espm 50ac midterm 2 flashcards
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-Since the 17th century, European-Americans believed that American Indianswere "doomed"to "succumb to the forces ofcivilization"-as more people painted and wrote about thedoomed Indian, it became less of aconception and more of a fact
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February 1973: A 71-day standoff betweenFeds & American Indians symbolized the"2nd Wounded Knee"and the rebirth ofNative America
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-Reservations-the government was responsible for food another assistance, education, and security-Forced change upon their way of life
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-When the Europeans came along, genderroles were switched-European behavior was imposed on themand women worked more in homes
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-men=hunters-women=planted and harvested, shifted cultivation,resulting in higher crop yields and more sustainableecological practices-Women's participation in horticulture, gatheringhuts & berries, and fishing contributed to 85% of theAmerican Indian diet in New England (responsiblefor making sure tribe was fed well)
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-corn, squash and beans provided daily sustenanceand played a central role in ceremonial ritual-worldview expressed in symbols they used, ritualsthey performed, and the way they engaged with theirnatural resources-symbols: shape in the "moods and motivations"within individuals, determining how they interactedwith nature (saw themselves as part of nature,fruitfulness came from nature)
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-Removal didn't work, so allotments andassimilation became part of national policy-laws passed to aid assimilation includedthe Major Crimes Act (1885), the IndiansCitizenship Act (1924) and the Act of July31, 1882
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-European-Americans believed thatAmerican Indians had to adopt the practicesand beliefs of the dominant culture-American Indians were seen as childish,justifying treaties and other efforts toassimilate them into the dominant culture.
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-in the movies, they are often portrayed asspiritual, noble, and free-one of the first subjects for films, "silents"-in the movies, all natives are supremehorsemen, one with their horse, but thereality is that most natives actually cant ride
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-1740's: The British introduced the idea of slavery tothe Indians, particularly the Five Nations.-Slavery worked differently among the Indians:enslaved Africans could intermarry and their childrenwere considered equal to other members of the tribe.-Land: During the period of Reconstruction, thefederal gov't allocated land to freed people. But not allIndian tribes accepted this practice.
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responsible for the administration andmanagement of 55,700,000 acres of landheld in trust by the U.S. for AmericanIndians
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-American Indians living on the land had tobe removed-staffing issues at the Land Office-there were numerous new laws (over 375land laws passed alone) -surveyors couldn't match the pace ofsettlers
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-involved the state of Georgia, the federalgovernment, & the Cherokee Nation in astruggle over rights to land & sovereignty-Two ideas emerged as a result: Tribes aredomestic dependent nations & therelationship between the government andtribes is that of ward & guardian.
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-lived his whole life with a dark secret-hid his part black background-famous hollywood Indian star, how many ofus think of native americans-committed suicide
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ecological change came as a result of theintroduction of large domestic animals,disease, warfare, and dispute over land titles
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-a place where tensionsarose by the coming together of different racial ðnic groups & where land evolved from matter intoproperty•Romanticized the history of native people and euro-Americans as the noble savages vs. noble pioneers•But in reality, they were fighting for their land-White Americans saw the acquisition of land as acultural imperative- divide, distribute, & register
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-First appearing on television in 1971, The CryingIndian, played by Iron Eyes Cody, representedthe American Indian as caretakers of theenvironment-The image highlighted the fundamentaldifferences in the way White Americans andAmerican Indians think about and relate tonatural resources.
