essence - international journal for environmental ... · pal, anil and pal, brijesh kumar 1 – 16...

Content / Vol. VII [2] 2016

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Content Page No.

1. Tourism and its impact on Socio – Economic Life of Shimla District, Himachal

Pradesh

Pal, Anil and Pal, Brijesh Kumar

1 – 16

2. Water Pollution and its effects on human health: A case study of Dehradun City

Sharma, Mandakini; Pal, Brijesh; Pal, Anil and Bajpai, A. B.

17 – 24

3. Antibacterial action of medicinal plant Alysicarpus Vaginalis against respiratory

tract pathogens

Prashant Arya, J. P Mehta and Sanjay Kumar

25 – 32

4. Stress response of Escherichia coli on exposure to first transition series elements

in Liquid state

Bhandari, Prabhakar

33 – 38

5. Influence of deep cryogenic treatment on the mechanical properties of AISI-H11

Hot Die Steel

Katoch, Sanjeev; Sehgal, Rakesh and Singh, Vishal

39 – 45

6. A comparative study of physico-chemical and bacteriological parameters of three

different ritual bathing ghats of Ganga River in India

Kamboj, Nitin; Bharti, Manisha; Kamboj, Vishal; Rani, Anchal and Sharma, Shalini

46 – 52

7. Impact of anthropogenic activities on water quality of prominent water bodies of

Varanasi, UP, India

Tripathi, Ruchi and Tripathi, Shailendra Kumar

53 – 60

8. Assessment of water quality index of Jhilmil lake at Haridwar, Uttarakhand

Malik, D. S. and Tomar, Garima

61 – 68

9. The Impact of Environmental Awareness on Teachers’ Attitude towards

Environmental Education

Singh, Aileesha

69 – 72

10. Removal of methyl orange dye from textile effluent using adsorption on chitosan

hydrogel beads

Agarwal, Anuja and Vaishali

73 – 80

ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation

Volume VII: No. 2 2016 [ISSN 0975 - 6272]

[www.essence-journal.com]

Content / Vol. VII [2] 2016

11. Role of certain Biochemicals in Maintanance of osmotic balance in Philosamia

Ricini during starvation

Chandorkar, Shuchita; Shouche, Shobha and Pathak, J.P.N.

81 – 85

12. Human Hair: A Competent Biological Composite Fiber – A Review

Verma, Akarsh and Singh, Vinay

86 – 93

13. Assessment of physico-chemical characteristics of ground water, Roorkee

(Uttarakhand), India

Kamboj, Nitin; Rani, Anchal; Bharti, Manisha; Kamboj, Vishal and Sharma, Shalini

94 – 99

14. Role of science and technology in teaching learning process

Kumar, Roopendra and Rani, Sunita

100 – 102

15. Pond culture and their management in Shasthra Dhara of Doon City

Vats, Deepika

103 – 104

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Tourism and its impact on Socio – Economic Life of Shimla District, Himachal Pradesh

Pal, Anil1 and Pal, Brijesh Kumar

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Received: July 21, 2016 Accepted: August 20, 2016 Online: December 31, 2016

Abstract The phenomena of tourism have undergone a sea change in the recent years. Traditional behavior of tourists to look for modernized cities, star hotels, amusement parks, and night clubs has been shifted due to a variety of factors. Travel to relatively less pollute undisturbed natural areas for the purpose of studying, admiring and enjoying the nature, its wild plants, animals and local culture are getting popular these days. The present study aims to show trend and impacts of tourism in Shimla district. First step of the research is to collect the secondary data on different issues from various published and unpublished sources of different governmental and non-governmental agencies. Then the reconnaissance survey was made to the study area. An extensive literature survey gives an Keywords: Socio-economic | Tourism | Social | Economic | Development | Park | Facilities

in-depth knowledge and idea to develop an ideal methodology. A large number of books have been reviewed to find out the previous and present trends of research going on in related to this topic. A number of organizations, institutions and the government offices and non-governmental organizations including state-level, district-level, block level, different forest range-level and village-level, were visited to collect various categories of data.

Introduction

International survey has ranked India as fifth among tourist hotspots in the year 2005. The tourism ministry of India has revealed that the tourists flow has gone up by more than 25% over the last year and foreign exchange has grown up by 40% over the last year and World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) has rated as the fastest growing tourism economy in the world. Lonely Planet Pulse Survey conducted among 20000 respondents across 167 countries ranked India as one of the top five most desired destinations (The Hindustan Times Aug 23, 2005). However not a single Indian city could make it to the top twenty list. This is despite of


Volume VII: No. 2 2016 [1 – 16] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For correspondence: 1Department of Geography, D.B.S. (P.G.) College, Dehradun 2Department of Geography, H.N.B. Grahwal University, Srinagar, Garhwal Email: [email protected]

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many metros boosting a rich heritage of trade, culture and history. The situation arise since at the first instance when tourists touches one of these cities either he is assaulted by filth, noise, confusion or he is victimized by greedy taxi drivers and touts. The incredible India campaign, open skies and better connectivity with U.K. have really contributed positively but other facets like good governance, tourist friendly local administration, and basic infrastructure are crucial to retain India brand equity as a popular international destination. Ecotourism as the concept deal with the overall development of the destination emphasizes the fulfillment of expectations of all stakeholders concerned. It may be subjective as many authors point out. But the ideology can really contribute to an equitable tourism development.

Himalayas are one of the nature’s most fascinating phenomenon and one of the earth’s most bewildering features. The Himalayas have always been a nursery of peace and religion. It has been the cradle of everything precious and beautiful in India’s heritage. Poets, painters, sages and saints have always been spell - bound by the natural grace and charm of Himalaya. The poet Kalidas conceived the Himalaya to be much larger mountain than the present form and described it as celestial entity in his famous epic ‘Kumarsambhava’

Study Area

Shimla district of Himachal Pradesh is the embodiment of heaven on the earth, replete as it is with lush green forests, high snow covered peaks, beautiful valleys, gushing streams and

unpolluted rivers, which is probably why it is abode of many gods and goddess. Shimla district in its present form came into existence from 1st September, 1972 on account of reorganization of the districts of the state. After reorganization, the erstwhile Mahasu district 10th

in its entity and its major portion was merged with Shimla. It comprised 19 erstwhile hill states. The district derives its name from Shimla town, the district headquarters and also the state capital of Himachal Pradesh.

The district Shimla comprises 7 sub-divisions, 17 tehsils and sub tehsils. The subdivisions are namely Shimla (Rural), Shimla (Urban), Theog, Rampur, Rohru, Chaupal and Dodra-Kawar, the Tehsils are namely Seoni, Shimla (Urban), Shimla (Rural), Theog, Kamarsain, Rampur, Rohru, Kotkhai, Chaupal, Jubbal, Chirgaon, and Dodra-Kwar while Junga, Nankhari, Tikkar, Kupri and Nerua are the sub-tehsils. For the rural development, the district has been divided into nine Community Development Blocks, namely Rampur, Narkanda, Theog, Mashobra, Chaupal, Jubbal Kotkhai, Rohru, Chauhara and Basantpur.

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Shimla district situated between 30045’ to 31044’ North latitudes and 7700’ to 780

The public is still ignorant about the values of tourism and socio-economic life. In countries like Japan, United States and Canada, the state

has been forced to produce visible result. It took a great deal of effort on the part of Japanese and American citizen to improve the quality of socio-economic life. In the developing countries there is an absence of general public pressure on the state to take strong measures on the awareness on socio-economic life. The awareness among the people is low and the tourism and environment group that exist are very particularistic and lack a mass base unless people feel individually threatened by socio-economic life. It is not likely that they will exert direct pressure on the state to show results. Unregulated tourism can cause manifold problems unbalanced social change and unplanned economic development, Social tensions and socio-economic life degradation, distortion of life style and cultural decay.

Thus, Shimla district of Himachal Pradesh has taken for the present study to know the trends and impact of tourism on its socio-economic life so that suggestion could be made for the scientific and sustainable development of hill tourism. There are relatively few efficient studies on issue of real importance. It is starting to observe that countries with tourist potential undertake little or no research in this failed compared to work done in the United States and Britain. The proposed studies which have been carried out are, i) Shimla and its tourist trends. ii) Analyze the impact of tourism in Shimla. iii) Propose and suggest the measure to control the adverse effects of tourism on socio-economic life of the people of Shimla district.

19’ East longitudes. It is bounded by Mandi and Kullu districts in the North, Kinnaur district and Uttrakhand state in the East, Sirmour district in the South and Solan district in the West. The district contains the total geographical area as 5131 Sq Km with varying elevation from 300 meters to 6000 meters mean sea level.

The topography of district is rugged and tough. The hills and mountains ranges are generally aligned in the East - West direction which present a complicated pattern of relief. The pre-dominantly rough terrains, the prevalence of interlocking spurs, narrow and steep side valley throughout the district reflect the youthfulness of its topography.

Climatic conditions of Shimla district vary according to elevation of the area. December, January and February are severe cold months, when the winter season is at its peak. Snowfall generally occurs in December and continuous till mid March. Bulk of precipitation is received generally in the rain season. The average rain fall of district is 1028 millimeters. Due to large difference in altitude and precipitation, the vegetation types in this region range from tropical to alpine. Three rivers, i.e. the Satluj, Pabber and Giri flow through Shimla district. The district has a very rich religious and diverse culture heritage. This is reflected through its myriad tradition carved wooden temples.

Aims, Objective and Methodology

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The present study aims to show trend and impacts of tourism in Shimla district. First step of the research is to collect the secondary data on different issues from various published and unpublished sources of different governmental and non-governmental agencies. Then the reconnaissance survey was made to the study area. An extensive literature survey gives an in-depth knowledge and idea to develop an ideal methodology. A large number of books have been reviewed to find out the previous and present trends of research going on in related to this topic. A number of organizations, institutions and the government offices and non-governmental organizations including state-level, district-level, block level, different forest range-level and village-level, were visited to collect various categories of data.

Tourist Trends

The number of tourists is increasing day by day in the tourist places in the world .This time tourism industry is growing very rapid rate. Providing money for each economy where it is running with planned. The number of tourists is rising continuously as the same rate as the population of the world is rising. The tourists have controlled by the climatic condition, i.e., summer (May, June) and autumn (September, October). The autumn festival attracts only more sophisticated tourists. In the month of December, January and February, the cold temperature (less than 2 degree C) and in The July and August heavy rainfall lessen the number of tourists. Thus, Shimla district experiences two extreme tourist periods, i.e., “peak” period in May and June for Indian as

well as September and October for foreigners and “depression” period in January and February. In summer, tourists come here to get relief from the scorching heat of plain. Most of these tourists of this period come from Delhi, Haryana, Bihar, Punjab, Rajasthan and South India and small number from foreign countries.

