Researchers can make more current estimates of housing numbers byupdating census data with other sources of information. Information on thenumber of building permits issued is published in the C('DB and is usuallyavailable from state and local sources. For example, the New HampshireOffice of State Planning (OSP) regularly updates Census figures using resi-dential building permits and annually publishes estimates of the housingnumbers in each township (10). Figure 16 shows the OSP data for Coos

County.The agency estimates that the number of housing units in all three cate-

goriessingle family, multi-family, and mobile homesincreased between1990 and 1992. On the other hand, the Census Burcau estimates the numberof people in Coos County decreased during this period (Table I ). More

Figure 16 Some stales estimate housing numbers by using building permit data.

Coos County, New Hampshlre (1990-1992)

Number of permits200

U Single family0 Multt-famtly0 Manufactured and other

150

100

50

(1

,1)

Foprosent unhversion..)

11,11111,h1 (ill I YiliC I

r

6

62 Characterizing Local Population and Community Resources

research might help us decide whether these divergent trends were due tofewer people living in each housing unit, the construction of vacation homes,or some other factor.

After learning about the size and characteristics of local housing units, thenext thing researchers may want to measure is the quolity of housing in a par-ticular community. The size of housing units relative to the number of occu-pants is one commonly used measure of quality. Small-area data on over-crowding (defined as more than one person per room) are availabk from thedecennial census on a complete count basis.

The presence and condition (if particular facilities and equipment are alsofrequently used indicators of housing quality. Because lack of plumbingfacilities is usually associated with substart lard housing, the most widelyused and objective measure of quality is the presence of complete plumbingfacilities for exclusive use of the household. (('omplete plumbing facilitiesinclude hot and cold piped water, a flush toilet, and a bathtub or shower.)Other facilities and equipment that may indicate housing quality are com-plete kitchen facilities, telephone, central heat, and public water hookup.Care should be used in interpreting these indicators; however, as none byitself is a complete measure of housing quality. Relevant data are availahlefrom the decennial census for small areas (on a sample basis from the 199()census) and from the American !lousing Survey tr regions.

Health

Rural communities face two major health issues: ( the health status of thepopulation and (2) access to health resources, that i. to health care providers,facilities, and services. Public concern about these two issues has increasedin recent years because of research documenting the effects of po%erty andenvironmental pollution on health, and because many rural health care pro-

iders face growing financial problems. Very few small-area statistics on

Information for Action: An Advocate's Guide to Using Maternal andChild Health Data, oH.)kr.,berl by tbe hdrn, ne4enw f und, is anexcellent ro,..soirrr.e for cornr-nnIty researr,nor!.., 1.1!!; very readablr., boo'.includes topics on ways to approach health related research questiory,,choor.ond indicators, ar.Lessing state and local data sources, Inr1 We-webncl rowarch ro-,Hit,; It 91, I() mrder

1),.for-..0 I 2!) I '0,,,vt t'11N, \%.ror r..a'! 1202 ) H/H/

71;

Health 63

The Rural Information Center Health Service (RICHS) is a part of t')eRural Information Center (RIC) at the National Agricultural Library (NAL).RICHS was created in 1990 by the NAL and the Office of Rural HealthPolicy in the Department of Health and Human Services to provide infor-mation on rural health. Services include literature searches on ruralhealth issues, help in locating information, and referrals to organizationsor individuals who can assist with specialized in'ormation. RICHS has aconference on the NAL's Agricultural Library Forum (ALF) bulletin boardthat includes information on rural health publications, national and stateconferences, and agricultural safety and health programs. (See Appendix

tor information on accessing ALF) Contact RICHS staff at the RuralInformation Center, National Agricultural Library, Room 304, 10301Baltimore Blvd., Beltsville, MD 20705 2351: or call (800) 633-7701, or(301) 504 5547 in the Washington. DC area or e-rnall through Internet

AnnendA

health status are published at the Federal level so the hest place to start look-ing for information on health status is the local or state public health agency.

InfOrmation about access to health resources is somewhat easier to obtain.,1/M Hospital Statistics reports data compiled from the American HospitalAssociation's Annual Survey of Hospitals. It provides information for Cen-sus divisions and states on the number of hospitals and nursing homes, theirsi/e (number of beds), and type of facility (for example, psychiatric orchronic disease). It also includes financial information such as the type ofownership ( prix ate, nonprofit, government), number of f ull time employees.and payroll. Another report, HA Guide to the Health lure Ewld, pro idesmore detailed data, but for each hospital that responded to the Al INs AnnualSur\ ey of I lospitals. The data are organiied hy state and ;ity, and each entrylists tne county where the hospital is located. Each rep irt includes contactswho can answer specific questions about methodology or content.

Plm %IC lan 'haractertwtc% and lhtributton S. is an annual reportpublished by the American Medical Association. It includes state and countygroup data on the ouniber of physicians. indis idual characteristics (includingage and ./elltler I, and area of speciali/ation (for example, family practice orpethatuk.si. rho report includes i table w Int h identifies c nine es V.1(110111 i!1

actixe phy sit hat Check wur neatest depository library ii health related1411- these puhlications.

Health I 'ruled Statl's is ;III ,11111lhd report published by the National Centerfor I health Statistics that pro% ides national lex el data on a %al rety of healthrelmed subiects, includinr health care resources tiul expend:tin.... Somestale IV% el &ILI dre Nils RIC& slICh as the number of hospital beds per t.apita

and per capita expenditures for mental health ser S ick.s

t ' "

64 Characterizing Local Population and Community Resources

Limited county-level data on health status and resources are published inthe County and City Data Book, as illustrated in Table 7.

Table 7 The County wd Cay Data Miok includes limited health status and%source data.

Item.%ttala County. Kossuth County

kw. a

Population by race t 991 it

White ((.4 ) 1uo.;

Black IC4 39.5 0.0Other 0 4

Number of hospital heds t 199 I 7 h ,l)

Active, non-Federal physiciansNumber. 1990 15

Number ivr 100,000 residentsas of April I. 1990 SI

Infant mortality rate" 10.9 8 2

"Deaths of infants under one-year old per 1,(1X) live births..s.urre: t, S. Deparimem of CommerT. Bureau ot the Censu.

Ptt; j

4

Understanding theEconomies of Rural

Communities

Overview of Local Economic Structure

Our sample counties reflect the diverse economic makeup of rural America,as illustrated in Figure 17. To evaluate alternative development strategies,

citizens and policy makers need to understand their local economic structure,in terms of both the contribution that various industries make, and cyclicaland structural changes that affect these industries. ('ritical questions mightinclude:

Irlow diversified is our economy?

What industries are most important to residents economic Vb ell-being?

1)o these industries produce goods (like agriculture, mining, andmanufacturing) or serviLes (like tourism, trade, and education)?

Which industries are growing in importance, which are Jeclining,and how do these trends compare to the regional and national econonly?

In answer tiles,: questions we shift Mir focus away f roni data about peopleand toward data about the industries that make up a community's economy,1 hese industries can be analy zed .-orn the standpoint of both jobs andincome, as explained in the rest of this chapter

EmploymentFinployment data tell us how many iobs each industry pro% ides lot the

local :conomy. The main sources of employment data are

10

dfIs

Figure 17 ResearLhers Lan um: M:A earnings data to analyre the eLononuLstruLture of inch% idual Lounne

Manufacturing 28..

11 1

/ 1 !1IIH

Tra le / .- 1 COo,tru ti,,,n '18',, f ! ,

tiii-ii -; 1-- Farrnin4 2-0

Servir:es 15'.

es1 r,"

()tilt, 1.1.,

Government II'

Attala County

Trale 1.1",

Gonstrorl,on

tor,t0A 153.

r.1,10 17 o

Manufacturing

e

, I,

Tr 1,1, ,/

.

s`.

Si OS 24 --

Other 11-

Government 13',

Coos County

,

Goverr,,,,,t

Kossuth County

tvianutacturml

ConstructionMining,

Farn,,n9 4

Other I;

Government 4cr',,

Latah County

Mdnur,1L1oont.;

Ott

ip

Nicholas County

Yavapai County

),p.irtnIctit of I wr, Horr,io ot mon `^,/.~ ^^

(her\ icy. of IA)cal Feminine Structure 67

But eau of the Census (decennial eensus reports and (ounts. BusinessPatterns);

Bureau of Labor Statistics and State emploment security agenciesSESAs); and

Bureau of Lconotnic Analysis.

We report emplo)ment data for Nicholas County in Table and summit-

riie the characterktics of each data Solffee in Fable 9. Table 8 shows that thefour sources report very different numbers and are not comparable becausecoverage and definitions vary widely.

Table 8 I ,q11 ,sout.,..c, of einplo mein statistics 1 or Nwholas (offin!, West Virglnia.

Number persons or

11)02 100;

(1ount \ 1 nint1.f111 Ittiu.. ScLurIi 19112

lir

..\12.riculture. I oresti. aridfisheries !Hi N 27 krif 1

i\grit.ultural sci ices.fork..11), and f islier ie. N.\ 01 N.,\ 7()

NI inii)g. 1 412 I. 104 0s0 1.270

( 'onstrui:tion sil l NMI l,i 1

\Iallufacturini, 1.1 I; sCIS s Is 04 7

i F.111.1)1;11,16011,

illininunication ind

putilii_ uillitics sst i2if of I si 0

Wholesale iraile Iff1 21; 265 ;s 1

Retail frade 'ado 1.60S I.': 1

1 imam e. 111,111,11h t' 111,1

real esfalc ., io if is

11 \ I, cs 'of i 1 if ts I ai:., 1. 's

(1oeill111,.[,1 Z I() \ N I .I,I I SOH

1(11 \1 s s s 1f1 4) S

\11111X dit' 11.0 ililt't 11 k 1.1111,.11.1(IC 1,. lind kin \ 1,1 N14111

1151 .11111 I I I ') (1,1 ,1c1,111,

s I \ ,4I ft,. I i,.' i_' ii I it I N 1)el, irt,ncto

..1111111CN I liii ! I 1,, II 1 Procf.,T11..

'Table 9 V4,1 h I t_1110I dppropridIc tit:ix:cid. on iliv rescarh

1h:0:11111,11 Certslls

(litiredit ot tIiiCk.n.us

l'1,kc ()I tv.ilicib:c11Voplc)

1/41,11111111' 01 Ow

l'1111% 1(11110

rti%

Ilit. ('.11.(1.1

st,thINhmicillptl, s,t Ai 10..1

11,111 MICIC 1)11,111c., .tir ,111,1 ,i,11111,

1:01111ilt.ICti 1 I il "IIArc

0I I

St,tto,ti,... and

S

11,11111t 111111 V,P11,.h

,rotith. L.,

Ski\ ILL.,. :1,111,..1,t11

lillI .1 L I VOITt,

\11,6 1,01,..

A\ N('' (11,11It'l 1,11

's1 s I mpl.,',111,111

II

1

Indu.try Geographrc

Coverage detail detail Format Frequency

All employees arid 4 digit SIC To county Puhlkhed. Every 10

.elf -employed Nuhdiv ision t iche. ('I ) vear., 2 3R0\1 veal.. after

re fereflee

ptbriod

Includes employment 4digit SIC To counties Puhlkhed. Annual, 2 3

covered hy FICA ('I) ROM ears alter

(primanh, pris, ate reference

nonfarm Wage arid period

s.ilary I. Evelthie,sell employed per

governmentemployees, larinKOrkerS, and dOolk's

tie .erv ice vvorker.Governmem.ov.nedhospitals ;nod liquor.tilre. included.

Includes ker .

covered hv stateunemplov Merin Liimperkation l.i and

hy the'rlempl(i menu

Compens mon forFeder.i: rinnlovee.II CI I. program

\chide, sellemph11,ell

4 lnnin SIC To counties

Int. hides pri ale ail,' I

Illill 11111 tiitiiii hor ,111,1

ran 11111e, Sclt p.itt

Illt.'111 ,Ifht lit ,18,02e .1111 ,11.1(.

(

!will BLS,requesi

and alsosometimespuhlkhed\LA' einriI11,

Merl! seellf11\

Annual,.ithin I

ill referencepemod

CI) Itt / \I and \II ei iiroup. In iv 1111111 s

CIII shilc ,rt fel

cleft, ,.' per Intl

70 Understanding the Economies of Rural Communities

Where to get employment and earnings data for countiesLook in the library for Census Bureau reports.Call your state employment security agency or BLS in Washington,D.C.Contact a E3EA user group in your state.

See Appendix D for names and phone numbers.

Find out what's happening in your stote---BLS news releases titled"State and Metropohan Area Employment and Unemployment" and"The Employment Situation" report up-to-date information on employmerit at the state and national level. Write to the Branch of inquiries andCorrespondence, BLS, Washington, DC 20712-0001 to get on the mailIN list

The decennial cerr;us provides the most detailed employment-by-industrydata. These data, which are published in Soria! and Economic Characteriy-ticv (Series C1'-21, are available for counties and county subdivisions and t'ormany industrial classifications. Employment data are cross-tabulated bydemographic 1. haracteristics. and therefore give researchers the most detailsabout the types of people VhO work in different industries.