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-Fight for part of 60 million acres in Nevadaguaranteed to the Shoshone in the Treaty of RubyValley, 1863-Stakeholders: Bureau of Land Management (BLM),Shoshone people, Mining interests, local ranchers-Narrative: two different narratives, two differentcosmologies. Western civilization vs. "we are the oldworld"-Identity: Losing the land is losing themselves
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-Extractive technologies: Indians: hoe, fire,arrow, shifting agriculture, hunting, tribalterritories, equilibrium/sustainEuro-Americans: plow, saw, gun, settledagriculture, animal farming, domesticationof animals, private ownership, growth
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-American Indians took advantage of the lands diversity by beingmobile (they carried everything - wigwams, clothing, & tools)-Moving around made ecological sense, but Europeans saw this asthat they didn't own any land-The English criticized the Indian way of life deeming them lazy andundeserving providing justification for taking land away from them(had different ways of thinking about land, but English looked downon Indian way because they believed Indian's quality of life wasinferior because they didn't have as much, for Europeans quality oflife was measured on what they had)
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Seeing the American Indian through thelens of the dominant culture and not seeingthe impact European-Americans had ontheir lives
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cut down trees to make money, deer andanimals were left uninhabited andnegatively impacted, this was food fornatives, natives had to look elsewhere forfood(Europeans really disrupted their life at afoundational level)
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-Europeans believed that Native Americans didn't have good technology to setgood fires-Didn't understand that natives have a firm understanding on how to use firesas they have been using fires for years-Forest ecologists said fires were destructive and didn't want to see any fires inthe forest because they didn't understand the good things fire could do-1940's: Smokey the Bear icon made by Anglo-Americans to make the publicunderstand that fire was a bad thing "Only you can prevent forest fires" laterchanged to "only you can prevent wild fires" after understanding was graspedthat not all fires were bad-took awhile for Anglo-Americans to understand this though, whereas nativeAmerican's had understood this for years
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-saw fruitfulness as coming God-God created Adam and Eve-Tamed land: fields, gardening, controllingplants and animals-Brought disease-brought over different ecologicalconsciousness that clashed with the Indians
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-European-Americans painted an idealizedIndian who embodied wilderness values-Paintings of the time reflected the beliefthat American Indians were romanticsavages ignoring how colonizationintroduced major problems for tribes
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-The wise elder-the Indian princess-the aggressive drunk-the loyal sidekick-the New age mystic-the mascot-Tonto and the good Indian-the greedy Indian-the Big Chief.
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-most Native American movie, inside job, picked up the cameraand started recording their own history-Native guy running naked through the ice and the snow (that'snot an actor, he knows the story, he was willing to do thingsthat most people couldn't even do for the sake of representingthe iconic figure of the native image)-Point: Natives aren't asking to be represented as noble orbrave, they are asking to be represented as human
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-Grazing animals vs. planting; protection of domestic animalsfrom predators, such aswolves-led to natives using fencing b/c european domesticatedanimals would eat their food -Fencing indicated property rights of a settlement, economicactivities and the people's ecological relationship to the land-Management of domestic animals became more explicit-Ownership of land became more explicit-Native relationship to land changed as they adopted europeantechniques
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-seen by Europeans as either a sign of "technological incompetence"or as damaging-Didn't understand that natives have a firm understanding on how to use fires as theyhave been using fires for years-Used fires to:• Improve subsistence • Create meadows to attract deer • Move animals • Set stage for new plant growth • To increase production of nuts & berries • To improve pastures • As a weapon • As a means of communication • To improve travel
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-advocated a philosophy stating thatSpaniards could not just "take" the landfrom American Indians because he believedthat American Indians were the true owners-wanted to remain civil/not wage war butstill get the land they wanted-did this through treaties
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-passed in 1887 allowing the president to allot reservations•Allowed president to allot land to a family according to strictdetailed rules•Gave them land, told them they had to farm, but the land theygave them wasn't farmable, said if they don't farm, they will cuttheir rations, so they couldn't get food from the government,and a lot of them starved-Indian landholdings went from 138 million acres in 1887 to 48million acres in 1934-Nearly 20 million acres were desert and semi-arid
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-Went to Yale, wanted to study forestry so moved to France andGermany, believed that American forests should reflectdemocratic values of nation "land for all" where policy in placewas to destroy land at the time, became chief of forest reserves,created forestry school at Yale, good friends with Roosevelt, alot of political power/used press to advocate his laws,Roosevelt set aside 80 million acres of land -"the greatest good, greatest number, for the longest time" -Chief forester from 1905-1910-founded conservation
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-Whites commit genocide against Indians-Acted like they weren't human beings-Indians were so busy trying to protect theidea of Native Americans, that they began tonot even recognize themselves as humanbeings
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-San Francisco is the birthplace of the hippie-one way to honor native people was to dresslike a native person-Created a fictionalized notion of nativesociety-Native Americans colonized Alcatraz tofight for respect as equals
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Talked about baskets and ceremonial hats woven from willowroot/haregrass/fern stems from the Klamath River-Baskets important bc they show ecological knowledge that thepeople in this region have/ hats have spiritual meaning whichdictate how they are made-tribe has long understanding of fire management, controls theDouglas Firr that shades the Oak in which they depend upon forsurvival (Fire once every 7 years along Klamath)-Her job w/ Yurok: • Teach Yurok language in school, lobby forthings care about like salmon, try to continue culturalpractices; still some Yurok houses in those villages
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-In 1862, this law was past, granting 160 acres of free land tosettlers-For the next 123 years over 270 million acres of land would besettled on the American landscape and affected public lands in30 out of 50 states.-Homesteaders were allowed up to 160 acres of federal land-Rules: had to be head of the household or over 21, had to builda home on the property during the first 5 years, had to beEuropean-Native Americans had to be removed as a result
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less than 2000 members who controlapproximately 1 million acres of land alongthe Colorado river. Tourism contributes to70% of their budget (small and poor tribe)
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-bloodthirsty cannibalistic and savage-These images influenced manyenvironmental organizations, including theBoy Scouts.