In winter, they come to see the clear sky, when Shimla provides an ideal setting for viewing the Himalayan Panorama. In this season they enjoy the snowfall. Autumn festivals of the district draw a lot of crowd of foreigners and south Indian during October-November. The foreigners take enjoy of ice-skating and skiing in this period. Table 1 shows the monthly arrivals of tourists in Shimla district of two years (2002-2003). It is apparent from the table that the highest number of the Indian tourists visited in the month of June (2,38,942) and in case of the foreigners the highest number of visited tourists in the month of October (4,154) in 2002 and in the year of 2003 the tourist arrival rate has increased in month of June the Indian had 2,56,265, while the foreigners had 5,325 in the October month.

Further increase of tourists is shown in the Table 1.2. The table shows the monthly arrivals of tourists in Shimla district of two years (2012-2013). It is apparent from the table that the highest number of the Indian tourists visited in the month of June (4,00,359) and in case of the foreigners the highest number of visited tourists in the month of September (9,259) in 2012 and in the year of 2013, the tourist arrival rate has increased in month of June the Indian had 4,69,341, while the foreigners had 10,925 in the September month.

Impact of tourism in study area have been felt in two ways (a) Positive effects and (b)

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Negative effects. The positive effects are always welcome for the regional development and growth, while the negative impacts bring unwanted constraints to the region. Growing tourism activities have greatly modified the

hills of Shimla. The impacts of tourism on economy, society and environment have been discussed below.

Year 2002 2003 Month Indian Foreigner Indian Foreigner

January 63,629 506 64,891 566 February 72,889 962 74,929 1,087 March 66,995 1,769 74,760 1,807 April 78,906 1,936 86,292 2,474 May 1,42,796 3,341 1,60,903 3,959 June 2,38,942 3,016 2,56,265 3,756 July 1,06,601 2,796 1,12,027 2,952 August 57,095 3,915 62,142 4,843 September 77,945 1,426 89,606 4,914 October 66,141 4,154 71,611 5,325 November 61,017 2,808 63,928 3,788 December 1,03,117 1,693 1,10,356 2,389 Total 11,36,063 31,022 12,27,710 37,860

Source: Directorate of Tourism and Civil Aviation: Himachal Pradesh

Table 1.1: Estimate of Domestic and Foreign Tourist Arrival in 2002-2003

Year 2012 2013

Month Indian Foreigner Indian Foreigner January 99,496 2,594 1,05,127 4,032 February 96,344 1,152 1,01,171 4,206 March 96,927 2,403 1,01,889 5,769 April 1,06,746 2,639 1,14,453 7,279 May 2,45,517 7,448 2,97,812 9,414 June 4,00,359 6,893 4,69,341 8,821 July 1,51,040 6,549 1,65,011 8,947 August 83,720 6,915 92,113 9,273 September 1,31,006 9,259 1,44,516 10,925 October 1,04,790 9,147 1,24,911 10,793 November 92,178 5,776 1,03,746 6,494 December 1,49,184 3,977 1,51,125 4,454 Total 17,57,307 64,752 19,71,417 90,407

Source: Directorate of Tourism and Civil Aviation: Himachal Pradesh

Table 1.2: Estimate of Domestic and Foreign Tourist arrival in 2012-2013

The exposure of the tradition way of the people to the outsiders is not free from the negative impacts. The simple folk cannot absorb the rude culture shocks that they have imbibed and the evil consequences of a western society are all glaring, which are responsible for loss of

culture identity and erosion of moral and social values. Video parlors, disco dances in the bars and restaurants, movies, dress, mannerism all pervade the major centres. All the men and workers engaged directly or indirectly in different sectors of tourism activities, take full

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advantage of tourists coming from outside. Gradually they are leaving aside the simplicity and humanity of their behavior - a unique feature of the hills people. Modern tourism has made them cunning and clever who also start hating their own community people. Over crowing in the markets, on the roadways and recreation spots may slowly increase the level of frustration among local residents.

Tourism provides the huge wealth for economy whether it is developed or underdeveloped like India. The tourists visit in a region, state or country give something to the people of the area.

a) In Shimla region where a tourist visits earned revenues through the tourist trade, have a direct positive effects on economy. So this region has earned the foreign exchange.

b) It has brought infrastructural improvement in the form of transport network, road construction, electricity, water supply, drainage, sewerage, and tourist based industries etc.

c) The tourist industry being a labour-intensive service industry is a valuable generator of employment. It is a great encouragement to economic development of this region.

d) The tourism has raised the direct relationship between traders and tourist trade goods and services.

e) The multiplier effects of the growing trade and tourist expenditure have stimulated the economic activities and their diversification in the remote areas of this region like valleys of Tatapani and Pabber.

Local Community

Local community is the key factor for the development of tourism in the area. Discussions with local villagers indicate that community interest in tourism is very high, but they have lack the skills, knowledge and support to develop it. Local participation will be more effective than other media to promote tourism in the area. Local participation has been described as “giving people more opportunities to participate effectively in development activities. It means empowering people to mobilize their own capacities, be social actors rather than passive subjects, manage the resources, make decisions, and control the activities that affect their lives.” In Shimla district only little part population is living in the urban centers. The people of Shimla district are simple, cooperative and hard working class and a close knit community. The system of the joint family is still prevalent, but slowly changing to a nuclear based family. Busheri and Hindi are the popular spoken dialect. It is a highly cast conscious society. The people of all the cultural groups are free to pursue their customs, conventions, beliefs and traditions. The villagers women of the district are an asset to the family, incharge of day to day domestic chores like collecting fuel and fodder, bringing water, cooking food, tending to cattle and assisting in the agricultural fields. They enjoy considerate freedom in the family and the spread of the education in the recent past is slowly changing their social position. The men’s time is spent in rearing goat and sheep and working in the fields.

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A wide assortment of Hindu temples, three shrines and sacred grounds is found throughout the district. Each village of the district has a local God known as Devta. These deities have a fascinating history and play an important role in village affair. There are many important pilgrimage spots in the district. All these spots are regularly visited by locals and non-locals alike, particularly men, and are only accessible in the summer and fall months. Hindu customs dictates that no leather articles are allowed anywhere in the immediate vicinity.

People with their sense of the picturesque, in their colourful customs and costumes, for their hunger for life and for their passion, for songs and dances are the biggest attraction. The genius of the valley lies in religion which expresses spontaneously on periodic festivals, the Lavi Fair being the most grandiose in colourful pageantry of the natives. Village melas (festivals) occur year-round. They are colourful, multiple day affairs where gods from different village are brought together. One can watch human spokes person for the each god (Gur) go into a trans and tell stories, give advice, and answer questions for local villagers. Local songs and dances are also performed and villagers dress in the best traditional costumes. Respectful observation by outsiders is welcomed. Natti is a folk dance, based on classic tradition of Nattya Shastra the district has practiced by local amateurs, who dance for themselves for their pleasures and with no audience in view.

Livelihood Strategies

The people living in the rural areas of the district are engaged and dependent on various

primary occupation, viz., agriculture, dairying, cattle keeping, fisheries and forestry. The economy of the hilly districts in Himachal Pradesh is dominated by agriculture, horticulture and animal husbandry. Similarly Shimla district also has an agrarian economy with 80% of the workers directly engaged with agricultural and horticultural activities.

The most important factors influencing the livelihood condition of the people in the district are variation in altitude, slope and climate. These variations help the district in tourism development as well as agricultural and horticultural development. Due to tourism development in the district, Shimla (town) and some other famous places like Ranpur, Kotgarh, Kotkhai and Tatapani Kullu have now become starting points of medium and hard treks. Half a dozen trekking agencies and the institute are engaged in this business which creates employment to the local people aby way of porters, guides and cooks.

Long period of winter prohibits any outdoor activity of the people in the region. Thus, local people have to mainly depend upon the stored resources i.e. grain, fodder and fuel wood etc. and economy generated during the non- winter months. Out of that too heavy rains often take a toll of agricultural and horticulture crops. Local community has direct interaction with tourist. They have the responsibility to provide a safe, clean, high quality experience for the tourist. In return, they have a right to a reasonable remuneration for their services and to ask for cooperation in respecting local traditions and the natural environment.

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Planning is for the benefit of people and they should be involved in the planning and development of tourism in their area. Through this involvement, tourism development will reflect a consensus of what the people want. Also, if local people are involved in planning and development decisions and if they understand the benefits the tourism can bring, they will more likely support it. Open public hearing provide the opportunity for anybody to learn about the plan and express their opinion. When the plan is completed, regional eco-tourism seminar should be organized. This meeting informs the participants and the local community about the importance of controlled eco-tourism development and the recommendations of the plan.

There are at least five areas where local people can help to bring about eco-tourism activities i.e. information gathering, consultation, decision making, initiating action and evaluation. Local organization such as gram panchayat, mahila mandal, navyuvak mandal, devta committies may need strengthening and local people may need some training in skill areas.

Tourists are also asking to keep the area neat and clean throughout their stay. Even though there is high local interest in ecotourism development, there are a few independent initiatives. Activity is mainly focused on a few guest houses, some sporadic employment as porter and guides and craft production. Such type of planning and strategies need proper attention in other areas.

About 65% of the villagers of the Shimla District are willing to associated with

ecotourism and related activities. They are of the opinion that this may improve their economic status as they will get more opportunity to earn through tourism. About 25% people want to establish small shop, about 2.7% people want to become tourist guides, 5% are in favour of establishing hotels or restaurants, 7% are in favour of handicrafts and other show interests in porter, cook and in adventure sports. There is no outside advertising or co-ordination between them.

Role of Visitor

In the hilly regions the tourism sector is flourishing day by day thus the pressure of tourists increases. Due to fast life of the metro cities, the peoples want to spend their holidays at peaceful places surrounded with trees and snow clad peaks that’s why they make their way to the hill stations to fulfill their desire. But due to heavy tourist pressure these hill stations are facing a lot of problems concerning the pollution, garbage, deforestation, wildlife destruction, socio-cultural loss etc. Thus this is the foremost duty of local peoples and tourists to handle this situation eco-friendly. So the tourists should have to take an active role in the protection of the environment and community development. The local administration has to provide eco-friendly awareness education to the tourists through pamphlets, posters, seminars, books and advertisement. If tourists will follow such awareness so they can boost up the tourism very eco-friendly. In this respect tourists must be aware of their impact both positive and negative, socio-economically and ecologically. This is especially true for the average Indian

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tourists, who has had exposure to responsible tourism and has a tendency to bring the bad

habits of the city (pollution, litter and demanding attitudes) into hills.