The second column in 'Erble 8 shows summari/ed 1990 employment dataf rom Series (7P-2 for Nicholas ('ounty, Fhese data aro reported on a place-of-residence basis. 'Nis means, for example. that 1,412 people who lived inNicholas County in 1990 worked in the mining industry, according to the19)0 census. The data represent numbers of people rather than numbers ofjobs.

Because the census is taken only ever ten years, it does not allow us totrack recent cLinges in economic stiucture. However, the Census Bureau'sannual County Ihtsim'8s. PrinernA (CI1P) provides more recent (but lessdetailed) employ ment-hy -industry data for counties. The data arc obtainedfrom economic censuses, various annual survo s, and i(1...inistrative recordsfrom other agencies. ( 'HP reports are issued tor each state and imlude allemploy ment cos ered by the Federal Insurance Contributions Act FICA P.no do not include data for state or los.al government employoes. selfempl" ed perm)ns. farm ssorkers, or domestic sets ice ssorkers. Hospitals andslats' (Issfled hulturr stjhlislirnierrts, huseNCI, ire inieliirled. Because tannersand their emplowes ire TIN 'HP is lcss useful tor counties ss here.ifficulture is rIripinlanrt i Selected CRP dald ;Inc reported in theCu% Alto Hooi,

For eei county, (PP tells liov. 111;in ltnlle swik in each indu.,ns.ssiliii Ohl! I01.11 pdii)11 is, hinss nritrr rrnhi nlual !mike up !he

S

Overview. of Local Economic Structure 71

industry, and how large these establishments are in terms of employment.Data that would disclose the payroll or precise number of employees for indi-vidual employers are not published. (The number of establishments and theirdistribution by employment-size class are not considered disclosures.) CBPdoes not show separate data for any industry that has fewer than 50 employ-ees, but these data are available by paid request if there is no disclosure prob-

lem.The third column in Table 8 shows CBP employment data for Nicholas

County. The data are reported according to place-of-work and represent num-bers of workers. This means, for example, that I,394 people who worked inNicholas County in 1942 were employed in the mining imkotry, according to

CBP.In order to administer the state unemployment insurance programs. the

Bureau of Labor Statistics also tabulates employment-by-industry data.These data pertain to virtually all private and government workers.' The datacome from quarterly tax bills and statistical requests sent by the SESAs toprivate businesses and government agencies.

BLS does not publish the county data but does make them available bypaid request. County statistics are also available from the SESAs, although

these agencies vary considerably in how accessible they make the data. OneSES A requires data users to come to the state capital and hand-copy data,while others mail computer printouts or published data free of charge. TheWest Virginia Department of Employment Security, for example, publishescounty employment figures annually and mails them free of charge.

The fourth column in Table 8 shows SESA data for Nicholas County. Theyare reported according to place-of-work and represent numbers of jobs cov-ered by unemployment insurance. This means, for example, that there were959 jobs in the minin- industry in I 993, according to the West Virginia

SESA.The fourth source ot employment data is the Bureau of Economic

Analysis. The data are available on the Ret:ional Economic InformationSystem ('I)- it( )M and from BEA user groups in each state. (Call BEA or yourstate data center for the user group nearest you.)

The advantage of the BEA series is its broad cox erage. Public and private,farm and nonfarm, wage/salary and self emplox mem ay.' all included. Onedisad%;mtage is that some ot the intormanim is extrapolated from survey data

S 01,11 Illis pro,..1,1111 o%cis II Al MI111,11111 N.IVe .11Id

.11,11% V.(11kt.1,. II lii I .,111Cd MO I2 1V11 cnn I! ill II ki'r, Inn OW Vi.iln(111), I ht.

.Ini, .11111w0 ivoithmow i s ,c1I unInlIcI Ohm iith,in mho me,,,

72 Understanding the Economies of Rural Communities

when administrative data are not available, and so it may be somewhat lessreliable. Another disadvantage is that the county data are only available forbroad industry groups, that is, at the I-digit SIC level.

The fifth column in Table 8 illustrates BEA employment-by-industry datafor Nicholas County. The data represent numbers of jobs and are reixtrtedaccording to place-of-work. This means, for example, that there were 1.270jobs in the mining industry in 1992, according to BEA.

EarningsEarnings data reflect total compensation including wages, salaries,

bonuses, and severance pay. Researchers can get up-to-date, county-levelwage data from BLS (through the SESAs) and county-level personal incomedata from BEA.

BLS and its cooperating SESAs collect wage (or payroll) data directlyfrom employers when they gather their. employment information, thus thecoverage of both public and private sector wage and salary workers is almostcomplete. Again, BLS only makes these data available at the county level bypaid request, and SESAs vary in how accessible they make the data. As withother data, neither the BLS nor SESAs will release any information thatwould allow an individual employer to be identified.

Table 10 shows data from the West Virginia Bureau of EmploymentPrograms for Nicholas County. Note that the data pertain only to earnings byworkers covered by unemployment insurance and therefore do not includeproprietors self-employment income. West Virginia issues the data abouteight or nine it' anths after the refereme year.

The main reason that SESAs collect covered employment and wage datais to administet unemployment insurance programs. Ilowever, analysts at alllevels of government and the private sector use the data. 1 he Federal gov-ernment, for example, uses them to calculate a geographical index for vari-ous public assistance programs; state agencies use them to monitor industrytrends; and business and lat r organitations use them to negotiate wageagreetnents.

BEA uses BLS earnings data as the earnings component of its comprehensive personal income series. As noted in Chapter 3 and illustrated inFigure 17, BEA personal Income data are widely used as a framework foranaly/ing the stnicture of I cat economies. The data are estimated on a placeof work basis, by type and by industr. in the annual /0.,-1 Reeiomdt(orionuc Infornuition S%%tem (10.1.1)(1) ROM. 1.arm earnint...ts are I oported,oparately from nonfarm earnings. and earnings fnmi the private sector orereported separately horn public sector earnings I he data are aN.iilable inpublished and computeo/ed 10111i, les lst'd 111,1hle

letilloq horn Ht.:\

Industry-Specific Data 73

Table 10 State Employment Security Agencies publish annual data on earningsby industry.

Nicholas County, West Virginia (1993)

Aserage

Number of rota! :mnual

Averagevveekly

industry" establishments v. ages Nage Nage

Mining 48 $39,376,4P) S39,814 $766

Coal mining 47 39,178,973 t(),S77 767

Manufacturing 41 15,614,301 Ilv,699 360

Lumber and vv (mid products 25 7,468,211 19,862 .182

Printing and publishing 3 275,558 9,5112 183

Industra machinery 6 2,08(,88h 24.843 478

Seiv ii,,flotels and other lodging

places

162

11

15,488,31.;

1,212,914

15,154

12,251

291

116

Business sers ices 1; 1,488,17s 16,725 22

Health ser Wes 2') 5,872,213 16,176 311

Automotive repairs andser Ices Is 498,750 12.468 210

Miscellaneous cepairservices II 693,974 K756 361

legal services 12 798.927 15,665 301

Social st'rs ices 4 I .131.636 11.410 220

Membership wpm/mill/is I 1 124,551 ;.277 tO

Engineering and managementservices 2S 1.1 2.1.10S 22,477 412

selected industries shovvn hereAcq Buircau 0 I nirlo fli.tIC Prwram.

Industry-Specific Data

Once researchers have an over% iew it hx:al eLononuc struoure, they may.vkant more information ahinit the ndi idual industries that are important to acommunity's v.ell being. ' Questions that 1Ight he asked Indude:

What is the structure of our toost important indiKtries ' many rclitisek small firms compete ssith each other, t)1" do only a ley.; laf:!etirms dominate these industries!

\\ILO l the ,1111e 111`11 tWill thtIsu iodiisines '

1 oi Itackmound on Me pertoi wank e and strut hire Arc irIiIrrI,uiiiruril ti nimunities, see II 'i

74 1 Inderstanding the Economies of Rural Communities

Are these industries becoming more productive; that is, are they pro-ducing the same or more output with fewer inputs?

To answer questions like these, researchers can use a combination of datasources, beginning with the employment and earnings sources listed aboveand with the agricultural arid economic censuses conducted in years endingin "2- and "7.- These censuses provide data on agriculture, mining, manu-facturing, trade, and services for counties and, in some cases, for places with2,500 or 'mire inhabitants. The agricultural and ecommiie censuses are man-dated by law.. Firms are required to respond, but are protected by the confi-dentiality requirement that prevents publicatiou of data that would re%ealspecific identities and activities. Data are collected on an establishment basis.Firms operating more than one establishment are requi,ed to tile a separatereport for each location. Researchers can supplement small area data fromthese sources ith information Iron, statc- and nation:11.4:yd industr% Feports, and w di data from other gmernment agencies.

What is the national outlook for industries that are important to yourcommunity? For information about nonfarm industries, not U SIridustfial Out/ook, an annual report from the Deportment of CommerceIt can he ordered from the Government Printing Office for $31 1!..docknumber 003.009-00635 0) or found in depository libraries For informlion about, agr'culture, see the monthly report from f RS NAY--;,

0tiook A oneyeor sJbscr.otion co,ti; $42 Both pubhcdn'ov.(ie deta,:ed !nfcrra,01o,'. about SpeCIf,c ,odu:,tr,es k,tho's

indivq1.Ja! (re etr.,fHerlt con?aCuS to, Poro information

The Economic Census Survey of MinorityOwned Business Enterprises and Survey of Women-Owned Businesses provide (lora forco.,;ntie., tOil hove at least 100 br;sinesses owled by women, biw,H,

Asian Amer,- ins, Arreric,i, I rOar 0, 0011 other r,,nor,!le!,fepo,t, du. to' ' ri 01; Wtr 1 0 (ln!fltdflt poDlof Mr ot

0! ',II !di woub 0 exorable M!",barlIc bi,7ones; ownerr.;Yovii0,1, inty, An/ono Ilo!o ;tem-, in( 1,Jdf, fotol nH,Ilbor of firm'; 1,1.;

obpoced to m.;atr'';P-mo?Ot',, t:00 oolpinym,g-;,e( irabe, (,4 1,1,0)1, 11P repo":,

1)1)1!,0, \NB r!,i( I Mil 1Asian Arnerir.onii,, Arom!nO Indians, and (Wit', minorpH,.;

MO firqHT', fr(m; tho, 111? .`,,,t,1, 0":1 1441,,Vold Ir 4,r4r4r4q 1,410,

p b am .0 oa ri aa*, '.) 14), -Iv.) ii o' i)"A 4. 41 '4 ;)'41',44 41'1

Industry-Specific Data 75

Ag ricultureAlthough many rural communities have diversified their industrial mix in

the last several decades, a significant percentage continue to rely heavily onagriculture as a major source of income. Farming-dependent counties, ofwhich there arc 556, are concentrated in the Great Plains, with others clus-tered in the Mississippi Delta and parts of the West. The issues facing peoplein these communities include farm profitability, the environmental conse-quences of current farming practices, and the structure of the industry itself.

Questions that people might ask include:

What are the major crops produeud and types of livestock raised'?

What is the financial condition of local farmers'?

Ilow big is the average farm?

flow many farms are sole proprietorships (that is, owned by one per-son), how many are partnerships, and how many are corporations'?

flow many farmers are part-time'?

Probably because of its historical importance, we have more informationabout agriculture than about any other industry that contributes to the ruraleconomy. The most comprehensive source is the agricultural census, con-ducted every live years hy the Bureau of the Census hut every four yearsbetween 1969 and I 92. It is the only source of consistent, comparable agri-culture data at the county, state, and national levels.

Published reports from the agricultural census include data on number andsize of firms; crop production; livestock, poultry, and their pn)ducts, tenure,age, and principal occupation of operator; type of organi/ation; value ofproducts sold; production expenses; and many other characteristics.

Resuhs of the 1992 Census of Agriculture are published in Volume I,Geographic. Area Series (AC92.A-1 through AC92-A-511. The reports pro-vide datl at 11,e national, state, and county (or e(iuivalent) levels. Results arealso available oil compmer tape, CD-RON1, and online on CIA DATA andInternet (see Appendix H. For more intormation, write the Bureau of theCen,us. Agriculture and Financial Statistics Div ision. Washington. Ix'2o234.s300 or call (Sf )01 52.; ;215. For ;idditional informant ahout elecIronic data products. call Custonwr Services ;it 1(11) 457-4100.

For the last census, which w ;is done in 1992, the Census RIIIT111 madedshort -screemm.!- questionnaires fo a of loin million mdfs iduak, busi

and orgam/ahons Olaf the al!ericv had identdied as hong ;I.up...idledwith agriculture Respondents were asked questions to determine Ns hoheithey met l'SIA's del Milton of a LIM, 111,1' s, skIwthei they sold for had Ow

potential to ,t..11i at least SI,000 vvoith uut iiiu ultoial products in Ill01 Dios('

that qualn led relAisk'd a complete CeIlqls cinestionnalft,Coiii ilyt R.1111;11;0 "thslis data :in. allable in state hy state reports

76 Understanding the bzonomies of Rural Communities

about two or three years after the reference period. State reports from the1992 Census were released in 1994.