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1830, Congress believed that colonists andAmerican Indians could not live togetherand passed an act that justified the removalof Americans from their land
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-while Indian removal was brutal, you neversaw representations of what happened inpaintings -American Indians were cast as evil andsavage vs. the innocence of their victims;European-Americans were seen as victims-outnumbered and on the run
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-involved in 100 westerns-the classic plains Indian: fit image of whatAmerican Indians should be-the older he got, the more he confined himself tothe stereotypes-played his own movies of himself simultaneouslyall the time-he believed he was what he saw on the screen
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-Named after Klamath River that flows through river-Have strong identity to river, and place-Fish is part of their ceremonies (maintains not only body but spirit)-Depletion of fish depletes their identity-River supports numerous tribes, provides water, fish, spiritual experience-Struggle over land ownership since 1800's-Stakeholders: Klamath, timber companies, local businesses,environmentalists, farmers-The federal government terminated their tribe in the 1950's and reinstated theKlamath in 1992, but not the land-By 1957, Klamath were left to 1/3 of their original holdings
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-1800's: John Marshall a Supreme Court Justice, used hisopinion to support a decision that created a landlord-tenantrelationship between the government & American Indian tribes-what this decision did was create rules, regulations, etc for theIndians-the idea of this was for white settlers to have title over theland-this justified the government to make these laws and rules thatsuppressed Indians -American Indians were less interested in who owned the land,but more interested in the political process of the land
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Differences in American Indian and Englishrelationship to animals:-Indians: use of animals seasonally (wildhunting), natural, public land-Europeans: year-round (animal husbandry,captivation), animals as a fixed property right,raised crops and cattle, "improved" land byclosing it, private
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-the period between 1815-1860-belief that The United States was destined to expand from the Atlanticseaboard to the Pacific ocean-American Indians were "encouraged" to sell their lands so that there would bemore available land for homesteaders•Sometimes this meant war, or being forcibly removed from lands•Civilization Programs: justification for removing natives from their land•Thomas Jefferson believed that natives were the intellectual equals of whiteAmericans, but that if they don't live like we do, then we will push them out ofthe way•Believed they stood in the way of expansion•Wanted them to live separately •Hoped natives would just disappear
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-1928-1945-an examination of American Indian lifewhich was unusually harsh on thegovernment for its failures (took 17 years)-the natives then did their own report andtook 8 years to come up with the sameresults
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There was a split between Pinchot and Muir Muir: preservationfor woods, no cutting, no mining, etc on these lands, naturewhere we go to understand the beauty Pinchot: conservation for people, national forest servicewouldn't be accepted by the people without them being able touse it, standing for democratic good and nature used to benefitthe most people, understood that they'd never solveconservation without addressing the business and social justiceof community (unlike Muir)
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-poorest Indian Reservation in North America-These are the descendants of Crazy Horse-To native people Crazy Horse is a mystical warrior, just like inthe movies-The Black Hills are their homeland, their sacred grounds-Carved out of the sacred Black Hills, Crazy Horse's face will bethe largest carving of a man-Crazy Horse is an embodiment of the human spirit-The 7th Cavalry killed the last free natives at the Battle ofWounded Knee on Pineridge Reservation
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-Animal pelts and hides - who owned the buffalo and beaverwhile they still wore their hides? Who owned wildlife?-Valuable minerals - the issue was the control of the productionsite. So who owned the vein (oil) that ran underground?-Cattle & grazing territory - Who owned the grass needed tofeed the livestock?Transportation - who owned the roads? (tolls put in place)Issue of property is VERY complicated
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symbolized American progress; paintingsdepicted the assault on westward expansion
by "the forces of evil"
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-established in 1898-in 1908 the Forest Reserve became part ofthe Coconino National Forest-recreation and tourism have become themost prominent land-uses of the Peaks
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-in Arizona, home to Leroux Springs, whereFlagstaff gets its water supply & FortMoroni, built for the Atlantic-PacificRailroad
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-Considered sacred by thirteen American Indiantribes including the Hopi, Navajo, and the Zuni.-The Hopi and the Navajo only utilize themountain for ceremony and the collection ofmedicinal plants. All tribes believe that themountain should not be used for personalenjoyment, economic pursuits or scientific study.