Fig.1.3: Negative Impacts of Tourism

ECOLOGICAL

DESTRUCTION

• Forest • Fauna • Grazing Land

POLLUTION

• Water • Air • Noise • Trash Garbage

DEGRADATION

• Landscape • Scenic Appeal • Congestion/ Overburdening

• Hygiene Problems

ORIGIN OF HAZARDS

• Flood • Land Slide • Rock Fall • Debris Flow • Avalanche • Cloud Burst

IMPACTS

SOCIO-CULTURAL

SOCICTAL DOWNFAL

• Cultural Loss • Alienation • Xenophobia • Vandalism • Selling Out

Antiques • Internal politics • Limitation of

CHANGES

• Lifestyle • Native Architecture • Settlement Patterns • Folk Traditions • Customs I t t

PROMOTES

• Moral Laxity • Crime/Gambling • Prostitution • Drug Addiction • Inferiority (Locals) • Beggar Mentality • Theft

DITURB

• Religious Practices • Indigenous Style • Social Cohesion

ECONOMIC

ENCOURAGES

• Inflationary Trends • Conspicuous • Consumption • Demonstration

Effect • Import for

Tourism/ Leakages • Privileged

Treatment of

POOR ECONOMY

• Without Labour • Overburdens

Communal Services

DEPENDENCY

• Seasonal Dependence • Dependence on

Tourism • Dominate by External

(City)

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Fig.1.4: Positive Impacts of Tourists

The tourists should have to play a very responsible role during their visit to the hill stations as they are the central part of the tourism sector. When the tourists visit to the specific areas they should have to obey the rules and regulations made by the local administration to promote ecotourism. And it is also their duty to give and take respects from local communities and educate them concerning the ecotourism, thus this tendency

will improve the positive mentality of the local peoples towards the ecotourism.

The money spent by the tourist is the main source of the earning of the local community. Therefore, during the visit, the tourists should have to spend a large part of their expenditure on local produces that will be beneficial for raising the living standard of the local community and thus they will provide the best facilities (accommodation etc.) to them. Such

ECOLOGICAL

Encourage

• Ecological Awareness • Conservation • Measures to hold

Pollution • Cleanliness in

Campgrounds/ k /t il / dl d

HELPS

• Maintenance of Scenic Landscape

• Research/ Environmental Impact studies

IMPACTS

SOCIO-CULTURAL

PRESERVES

• Culture: Monuments / Ruins

• Folk Tradition • Culture Properties • Art of History

RESPONSIBLE

• Tourists • Space Organizations • Urbanization • Increased Communiction • Modernization of

ENCOURAGES

• Education • Training of Craftsman/

Contact with Outside World

• Speedy Knowledge • Rediscovery of Lost

Tradition

ECONOMIC

CREATES

• Job Opportunities • Foreign Exchange • Additional Income/Tax • Better Multiplier • Diversification of

Economy • Jobs for Unskilled/ Semi

IMPROVES

• Infrastructure • Local Arts/Crafts • Regional Developments

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tendencies will promote the ecotourism in the area.

Culture

The people: The population of the district mainly consists of Hindus followed by Sikhs and Mohammedans. The other religions like Christians, Jains and Buddhists constitute microscopic minority. The Hindu population chiefly composed of Brahmins, Rajputs and Kenets. The other sections of the people consist of Badhis, Chamars, Chanals, Julaha, Kolis, Lohars and Rehars which are Scheduled Castes.

The Rajputs form rather a ruling class than a caste and comprise of the families of the erstwhile hill chiefs. There are three categories of Rajputs. First is the ruling family of the yester years, who do not give their daughters to Khash, Mians or other Rajputs. They still marry among other ruling Rajput families. The second are Thankurs and Mians. They also hesitate to give their daughters to Kanets or Khash. Then there are Kanets or Khash who are mainly agriculturists.

The Brahmins are of two classes- Sasani and Dharebar. The Sasanis are generally muafidars and are of distinctly higher class than the Dharebars. They would marry Dharebar women but will not give their own daughters in marriage to them. The other groups, Brahmins are Bhat, Panda, Acharaj and Mahacharaj or Bedwa.The Kolis form the majority of population among Schedule Castes. Besids these, the Gujjars, a nomadic Scheduled Tribe are also found in the district. Gujjars are mostly Muslims. While some of them are settled on agricultural land, the other still

follow a nomadic life. In summer they move to higher hills in search of new pastures and in winter they come down to warmer places.

Language

Pahari consisting of various dialects is the spoken language of the villagers in the district. However, with the spread of communication, increase in literacy rate among the masses, predominant population of the district can now speak Hindi and Pahari all over the district. According to the classification of languages, made by the Linguistic Survey of India, the dialects spoken in Shimla district come under Western Pahari. These have been classified under broader Indo-European Family of languages, Aryan Sub-Family, Indo-Aryan Branch, Inner Sub Branch and Pahari Group.

Dress

Cotton and woolen clothes are worn by the people. Since the winter is severe, woolen clothes made up of the indigenously spun and woven cloth are commonly used. Ordinary clothes for man consist of cotton khadi or mill made shirt, lower, cap and a jacket. In the past in some low lying areas majority of men folk used to move about without pyjama wearing only a small loin cloth in summer and rainy season. However, with the passage of time the loin cloth has now been replaced by underwear. The dress of the women is Salwar, Kameej and coloured head gear which is called ‘Dhattu’. Jacket is also worn by them. In the upper portion of the district the traditional dress of a man consists of black woolen domestically spun and woven pyjama, coat and Bushehari cap with a coloured band Loia is also put on by most of the people. The women,

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however, wear Pakhati, Rezta, Kameej, suthan and Dhattu. Women of the higher altitudes of Rampur tehsil put on wollen and Gaddi. The typical dress of the women of Theog, Kotkhai, Jubbal, Rohru and Chaupal tehsils is Salwar, Kameej, Sadri with yellow or red coloured Dhattu as the head gear.

Food Habits

The staple food of the villagers generally consists of maize, rice and wheat. Wheat is taken mostly in summer and thereafter occasionally. In addition, pulses like Urd, Lobia, Moong and Kulth are used almost daily. Maize which is the main cereal crop grown is favorite and is taken round the year. The people in the villages have four meals a day. Morning meal (Nawari) consists of wheat or maize bread taken either with Lassi or with tea. Those who cannot afford Lassi or tea they take it with salt. The mid day meal (Chaili or Dopari) consists of maize or wheat chapattis taken with vegetable or dal or curry ‘ Khairu’. In the evening the morning menu is repeated. At night in the dinner (Bayali) the rice or Cheena of Kangani is taken with pulses. People are also very fond of meat and those who can afford they take it at time in the dinner. Due to various incentives provided by the Government, the people have started keeping improved varieties of milching cows and buffaloes and poultry birds. In addition to the above cereals, Bathu and jawar are also taken especially in winter. Sidku or sidu is very famous in upper Shimla hills. It is a thick fermented roti of wheat floor with paste of opium seeds mixed with either gur or salt added to it which makes it very delicious. It is

always taken with have made pure ghee. Patandey are made of very thin paste of wheat floor and are eaten with dal and ghee or kheer (made of rice and milk).

Fairs and Festivals

Bharara Fair: This fair is held in village Bharara near Kumharsain and people of all castes and creed participate. The fair is held on the 1st of Jaistha (May). It is being celebrated from ancient times. Devta Koteshwar is brought in the fair and goats are sacrificed in it honour as a mark of respect. The fair is cultural and recreational and ‘Natti’ dances are performed. People also enjoy ‘Hindola’ ride.

Bhoj Fair: This fair is held in village Guman in Rohru Tehsil in the month of November for thee days in honour of Devta Bansor, Parshu Ram and Kilbaru. Devta Bansor is the presiding deity. Beside, paying homage to the deities ‘Natti’ dances are performed by the people. The fair attracts a huge crowd.

Lavi Fair: Lavi fair of Rampur is the most important fair of the district and state. It is a commercial fair held on the 25th of Kartika (November). It is said that the fair was related to the signing of trade treaty between the erstwhile Bushahr State and Tibet. The shepherds of Kinnaur migrate to warmer places before the onset of winter and on their way they halt at Rampur. The woolen goods, dry fruits and medicinal herbs brought by them are purchased by the people and the traders of the plains and food grains, clothes and utensils are sold. It is a very old fair and entirely related to

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the sale and purchase of goods. ‘Natti’ dances and cultural shows are the main attractions.

Mahasu Jatar: This fair is celebrated at a place about 6 Kilometers from Shimla-Kotkhai road near Mahasu village on the 3rd

Sipi Fair: This fair is held every year in Sihpur below Mashobra on the 1st Jaistha (May) in honour of Sip Devta. It is very old fair and the Rana of Koti used to be the chief visitor. Thousands of people of the surrounding areas participate in the fair. A goat is slaughtered in honour of the deity. Archery game is played

besides several cultural programmes, variety shows, ‘Karyala’, Performance of the jugglers, magicians and acrobats provide additional entertainment to the spectators.

Tuesday in the month of Baisakha (May) for two days. The fair is a very old one and is held in front of the Durga Devi temple by a large gathering who throng the place from the neighbouring areas. It is believed that a Rana of Badoli lived in Chakroth near Mahasu. He had built Durga temple there. After the abolition of his jagir the Rana left the village and the villagers of Mahasu constructed a temple of Durga in their own village and to commemorate the occasion they started the fair. ‘Natti’ dances and folk songs are performed. Archery game is the main attraction of entertainment. At the end of the fair a goat is sacrificed.

Pathar- ka- Khel -Halog: This fair is held in village Halog of Tehsil Shimla (Rural). Halog was the capital of erstwhile Dhami state. The fair is held on the second day of Diwali in the month of Kartik (November). In ancient times human sacrifice, it is said, used to be offered to goddess Kali every year at the spot where the fair is now held. It is also said that on this day the widow of a ruler of the state performed ‘Satti’ and that before doing so she had ordered to make human sacrifice henceforth.

Rohru Fair: This fair is held in Rohru on the 9th and 10th Baiskha (April) on the banks of river Pabbar in honour of Devta Shikru. People of nearby villages are the devotees of the Devta. It is very old fair and is held to commemorate the supremacy of the deity. This fair is also a commercial one and apart from the performance of ‘Natti’ dances and cultural activities, brisk trading is also done. Men and Women costumed in their best attire participate in the fair.

Summer Festival: It is held every year in the month of May at Shimla. It is variety cultural function with performance of local folks, cultural program by school children and daily performance by some famous personality. It is held on the famous ridge ground.