More up-to-date information about agriculture is available from theNational Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) in USDA. Each year,NASS's 45 field offices conduct sample surveys by mail, telephone, personalinterviews, and in-the-tield observation to collect information on crop andlivestock production. chemical use, marketing, expenses, prices, and income.These data are released by the state offices in annual (and some quarterly)reports. Some data are reported for counties, others for multi-county cropreporting districts, and still others for states. Pertinent national data may alsobe included in the state reports. Tah le 11 shows how some the NASS dataare presented for Kossuth County.

NASS operates field offices in each state except Maine, Nev.. liampshire,Vermont, Connecticut. Massachusetts, and Rhode Island (which are all partof a New Engkind Regional office in Concord, New Ilampshiret. Questionsabout the state systcm should he referred to the Director, State StatisticalDiv ision, NASS, I. South Building, Room 4143, 14th & Independence.Ave. SW, Washington. DC 20250, or call (202) 720-363g.

The Economic Research Service (ERS ) is the I. gency responsibletor analyting and reporting much of the data collected by N ASS, as V. ell asagricultural and rural data t'rom many other agencies and organi/atio'is. MostERS analysis and research is done at the national and regional kvel. Oneexception is the November or December issue of Ecommlic Indicators 01 theFarm Sector It includes income and balance sheet accounts for each statebased ou the N ASS Farm Costs and Returns Survey. Income accountsinclude net larm income, net cash income, net business income, net cashflow, cash income to tam operator households, and returns to operators fromproduction transactitms. Balance sheet accounts include the current marketalue ot assets, debts, and net worth.

Table 11 ',tate held tot the Nanitil,d k..11/41, ¼

annual. titott and matko.tine data

,1

tin ,,s,

r

Coolits I ,1/4sa

l'Hadtr,I 114N11,11 1

rf,cik.,1pct 1001.100.1

ddi,11,1

Is,,,,)5' 0,0, 21 1 1,1111 I0 II ,

I III. I.I/IIII N's I

01 S1.01 .0. ...

9

Industry-Specific Data 77

ERS provides updated information on agriculture 24 hours a day. Toaccess AutoFAX, call (202) 219-1107 from the touch-tone phone on a faxmachine and wait for recorded instructions The system will ask you fora document number and then send the document to your fax machine(up to three per call) Ask for document 041 I to get a list of directoriesavailable on the system, and ask for document 4001 for a directory offarm income documents. Each document is 3-6 pages in length Amongthe available directories are guides to FRS information and data, specialtyagriculture, national, and state farm income accounts, farm sector economics, and rural affairs

F RS data are also accessible through Internet (see Appendix

l'p-to-date estinhites of production, stocks, inventories, and other agricul-tural data are issued by USDA's Agricultural Statistics Board and the StateStatistical Offices. For a free copy of the "Agricultural Statistics BoardCatalog,- write to ASB Publications, Room 5829, South Building, I.Washington, DC 20250, or call (202) 720-4020.

ForestryThe forestry industry incl IlueS t.m.)er production and harxest. forestry Set--

Vices (such as pest control and reforestation), and the manufacture of woodproducts.'" Rural c(mimutUties that depend on the forestry industry are scat-tered throughout the Pacific Northwest, upper Midwest, parts of theSoutheast, and the extreme Northeast.

The issues facing the industry and communities that depend in forestry arecomplex, in part because so much forest land is Federally ow led and there-fore the focus of intense public scrutiny. Public policy must address ques-tions about how to insure the long-term productivity of the nation's timberresources; preserve multiple uses of timber lands while protecting wildlife,soil, and water quality; and afford some measure of economic stability to thecommunities that depend on forestry. Some of the questions that people insuch communities might ask include:

Flow many local lobs and how much local income depend onforestry'.'

Who owns the region's timber lands '

I low ;fie regional limber re,ource. }icing rnathwed and 11,,ed. and

%%horn :ire tho being sold.'

'Hui Ns.iciri t, ill I CLICral .11T1h iinit sAinst rnstuit,istikti is turnilutti, poly, dm) 1),Itter i in Itic nt,intititrItitinvWebcr, And ShrINCI i i, Iln retini I Alt% let's in thi t(tIt'stlx inititslts

I ht.' 1,111'.1 ion \ faiiiscil hcfe

78 Understanding the I:eonomies or Rural Communities

What is the size and structure of the forest products industry?

How is local employment being affected by increased use of machin-ery, or alternatively, by the site of the timber harvest?

From the perspective of an individual community, data to answer ques-tions like these are fragmented and difficult to find. (There is no census otforestry, for example.) Forestry is an industry whose level of income andemployment is relatively minor in terms of the national economy but whichis extremely important to sonie regions, especially in rural areas. Therefore,Federal statistics by themselves are insufficient for local analysis and mustbe supplemented by other data.

Researchers can start with the follow ing:

l'SDA's Forest Service, which is in charge of all Feckrally tt nedtimber land;

U.S. and star.e Forest and Range Experiment Stations, hich conductresearch oil Variety ot renewable resource issues; and

state forestry agencies.

Fliesc sources can he supplemented with information from SESA., CountylhoineY.. Patterny, and the Bureau of Economic Analysis.

One of the first questions that researchers might ask concerns the extent towhich a comnunity depends on the kirestry industry for income and employ-ment. At least a partial answer can he found in the environmental impactstatement (EIS) devekiped by the Forest Service for e%ery national forest.The EIS analyes the direct and so-called "induced- effect of alternative for-est management plans on the economy and physical environment of multi-county areas. For example, the EIS for White Mountain National Forest innorthern New Hampshire evaluates how different harvest rates will affectincome and emoloyment in an area that includes Coos ('ounty and three adiacent counties (.0)."

Researchers who arc interested in data for a single county, or informationabout turestr dependence in areas v. here timber is pH% atel% held, mustuse more general secondary sources. With respect to employment data.SL.SAs collect information on Vkige ;old :aim\ workers in the torestry indtistr ircitidirie. tor comple, those ho work in toiestt set.% ices, and in lum

ht `Nt'f %I t.' 1111411 0101)111 ,M.Ils 'Os it list FAN' the otat ttir,11 intchIcivtident. thr Ant', its lc-. V% oh !hill!AIN A'S- niolel, picklit littt sdnoths is1,11)s v. ill oltvi

lo,11 dthl cutup! III areas tha t.tlls timiam ,.eseral kofusimand 1.rvitag I .1 hake les,..114x.t1 a It' !unique to lo dltuk. \s model lin a subk otirit. kormittimIN Icti'l

Industp-Specific Data 79

her and wood products manufacturing. The shortcomings of the SFSA dataare: (1) self-employed loggers and mill owners are not countrd, (2) U.S.Forest Service workers are not reported separately from other Federal gov-ernment workers; and 0) forestry workers employed for wages or sak.ry areusually grouped w ith those in agriculture and fisheries.

One method to obtain this data is to try to get detailed wage and salaryinformation directly from the SESA and ihen double-check these data withstatistics from County Bitsing'.1. Patterny. By combining the two sources (aswell as data front private companie s. it' available). it may be possible to piecetogether a realistic employment profile for the forestry industry

('ounty-level income data for the forestry industry are even inure prob-lematic. BEA does not report either forestry proprietor or worker income sep-arately. Researchers may be able to work with analysts in their state Forestand Range Experiment Station to develop independent estimates.

Another question that people in forestry-dependent communities mightask concerns the ownership and management of public and private timber-land. National, regional, and local Forest Service offices can provide infor-Illation about Federal ownership, while stae and private forestry' offices(located in the regional Forest Service offices), or individual state forestryagencies (where they exist) shotild he able to provide information aboutstate-owned and private forest land.

Federal timber policy is guided by three Congressional acts that, in theory,provide public-sector forest managers with a framework for lnng ii.'1111 plan.ning. These managers are responsible for developing and implementing an

The U.S. Forest Service's Rural Comrnunity Assistance Program Pr()vidw, !:;tans.e and knoted grant tirvis to eligible natural

ba!-,ed corrrnunities D,e tirogram h.elps communities Inatnave t)een adversely affected by cr)arow; in -Atural re5oloce poilcy wth',Irdtf'qe...., to (1volop and d,ver',fy tne,r eco.yr,es AM !rnportant ele

(). (mn,y mr. Vflerdts'd()? ,"40Y1 .n; \A.0 C d*

The U.S. Fore,;t St!rvic:e pliblist.a!s "A Guide tu Yotir National Forf!sts," " I I 4 /' I 1 'WY (/' S.

i 1' 11: ! n's" ," S., !,1 (` f

a-1 ka, '1 n., ';.) "%Li' .)- I c...," I' H'10 I

1' 1 '' r"' " 11,,"s' '' i' ,15,'" " r." (' it' ' 1" " " f , ,,,'

t) Af',1 ,.; )4f, (1 1.); ,)(Vl'(,)fl

Understanding the Economies of Rural Communities

official Forest Plan which is revised every 10 to 15 years. The Federal gov-ernment uses the plans to communicate with the public. They set forth over-all management principles and also specify targets for activities such as tim-ber harvest, road construction, campground development, and protection ofroadless areas. Forest Plans are available from local Forest Service offices.

The quality of information on the size and structure of the local forestpr(ducts industry varies widely. Researchers should check with the regionalForest and Range Experiment Station and state forestry agency to find outwhat is available for their area.

MiningThe mining industry is a diverse sector that includes the extraction of min.

erals occurring naturally.---solids such as coal and ores; liquids such as crudepetndeum; and gases such as natural gas. The major factors that affect theindustry's performance vary according to the particular substance that ismined, although in general, the industry is characterized by high instability.Mining-dependent counties, of which there are 146. are concentrated inAppalachia and scattered around the West.

The primary source of small-area data on the mining industry comes fromthe census of mineral industries, which covers all establishments w ith one ormore paid employees. Information from this census allows us to answerquestions about the local structure of the industry (lum. many establishmentsand employees), its payroll, value of shipments, and capital expenditures.

The enumeration method for the 1992 Census of Miner.)! Industries corn-Hued a mail questionnaire (for about 22.600 midsize and large establish-ments) with administrative recor0 data from other Federal agencies (forahout 11,500 smaller establishments). County data w ill he published in the(leographIc Area Series t)f regional reports (MIC92-A), which is scheduledto he released in mid- 1995. State-level data are available on CD-ROM.

hich will be updated quarterly ;,nd eventually include the county data as

well. Table 12 shows how I 9S7 census data v,er,. published for NicholasCounty.

Other sniall.aR.a mining dato an; at ailable from state ageniics in thosestates where nulling is :in unpon ant ills ay I-or example, the West Vul:iniaIkpartment of Mines issues :in 1mitial Report owl 1)trei ton ot Moles thichcontains time series data on undeftround and surlacc mine wal t1k tomhs, count

_ _' tho, ( ,*' I

. (I' :**! .! ,l'ri

r r i I * '.r)1 4,)4

Tab

le 1

2 M

inin

g da

ta c

onic

from

the

cens

us o

f min

eral

indu

strie

s.

I nda

sti

Li

stah

lishm

ents

Nic

hola

s C

ount

s, W

esi

irgon

a

All

einp

loec

sP

rodu

ctio

n. d

esel

orm

cm.

and

e \p

lora

tion

st,li

rker

s

\%ith

20

cinp

locc

sI1

1011

:N

unilv

rN

umbe

r

thtil

ls,l1

1,11

i11

1Illo

n11

11,)

1.1,

111,

1s I

llIIii

41,

I7

cc 0

toal

am

;

5,

I 4

IIW

is

1111

111I

ons1

woi

2c,

iS 1

11III

I011

1

2 9

45 4

I )ai

d lo

t the

I ru

de r

eIro

letim

and

rhi

litto

l gas

and

min

ing

Net

% Il

e, ii

iliiIL

ere

not

oill

elte

d19

S

,0 !h

e C

eri.o

. .IQ

82 UnderstandinF the 1.....onotme. ot Rtit,t1(.0hummtnes

MahufacturingManufacturing-dependent counties, of which there are 506. are scattered

throughout the eastern I 'nited States, with a few in the Northwest ()aysource of county-level data on the manufacturing industi is the ,..1.11AIS ifmanufactures, which coers all establishments -engaged in the me. ham, .11chemical transformation of materiak or substances Into Ilt%%Data from this census allIOV researchers to ;111,0Act tiocAloo abolit ufit lub1/4,11

structure of the industry., lh payroll. cost of materials, %aim of its shipmentsexported out of the country and new capital expendituresinformation is presented for the manufacturing industri., as a whole. as wellas for specific manufacturing muustries that ha.e at le.11 S(X) eittploce. ina partieular county

I ike the census of mineral industries, the ellt1111.. mu Method u.t.'d fir thyI992 census of manufactures combined a mail questionnaire iro ahoul2000)0 midsi/e :Ind large establishments) w ith adinunstrati%e it,tabout 150,000 single-estahlishment firms). l)ata he counties and scle, tedplaces wilt he puhlished in the Geographic rea Series ',11( hetmlitm.:in eark 1995.