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-In the 1930's the Indian was transformed into a brutal savage-Stagecoach is the iconic western, one of the most damagingmovies for natives-Falsely portrayed Indians-they literally played English backwards to make their language-robbed nations of their identity and grouped them into one• act of Colonialism
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-1961-present-Shift by government from focus ontermination to supporting self-determination in the form of social welfareprograms
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-Grand Canyon West & the Hualapi-Tensions: the canyon landscape as sacredversus economic security-30 million dollars, glass overhang overcanyon to attract tourists
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the subject of slavery is taken seriously innational debate while the subject ofconquest was one of entertainment &escapism
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-a ski lodge built by the Cococino National Forestin the 1930's -Today, the resort hosts 30,000 to 180,000visitors year.-A coalition of tribes and environmental groupshave filed multiple lawsuits against the U.S.Forest Service to stop further development
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-700,000 acre reservation in Colorado sits on one the richestdeposits of methane in the world-Tribe is made up of 1400 members worth about 4 billiondollars (Was once poor, but now 1400 people are eachbillionaires)-Tensions: shift in power relations in community (Some saythey like the tribe better when it was poor)-Money has meant a $9.4 million recreation and communitycenter, a new elementary school & a way for the Ute to "takeback their reservation"
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-1945-1961-Major losses of service and protection forAmerican Indian tribes-Changes in land ownership patterns-American government began withdrawing itselffrom Indian life-Conservatives believed that survival of the fittestwould take reign
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1830's, mass migration of 16,000 Cherokeeswho walked from Georgia to Oklahoma, ideawas that the white vs. native problem wouldbe solved
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-became the vehicle that defined the legal and politicalrelationships between Europeans and American Indians-From 1778 to 1878 more than 600 treaties and agreementswere made with North American nations-American Indians were at a disadvantage during treaty-making: treaties were in English, interpreters were often biasedand treaties were amended which changed their meaning-Europeans privileged their own perspective and Natives lost alot in the process
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When Europeans came to New England, thischanged. They brought their belief thatEuropean culture had precedent over Natureand extracted commodities for tradingoverseas.
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women were the biological and socialreproducers, while men were the primaryreproducers of the collective throughgovernance
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-Approximately 5.2 million AmericanIndians & Alaska Natives-more than one third live in California,Arizona & Oklahoma-565 federally recognized tribes
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-covered 320 acres and provided pumice which wassold for horticulture, making cement block, andpreparing stone-washed denim-Operations at the mine destroyed five archeologicalsites; Secretary Bruce Babbitt joined forces withAmerican Indians to successfully close the mine in1999. -The Forest Service has filed a request to designatethe peaks as a Traditional Cultural Property.
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-silent the whole movie but portrayed this stoicand strong Indian that represented his heritage -Indians were treated as people with all differentkinds of shadings, that's why Clint Eastwoodchose to film this movie (very humorous castingof the elder that surfaced many stereotypes)-comedy, humor, and the great spirit saved theNative Americans
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-In 1985, Wilma Mankiller became the first femalechief of the Cherokee Nation-In 1956, her father moved their family from ruralOklahoma to San Francisco as part of a federalproject to move Indians to industrial areas (Trail ofTears)-In 1969, she joined a protest where AmericanIndians laid claim to Alcatraz in the name of allIndian tribes
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Where: Pine Ridge Reservation, South Dakota, USAWhat happened: -The Lakota refused to sell the Black Hills, land they saw as sacred-Sitting Bull, a Lakota Tribal leader, was killed by Indian police-500 troops of the U.S. 7th Calvary surrounded an encampment of Lakota, chaos ensued and more than 300women, men and children diedResult: February 1890: -The Great Sioux Reservation was sized down to five smaller reservations to accommodate homesteaders•Separated into family units, tribes didn't operate around family units, they operated around tribal units•Then assimilated the children into boarding schools to change their way of life, perception, origins, beliefs-Indians were forced to farm-Farming was difficult for American Indians in this arid region, many starved b/c rations ran outNow: Wounded Knee has become a significant part of popular culture through movies & music
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