Winter Sports Festival: Ice - skating in Shimla is a big attraction for the sports - lovers during winter, Shimla is the only place in Asia which has the privilege of having a natural Ice - skating rink of the kind and offers a popular pastime to the participants and on lookers alike. Ice - skating normally begins in early December and caries on to February. Clear skies and low temperatures provide series of uninterrupted sessions. There are two sessions every day, in the morning and in the evening depending upon the frozen ice on the ground. The hanging balloon on the Municipal Building adjacent to scandal point works as signal, whether the skating is going to be held on that day or not. Membership is available for

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the season as well as for shorter terms and even for single sessions. Skates are available at the rink. Fancy dress carnivals, ‘gymkhanas’ ice - hockey and dances enliven every season.

Conclusions

It cannot be advocated that tourism should be stopped but should it be promoted and developed at the cost of socio economic environment? With the high tourist flow and further increase in Shimla hills, it seems necessary that some remedial and improvement measures be taken before the socio economic life of the people exploited. Tourism will need to adopt a more ecological approach of it is to guarantee its own long term sustainability.

Recognizing that tourism is a growing factor in the economy of the hill areas and that tourism has become a more egalitarian pursuit than what it was in the decades gone by, and that tourism exerts a profound influence on the environment and ecology of the hill areas, it is recommended that plans for the development of tourism, in particular and the development of human settlements, in general, should be guided by sound ecological and environmental considerations. As the attraction of the hill resorts lies largely in their aesthetic appeal, it is recommended that the development of hill town should aim at preserving this appeal. To this end, local committees can be constituted to ensure aesthetic beauty in constructions and in urban graphics, such as billboards, tourist posters and signboards.

Tourism is essentially a scenery–cum climate based industry and obviously the trade will be affected if these are allowed to fall into disrepair. Much of the scenic because of the

unplanned felling of the trees. However, so far only isolated attempts have been made for its planning and development and no integrated model of mountain development based on tourism has emerged. The designers and administrators of tourist developments fail to respect the most elementary principals for adapting architecture to its surroundings. In the following lines some suggestions, for the improvement of the tourist trade, have been made:

1. Basic amenities and civic facilities (Food, accommodation, transport, water, electricity, sewage and health) will have to be provided for and their standards improved. During the peak seasons (April – June and September- October) demand overshoots the supply causing serious scarcity of the essential commodities, certain steps will have to the taken. Imposition of a toll box for improvement of civic conditions can be conceived.

2. For the middle and low budget tourists, who form the backbone of the regional revenue earnings, cheaper accommodation should be provided. Youth Hostel, Yatri Niwas are far short compared to the huge demand. The tourists often become victims of the unscrupulous hoteliers.

3. Transport operators, hoteliers, shop keepers often charge high prices during the peak season because of absence of any check on part of the local government authorities. This practice should be checked in order to arrest further harassment of tourist.

4. Construction of high structures defying the ban of the authorities, excessive

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construction activities and urban sprawl have all together restricted the view of the scenic beauty. Not only serious ecological disorders have been experienced because of the forest depletion but defacement of natural setting is also causing harm to the tourist trade which is based on aesthetic beauty. Ecological restoration of the environment is absolutely necessary in order to revitalize and retrieve the last glory of the hill station.

5. Tourism is a valuable foreign exchange earner. Easy travel formalities, less restrictions, better foreign exchange conversions, efficient information bureau, coupled with trained guides, high standard hotels and food, better servicing are some of the steps that will have to be taken for promoting international tourism.

6. Tourism in Shimla Hills is mainly operative during the summer and the autumn seasons. During the rains and winter, tourist inflow is at its lowest ebb. Only some foreigners choose to come here during the winters. Hence, during the off season, trade becomes sluggish. If proper facilities can created through off season tariff relief, winter sport facilities, creation of another amusement and recreation facilities, so that tourist motivations can be generated, it will become a year-round activity and seasonal idleness can be wiped out.

7. Trekking, climbing, adventure courses, rafting, boating, fishing etc. are the new avenues, which can attract tourists in large numbers. Vast potential do exit here, they only need to be tapped and developed.

These can be of definite interest for tourist attraction.

Whatever damage has been done in the past should not be allowed to continue. For planning a balance development in future, it is necessary to consider the equilibrium between man and his environment. At the same time, it is essential to promote the concept of ecotourism, involving education and interpretation of the natural environment. Environment education minimizes negative effects both upon the human and natural environment and contributes to the management of protected area.

The science of tourism recreation is still young and it is only through errors made by mankind that we can learn and bring about checks into not repeating mistakes again and develop mountain tourism in the Himalayas in a sustained and scientific manner.

References

Purohit, D. R. (2001): “Fairs and Festivals: Place, Occasion, and Events” in Kandari O.P. edited Garhwal Himalayas : Nature, Culture and Society, , Transmedia Media House. Srinagar, Garhwal, India. PP 363 - 384.

Jugran, D. K. (1977): Agony of Mussorie Hill, Continuing Still – A case example on environmental Degeneration UGC Workshop, Garhwal University, Srinagar, October 8-10.

Kaur, Jagdish, (1980): Tourism Recreation Analysis : Fixing A Criterion. Journal

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of Himalayan studies and regional Development vol.4.PP 17-21

Negi, P. S. (1987): Environmental Deterioration of the Himalayan Natural Resources Due to Tourism Development. Indus Publishing Company, New Delhi.

Negi, S. S. (1882): Environmental problems in the Himalayas. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal singh, Dehradun, India.PP 110- 113.

Rajwar, G. S. (1981): Ecological problem of Mussoorie Hills and their solution.

Singh, T. V. (1984): Tourism in the Himalaya: Case of Garhwal, Problem of Resource Use and Conservation. In Grotzabach, E.(ed.) Beitrage Zur verglichenden Kultur – Geographie der Hochgebirge, Verlag Friedrich Pustet Regensburg, Eichstatt : west Germany PP 169-184.

Singh, T. V. and Yadav D. B. (1980): A cross Road pilgrim Tour in Garhwal : Studying Impact of Modernization with special Reference to Tourism. Journal of Himalayan studies and Regional Development Vol. 4.

Singh, Tejvir and Kaur, Jugdish (1983): Mountain Tourism, How Good and How Bad

U.G.C. Report 1986, Rishikesh, A doorway to Himalayan Resorts and Pilgrimages. Journal of Himalayan studies and Regional Development Vol. 9 & 10, PP 133-139.

Williams, A. Ts. (1982): Impacts of Domestic Tourism on Host Populations : The Evolution of a Model. In Singh, T.V. and Kaur, J. studies in tourism wildlife parks and conservation, Metropolitan, New Delhi PP 214-223.

World Health Organization (W.H.O.) (1972): Health Hazards of the Human Environment.

Balwant, C.; Sandhu, S. (1985): Strategy for preserving the Environment on the mountaineering trails. In: Singh, J. S. ed. Environmental Regeneration in Himalaya: concept and strategies - reports from the seminar on 24-26 Oct 1983 at Nainital. The Central Himalayan Environment Association / Nainital, Gyanodaya Prakashan. PP 376-386

Garhwal University. Department of Geography. (1987): International Seminar on Impact of Tourism on Mountain Environment held on 21-24 March, 1987 at Srinagar, India. Srinagar, Garhwal University. PP 168.

Kaur, J. (1985): Himalayan pilgrimages and the new tourism. New Delhi, Himalayan Book .PP 219

Sharma, N. K. (1986): Himachal Pradesh tourism: A socio-economic study. Srinagar, Garhwal University. PP 284.

17

`

Water Pollution and its effects on human health: A case study of Dehradun City

Sharma, Mandakini1; Pal, Brijesh2; Pal, Anil1and Bajpai, A. B.

3

Received: August 13, 2016 Accepted: October 23, 2016 Online: December 31, 2016

Abstract Water is most important for living organisms. Health of human and other organisms is directly related with safe water other than anything. That is why the safe water resources are very important. In developing countries, it is normally observed that due to the lack of safe drinking water people become ill. Drinking water being transported through distribution networks will be subjected to both chemical and microbial quality changes. The task of efficiently monitoring the hygenic drinking water quality is large but not impossible. With the rapid growth of population, increasing levels of living standards, industrialization and generation of power and other demand of water has increased on the one hand and the contamination of various toxic substances in water bodies have caused deterioration of water quality and level of pollutions increasing continuously on the other hand.

Keywords: Water Pollution | Dissolved oxygen | Biological oxygen demand | Typhoid

Introduction

The water pollution may be defined as “the deterioration in chemical, physical and biological properties of water brought about mainly by human activities”. In other words, substances, bacteria or viruses present in such concentration or number as to impair the quality of water rendering it less suitable or unsuitable for its intended use and presenting a hazard to man or to its environment makes the water polluted.

The water pollution may be caused by any one or more of the following factors. Atmospheric dissolved gases. Decomposition of animal and vegetable materials. Industrial effluents. Sewage disposal. Weathering of soil and rock materials. Disposal of radioactive substances. Huge ammount of nutrients eg. Nitrate and phosphate, sewage, pesticide and fertilizers stimulate the growth of micro-organisms which often increase the biological oxygen demand (BOD) of the water and reduce the amount of




For correspondence: 1Dept. of Geography, DBS (PG) College, Dehradun 2Dept. of Geography, H.N.B. Garhwal University, Srinagar 3Dept. of Botany, DBS (PG) College, Dehradun Email: [email protected]

Sharma et al./Vol. VII [2] 2016/17 – 24

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dissolved oxygen (DO) available in aquatic life.

The sewage wastes falling into streams, rivers, lakes and coastal water create various kinds of problems. These wastes may contain pathogenic bacterial and viruses which are threat to the human health. The water borne diseases such as typhoid, bacillary dysentery, amoebic dysentery and hepatitis all represent potential health hazards in sewage contaminated waters (Matta, Gagan, 2014a).

Water is basic for sustaining human life. There is saying in Sanskrit “Jal hi Jeewan Hai”. It is used in domestic, agriculture and industries and transportation and many other forms also. The fresh water reserve for drinking, bathing and other human purpose, is limited. Only 0. 9% of the fresh water is found in rivers, lakes, ponds and underground. (Behura, 1981; L’vovitch, 1978; Matta et al., 2015a).

In industries and mining activities, the used water is discharged in the form of effluents mixed with various toxic and non-toxic pollutants along with oil and grease which are harmful and pollute the other sources of water, such as rivers, tanks, reservoirs etc. It adversely affects the aquatic system.

Sources of water pollution in Dehradun City

Water for the city was supplied only from surface sources earlier but later ground water sources also started being used to supplement the surface source. The total water supply to the city is 127.05 mld of which 76% (102.51 mld) is supplied from ground water sources while the remaining 24.54 mld is supplied from surface sources. The average per capita

supply in the city is 124 lpcd at present. The total water losses amount to 30%. The average duration of supply in the city is 4 hours, twice a day. Based on the socio-economic survey of 1160 households it has been examined that about 71% of the population in the city is covered by piped water supply. There are two water treatment plants in the city with a total capacity of 34 mld. The northern part of the city is supplied water through gravity, the central part with gravity and pumping while the southern part is supplied water through pumping.