For larr.earea tailsilt's on the manufacturing industr. ht'l, 1 an

use state tables in the Geographic Are.1 SerIcs Fou detailed .1,111.11k

diVkiorp, within ,he industry. researchers can consult Indusir\ 'seriesMCS7- h. In the case of Coos Countx, hew Pkood produk. ts ire 111,111111.k

tured, for example, researchers would likely he interested III repilits h as

'togging ramps, Sawmills. and Planing Mills" (Report 24.A1Because of the -500employee" limit, the l'ells11. of iniuiiil.it lures not

often proide detailed data in rumnietro ..ounties. 1.or Nu.twlas tor

example. the census provides data ahout estahlishmems that mmullat. i.-lumber and wood produt ts." hut not tor the subi..ategories -logeirfg and

-saw nulls and planing mniIl Fol inure utah ihunit Ill (

County. tesearchers t:an um. lata from ( R14\111C1% II%

01111 arc illusti,de I in Table ; Arnow: other things. r fl diii nh iii hit

The Energy Information Adourlistratum 1 A) i.ohei,ts ond publishw,Output, employment, and productivity d...ta on 'he tool, petroleum,natural gas, arul other energy industries. 1,

f " ',t "

Industry-Specific Data 83

Table 13 County Business Patterns adds some detail to economic censuses likethe census of manufactures.

Coos County, New Ilampshire 119921

Number ofemployees for Annual

Total number of week including payroll

Industry estahlishmenk March 124 i$1,000)h

Lumber and wiod products (16 483 8,767

Logging 52 267 4,109Sawmills Ond planing

units 193 4,125

Furniture and fixtures (a) (DiIlousehold furniture ID)

Riper and allied pniducts 5 tb) if))Paper mills th) (I))Miscellaneous converted

paper products lc) ;D)

'la) 100. 249 employees; (b) 1,000 .',499 employees, (c) 250 499 employees.htI)) Withheld to avoid disclosing data for individual estahlishMelliSllurre: t;.S. Department of COMMeree, Bureau lit the Cenus (3.1)).

"logging" makes up 55 percent of "lumber and wood products employment."hut only 49 percent of the payroll.

TradeThe trade imIustry includes firms that sell merchandise eith, r to other

firms (wholesale trade) or to consumers (retail trade).The primary sources of small-area data on the trade industry are the cen-

suses of retail and wholesale trade. Like others in the economic series, thetrade censuses allow us to answer questions about numbers of establishmentsand employees, payroll, and value of sales. In the case of retail trade, thesestatistics are provided for ten types of industries for counties and places thathave at least 350 establishments with paid emploees. Less detail is availablefrom the ,:ensus of wholesale trad.2, which provides statistics for only twokinds of establishmentsmerchant wholesalers (which own the goods theysell) and "other operating types" (which act as agents and do not actuallyown what they sell).

The enumeration method for the 1992 trade censuses combined a mailquesti(nnaire (for midsiie and larger establishments) with administrative

84 Understandi,ig. the Economies of Rural Communities

records (for smaller establishments). Data for counties and places with atleast 2,500 population will be published in the Geograf)hic Area Series(RC92-A and WC92-A), which is being released as this book goes to press.

Publications based on the census of retail trade report the number of estab-lishments and total sales fm ten kinds of retail businesses, such as foodstores', eating and drinking places, and apparel and accessory stores.

Other small-area retail trade data are available from a private source calledthe Annual Survey of Buying Power issued by Sales and MarketingManagement. Published annually within 12 months of the reference year.Survey of Buying Power includes retail sales estimates by selected SICgroups, including establishments that sell food; eating and drinking places;general merchandise stores; furniture, furnishing, and appliance stores; auto-motive supply stores; and drug stores. Sales and Marketing Managementuses census of retail trade data as benchmarks, and then uses other public andprivate sources to update the census data.

Two other reference books that yield small-area (marketing) data are Du'Sourcehook of County Demographics, and The Sourcehook of Zip CodeDemographics, published by CACI Marketing Systems, a private firm. Fo1counties and zip codes, both books contain data on population, age, race,household income, purchasing trends, and also have business data for the 2-digit SIC level on total number of firms and employees. These data comefrom the census, Current Population Survey, other agency data, and privatemarketing surveys. Both books are also available on CD-ROM, but are quiteexpensive. Check your nearest depository library or call CACI at (800) 292-2224.

The Census Bureau issues monthly and annual cu.rent trade statistics forthe United States and, in some cases, states and regions. See the CensusCatalog and Guide or call Data l'ser Services at (301) 457-4100 for moreinformation.

ServicesThe service industry includes establishments that prc vide services to indi-

viduals, businesses, and governments. Examples of service establishmentsare hotels; personal service businesses such as laural:ies and barber shops;business service companies that do advertising or data processing. for examplc; health. legal, and educational services; and private households thatemploy workers in domestic service. Some people confuse the service indus-try with the service sector. 'I'he "sector- is a broader classification whichincludes all industries producing no tangible product such as transporta-tion, communications, trade, household services, and government.

Many rural communities see the service industry as a possible vehicle foreconomic development. Sonic service-based strategies focus on attractingtourists, while others concentrate on retirees (who may need health care,

Tab

le 1

4 T

he c

ensu

s of

ser

vice

indu

strie

s pr

ovid

es d

ata

on in

dust

ries

that

are

bec

omin

g m

ore

impo

rtan

t to

som

e ru

ral c

omm

uniti

es.

Est

ablis

hmen

ts w

ith p

ayro

ll in

sel

ecte

d ki

nd-o

f-bu

sine

ss g

roup

s (1

992r

'

liote

ls, m

owls

,an

d ot

her

lodg

ing

plac

es Pay

roll

Num

ber

( S

I ,C

)00

)

Aut

omot

ive

repa

ir, s

ervi

ces,

and

gara

ges Pay

roll

Num

ber

) S

1,00

0)

Am

usem

ent a

ndre

crea

tion

serv

ices Par

oll

Num

ber

(S I

,(X

X))

Hea

lth s

er Ic

es

Pay

rol

lN

umbe

r(5

1,0(

Xli

I .eg

at s

ers

Ices

Pa

roll

Num

ber

(SL)

W

Yav

apai

Cou

nty,

At

6036

,629

9217

,354

5018

,168

221

85,5

9657

11.3

24C

amp

Ver

de1

(Di

461

76

3,08

01

(Di

Chi

no V

alle

y2

11)1

N .11

)1I

(Di

Cot

tonw

ood

72,

881

71,

275

61,

851

3010

,522

0(I

))P

resc

ott

20(D

i40

9,80

412

6,33

113

)S

M,0

03.4

79,

146

Pre

scot

t Val

ley

s(D

)0

1,07

71

(Di

112,

422

1(1

))S

edon

a (p

art i

1(1

))I

(I))

1(D

iB

alan

ce o

f cou

nty'

2817

,446

27(

D i

29I

II I

419,

489

111,

;00

"(D

) W

ithhe

ld to

at o

id d

iscl

osin

g da

ta fo

r in

dit i

dual

com

pani

es.

'Bal

ance

of c

ount

y in

clud

es p

lace

s st

ith

popu

latio

n le

ss th

an 2

,500

Sou

r,I

S D

ep,il

t wen

t trt

rom

mei

,e, H

urea

u of

the

Cen

,u. 4

21

86 Unoer:tanding the Economies of Rural Communities

nursing homes, and other services). Critics of such strategies warn that partsof the service industry are unstable because they are sensitive to changes inconsumer income and that jobs generated by the industry are often unskilled,s,..asonal, and low wage.

The primary source of small-area data about this industry is the census ofservice industries, which covers most service establishments except educa-tion; labor, political, and religious organizations; and private households.Data for this census are gathered primarily through a mail questionnaire andfrom administrative records (for the smallest establishments).

Statistics from the census of service industries include numbers of estab-lishments and employees, payroll, and receipts. The data are provided byspecific type of business for counties and places with 350 or more serviceestablishments with paid employees. Table 14 shows how the data were pre-sented for Yavapai County in 1992. (As in the case of manufacturing statis-tics, data for divisions within the industry are available in CBP.)

Other data for selected service industries may be available from state com-merce or business development agencies. In particular, states that activelypromote tourism typically collect information on lodging places, restaurants,and recreation services.

The Role of the Federal Government

Although the Federal government provides a relatively small share of localgovernment revenue (see Chapwr 5), it does make a substantial contributionto local economies by transferring income and making loans directly to indi-viduals and businesses. Researchers can learn the site of that contribution byusing the Consolidated Federal Funds Report (CFER), an annual CensusBureau publication that contains small-area data on Federal governmentexpenditures and obligations.

Statistics in the two-volume (TER are up to date because the publicationis issued approximately six months after the fiscal year to which it pertains()ctober 1 to September 30). Volume 1 covers county areas and includes sta-tistics on grants to local governments, salaries and wages. procurement con.tracts (defense and other), direct payments to Mdividuals (retirement and dis-ability, and other). loans (direct add guaranteed). and some other majorprograms. Volume 2 covers subcounty areas and includes statistics on grantsto local governments, procurement contracts (defense and otherh and loans(direct and guaranteed) All of :he (TER data are available electronically.Data for a ten .year period are on CD-ROM for county areas.

FOire IS illustrates (TER data for Yavapai and Kossuth counties. Onper capita basis. Kossuth receives almost twice as much mone from theFederal government ( including direct payments as well as loans and guaran-

11W

The Role of the Federal Government 87

Figure 18 The Consolidated Federal Funds Report enables researchers to trackthe geographic distribution of Federal money,

Government Funds Per Capita (1993)

Direct payments to individualsSalaries/wages Procurement Contracts $2.511

Salaries/wages$187

Grant awards$556

Direct paymentsmdividuals53,663

Procurement contractsOthe$96$16

\ Grant awards Other\ $292 $1.360

3

Loans/insurance

Yavapai County, Arizona

$408

Sourre: :.S; Department of Commerce, Bureau rd Censu.

L a3a3nos=Loansrinsu ance

$4.677

Kossuth County, Iowa

tees) as Yavapai. The difference is due primarily to direct loans and guaran-teed loans and insurance, most likely issued to local farmers. Because of itshigh concentration of retirees, Yavapai County receives a relatively largershare of direct payments to individuals, which include retirement and dis-ability programs.

.

Analyzing Government inRural Communities

Many state and local governments around the country are under severe finan-cial stress. One reason is that as Federal aid has decreased relative to personalincome, the number and scope of top-down, unfunded mandates haveincreased. These mandates cover a variety of social services, public trans-portation, environmental issues, and other responsibilities. They are publicsector obligations defined at the national level, even though financial andadministrative responsibility for carrying them out resides at the state andlocal level (5).

Unfortunately, many state and local governments are ill equipped to deal. with these new and growing responsibilities. Lower level., of governmentshave been unwilling, and often unable, to raise the revenue needed to carryout obligations from the national level (15). Since increased Federal assis-tance is unlikely, many communities face poin:cally difficult choicesbetween raising tax revenues, cutting services, or finding ways to provideservices at a lower cost. Making these choices in an informed way requires athorough understanding of local government structure and of how variousgovernment units generate revenue and spend money. Some of the specificquestions that a researcher might ask are:

flow many and what kind of jurisdictions exist in the locality, whatservices do they provide, and which ones are authorized to ley y taxesand spen(l money?

What percentage of local revenue conies from intergovernmentaltransfers (Federal and state), and from own sounvv, filch is raisedhy the government unit itself (e.g., property taxes, and sales taxes)?

SS

flow are these revenues used to provide various services'?

How do expenditures and service le% els compare w ith state, regional,or national norms?

!low many people ate emplocd hy the local government and hoxvmuch do they earn.'

Local Government Structure 89

In addition to reports from the census of governments, the CensusBureau publishes reports based on annual and quarterly surveys on suchtopics as government employment, finah.ce, and public employee retire-ment systems. Many of these reports include data for individual gov-ernment units. See the most recent Census Catalog and Guide for moreinformation. Two brochures, ''Current Government Reports" and "1992Census of Governments," are also useful guides. To order, write to theChief of Governments Division, Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC20233.

In general, all census of governments data and associated annual sur-veys covering government finances and employment are available bythe individual government unit. The data are not restricted by confiden-tiality. While the numbers are not usually released in printed format,they are available from data files contained on magnetic tape as well asother formats. The Census Bureau is now releasing data via Internet,although currently these data are limited to large government units andstate summaries of local governments Contact your state data centeror regional Census office to find out if unpublished data are available foryour area.

The moAt useful and easy-to-find statistics for answering these kinds ofquestions are issued by the Census Bureau. These statistics come from thecensus of governments, which is conducted in years ending in "2- and "7.-The reports in the government series include data on sonic 85,000 local unitsof government below the Federal and state levels, including counties, munic-ipalities, townships, school districts, and special districts.

A word of caution before we discuss how researchers can use these statis-tics: Analyzing local government is very complicated. Often, published dataare riot comparable across areas because budgeting and accounting practicesdiffer from state to state and from one jurisdiction to another within a state.Therefore, we str,,ngly recommend that it' you want to research local gi.v-ernment issues, consult first with local planners, people who are responsiblet'or budgeting and accounting within the local ,jurisdiction, or other knowl-edgeable people.

Local Government Structure

Researchers can answer questions about the structure of local governmentswith information from the Census Bureau report called GovernmentOrgani:ation, Series Gn 11-1. The most up-to-date edition of this report isbased on data from the 1992 census of go% ernments. It provides information

90 Analyting Government in Rural Communities

Table 15 Government ONanization, a report from the census of governments, isa printer on local governments and public school systems.

Number of governmental units 11992)

Special district

School With propertyCount,. Municipal district .Fotal taxing power

Attala, MS III 4 1.1

Coos, Nil 44 I I n 7

Kossuth, IA 21 12 7 I

Latah, ID 40 9 5 25 24

Nicholas, WV 12 1- 1 8

Yavapai, AL 53 8 23 21 21

"Includes county government as a separate unit. Coos County total includes 19 townshipunits.Sourre: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau ot the (*emus 05).

on the number and selected characteristics of local government units andpublic scE.,)ol systems as of the beginning of 1992. County-level data itemsare: ( ) number of local governmental units and (2) type of units (municipal,township, school district, and special district).

Data for our sample counties from the 1992 Government Organizta ionreport are illustrated in Table 15. As the table shows, Coos County has 44separate government units, compared to only ten in Attala County.

For every state, Government Organization describes each type of govern-ment unit and school system in terms of its purpose, authorizing legislation,and funding source. For example, we learn from the report that in Idaho,there are 22 separate types of governments. Among these are "special dis-tricts," which include such entities as port districts, housing authorities, lireprotection districts in unincorporated areas, weed districts, intercountyrural library districts.

Local Government Finance

After learning how local government is structured, a researcher might wantto know where public revenues come front and how they are spent. As wementiimed above, budgeting and accounting piactices differ from place toplace, so it is important to consult with knowledgeable people before tack-ling this subject.

The Census Bureau reports revenue and expenditure data for counties inthe Compendium of Government Finances., one of live reports in Series

ol

Imeal Government Finance 91

GC(4). (As this book goes to press, the 1992 edition has not yei beenreleased.) Revenues are classified by type: intergovernmental, general fromown sources, and utility and liquor store. Expenditures are classified by func-

tion: education services, social service and income maintenance, transporta-tion, public safety, environment and housing, government administration,and utilities.

Figure 19 illustrates how a researcher might use these revenue data. For allsix sample counties, revenue from the Federal government paid directly tothe county government makes up a very small share of total revenue. CoosCounty gets the largest share from the Federal government, probably becauseso much of the county is made up of Forest Service land.

Another report in Series GC(4), Finances of County Governments GC (4)-3, contains information on revenue, expenditure, debt, and assets for indi-vidual county governments. It also contains national and population size-voups to allow comparison of data. Other reports in the series present

Figure 19 The Compendium rI' Goivrpirm'nt 1'inance8 provides data on localgovernment revenue.

Attala

Coos `1"11j1FHft1H 549'274'000

KCSSuth HITT' 11171T1111:1111i 111 111111111171111]$26.996.000

Six Sample Counties (FY 1986-87)

-71-TT-FIT1.171.11iiii ,!.] $2\.-.\\\ ::.\"\:.\,.:.\\_\.,.. '...N,..1.1!11.11-11:1.,...1

1H' liI 11:1.1..-,-

,.., 7 ,,,

191.000

Loan; L: 71 1[177-71T11 $26 526.000

Nwholas.\\

$26,507.000

1:1 111111d illY.I.pdi ,

S164 014 000,._'.., \ '..\\ N'' \\''', - - rr1r* -

0 2(1 40 1",t) HO 100

Percentage

I egeral governm(Int El :;tate government 9 Own s,urces

qm e I' s 1)epartment 01 ( ',rnmert 0, lioredu of the ( 12(11

1 1) 5

92 Analyzing Government in Rural Communities

larger-area data on government revenues, by source and type; expenditures,by function, character, and object; indebtedness and debt transactions; andcash and security holdings.

Own source revenue comes from two sources. The first consists of taxes,such as real property, personal property, income, and sales. The second ismade up of charges and miscellaneous revenues, such as interest earnings,fees and perm t revenue, and user fees for water, solid waste disposal, andrecreation.

One very important component of own source revenue is the property tax.When property tax revenues fluctuate from year to year (as they do in some

resource-based rural communities), providing public services that depend onproperty taxes is especially difficult. For example, between 1982 and 1986,plummeting land values in many farm-depcndent communities caused prop-erty tax collections to decline. This placed severe stress on the ability of localgovernments to finance education and other public services (19).

One source of data for analyzing local property tax values is the CensusBureau report called 7axable Property Values, Series GC(2). It containsinformation on assessed valuations, property sales, and property tax rates.County-level data items are: (1) gross assessed property value (total, real, andpersonal); (2) the tax-exempt portion of locally assessed value (real and per-sonal); and (3) assessed value subject to tax (total, state assessed, and locallyassessed). Like other reports in this series, the most recent edition is based ondata from the 1992 census of governments.

Because local governments must make budget projections annually' orbiannually, it is often important for officials to know how the property taxbase is changing from year to year. Census data are issued only every fiveyears, so people who need more up-to-date information should contact theircounty tax assessor. Although property values are a matter of public record,assessors vary in how accessible they make f he data. In some states, fundingprovides incentives for communities to assess property at less than fair mar-ket value. Where these incentives are large, people may get more accurateinformation about local property values from the State Department ofRevenue or State Board of Equalization than from local officials.

Just as important as knowing where the money comes from is knowinghow it is spent. Again using the Compendium of Government Finam es,

researchers can learn how much their local govenunent spends on variouspublic services, and how their expenditures compare to those made in othercommunities. Expenditure categories include education, social services andincome maintenance, transportation. public safety, and environment mmmd

housing. For example, Figure 211 shows per capita expenditures on policeprotection by each ot the six sample counties. In 1987. l'avapai County spentthe most and Nicholas County spent the least.

Other tables in this Census report show each state's revenue and expendi

cq,

Public Employment 93

Figure 20 The Compendium (4.Governmeni Finances also provides data on

local government expenditures.

Per Capita Expenditures on Police Protection (1987)

Dollars per capita070 --- -

Sti0 !

$54

$50$46

$40

$35$37

$30

$20

$10

$0Alta la Coos Kossuth Latah

Sr un S Pepartment ot Commerce, t3iirt,ij it the

$26

Nicholas

$66

`1, vapai

ture data for groups of counties of similar population size. There are eightpopulation-size groups ranging from "less than 10,000" to "1,000,0(X) ormore." With this information, researchers can compare their county budgetto that of counties with roughly the sante number of people. They might, forexample, learn that there are economies of scale for certain services; that is,the cost of providing a particular service might be less for larger counties. Ifthis is the case, two counties might be able to save money if they offer theservice jointly instead of individually. Alternatively, the cost of providingservices might be affected by population density rather than size, a relation-ship that the Census Bureau data would not reveal.

Public Employment

Public employee payroll is one ot the largest Com ponent s loial govern-ment expenditures o.id is, therefore, often a target for budget cuts. llsingCensus Bureau data, researchers can find out how many' people are employed

94 Anal.ving Government in Rural Communities

to provide public services in their county. They can also compare their pub-lic employment and payroll level.; to those in counties of similar size aroundthe United States.

The source of sit h int'ormation is a report called Public Employment,Seric GC(3). One of the volumes in this report, Onnpendium PublicEmployment, includes county-level data on number of employees by function, as well as October earnings for full-time teachers and all other pobliemployees.

Figure 21 illustrates how these data can be used. Of the six sample coun-ties, local government hired the most full-time equivalent.( III) teachers per1,000 population in Nicholas County, and the least in Kossuth County. InOctober 1987, these teachers earned the highest salary in Yavapai County andthe lowest salary in Attala County.

Figure 21 Tlw ( ompendium of Public Emplm Went provides data on public ser-vice employees and earnings.

Attata

Number of Teachers and Teacher Earnings for October (1987)Six Sample Counties

Coos -

Kossuth

Latah

P-4,cholas

$1.466

'LW I ,..'t-3,4"1-14-T',-;;',74,-;:.-':

tIra nise ttf !Astir 444 $1 863

1W-74 $1 40?

P

V,tvapal '4,,t.t!',V6011:1.!...:?!aj -taleffut-jsailnelAmjay.. friet .

.421-44 .... -.' ,'-. t? 481

I ,

teachers per 1,000 populdtion

.Soim I S 1)cr,trtmeitt t I othrttvrA., liuitdit .11 the ,2 '1

1 0 )

411

Publk: Emplorn,mt

Again, the Census Bureau issues these data only once every five years, sopeople who need more up-to-date data should contact local agencies, such astheir county or municipal government office.

In between census of governments reports (issued o.ery five years) aresc cral ar:nual Current Government Reports that can help researchers com-pare data for different governments. Public Employment (GE-1) giY esnational totals on October employment and payrolls of all governments, byfunction and type. and local government employment and payroll, by func-non. ( Emplomcnt (GL-2) pro' 'des national and population-siie groupstatistics on ktober employ ment and payrolls of municipal goernments, byfunction. County Government Employment (GL-4) provides national andpopulation.sue group statistics on October employment and pay rolls ofcounty goy ernments, by function, and gives comparable data for pro, iousyears

I

Glossary

For more detail, rcaders are encouraged to refer to original sources refer-enced in the text.

administrative data I).ata collected in the course of an organitation'snormal business: t'or example, the Internal Revenue Service's tile of allincome tax returns.

age pyramid A bar graph that shows the age distribution of a population.Age pyramids are usually constructed using live-year intervals, with theolder age intervals at the top of the graph.

aggregate income See total personal income.

Beale coding system Classifies all U.S. counties into ten groups basedon urban/rural population characteristics and location with respect tourban areas. Includes six groups of nonmetro counties and four groups ofmetro counties. Also referred to as the "Urban-Rural Continuum Code."

block The Census Bureau term for a small geographic area with discernableboundaries but no minimum population. Blocks are the smallest geo-graphic units used by the Census Bureau tOr collecting and reporting data.In rural areas, block boundaries may he visible features such as roads,powerlines, fences, and abandoned railroads.

census A count, or enumeration, of the population.

census county division (CCD) A county subdivision designated by theCensus Bureau for statistical purposes in states where minor Civil divisams

do not exist.

census designated place (CDP) The Census Bureau term for an unin-corporated, closely ::ettled population center with at least HIM inhabi-tants and 'without legally established boundaries. CDPs are designated forstatistical purposes.

constant dollars See real dollars.

consumer price index (CPI) A single number which gives the average,alue of current consumer prices compared to some base period.Compiled hy the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the CPI measures how muchinflation (or deflation) is occurring across the entire range of consumergoods.

197

98 Glossary

current dollars Dollars that have not been adjusted by a price index (suchas the consumer price index), as contrasted with real dollars.

decennial census A census taken every ten years. The U.S. CensusBureau conducts a decennial census of population and housing in yearsending in "0" (zero).

demography A science concerned with the size, geographic distribution,structure, and change of human populations. Demographic statisticsinclude those that pertain to the sex and age composition, mortality andfertility, educational and eccmomic characteristic..., and migration of a pop-ulation.

enumeration district The Census Bureau term for a geographical areaassigned to one enumerator.

enumeration method The method by which data are collected, forexample, with a mail questionnaire, personal interview, or from adminis-trative records.

enumerator In the case of' the decennial census, a Census Bureauemployee who is hired tc count housing units and personally interview asample of the population. More generally, a person who conducts inter-views.

environmental impact statement (EIS) In the case of the U.S. ForestService, an analysis of the direct and indirect effects of alterm_ cve forestmanagement plans on the economy and physical environment of a multi-county area. More generally, an analysis of how a particular developmentproject will affect resource use and quality in a local area.

establishment A business or industrial unit at a single physical locationthat produces or distributes goods or performs services, for example, a sin-gle store or factory.

industry Kind of establishment; an establishment's economic activicy,such as agriculture, medical services, construction, or retail trade.

intercensal Between the years of the decennial census. Working with stateagencies, the Census Bureau makes intercensal estimates of the popula-tion of all U.S. counties and subcounty governmental units.

labor and proprietor income (LPI) One component of personalincome estimates from the Bureau of Economic Analysis. Includes ( I 1

wages and salaries paid to employees, (2) other labor income consistingprimarily of employer contributions to private pension and welfare funds,and (3) income to self-employed individuals (proprietors), partnerships,and tax-exempt cmperatives.

Glossary99

labor force The part of the population that is employed or available forwork. 'Ile labor force includes people who are in the armed forces,

employed, unemployed, or actively seeking employment. The CensusBureau currently publishes labor force statistics for persons age 16 years

and older.

labor force participation rate Proportion of people age 16 years andolder who are in the labor .force: that is, the number of people who areemployed or available for work divided by the number of people who are

age 16 years and older.

longitudinal study A study that involves data collection from the samerespondents at different points in time. For example, in a .longitudinalstudy in Wisconsin, researchers interviewed a sample of farmers in 1982

ind again in 1987 to learn how the respondents adjusted to major changes

in the agricultural economy.

mean family income The average amount of income received by eachfamily, that is, total income divided by the nuoiber of families.

mecLan income The income level at which halt of the popula ion havelower incomes and half have higher incomes; the middle income level.

metropolitan (metro) county The Census Bureau term for any county

in a metropolitan statistical area.

metropolitan statistical area (MSA) An area designated by the Census

that is made up of one or more counties around a large population center,together with adjacent communities that are socially and economicallyintegrated with the central county. An MSA must either have (1) a citywith a population of at least 50,000 or (2) an urbanized area (which is a

c('nsus designated place) with a population of at least 50,000 and a total

VISA popit:ation of at least 100,000.

minor civil division (MCD) The Census Bureau term for a governmen-tal unit that ;s smaller than a county, such as a town or township.

money income Term used by. the Census Bureau for cash income such as

wages and salaries. interest, rental income. Social Security' payments, and

public assistance.

natural increase The difference between the number of births and deathsin a particular area. Together, natural increase and net migration arerespon:ible for population change. rare instances, deaths outnumber

births, resolting in natural decrease.)

net migration The (lilt;.erence between the notnber of people Who moveinto an area (in .inigrants) and the number who move out (out-migrants).