The water supply is operated and maintained in the city by Uttaranchal Jal Sansthan. Large capital works and overall planning is carried out by Uttaranchal Pey Jal Nigam. Unequal intra-city distribution is one of the problems being faced in the city due to which some localities are facing acute water shortage. Deterioration in the quality of water, inefficient network hydraulics, old and dilapidated networks are some of the other major problems related to water supply in the city. The proportion of water in India in different sectors is estimated as agriculture 96 percent, domestic 3 percent and industrial 1. 0 percent. In case of Indian cities and towns, the average daily consumption of water varies from 50 litres/capita/day in small towns to 450 litres/capita/day for large and industrial cities. (Hussain, 1976; Matta, Gagan, 2014b).

Methodology

The data on drinking water was extracted from secondary sources such as pai jal nigam (Water Works Department) Dila Ram chowk. The data constituted of various physical and chemical


19

characteristics out of which study relevant parameters were derived and used accordingly. There are two water treatment plants in the city with a total capacity of 34 mld. The northern part of the city is supplied water through gravity, the central part with gravity and pumping while the southern part is supplied water through pumping. The water supply is operated and maintained in the city by Uttaranchal Jal Sansthan. Large capital works and overall planning is carried out by Uttaranchal Pey Jal Nigam. The data regarding diseases aggravated through water pollution has been collected from hospitals and discussed with private practioners. The annual incidence rate of water borne diseases has been computed to every 1000 person of the study are reflecting the average incidence of disease.

Impact of water pollution on human health

Man’s physical and mental health depends on the genetic and environmental factors that influence it. To assess the impact of environmental pollution on human health, it is essential to apply approaches to medical geography (Kumra, 1982; Matta, Gagan, 2015). Medical geography deals with the spatial pattern of diseases in study area. For studying the impact of environmental pollution on particular diseases and for this, perception survey is the best technique. It is also necessary to correlate the diseases with concerned pollutants.

Water Pollution may be accidental and sometimes with grave consequences, but it is most often caused by the uncontrolled disposal of sewage and other liquid wastes resulting from domestic use of water, industrial wastes

containing a variety of pollutants, agriculture effluents, from animal husbandry, drainage of irrigation water. The recent advancement in understanding the relation between water pollutants and diseases has been developed as a scheme evolved by in which diseases are classified into four categories: water borne, water washed, water based and diseases with water related insect vectors depending upon the mechanism. .

Dehradun has been a tourist place since long time. More than 80 percent of drinking water supply in Dehradun comes from ground water. After the formation of capital of Uttarakhand many people came here from across the state and country. As per census of 1991, Dehradun city has a total population of 270, 159 which spurred to 426, 674 in 2001 which boomed to 569, 578 in 2011. The study indicates that the incidence of water- borne diseases varies from one area to another depending upon the protection of people health.

Study Sites Diarrhoea Gastroenterities

Malaria Typhoid Cholera

Vasant Vihar

18 27 17 14 25

Nehru colony

22 31 28 27 27

Patel nagar 16 27 22 19 26 Rajpur 27 42 33 25 23

Dallanwala 39 46 31 33 48 Deepnagar 56 57 27 27 42

Majra 44 61 27 32 55

Source: CMO office and hospitals, Dehradun (U. K)

Table: 1 Annual incidence rate of Diseases (patient per 1000 person) 2001

Diarrhoea is a water borne disease which is caused by food poisioning. Table 1 depicts that total cases registered under Diarrohea from the city were 222 per thousand person and the maximum cases of diarrohea occurs in


20

Deepnagar (56 per thousand person). Gastro- enteristitis is also a water related disease which is caused due to presence of various chemicals in both ground and surface water. Total cases under gastric troubles from the city were 312 per thousand person. However maximum cases under gastric circle were noted in Majra (61per thousand person). The vector of malaria (anopheles mosquito) is a water borne vector and is responsible for malaria. Total cases registered under malaria were 185 per thousand person. It usually raises in the waters near Rajpur and thus the maximum number of cases are registered from Rajpur (33 per thousand person). Another disease Typhoid is solely spread through contaminated water. The bacterial action is responsible for typhoid. The total city cases were 177 per thousand person under typhoid category and the maximum cases of typhoid are registered from Dallanwala (33per thousand person). Cholera again is spread due to contaminated water. Total cases were 246 per thousand person from the city overall and maximum cases were from Majra (55 per thousand person).

Study Sites Diarrhoea Gastroenterities

Malaria Typhoid Cholera

Vasant Vihar

24 31 21 19 33

Nehru colony

27 39 39 38 32



Majra 57 77 32 43 68



In 2006 the total cases under diarrhoea were 283per thousand person and the maximum cases registered from Majra i.e. 57 per

thousand person. Table 2 depicts the total gastro-enteristitis cases under city 382 per thousand person were registered and the maximum cases from Majra i.e. 77 per thousand person. The total cases under Malaria were 237 per thousand person and the maximum cases registered from Rajpur i.e. 42 per thousand person. The total Typhoid cases under city 248per thousand person were registered and the maximum cases were from Dallanwala i.e. 46per thousand person. The total cases under Cholera were 306 per thousand person were registered from the city and the maximum cases were from Majra i.e. 68per thousand person. Study Sites Diarrhoea Gastroen

terities Malaria Typhoid Cholera

Vasant Vihar

34 39 32 30 45

Nehru colony

35 49 56 57 38



Majra 84 101 44 68 92



In 2011, the total cases registered under diarroea and malaria were 389 per thousand person and 339 per thousand person respectively and the maximum cases of both the diseases noted from Deepnagar were 86 per thousand person and 56 per thousand person respectively. (Table 3). The total cases of Gastro- enterestitis, typhoid and cholera from the city were 352, 381 and 394per thousand person and the maximum cases listed under these three diseases were Majra i.e. 101 per thousand person, 68 per thousand person and 92 per thousand person respectively.


21

Study Sites Diarrhoea Gastroen

terities Malaria Typhoid Cholera

Vasant Vihar

55 57 55 49 67

Nehru colony

67 66 89 93 53



Majra 154 137 93 126 154



In 2015 the total cases under diarrohea, gastric disorders, typhoid and cholera were 622 per thousand person, 642 per thousand person, 644 per thousand person and 601 per thousand person from the city and the maximum cases of these four diseases were registered from Majra i.e. 154 per thousand person, 137 per thousand person, 126 per thousand person and 154 per thousand person respectively. (Table 4)

Study Sites 2001 2006 2011 2015 Vasant Vihar 18 24 34 55 Nehru colony 22 27 35 67

Patel nagar 16 26 37 54 Rajpur 27 35 49 86

Dallanwala 39 47 64 89 Deepnagar 56 67 86 117

Majra 44 57 84 154


Table 5: Annual incidence rate of Diarrhoea (patient per 1000 person)

Annual incidence change of diahhroea was maximum at Patel nagar i.e. 62.5 percent in 2006 from the base year (2001). It followed the same trend in 2011 as well and maintained the maximum rate i.e. 131.3 at Patel Nagar and the minimum change was at Deepnagar 19.6 and 53.6 in 2006 and 2011 respectively. While analyzing the data of 2015 it was figured out that the maximum change of diahhroea was at Majra i.e. 250 percent and minimum change at

Deepnagar i.e. 108.9 percent from the base year. (Table 5).

Fig. 1 : Percentage Change in Diarrhoea Cases in

Dehradun City from 2001-2015

Study Sites 2001 2006 2011 2015

Vasant vihar 27 31 39 57

Nehru colony 31 39 49 66

Patel nagar 27 32 42 56

Rajpur 42 49 62 88

Dallanwala 46 61 82 113

Deepnagar 57 69 87 125

Majra 61 77 101 137


Table 6: Annual incidence rate of Astroenterities (patient per 1000 person)

Gastro - enteristitis is also a water related disease which is caused due to presence of various chemicals in both ground and surface water. The maximum change in gastric disorders in 2006 was at Majra (26.2 percent). In 2011 and 2015 the maximum change from


22

the base year at Dallan wala i.e. 78.3 percent and 14.7 percent respectively. While analyzing the data regarding the minimum change of gastroenteritits study came across that the minimum value occur continuously at Vasant Vihar i.e. 14.8 percent (2006), 44.4 (2011) and 111.1 percent (2015). The Annual occurrence Malaria was maximum at Deepnagar i.e. 40.7 percent in 2006 and 107.4 percent in 2011 from the base year (2001). (Table 6).

Fig. 2 : Percentage Change in Gastroentertitis Cases in

Dehradun City from 2001-2015 Study Sites 2001 2006 2011 2015

Vasant vihar 17 21 32 55 Nehru colony 28 39 56 89 Patel nagar 22 28 38 55

Rajpur 33 42 58 98 Dallanwala 31 37 55 99 Deepnagar 27 38 56 85

Majra 27 32 44 93 Source: CMO office and hospitals, Dehradun (U. K)

Table 7: Annual incidence rate of Malaria (patient per 1000 person)

Table 7 reveals that the minimum rate was at Majra 18.5 and 53.6 in 2001 and 2006 respectively. While analyzing the data of 2015 it was figured out that maximum annual

incident rate of this disease was at Majra i.e. 244.4 percent and minimum rate at Patelnagar i.e. 150 percent from the base year.

Fig. 3: Percentage Change in Malaria Cases in


Study Sites 2001 2006 2011 2015 Vasant vihar 14 19 30 49 Nehru colony 27 38 57 93 Patel nagar 19 27 45 77



Table 8: Annual incidence rate of Typhoid (patient per 1000 person)

The maximum rate of change of typhoid in 2006 and 2015 from the base year at Deepnagar i.e. 44.4 percent and 318.5 percent respectively. In 2011 the maximum rate of change at Patel nagar i.e. 136.8 percent. The minimum rate of change in 2006 was at Majra (34.4 percent). In 2011 and 2015 the minimum rate of change recorded at Dallanwala i.e. 97 percent and 200 percent respectively (as shown in Table 8).


23

Fig. 3 : Percentage Change in Typhoid Cases in


Study Sites 2001 2006 2011 2015 Vasant vihar 25 33 45 67 Nehru colony 27 32 38 53 Patel nagar 26 35 44 57



Table 9: Annual incidence rate of Cholera (patient per 1000 person)

As shown in Table 9 the annual incident rate of cholera in 2006 was at Patelnagar 34.6 percent, in 2011 at Vasant vihar (80 percent) and in 2015 at Deepnagar (195.2 percent). While analyzing the minimum rate of change of this disease from the base year it was recorded that Nehru colony continuously shows the minimum value i.e. 18.5 percent (2006), 40.7 percent (2011) and 96.3 percent (2015).