I "

MON

I(X) Glossary

If in-migrants outnumber out-migrants, the area experiences net in-migration and vice versa.

nonmetropolitan (nonmetro) county A county that is not part of aCensus Bureaudesignated metropolaan statistical area.

occupation Kind of work; a person's activity on the job either for pay orprofit, such as farmer, nurse, computer programmer, bus driver, or kigger.

per capita income The mean or average income received hy individuals;that is, total personal income divided by the total number of people.

personal income A measure of income used by the Bureau of EconomicAnalysis, defined as the income received by, or on behalf of, residents ofa particular area. Includes labor and proprietor income less contributionsfor social insurance programs such as Social Security; dividends, interest,and rent; and transfer payments.

poverty level or threshold An income level below which a family,household, or individual i!; officially considered to he poor. Each year, theU.S. Office of Management and Budget establishes a series of povertyincome levels for different family sizes and ages of household heads. Forexample, in 1993, the poverty level for a family of four was S14,763.

poverty rate The proportion of people living below the poverty level; that

is, the number of people (individuals, families, or households) who haveincomes less than the poverty level divided by the total population.

primary data Data collected by a researcher for a specific study using per-sonal or telephone interviews. for example.

proprietor income A term used by the Bureau of Economic Analysis torefer to income received hy proprietors (self-employed persons). personsin business partnerships, and members of tax-exempt cooperatives.

quintile A group that makes up one-fifth of the distribution of a given pop-ulation. With respect to income, the lowest quintile of families has thecharacteristic that fourfifths of all other families in the population havehigher incomes.

real dollars Curnwt dollars flat ,lave been adjusted hy the corivumer priceirides to reflect changes in inflation (or deflation) Economists adjust current dollars so they can mei,sure the dollars' value in terms of the goodsand services that can he purchased. Hence. 1989 income measured in realterms, for example. can he compared to 197)) income because the effect ofinflation has been remmed. Current dollars divided fiN, the consionerprice indc x. equal real dollars.

Glosary lOt

rural A term used to describe all persons (or ar.:as) that are not designatedby the Census Bureau as urban.

sample design The method used to select a sample of elements from agiven population for purposes t:f analysis. Examples of sample designs are( 1) random sampling, where a scientifically generated table of randomnumbers is used to select elements, and (2) systematic sampling, whereevery kth (for example, every 10th )r 50th) element of the population isselected for analysis.

sampling rate or ratio The proportion of elements in a population thatare selected for analysis.

secondary data Existing data that have already been collected and trans-ferred to hard copy, microfiche, or a computer accessible format.Examples of secondary data sources are the County and City Data Bookand reports 1.rom the decennial census.

service industry Includes establishments that provide services to indi-viduals, businesses, and governments. These are personal services; privatehousehold services; miscellaneous business and repair services; amuse-ment and recreation services; professional, sociA, and related services;and hotels and other lodging places.

service sector Includes all industries that produce no tangible product,such as transportation, communications, trade, establishments in the ser-vice industry, and government.

standard industrial classification (SIC) system The Federal gov-ernment's method of grouping businesses and other establishments by thetype of economic activity in which they are engaged.

survey data Data collected with a questionnaire for specific researchrather than in the course 01 an organization's normal business. For exam-ple, decennial census data are survey data.

time series data Observati.ons on the same unit (for example, on the peracre price of Iowa cropland or on median household income) at two ormore (usually many) points in tune.

total personal income MA's summary income measure that includes allincome received by persons in a given area, including earnings, property.income, and trans/IT payments.

transfer payments Income receiv ed not ill return fur current servicesfor example, I neiliployment Insurance, Social Security, Aid to Familieswith Dependent Children. and Medicare.

102 Glossary

unearned income Income from the ownership of property and otherassets (that is, dividends, interest, and rent) plus transfrr payments.

urban Term used by the Census Bureau to describe the population of allpersons living in urbanized areas as well as persons living in places of2,500 or more inhabitants outside urbanized areas.

urbanized area Central cities and surrounding densely settled territorywith a combined population of at least 50,000 inhabitants.

wage and salary income Income earned at a job. The "labor" compo-nent of labor and proprietor income.

Appendices

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0_91 1

I)

112 Appendices

Appendix C Regional Rural Development Centers

North Central Regional Center for Rural Development216 East HallIowa State UniversityAmes, IA 50011-1070Director: Cornelia B. Flora(515) 294-8321

Southern Rural Development CenterMississippi State UniversityP.O. Box 9656Mississippi State, MS 39762-9656Director: Doss Broadnax(601) 325-3207

Northeast Regional Center for Rural Development7 Armshy BuildingPennsylvania State I. IniversityUniversity Park, PA 16802-5600Director: Daryl I leasley()fl4) 863-4656

Western Rural Development CenterBallard Extension Hall 307Oregon State UniversityCorvallis, OR 97331-3607Director: Russ Youmans(503) 737-3621

App

endi

x D

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7-65

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334-

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3-79

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Appendices

Appendix E

11.5

Census Bureau Regional InformationServices and Special Topic InformationCenters

Census Regional Offices: If you have questions about Census Bureau data,contact the regional office that serves your state (stato: served by eachregional office are noted in parentheses). New York State is split between the

Boston and New York offices.

Atlanta101 Marietta St., NWAtlanta, GA 30303-2700(404) 730-3833(AL, FL, GA)

Boston2 Copley Pl., Suite 301P.O. Box 9108Boston, MA 02117-9108(617) 424-0510(CT, ME, MA, NH, NY, RI, VT)

Charlone901 Center Park Dr., Suite 106Charlotte, NC 28217-2935(704) 344-6144(DC, KY, NC, SC, TN, VA)

Chicago2255 Enterprise Dr., Suite 5501West Chester, IL 60154-5800(708) 562-1740

IN, WI)

Dallas6303 Ilarry Hines Blvd., Room 210Dallas. TX 75215.5269(214) 767-7105I.A. MS, TX)

136

Denver6900 West Jefferson Ave., Suite I(X)Lakewood, CO 80235(303) 969-7750(AZ, CO, NE, NM, ND, SD, UT,WY)

Detroit1395 Brewery Park Blvd.PO. Box 33405Detroit, MI 48232-5405(313) 259-1875(MI, OH, WV)

Kansas CityGateway Tower II, Suite 600400 State Ave.Kansas City, KS 66101-2410(913) 551-6711(AR, 1A, KS, MN, MO, 010

Lo.s Angeles15350 Sherman Way, Suite 300Van Nuys, CA 91406-4224(818) 904-6339(CA)

eu. YorkJacob K, Javits Federal Building,Room 37-13026 Federal PlaiaNew York, NY 10278-0044(212) 264-4730(NY, NY ('ity, Puerto Rico)

12.6 Appendices

Philadelphia Seattle105 South Seventh St., First Floor 101 Stewart St., Suite 500Philadelphia, PA 19106-3395 Seattle, WA 98101-1098(215) 597-8313 (206) 728-5314(DE, MD, NJ, PA) (AK, HI, ID, MT, NV. OR, WA)

Special Data and Information Centers: The following organizations are asso-ciated with the National Census Information Center Program (NC1C).

Asian/Pacific Islander Data ConsortiumAsian American Health Forum, Inc.116 New Montgomery, Suite 531San Francisco, CA 94105(415) 541-0866

Indian Net Information CenterDepartment of SociologyHenderson State UniversityI1(X) Henderson St.Arkadelphia, AR 71923(501) 246-5511, Ext. 3292

National Council of La Raza810 First St., NE, Suite 300Washington. DC 2(X)02-4205(202) 289-1380

National Urban League1111 Fourteenth St., NW, 6th FloorWashington, DC 20005(202) 898-1604

Southwest Voter Research Institute403 Fast CommerceSan Antonio, TX 78205(21(1) 222-8014

Append Kt!,

Appendix F Electronic Data Access

127

Many of the data sources discussed in this book are available electronically.Some can be accessed on electronic bulletin boards, usually for the cost of aphone call, and others require a commercial service user account. The fol-lowing is a list of electronic access points for agencies that provide rural andnonmetro county data. For more details or further assistance, contact thesources below or your computer service provider.

The Federal Bulletin BoardThe Federal BBS has numerous features, including online ordering capa-

bility for some information products; retrieval of product announcements,bibliographies, and other free bulletins; and thousands of tiles covering manygovernment agencies. It is accessible via modem by dialing (202) 512-1387,or via Telnet through Internet to Eederal.bbs.gpo.gov 3001 (Port 3001). Formole information, contact the GP() Office of Electronic InformationDissemination Services at (202) 512-1530.

Bureau of the CensusThe Census Bureau Internet site and CENDATA can he acct.ssed with

three Internet applications: Gopher, World Wide Web, and anonymous FileTransfer Protocol (1:TP). For access:

( ) Gopher client: On your local network, type gopher gophercen-sus.gov

(1) World Wide VVeb: Use the Uniform Resource Locator (URI.):http://www( n8u.s.gov

(3) HT: On your local network type fip ftp.census.gm.

Oata users who do not have Internet access but do subscribe toCompuServe or DIAIAKi can also access the Census Bureau's CENDATAsystem. With CompuServe, type GO CENDA1A; with DIALOG, type BEGINCENDAT,I. See the Cen.sus Catalog wul Guide /994 (pp. 5 7) for a list ofmenu options, or call: CompuServe at (MOO) 848 8199 or DIALOGInformation Services, In;:. at (MOO) 334-2564.

E. mail comments or questions to gatekeeper(g ceuNus.gov. ContactJackson Morton at the Census Bureau's Public Information Office (Pnor-um(fu(easus.gov) or call (301) 457 2816 to get detailed instructions foraccessing Int,..rnet am. ;or receiving inhirmation from the Census BurCall'selectronic mailing list.

128 Appendices

Economic Research Sezvice (ERS)ERS data are available through the Albert R. Mann Library at Cornell

University. For access:

(1) Gopher client: On your local network, type gopher usda.mannlih.corneltedu 70

(2) Telnet: On your local network, type telnet usda.mannlib.cornell.edu; login as usda

(3) FTP: On your local network, type ftp usda.mannlib.cornell.edu;login as anonymous with your ID name or e-mail address as thepassword, then cd usda

Data users without Internet can access the ERS/NASS Bulletin Board.Dial (800) 821-6229 (communications settings N,8,1,F). For more detailedinformation about Internet access, contact Jim Horsfield (Room 724, 1301New York Ave. NW, Washington, DC 2(XX)5-4788; (2(i2) 219-0698; jimh@ers.hitnet)

National Agricultural Library ALFTo access the ALF electronic bulletin board directly, dial (301) 504-5496

or (301) 504-5497 (communications software settings N,8,1,F). To accessALF from Internet, follow these steps: telnet fedworld.gov (or IP Address192.239.92.201); register on Fedworld; select Gateway: select Gov'tsys/datahase; select Au: The RIC can also be reached via the Internet (heObnalusda.gov).

Bureau of Labor StatisticsFor access via PTP, type stats.hls.gov; register as (.nonymous.For help, e-mail questions to IABSTATHelpdesk@B: ;ov or fax to (202)

606-7069. Non-Internet users can access BLS informatio.1 through a bulletinhoard service for the price of the call by dialing (202) 606-7060.

References

1. Arizona Department of Economic Security, Research Administration,

Population Statistics Unit. "Population Projections 1993-2040,

Yavapai," February 1993.

2. Ruse, Rueben C., and James L. Driscoll, editors. Rural InfOrmationSystems: New Directions in Data Collection and Retrieval, Iowa State

University, Ames, 1992.

3. Cook, Annabel K. "Population Change in Local Areas," WREP 93,Western Rural Development Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis

(undated).

4. Cook, Peggy J. and Karen L. Mizer. The Revised ERS CountyTypology: An Overview," Rural Research Report 89, Rural Economy

Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Washington, DC, December 1994.

5. Gold, Steven G. "The Federal Role in State Fiscal Stress," Center for the

Study of the States, Nelson A. Rockefeller Institute of Government, State

University of New York, Albany, June 1992.

6. Guralnik, David, Editor-in-Chief. New World Dictionary: SecondCollege Edition, William Collins and World Publishing Co., Inc., New

York, 1978.

7. Housing Assistance Council. "Taking Stock: Rural People and Poverty

from 1970 to 1983," Washington, DC, 1984.

8. Iowa Agricultural Statistics. "1992 Agricultural Statistics," U.S.Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service,

Iowa Office, Des Moines, March 1993.