Conclusion

The quality of surface water has deteriorated due to discharge of industrial, sewage and domestic effluents directly into water bodies resulting in eutrophication by adding excess

nutrients such as NO3 and PO4

Bradlev, D. J. (1971): Infective Diseases and Domestic Water Supplies in Proceedings of the Conference on Rural water Supply in East Africa. April 5-8.

. The water quality of river has depleted severely at several places along their courses to oceans. Deforestration, urbanization and industrialization have adversely affected hydrological regime and environment of the NW- SE trending intermontane Doon valley in the sub Himalayan region. The rate of the recharge of natural spring is depleting continuously causing lowering of water table. The quality of water has severely deteriorated at various places. The city has witnessed tremendous growth in the last 25 years. After the formation of Uttarakhand state, pace of urbanization, growth of population centers, introduction of industries and employment of auxiliary means of agriculture have increased manifold in Uttarakhand region in general and Dehradun in particular. Pollutants are increasingly added to the surface & groundwater system through various human activities and the natural degradation processes. Untreated disposal of wastes are adding pollutants to the surface and groundwater system and continous addition accelerates their movement towards production well. Industrial wastes that includes heavy metals and toxic compounds are deteriorating groundwater quality.

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Antibacterial action of medicinal plant Alysicarpus Vaginalis against respiratory tract pathogens

Prashant Arya1, J. P Mehta1 and Sanjay Kumar

2

Received: July 28, 2016 Accepted: October 22, 2016 Online: December 31, 2016

Abstract

Since the beginning of human civilization, medicinal plants have been used by mankind for its therapeutic value. Nature has been a prime source of medicinal agents for thousands of years and an impressive number of modern drugs have been isolated from natural sources. The Himalayan natives have a great wealth of medicinal plants and traditional medicinal knowledge. Monitoring of susceptibility of herbal drugs for bacterial pathogens is important for appropriate choice of treatment. The present study was to evaluate the antibacterial activity and phytochemical analysis of various extracts of root of A. vaginalis (Chukalai) against selected common respiratory tract pathogens i.e. Staphylococcus

Keywords: Antibacterial activity | Agar well diffusion method | Twofold serial dilution method | Phytomedicine | Respiratory tract pathogens | Alysicarpus vaginalis

aureus MTCC 1144, Streptococcus pneumoniae MTCC 655, Streptococcus pyogenes MTCC 442, Klebsiella pneumoniae MTCC 4030 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC 2474. Plants root were collected from different parts of Garhwal Himalaya and authenticated at Botanical Survey of India, Northern Regional Center Dehradun. Properly washed with water jet and shade dried Root of the plant at room temprature.The plant material were crushed and extracted according to polarity, low to high in petroleum ether (PT), chloroform (CH), methanol (MH) and Water (WT) by using Soxhlet apparatus. The antibacterial activity was examined by agar well diffusion method and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) by twofold serial dilution method. Erythromycin was used as positive control to determine the sensitivity of the strains and Di Methyl Sulphoxide (DMSO) used as negative control. The results showed that methanolic extract was more active than other extracts in its antibacterial activity. The zone of inhibition exhibited by methanol extract against tested micro-




For correspondence: 1Department of Botany and Microbiology, H.N.B. Garhwal University Srinagar (Garhwal), India 2Department of Botany and Microbiology, Gurukul Kangri University (Haridwar) Email- [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]�

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organisms ranged between 06 mm to 13 mm, respectively. MIC values were recorded between 3.12 mg/ml to 25 mg/ml for all the organisms. This investigation supports a good response to the use of A.vaginalis in herbal medicine and as a base for the development of new drugs and phytomedicine in foundation for its use in treatment of respiratory infectious diseases.

Introduction

Our earth is full of medicinal plants. These medicinal plants having therapeutical properties are very useful in curing various diseases. Almost all our present medicines exhaled from medicinal plants. Approximately, 8000 species of medicinal plants are used as different systems of medicines in India (Planning Commission, 2000). India is blessed with huge biodiversity due to different climatic zones, in which numerous medicinal plants were reported. The Indian state of Uttarakhand, located in central Himalayan region, is richly gifted with a large variety of plant species, many of which have medicinal properties. Medicinal plants play an important role in the lives of people in Uttarakhand by providing basic health care and employment to the farmers (Alam & Kop., 2005). The Central Himalayan Region covers the new state of India, provides excellent opportunities for studying the Traditional Knowledge Systems (TKS). The Indian Himalayan region alone supports about 18,440 species of plants (Angiosperms: 8000 spp., Gymnosperm: 44 spp., Pteridophytes: 600 spp., Bryophytes: 1736 spp., Lichens: 1159 spp. and Fungi: 6900 spp.) of which about 45% are having medicinal properties. According to Samant et al., (1998) out of the total species of

vascular plants, 1748 spp. species are medicinal. Uttarakhand is a store house of a rich variety herbs and medicinal and aromatic plant species.

Medicinal plants produce a wide variety of compounds which in addition to give them characteristic pigments, odour and flavor characteristics may also have antimicrobial properties (Cowan, 1999). For thousands of years, traditional plant derived medicines have been used in most parts of the world and their use in fighting microbial disease is becoming the focus on study (Bhavnani & Ballow, 2000 Chariandy et al., 1999). Intensive studies on extracts and biologically-active compounds isolated from medicinal plants have played an essential role in drug discovery in last decade. Various parts of such plants like root, tubers, bark, flowers, leaves and seeds are used for medicinal purposes. More so, many of these plants have been known to synthesize active secondary metabolites such as phenolic compound found in essential oils with established potent insecticidal (Kambu et al., 1982) and antimicrobial activities, which really has formed the basis for their applications in some pharmaceuticals, alternative medicines and natural therapies (R´ıos & Recio, 2005; Reynolds 1996; Lis-Balchin & Deans, 1997). As if a comparable study is made between antibiotics and pathogen resistance it is concluded that antibiotics provide the main basis for the therapy of microbial (bacterial and fungal) infections. But, overuse of antibiotics has become the major factor for the emergence and dissemination of multi-drug resistant strains of several groups of microorganisms (Harbottle et al., 2006). Thus, in the light of the evidence of rapid global spread of

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resistant clinical isolates, the need to find new antimicrobial agents is of paramount importance.

Alysicarpus vaginalis

The genus Alysicarpus belongs to family Fabaceae. Commonly called as Chukalai, There are approximately 78 species in their genus with 20 species are reported in India (Haines, 1978). They commonly found in open grass land, crop fields, and way sides, altitude 600 to 1000m amsl Srinagar, pouri, Chauras and Kirtinagar in Garhwal Himalaya, almost throughout India, ascending to 1000m Afghanistan, Pakistan and tropical America. The genus comprises annual Prostrate Herbs, perennial. Glabrous or a line of hairs on stem, erect or diffuse at 30cm long, branched Leaves, flowers small, mostly ca.5 mm, usually binate at each node of rachis (Gaur R D., 1999). Several species of Alysicarpus has been used in indigenous system of medicine an anti-inflammatory in stomachache, and also an antidote to snake bite. It is also used in skin diseases and as a diuretic. The leaves are used in fever, jaundice and leaf paste is applied externally on skin allergy (Shankarnarayan, 1988). Chemical Constituents of A. vaginalis is Caffeic acid, Catechol, Cumaric acid, Gentisic acid, Gallic acid, P-hydroxybenzoic acid Syringic acid, Vanillic acid, Salicyclic acid, Acetic Acid, Ethyl acetate. (Shahin and Ahmad, 2012).

Plant Material - Plant was collected from Chauras Kirtinagar (Tehri Garhwal) Uttarakhand and authenticated at Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Northern Regional Center Dehradun. Collected plant Root

material was washed jet properly, dried under shade at room temperature and crushed to small pieces by using pestle and motor.

Materials and Methods

Preparation of Extract - Plant extracts were prepared by immersing 200g of powdered plant material in 600 ml of four different solvents according to polarity low to high i.e. petroleum ether (PT), Chloroform(CH), methanol (MH) and water (WT), loaded in Soxhlet assembly and extracted for 72 h through successive method (Ahmed et al., 1998). Plant extracts were filtered through Whatman No. 1 filter paper and crude extracts obtained by removing solvent in vacuum evaporator at 30°C. Residues were stored at 4°C until further use. Extracts were dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) to a final concentration of 200mg/ml for agar well diffusion method.

Test Microorganisms - The five bacterial strains causing respiratory infections used in this study were Klebsiella pneumoniae MTCC 4030, Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC 2474, Staphylococcus aureus MTCC 1144, Streptococcus pneumoniae MTCC 655, Streptococcus pyogenes MTCC 442. These Bacterial strains were procured from Institute of Microbial Technology (IMTECH), Chandigarh.

Preparation of Inoculums – Stock cultures were maintained at 4°C on slopes of nutrient agar. Active cultures for experiment were prepared by transferring a loopful of cells from stock cultures to test tubes of Mueller-Hinton broth (MHB) for bacteria that were incubated without agitation for 24 h at 37°C.

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Antibacterial testing – The antibacterial activity of different extracts was determined by agar well-diffusion method (Ahmed et al., 1998). 0.1 ml of 12-16 h incubated cultures of bacterial species were mixed in molten Mueller Hinton Agar medium no. 173 (Hi media Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, India) and poured in pre-sterilized petri plates. A cork borer (6 mm diameter) used to punch wells in solidified medium and filled with extracts of 45 μl of 200 mg/ml final concentration of extracts. DMSO was used as negative control. The efficacy of extracts against bacteria was compared with the broad spectrum antibiotic erythromycin (positive control). The plates were incubated at 37°C for 24 h in BOD incubator and the diameter of the zone of inhibition was measured in millimeter. Each sample was assayed in triplicate and the mean ± SD values were observed. The antibacterial activity was interpreted from the size of the diameter of zone of inhibition measured to the nearest millimeter (mm) as observed from the clear zones surrounding the wells.

Determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MICs)

Two-fold serial dilution method was used to determine the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) against selected bacterial organisms (Aboaba et al., 2006). Methanol extract was diluted double fold (2:2) with nutrient broth in a series of six test tubes. Concentration of 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, 3.12 and 1.56 mg/ml of crude Methanol extract were prepared separately and dissolved in 1 ml of DMSO. An aliquot of 1 ml of bacterial suspension (1.5×106

Peer reviewed published reports on A.vaginalis focus only on taxonomy, Diversity and Ethanobotanical aspects (Jain et al., 2009). Some research communications are available on antibacterial activity of A.vaginalis is limited in no. Further, many of these studies have been conducted just to find out the zone of inhibition against some common bacterial pathogens, but have not investigated the minimum inhibition concentration (MICs) and zone of inhibition. Many of the present findings on these extracts are in agreement with previous workers (Khan. et al., 2011). Reported that whole plant extract of A. vaginalis use to performed antibacterial activity using Kirby Bauer disk diffusion test and broth micro dilution against clinically important bacterial pathogens two gram positive Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923), Bacillus cereus (ATCC 11778) and three gram negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 9027), E. coli (ATCC 35218), S.typhimurium (ATCC 13311) but they could

) was inoculated into each

tube. Control tubes were inoculated with same quantity of sterile distilled water. All tubes were incubated at 37°C for 24 h. The lowest concentration that did not permit any visible growth when compared with control was considered as the minimum inhibitory concentration. The MICs was considered as the lowest concentration that could not produce a single bacterial colony. The contents of all tubes that showed no visible growth were cultured on Mueller-Hinton agar, incubated at 37 °C for 24 h.

Results and Discussion

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not found antibacterial activity of extract of A. vaginalis (Silva et al., 2015)

This study investigated in vitro antibacterial activity of crude root extract of A. vaginalis from different solvent. The data characterizing the antibacterial activity of crude extract of Alysicarpus vaginalis Root are presented in Table 1 and figure-1. The study showed that the Methanol extracts exhibited a higher degree of antibacterial activity as compared to water, chloroform and petroleum ether extracts.

The maximum inhibition by MH (methanol) extract was found against Streptococcus pneumoniae (13 mm), Klebsiella pneumoniae (12 mm) and Staphylococcus aureus (11 mm), respectively. The minimum activity was found against Streptococcus pyogenes (6 mm) followed by WT, CH and PT.

The positive control (erythromycin) was found little more effective as compared to A. vaginalis extracts. Erythromycin is a macrolide antibiotic with wide spectrum antimicrobial nature. For respiratory tract infections, it has

better coverage of microorganisms especially for atypical organisms including mycoplasma and legionellosis. DMSO (Di methylsulphooxide) use as a negative control, they give no zone of inhibition against test organism.

Figure-1: The inhibition zones diameters (MIZ) of different extracts of Alysicarpus vaginalis (Root).

PT- Petroleum Ether CH- Chloroform.

MH- Methano WT- Water.

The results of MICs showed that they ranged from 3.12 to 25 mg/ml (Fig. 2). Root extract of A. vaginalis presented similar MICs against S. aureus and K. pneumoniae (6.25 mg/ml) respectively. Moreover, methanolic extract of this plant manifested a better MIC against S. pneumoniae (3.12 mg/ml) and maximum MIC value recorded against S pyogenes (25 mg/ml). Therefore, the activity observed for A.vaginalis provides a rationale for its Use in treatment of respiratory infectious diseases.

02468

101214

Zone

of i

nhib

ition

(mm

)

Bacterial Strain

PT

CH

MH

WT

Microorganism Diameter of the inhibition zone (mm)

+ 've' control

- 've' Control

PT CH MH WT Erythromycin

DMSO

Staphylococcus aureus

11± 3.0

9 ± 1.73

11 ± 1.73

8 ± 1.73

14±1.0 0

Streptococcus pneumoniae

10 ± 1.0

12 ± 1.0

13 ± 2.64

8 ± 1.73

13±2.0 0

Streptococcus pyogenes

11± 1.73

10±1.52

10 ± 0.57

6± 0.57

15±1.0 0

Klebsiella pneumoniae

10 ± 0.57

11 ± 1.0

12± 1.0

10± 2.0

12±2.0 0

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

9±2.08

8±1.73

12±1.73

8±1.52

6±0.57

0

Values are Mean±SD of three replicates; Cork borer diameter: 6 mm; Table 1: The inhibition zones diameters

of various extracts of Alysicarpus vaginalis (Root)

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Figure-2: Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of methanol extract of A. vaginalis. The inhibition is noted at 3.12 mg/ml against S. pnuemoniae, 6.25 mg/ml against S. aureus and K. pneumoniae, 12.5 mg/ml against P. aeruginosa and 25 mg/ml against S. pyogenes.

Moreover, A. vaginalis displayed a basis for use of extract in treatment of respiratory diseases in human beings which could be caused by K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, S.pneumoniae and S. pyogenes.

Some preview report on study of A. vaginalis showed performed antioxidant and in vitro antibacterial activity against the test organism. (Rattanata. et al., 2014) But it did not inhibit growth of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Shigella spp (Chah et al., 2006). A. vaginalis was reported to have antioxidant and antiproliferative activity (Rathi et al., 2010). This study good supports the traditional use of A. vaginalis and indicated that it contains some major bioactive compounds inhibiting the growth of microorganisms there by proving very effective source of derived drugs. It is recommended that further research should be carried out to investigate the bioactive component of this plant. The need for establishment of standard dosage cannot be over emphasized. This is necessary to investigate the toxicity level of extract

resulting from over dosage or from any of phytochemical component present in plant material.

Conclusion

Based on these results, it is concluded that this study demonstrate the root of A. vaginalis (methanolic extract) have potent antibacterial activity against selected highly pathogenic respiratory tract pathogens which might be due to the Phytochemical present in these parts. Moreover, the result indicates a strong possibility of developing safe potent and cheap Antibacterial agent from root of A. vaginalis. There is future aspects of this study the identification and purification of active compound(s) those responsible for antibacterial activity of A. vaginalis. The conclusion indicates that scientific studies carried out on medicinal plants having traditional claims of effectiveness might warrant fruitful results. Root of A. vaginalis could be a source of new antibiotic compounds.

Acknowledgement

This work was supported by U G C Delhi and Department of Botany and Microbiology H N B Garhwal University Srinagar (Garhwal) Uttarakhand, India. The authors are thankful to Botanical Survey of India, Northern Regional Center Dehradun for plant identification.

References

Aboaba, O.O.; Smith, S.I.; Olude, F.O. (2006):

Antibacterial effect of edible plant

extract on Escherichia coli. Pak J

Nutr. 5(4):325-327.

Alam, G. and Kop, P. (2005): Promoting the

0102030

6.2525

3.126.2512.5

MIC

mg/

ml

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Cultivation of Medicinal Plants in

Uttaranchal. Medicinal Plant

Conservation. 11: 15-18.

Ahmad, I.; Mehmood, Z. and Mohammad, F.

(1998): Screening of some Indian

medicinal plants for their

antimicrobial properties. J

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Bhavnani, S. M. and Ballow, C. H. (2000):

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bacteria. Current Opinion in

Microbiology. 3: 528-534.

Chah, K.F.; Eze, C.A.; Emuelosi, C.E.;

Esimone, C.O. (2006): Antibacterial

and wound healing properties of

methanolic extracts of some Nigerian

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Zupko, I.; Hohmann, J. and Bauer, R.

(2009): Qualitative and quantitative

analysis of aconitine-type and lipo-

alkaloids of Aconitum carmichaelii

roots. Journal of Chromatography A.

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Gautam, S. S.; Navneet and Kumar, S. (2012):

The Antibacterial and Phytochemical

Aspects of Viola odorata Linn.

Extracts Against Respiratory Tract

Pathogens. The National Academy of

Sciences, India. 82(4):567–572.

Gaur, R. D. (1999): Flora of the district

Garhwal: North West Himalaya (with

Ethnobotanical notes). (Transmedia,

Srinagar, Garhwal).

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D. G. (2006): Genetics of

Antimicrobial Resistance. Animal

Biotechnology. 17: 111-124.

Kambu, K.; Di Phanzu, N.; Coune, C.;

Wauters, J. N. and Angenol, L.

(1982): Contribution a` `etude des

proprietes insecticides et chimiques d`

Eucalyptus saligna du Zay’’re. Plantes

Med Phytother. 16: 34-38.

Khan, M. A., Prakash, R., Ali, S., Aljarbou, A.;

Khan, M. A. (2011): Comparative

study of antibacterial activity and

toxicity of certain plants used in

Unani medicine. Adv Biores 2(2):10–

13

Khare C.P. 2007. Indian Medicinal Plants

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52-53.

Rattanata, N.; Daduang, S.; Phaetchanla, S.;

Bunyatratchata, W.;

Tavichakorntrakool, Uthaiwat P.;

Boonsiri, P., Daduang, J. (2014):

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Thai weed extracts. Asian Pac J Trop

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Rathi MA, Meenakshi P, Guru Kumar D, Arul

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Gopalakrishnan, V. K. (2010):

Potential antioxidant and

antiproliferative activities of

Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. J

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plants and antimicrobial activity.

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Samant, S. S.; Dhar, U. and Palni, L.M.S.

(1998): Medicinal Plants of Indian

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33

Stress response of Escherichia coli on exposure to first transition series elements in Liquid state

Bhandari, Prabhakar

Received: June 02, 2016 Accepted: August 23, 2016 Online: December 31, 2016

Abstract

Escherichia coli is non fastidious organism that grows well in liquid state. It is known to grow profusely in nutrient broth and hence this medium was considered for carrying out studies in liquid state. The test and reference strain were first inoculated in 100 ml sterile nutrient broth and the inoculum size was standardized by MacFarland standard method.

15 ml of nutrient broth was dispersed in 6 tubes for each compound and they were supplemented with the salt concentrations and dilutions as described earlier. The tubes were sterilized and then subsequently inoculated with 0.1 ml of standard inoculum. The growth was recorded as Nephelometric Turbidity Unit or NTU. The percent inhibition was calculated as follows.

Keywords: Metal salts | Broth media | Escherichia coli | Nephelometric Turbidity Unit | Oligodynamic actions

Introduction

Escherichia coli is known to grow profusely in nutrient broth and hence this medium was considered for carrying out studies in liquid state. The test and reference strain were first inoculated in 100 ml sterile nutrient broth and the inoculum size was standardized by MacFarland standard.

Materials and Method

• Nutrient Broth - M001

Ingredients Gm/Lt

Beef Extract 3.00

Distilled water 1000

Peptone 5.00

pH 7.0 ± 0.2

Sodium Chloride 5.00

Suspend all ingredients in distilled water stir to dissolve and boil the medium to dissolve agar-agar completely and sterilization done by autoclaving on 15 lb at 1200

15 ml of nutrient broth was dispersed in 6 tubes for each compound and they were

C for 15 min. (Hi-Media Manual, 2003)




For correspondence:

Department of Microbiology, Sevadal Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Nagpur. Email: [email protected]


Bhandari/Vol. VII [2] 2016/33 – 38

38

supplemented with the salt concentrations and dilutions as described earlier. The tubes were sterilized and then subsequently inoculated with 0.1 ml of standard inoculum. Separate sets were kept for EC-Test and EC-Ref ATCC 8739 strain, with every set an uninoculated nutrient broth tube taken as control. The tubes were incubated at 370C ± 20

• Development of Tolerance in liquid state

C for 24 hrs. After 24 hours, Turbidity was measured at 600 nm using a nephelometer. The growth was recorded as Nephelometric Turbidity Unit or NTU. The percent inhibition was calculated as follows.