9. Koebel, C. Theodore and Michael Price. "Kentucky Poverty Rates," in

Newsletter from the State Data Center of Kentucky, Vol. 7, No. I

Louisville, Kentucky, Winter 1989,

10. New Ilampshire Office of State Planning. "Current Estimates and Trends

in New Hampshire's I hnising Supply. Update: 1992," Concord, New

lampshire, 1993.

I 1 . O'llare. William. "How to Evaluate Population Estimates." American

DemographieS. January 1988.

1 29

130 Rekrences

12. Plotnick, Robert D. "Rural Poverty in the Northwest: New Findings andPolicy Implications," in Northwest Report, Northwest Area Foundation,No. 7, March 1989.

13. Robison, H.M., and Jon Freitag. "The Economic Impact to LocalCommunities of Eliminating the Wallowa-Whitman National ForestTimber Program," Center f()r Business Development and Research,University of Idaho, unpublished, 1994.

14. Ross, Christine M. and Sheldon Danziger. "Poverty Rates by State, 1979and 1985: A Research Note," in Focus, Vol. 10, No. 3, Madison,Wisconsin, Fall 1987.

15. Salant, Priscilla and Paul Barkley. "Cost and Contract: Social Services inthe Rural Northwest." Northwest Policy Center, University ofWashington, Seattle, November 1993.

16. Salant, Priscilla and Don Dillman. How to Conduct Your Own Survey,John Wiley and Sons, New York, November 1994.

17. Salant, Priscilla and Julie Marx. Small 'Thwns, Big Picture, RuralEconomic Policy Program, Aspen Institute, Washington, DC, June 1995.

18. Shryock, Henry S., Jacob S. Siegel, and Associates. Tlw Methods andMaterials of Demography, Fourth Printing (Rev.), United StatesDepartment of Commerce, Washington, DC, June 1980.

19. Subcommittee on Intergovernmental Relations of the Committee onGovernmental Affairs. "Governing the Heartland: Can RuralGovernments Survive the Farm Crisk?" Committee Print 99-176,United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1986.

20. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, EasternRegion. "Record of Decision, Final Environmental Impact Statement,Land and Resource Management Plan, White Mountain NationalForest," April 1986,

21. United States Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Library,Rural Information Center. "Update," July 1992.

22. United States Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census."American !lousing Survey: !lousing Data Between the Censuses,"1992

23. . Census Catalog and Guide: /994, May 1994.24. . "Census '90 Basics," 1990 CP11-1 8, January 1990, revised

April 1993.

25. "Coast to-Coast Digital Map Data Base for Arizona," 1993.26. . Compendium of Government FinalliTS., GCS7(4)-5, April 1990.

References 131

27. . Compendium of Public Employment, GC87(3)-2, February

1991.

28. . Consolidated Federal Funds Report: Fiscal Year 1993, March

1994,

19. County and City Data Book, 1994.

30, County Business Patterns, (13P-92, selected issues, 1994.

3 I . "Data for Communities," Census Factfinder Number 22 (Rev.),October (991.

32. "Educator's Guide to the 1990 Census," D-3300 C, August1988

33. . Estimates of Resident Population of States and Counties, 1990-/992, CPR Series PPL-3, 1994.

34. "A Guide to State and Local Census Geography'," 1990 CP11-1-18, June 1993,

35. Government ONanization, GS92( 1)- I March 1994.

36. "Maps and More: Your Guide to Census Bureau Geography."July 1992, revised April 1994.

37. . Population Estimates jOr Counties, July I, /992, CPR SeriesPPL-7, February 1994.

38. . Populati'm Estimates .1Or Counties and Metropolitan Areas:July I, /99/, CPR Series P-25 No. 1108, February 1994.

39, . "Preview of the 1992 Economic Census," EC92-PR- I, undated.

40. 19S7 Census- of Minerallndustries, M1C87-A-5, 1990.

41. "1990 Census Facts," internal Census Bureau memo releasedNovember 9, 1992.

42. . / 990 Censu.s ol Population, Social and Er(memtieChartwteristies, CP90-2, selected issues and CD-ROM, 1993.

43. . /992 Census of Service Industries, SC92. A-3, 1994.

44. United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis,Local Area Personal Mc' mic: 1969 /992, 1994.

45. Regional Econom InlOrmation System, 1969 /992, (1 ) R()11,May 1994.

46. United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, AfajorProgram.s of the Bureau of tabor Stati.stiCA, Report 871, May 1994.

47. . Supplement to 1,'nemployment in State.s and IAN'al Awas, 1992,issues on microfiche, May 199.3.

132 References

48. Weber, Bruce A., Emery N. Castle, and Ann L. Shriver. "ThePerformance of Natural Resource Industries," in Rural EconomicDevekpment for the 1980s, Economic Research Service Staff ReportAGES:370724, July 1987.

49. West 'Virginia Bureau of Employment Programs. Employment andWages, LER-LMI 201, Charleston, May 1994.

1 5

Index

Administrative data, 8Age dktributirm, 44Agricultural Library Forum (ALF), 39Agricultural Outlook, 74"Agricultural Statistics Board Cata-

log," 77Agriculture data, 75-77

agriculture censuses, 20, 26. 27, 74,75

Al/A Guide to tlu Health Care Field,63

A//A Hospital Statistics, 63American Demographics Press, 18American Hospital Association,

Annual Survey of Hospitals, 63American Housing Survey (MI'S), 59,

62"American Housing Survey: Housing

Data Between the Censuses," 60American Medical Association, 63American Statistics Index (ASD, 38Annual Report and Directory ot

Mines, 80Annual Survey of Buying Power, 84Ari/ona State Data Center, 44Ana la County, Mississippi, 6. 37,

42.44, 46, 54-55, 57, 64, 66, 90,91, 93, 94

Beale coding s swirl, 3Block groups (13(k1, 14 15

Block numbering areas (UNA.), 1.3.14

Blocks, 13 14

Building permits, information on, (IIBulletin hoard sers ices. des:ironic.

9 10Bureau ot the Census. S., see Cen-

sus Bureau, U.S.

Bureau of Econoniic Analysis (BEAL5, 2830, 52, 66-70, 71-71 72,78

contacting, 30Local Area Personal Income

(LAPI), 30, 31Regional Economic Information

System (REIS), 28-30, 56, 58,59, 71, 72

Survey of Current Business, 30User Groups, 30, 58, 71"A User's Guide to IWA Informa-

tion," 30Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). 10,

26, 33. 49-51. 67-69, 71cooperating state agencies, listing

of, 113-24electronic access to, 128Employment and Earnings, 50"Employment Situation, The," 70Ges.graphic Profile of Employment

and Unemployment, 51Information Services, 33Monthly Labor Review (MLR), 50"State and Metropolitan Area

Employment and Unemploy-ment," 70

l'nemph,yment in States and 1.4)calAreas, 49 -50

CACI Marketing Systems, 84CO-ROMs, data available on, 9CENDAIA. 9, 74. 75, 127Census, defined, 10"Census, CD-ROM and You! New

llormms for Microcomputersets ot Census Bureau Data,"

25

"Census and You," 35

133

134 Index

Census Bureau, U.S., 10, 16, 34, 35agriculture census, 20, 26-27, 74,

75

Agriculture and Financial ServicesDivkion, 75

"American Housing Survey: Hous-ing Data Between the Cen-suses," 60

CENDATA, 9, 74, 75, 127Census Catalog and Guidi', 35, 84,

89

"Census '90 Basics," 35Census of Population and Housing,

decennial, see Census of Popu-lation and Housing, decennial

"Census and You," 35City Employment, 95

C'ompendium of GovernmentFinances, 47, 90-91, 92..93

Compendium of PublicEmployment, 94

confidentiality of questionnaireresponses, 23

Consolidated Federal Funds Report(CFER), 86-87

Consumer Income, 54, 55County Business Patterns WIWI.

28, 29, 6740, 70-.71, 78, 79,82 -83

County Government Employment,95

"Current Government Reports," 89Current Population Survey (('PS),

10, 11, 26, 55, 84Customer Service Divkion, 24, 35,

54

Data I ker SerVices Divkion(DCSD), 23, 34, 80, 84

decennial census, ace Census ofPopulation and Housing,dcLennial

economic census. 5, 20, 26, 27 28,Ill

Economi(. Census* Survey of Minority01y10.d MIA meIs Enter-prises, The, 28, 74

4 7

"Factfinder for the Nation," 35Finances of County Governments,

91-92geography, 11-16

block groups (13GO, 14-15block numbering areas (3NA4),

13, 14

blocks, 13 -14cens114 county divisions i('CDs),

census designated places (CDPs),12

consolidated cities, 12counties, IIenumeration districts, 13groupings of states, 11incorporated places, 12minor civil divisions 1MCDs), 12publications on, 16regions, II

government census, 20, 26, 28, 47,89

Gmernment Organization, 89-90housing data, 59, 60, 61how to read data in reports of, 25Income, Poverty and Valuation of

Noncash Benefits, 54Internet site, 127Local Population Estinuites, 55

Manufacturers, Annual Survey of,28, 82

Manufacturing and ConstructionDivision, 80

mineral industries, census of, 80.-81Minority-Owned Business Enter-

prises, Survey of, 28, 74Money Income and Poverty Status

of Persons in the United StateN,54

"Monthly Product Announcement,35

1992 Census of ( iovernments," 89/992 Eeonomn. (*ensuses.tOr (*mot-

tles, selected items collectedand published i n , I I 1

Pi,vertv in the United States, 54

Index 135

Poverty and Wealth Branch, 54Public Employment

(Series GC(31), 94(Series GE-1), 95

regional information services andspecial topic information cen-ters, 125-26

rural area &fined by, 2selected data series from, 104-10service industry census. 85, 86Services Division. 80Social and Economic Characteris-

tics, 22, 24, 25, 70Survey of Women-Owned Busi-

nesses, 74symbol "(D)," meaning of, 23linable Property thlues, 92urban area defined by, 2users of census data, 23liduation Noncash Benefits, 54

Censav Catalog and Guiik, 35, 84, 89Census county divisions (CCDs), 12Census depository libraries. sec Fed-

eral depository librariesCensus designated places (CDPs), 12"Census '90 Basics," 35Census of Population and !lousing,

decennial, 5, 10, 14, 19-25, 48,49, 62, 67-70

CD-ROM tiles, 22history of, 19-21long form, 20. 22short form. 20 21software programs for accessing,

22.-25Center for Electronic Records,

National Archives and RecordsAdministration, 34

Children's Defense Fund, 62"0ft/en's Guide on Using the Free-

dom of InlOrmation Act and Pri-vacy Act of 1974 to RequestGovernment Records," 34

'ity Employment. 95Compoulium Govermnent

Emances..47, 90 91, 92 03

Compendium of Public Employment,94

CompuServe, 9"Condition of Education in Rural

Schools, The," 47Congressional Information Service

(CIS), 38Consolidated cities, 12Consolidated Fedcral Funds Report

(CFER), 86-87Constant dollars, 53Consumer Income, 54. 55Consumer Price Index (CPI), 53Coos County, New Hampshire, 6,

42-44, 46, 56, 57, 61, 66, 78,82-83, 90, 91, 93. 94

Counties. 11County and City Data Book, 5. 35-36,

37, 45-47, 50, 61, 63-64, 70County Business Patterns ICBM, 28,

29. 67-69, 70-71. 78, 79, 82-83County Government Employment, 95County Typology system, see Eco-

nomic Research Service (ERS).County Typology system

Crispell, Diane, 18Current dollars, 53Current Housing Reports, 60Current Population Survey (CPS), 10,

11.26,55,84

Data, 8 -ISadministrative,defined, 8electronic, 9fax, available by. I()formats. available, 8 I()

hard copy, 8 9mapping, 16 18Online, 9 10population versus sample, 10. 11primary, 8private, 6, 18public, 18sample versus population, I()

leiL

136 Index

Data (continued)secondary, 8survey, collected by, 8

Decennial Census of Population andHousing, see Census of Popula-tion and Housing, decennial

Demographic change, 41-44Department of Agriculture, U.S.

(USDA):Agricultural Statistics Board, 77"Agricultural Statistics Board Cata-

log," 77Economic Research Service, see

Economic Research Serv iceIERS)

Forest Service, 79, SO"Guide to Your National

Forests," 79L4md Aneav of the National For-

est System, 79

Rural Conimundy AssistanceProgram, 79

National Agricultural Statistics Ser-vice (NASS), 57, 74, 76

State Statistical Offices, 77Survey of Food Consumption,

1955, 53Department of ('ommerce, U.S., 5

Bureau of Economic Analysis(BEA), see Bureau of Eco-nomic Analysis (BEA)

Census Bureau, see Census Bureau.U.S.

U.S. Industrial Outlook, 74Department of Housing and Urban

Developtnent, U.S., 60Office of Policy Development and

Research. 59Depository libraries, see Federal

depository librariesDIALOG information services, 9, 38Digest of Education StattsticS, 47, 48

Farnmes data. 7,7 74Earnings ItICOI110, 52

Economic censuses, 5, 20, 26, 27-28,74

Economic Indicators of the FarmSector, 76

Economic Research Service (ERS),30-33, 74

AutoFAX Service. 5, 77Beale coding system, 3County Typology system, 3- 5

sample counties, 6Econonuc Indicators of the Farm

51,.tor, 76"Finder's Advisory System." 32

33

Information Division, 32Internet access 5. 128Reports, 32Rural Economy Division (RID),

Economies of rural communities,65-87

Education data, 45 48attainment data. 45, 46enrollment data. 45.47school finance data, 47student achievement or proficiency,

47-48EIA Directory of Hectronic Products,

82

HA Publications Directory, 82Electronic data, 9, 127-.28Employment data. 65-72

Nee also Labor force dataEmploynrem and Earnings, 50"Employment Situation, The," 70Energy Information Administration

(EIA), 82"New Releases," 82

I numeration districts. 11.1nvironmental impact statement

(EIS), 78Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA), 1(1Istablishment defined, 26ktimates of poptilation. interpreting.

43

Index 117

"Factfinder for the Nation," 35Fax, data available by, 10Federal Bulletin Board, 127Federal Database Finder The, 38Federal data products, finding, 33-34Fedci.il depository libraries, 33, 48

listing by state or territory, I 13-24Federal government contributions to

local economies, 86. 87Federal Insurance Contributions Act

(FICA), 70reder.il -State Cot perative Poigram

tor Population Estimates, 26Finances of County Goverpiment,

91-92l'orest Plan., 80Forestry ;law, 77 50Forest Service, LLS.. 79, 80

"Guide to Your National Forests, 79/And Areas 0/ the ,Vallolial Forest

System, 79

Rural Community Assistance Pro-gram, 79

Freedom of Information Act, 34-35Freedom of Infmnation Clearing-

house, 34

Geographic Profile of Fmpio.srnentand Unemployment. 51

Geological Survey, I. 16

Glossary, 97-102iovernment censuses, 20, 26. 28, 47,

89

Government Oroni:atitm. 89 91)(1overnment Printing Office 1( iPt

14, ;5, 36, 47, 74(10y ernment d ia. 88 95

difficulty ot amity /mg )!o\ ernMerit, 59

tederal go\ ernment I. ontrihilitolis tolocal economies, 86 87

yosernmeni censti.e., 20, 26, 2$47, 59

ernment !mance, 90 9;local tloset mem structine. 89 90

public employment, 93-95"Guide to State and Local Census

Geography, A," 15, 16Hard copy, data available on, 8-9Health data, 5, 62-64

on access to health resources, 63 -64on health status of the por dation,

62, 64Width l!nited States, 63[lousing Assistance Council tHAC1.

59 60lloit.wig Characteristics. ot Rural

Households: /99/, 60Housing data, 59 -62

mobile homes, 59-60number and characteristics of hous-

ing units, 61 62quality, indications of, 59 60, 62using unit defined, 60

"How to Ev;iluate Population Esti-mates." 43

Income dau, 5, 26, 28 30, 51 59, 56Bureau of Economic Analysis, 5,

28 -30, 5S 55Census Bureau, 53 55earnings income, 52gap between rural and urban

areas. Imean income, 52, 53median income. 52, 53money income, 52, 53per capita pet sonal income. 52, 5 ;,

57

personal Income, 52erty rate, 52 53, 54

techniques tor estimatin:!.between decennial censusyears, s5

iii Seeurit Adminroarallon,55 59

toldl psi son,il ins s()

(a went., S7,111 Potcrts. tiihnithw

.Vom s.)

a

138 Index

"Income, Poverty, and Valuation ofNoncash Benefits: 1993," 26

Incorporated places, 12InfOrmation for Action: An Advocate's

Guide to Maternal and ChildHealth Data, 62

IntOrmation USA., 36

Information U.S.A.. 36- .;8Insider's Guide to Demographic

know-llow, ISInternal Revenue Service (IRS), 57

Statistic. and Income Division, 41Internet, data accessible thmugh the,

5, 9, 127, 128I flierpretation and analysis of data, 6 7

Kossuth Count>, lov,a. 6, 42 44, 46,48 49. 50, 57, 64, 66. 76, 86 87,9(), 91. 93, 94

.abor force data, 33. 48 51characteristics of employment. 49,

60

employ ment data, 65 72participation rate, 48 49

1.andVievk, 16 ISCount>, Idaho, 6, 30, 31, 42 44,

46, 49, 50, 57, 66, 90, 91, 93. 94

Lesko') Into Pinter, 36 38/4.«// Area Perwthil income (LAM,

10, I

I ica) go> eriltilent, see GO\ eminentdata

al Population I.stonates. 55

M,111111,1LItirs'f, AM11111 SLIIAt's ot, 28,

82

Maniitai:turing data, 28, 82 8;Mapping ol data. 16 18'%tips and Vlore. l'our Ouide cc ('en

sus ltiiie,iu ( ieograph>,- 16\Ivan s ;

61eilian in. onie. s2, s ;%letropi Mtan 13 Is

Mineral industries, census of, 80-81Mining data, 80-81Minor civil divisions (MCDs), 12Money income, 52, 53Money Income and Poverty Status of

Persons in the United States, 54Monthly Labor Review (MLR), 50

National Agricultural Library (NAL):ALF electronic bulletin hoard, 128Rural Information Center (RIC),

38-39. 63National Agricultural Statistics Service

INASS). 57, 74, 76Nat ional Assessment of Education

Progress ( NAEP), 478National Center for Education Statis-

tics IN('ES), 45, 47, 48National Center for Health Statistics,

63

National Energy Information Center,

National Rural Development Partner-ship (NRDP), 39

National Technica' Information Ser-vice ( NTIS). 34

Nation\ Report Card, The, 48Natural change in population, 42 43.

44

Net migration, 13 44New Hampshire Office of State Plan-

ning (OSP). 61Nicholas County, West Virginia, 6, 29.

42 44, 46, 48.49, 57, 66, 67,7(1 72, '3, 81, 90, 91, 93, 94

Nomnetropolitan areas, 14. 15classification schemes for, 3 5defined, 2

e)..I.S1)1 Ih'frcto tartes iii .State andCeIIIIi V , 59

()1.11)/ lienclic laws hi /11) i'ode, 59( )tike iit Fillicanonal Research and

Improement MLR!), 17()Ince ol Mandgement imd Budget, 27

Index 139

metropolitan and nonmetropolitanareas, classification of, 2

metropolitan statistical areas(MSAs), 14-15

poverty income thresholds estab-lished by, 52-53

O'Hare, William, 43Old Age, Survivors, and Disability

Income data, 58-59Online data, 9-10,127-28

Per capital income S3 57Per capita personal income."52Personal income, 52Physician Characteristic.% and Distri-

bution in the U.S., 63Place-of-residence ba,is, reporting on,

56

Population data, 41 44age distribution, 44natural change, 42.-43, 44net migration, 43.44

Population Paper 1.istings (PPL), 42Poverty in the United States. 54Poverty rate, 11, 52-53, 54

techniques for estimating. betweendecennial census years, 55

Primary data, 8Private data sources, 6, 18Prodigy, 9Property taxes, local, 92Public data, 18Public Emp losment:

(Series GC131), 94(Series OE-1), 95

Public employment data, 9.; its

Real dollars, 53Regional I ononnc bahomanhm Ss%

tem (RIJS), 28 (0, 56, 58, 59,71, 72

Regional Rural Declopment Centers,6, is

listing 01, I I

Regions, II

Researchers, tips for, 21finding federal data products, 33-34

Retail trade, census of, 83-84Rural area, defined, 2,16Rural Conditions and Trends, 32Rural data:

Beak coding system, 3Bureau of the Census definition of,

defined, 2-5Economic Research Service County

Typology system, 3-5Office of Management and Budget

definition of. 2Rural Developm,mt Courcils state, 6,

39

Rural Development Perspectives. 32Rural Information Center (R1C),

National Agricultural Library(NAL), 38-39, 63

Rural Information Center Health Ser-vice (R1CHS), 63

Sales and Marketing Management, 84Sample data, 10-11Sampling error, I i

Secondary data. 8Service industry, census of, 85, 86Service industry data, 84-86

service sector distinguished fromservice industry, 84

Social and Econorna Characteristics.22, 24. 25, '10

Social Security Administration, 53Old Age, Survivors, and Disability

Income data, 58S9Sourcelmok of County Denmgraphics,

The, 84Sourcebook of Zip Code Demograph-

ics, The, 84Standard Industrial Classification

(SIC), 27-State and Metropolitan Area Employ-

ment and l'nemployment.- 70State Board if Equali/ation, 92State data centers, listing of, 113 24

140 Index

State Data Center (SDC) program,34

State data sources, 6State Department of Revenue, 92State education agencies, 47, 48State employment security agencies

(SESAs), 48, 57, 67-69, 71, 72,78-79

State Forest and Range ExperimentStation, 79

State forestry agencies, 78State land grant universities, 6Statistical Reference Index (SRI), 38

Statistics, defined, 8Survey of Buying Power, 84

Survey of Current Business, 30

Survey of Minority-Owned BusinessEnterprises. 74

Surve.; (),I. Women-Owned BuSilleSSe8,74

Surveys, collection of data hy, 8

Tape, daia available on, 9litxilble Property Values. 92

TIGER (Thpologically IntegratedGeographic Encoding and Referencing) database, 16

Timber policy, federal, 79-80Total personal income, 56

Trade industry data, 83-84Transfer payments, 57, 58

Unemployment, see Employment data;Labor force data

Unemployment in States and LocalAreas, 49-50

U.S. Industrial Outlook,74

Urban area defined, 2, 15-16USA Counties, 36"User's Guide to BEA Information,

A," 30

Valuation of Noncash Benefits, 54

West Virginia Bureau of EmploymentPrograms, 72, 73

West Virginia Department of Employ-ment Security, 71

West Virginia Department of Mines,80

Wholesale trade, census of, 83-84

Yavapai County, Arizona, 6, 17, 24,42.-44, 46, 57, 58, 66, 74, 85, 87,90, 91, 93, 94

Island PressBoard of Directors

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DRUMMOND PIKE5ecretaryPresident, The Tides Foundation

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15t

Acronyms Used in This Book

AHS American Housing Survey

Al/ANA American Indian and AlaskaNative Areas

BBS ielectronic) Bulletin BoardService

BEA Bureau of Economic Analy-sis (U.S. Department ofCommerce)

block group

BLS Bureau of Labor Statistics(U.S. Department of Labor)

CHP County linunes% Patterns

CUD census county division

(COB County and Ca\ Data Book

CDP census designated place

CD-ROM compact diskread onlmemory

CUR Con.solidated Federal t and%Repro

Cons LI tne r Price Inde

Current Population Suney

CPI

CPS

DUSD

EIA

Data User Services DivisionU.S. Bureau of the Census)

Enerp InformationAdministration (U.S.Department of Energ )

EIS environmental impact state

ERS Economic I :arch tiers iceS Depanment of Agricul

lure,

FICA Federal In.urant:e Coniiihutions Act

equisalent

GDP Gross Domestic Product

r00

GPO ('Jovernment Printing Office

LIP/ Loral Area Per8onal Income

i.P1 labor and proprietor income

MCI) minor civil division

MSA metnipolitan statistical area

NASS National Agricultural StatisticsService (U.S. Department ofAgriculture )

NCES National Center forEducational Statistics (U.S.Department of Education)

NRC National Research Courcil

NTIS National Technical InformationSer.\ ice

OASDI Old Age Sun iors and Dis-ability Insurance

()FRI Office t Educational Researchand Improvement (U.S.Department of Education)

oMB 1)tfice of Management andBudget

RFD Rural Economy Division(ERS, U.S. Department ofAgriculture1

REIS Regional EconomicInformation System (BEA...S Department of

Commerce

SIX. state data centet

SESA state emplo mem securinagencv

SIC Standard IndustrialClassilication

SSA Social Securin Administration

I S I M I S. Department of.Agriculture

PLANNING/REFERENCE

Advance praise for Guide to Rural Data:

"This is a masterful survey of a large, complex, and scattered set of datasources known only to a few rural experts. The authors make the reader aconfident user of all the data available for analysis or planning at the locallevel. It is a unique guide to describing a local situation and placing it inthe overall rural and national contexts."

RICHARD W. LONG, Acting Director, Rural Economic Division, U.S.

Department of Agriculture

"Clearly written and well organized, this work shows how to access a widevariety of centrally collected data, what those data mean, and their limitsand strengths. . . . a must for everyone working in local governance."

CORNELIA BUTLER FLORA, Director, North Central Regional Center for

Rural Development, and Professor of Sociology, Iowa State University

"Practical and up-to-date tips, leads, questions and contacts are litteredthroughout this book. Salant and Waller do a real service for rural re-searchers."

HAL Fossum, Policy Analyst, Northwest Policy Center

First published in 1990 as A Community Researcher's Guide to Rural Data, this in-dispensable volume now guides the reader to the most current information on ruralAmerica in both print and electronic form. The authors further illustrate how data onlocal population and community resources, economics, and government can be usedto analyze social and economic change. Appendices include details about federalstatistics programs along with addresses and phone numbers for federal and stateoffices that house or collect data.

PRISCILLA SALAwr is director of the Research Capacity Initiative in the Departmentof Agricultural Economics at Washington State University. ANITA J. WALLER is an in-dependent writer, editor, and software trainer based in Lakewood, Colorado.

ISLAND PRESSWuhington, D.C. Covelo, California

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