The results are shown in Table 1.1 and Graph 1.1. One way analysis was done with Newman Keuls Multiple comparison test to determine the significance of difference among the metal compound s for Oligodynamic actions. The results are shown in Table 1.2 statistical and relevant central tendencies are shown in Table 1.3 The results of EC-Ref ATCC 8739 are shown in Table 1.4

Separate sets were kept for EC-Test and EC-Ref ATCC 8739 strain, with every set an uninoculated nutrient broth tube taken as

control. The tubes were incubated at 370C ± 20

Observations and Result

The organisms which were viable at 0.2µgm/ml were taken out and grown in fresh nutrient agar media for 6 days. 100 ml of sterile nutrient broth was supplemented with 20 to 2000µgm/ml in different flask and they were inoculated with 1 ml aliquot from 0.2 µgm/ml tube for each metal compounds. The flasks were then incubated at 37

C for 24 hrs. After 24 hours, Turbidity was measured at 600 nm using a nephelometer.

0C ± 20C for 6 days. After 6th day 5 ml culture was removed aseptically and percent inhibition was measured as described in 7.1. Optical Density (OD) / NTU were measured at 6oo nm. The results are shown in Table 1.5. After 6th day 1ml of culture was inoculated in to fresh sterile nutrient agar plates by spread plate technique, and plates were incubated at 370C ± 20

Statistical analysis was done by one way ANOVA using Newman Keuls multiple comparison test and the results are shown in Table 1.6 and Table 1.7

C for 24 hrs. The tolerant organisms formed distinct colonies suggesting there by the presence of viable cells even after 6 days of exposure.

Compound Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc

0.2 µgm/ml 17 21 20 32 29 35 31 28

2 µgm/ml 18 20 25 35 32 33 32 30

20 µgm/ml 19 25 33 39 35 40 35 32

200 µgm/ml 40 43 35 48 45 48 42 41

2000µgm/ml 72 74 79 81 83 83 78 78

20000µgm/ml 89 90 92 94 95 94 93 93

N.B.: Values of percentage were rounded off to the nearest whole number as per standard practice.

Table 1.1: Percent inhibition of growth due to first transition series compounds against EC-Test


38

Parameter Table Analyzed Data 1

ANOVA Table SS df MS Are means significant different? (P <

0.05) No Bartlett's statistic (corrected) 0.2921 Bartlett's test for equal variances

Do the variances differ signif. (P < 0.05) No F 0.1595 Number of groups 8 One-Way analysis of variance

P-Value 0.9916 P-Value 0.9999 P-Value summary ns P-Value summary ns R squared 0.02715 Residual (within columns) 32380 40 809.5

Treatment (between columns) 903.6 7 129.1 Total 33290 47

Newman-Keuls Multiple Comparison Test

Mean Diff. q Significant? P < 0.05?

Summary

Vanadium vs Nickel -13.00 1.119 No ns Vanadium vs Iron -12.33 --- No ns Vanadium vs Cobalt -10.67 --- No ns Vanadium vs Copper -9.333 --- No ns Vanadium vs Zinc -7.833 --- No ns Vanadium vs Manganese -4.833 --- No ns Vanadium vs Chromium -3.000 --- No ns Chromium vs Nickel -10.00 --- No ns Chromium vs Iron -9.333 --- No ns Chromium vs Cobalt -7.667 --- No ns Chromium vs Copper -6.333 --- No ns Chromium vs Zinc -4.833 --- No ns Chromium vs Manganese -1.833 --- No ns Manganese vs Nickel -8.167 --- No ns Manganese vs Iron -7.500 --- No ns Manganese vs Cobalt -5.833 --- No ns Manganese vs Copper -4.500 --- No ns Manganese vs Zinc -3.000 --- No ns Zinc vs Nickel -5.167 --- No ns Zinc vs Iron -4.500 --- No ns Zinc vs Cobalt -2.833 --- No ns Zinc vs Copper -1.500 --- No ns Copper vs Nickel -3.667 --- No ns Copper vs Iron -3.000 --- No ns Copper vs Cobalt -1.333 --- No ns Cobalt vs Nickel -2.333 --- No ns Cobalt vs Iron -1.667 --- No ns Iron vs Nickel -0.6667 --- No Ns

Table 1.2: Tabular statistics of one way ANOVA tabular result Percent inhibition of growth due to first transition series compounds against EC-Test


38

Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Minimum 17.00 20.00 20.00 32.00 29.00 33.00 31.00 28.00 25% Percentile 17.75 20.75 23.75 34.25 31.25 34.50 31.75 29.50 Median 29.50 34.00 34.00 43.50 40.00 44.00 38.50 36.50 75% Percentile 76.25 78.00 82.25 84.25 86.00 85.75 81.75 81.75 Maximum 89.00 90.00 92.00 94.00 95.00 94.00 93.00 93.00 Mean 42.50 45.50 47.33 54.83 53.17 55.50 51.83 50.33 Std. Deviation 31.12 29.90 30.34 26.19 28.53 26.31 26.78 28.00 Std. Error 12.70 12.21 12.38 10.69 11.65 10.74 10.93 11.43 Lower 95% CI 9.844 14.12 15.50 27.34 23.23 27.89 23.73 20.94 Upper 95% CI 75.16 76.88 79.17 82.32 83.10 83.11 79.94 79.72 Number of values 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Table 1.3: Column statistics of one way ANOVA: Percent inhibition of growth due to first transition series compounds against EC-Test

Graph 1.1: Percent inhibition of growth due to first transition series compounds against EC-Test

Compound Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc 0.2µgm/ml 16 20 18 30 29 33 30 27 20 µgm/ml 17 26 32 39 33 41 33 32 200 µgm/ml 39 41 36 48 45 47 40 39 2000µgm/ml 71 73 76 82 84 81 74 76

20000µgm/ml 85 87 91 93 92 92 94 91 N.B.: Values of percentage were rounded off to the

nearest whole number as per standard practice

Table 1.4: Percent inhibition of growth due to first transition series compounds against

EC-Ref ATCC 8739

Compound Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc 20 µgm/ml 4 7 12 5 22 24 8 7 200µgm/ml 11 16 18 11 24 24 10 12

2000µgm/ml 34 36 34 32 44 58 28 30 20000µgm/ml 78 82 89 91 90 92 78 81

N.B.: Values of percentage were rounded off to the nearest whole number as per standard practice.

Table 1.5: Development of tolerance against first transition series compounds by EC-Test organism

Parameter

Table Analyzed Data 1 One-way analysis of variance

ANOVA Table -18.50 1.087 No Ns Are means significant different? (P < 0.05) No

Bartlett's statistic (corrected) 1253 7 179.0 Bartlett's test for equal variances SS df MS

020406080

100

% I

nhib

ition

0.2 µgm/ml

2 µgm/ml

20 µgm/ml


38

Do the variances differ signif. (P < 0.05) Mean Diff. q Significant? P < 0.05? Summary F 0.1545

Number of groups 8 P-Value 0.9917 P-Value 27810 24 1159

P-Value summary ns P-Value summary 29060 31

R squared 0.04312 Residual (within columns) -7.250 --- No ns

Treatment (between columns) -14.00 --- No ns Total -4.250 --- No ns Newman-Keuls Multiple Comparison Test -3.750 --- No ns Copper vs Zinc -1.500 --- No ns Copper vs Vanadium -0.7500 --- No ns Vanadium vs Nickel -17.75 --- No ns Vanadium vs Cobalt -13.25 --- No ns Vanadium vs Manganese -6.500 --- No ns Vanadium vs Chromium -3.500 --- No ns Vanadium vs Iron -3.000 --- No ns Vanadium vs Zinc -0.7500 --- No ns Zinc vs Nickel -17.00 --- No ns Zinc vs Cobalt -12.50 --- No ns Zinc vs Manganese -5.750 --- No ns Zinc vs Chromium -2.750 --- No ns Zinc vs Iron -2.250 --- No ns Iron vs Nickel -14.75 --- No ns Iron vs Cobalt -10.25 --- No ns Iron vs Manganese -3.500 --- No ns Iron vs Chromium -0.5000 --- No ns Chromium vs Nickel -14.25 --- No ns Chromium vs Cobalt -9.750 --- No ns Chromium vs Manganese -3.000 --- No ns Manganese vs Nickel -11.25 --- No ns Manganese vs Cobalt -6.750 --- No ns Cobalt vs Nickel -4.500 --- No ns

Table 1.6: Tabular statistics of one way ANOVA of tolerant EC-Test organism against first transition series compounds

Compounds Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc

Minimum 4.000 7.000 12.00 5.000 22.00 24.00 8.000 7.000 25% Percentile 5.750 9.250 13.50 6.500 22.50 24.00 8.500 8.250

Median 22.50 26.00 26.00 21.50 34.00 41.00 19.00 21.00 75% Percentile 67.00 70.50 75.25 76.25 78.50 83.50 65.50 68.25

Maximum 78.00 82.00 89.00 91.00 90.00 92.00 78.00 81.00 Mean 31.75 35.25 38.25 34.75 45.00 49.50 31.00 32.50

Std. Deviation 33.39 33.44 35.08 39.25 31.60 32.55 32.60 33.81 Std. Error 16.70 16.72 17.54 19.62 15.80 16.28 16.30 16.90

Lower 95% CI -21.38 -17.96 -17.58 -27.70 -5.286 -2.299 -20.87 -21.30 Upper 95% CI 84.88 88.46 94.08 97.20 95.29 101.3 82.87 86.30

Number of values 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Table 1.7: Column statistics of one way ANOVA of tolerant EC-Test organism against first

transition series compounds


38

Discussion

As can be seen from the statistical analysis those oligodynamic actions of all the metal compounds are similar and there is no significant difference between the different metal compounds. However vanadium, chromium and manganese, compounds showed lesser inhibition than the other metal compounds. It can be also observed that at higher concentrations the percent inhibition is extremely high. On prolong exposure the organisms at lower concentrations showed high degree of tolerance.

References

Ackerley, D. F.; Barak Y.; Lynch, S. V.; Curtin, J. and Matin, A. (2006): Effect of Chromate Stress on Escherichia coli K-12, J. Bacteriology.

Agrawal, S. Keemtilal (2001): Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, Pragati Prakashan Meerut P. N. 124-128.

Alberts, Klainer and Carl, J. Bestech (1970): Scanning Beam Electron Microscopy of Selected Microorganisms. The Journal of Infectious Disease Vol. 121, P. No.3.

Collee, J. G.; Dugid, J.P. and Fraser, A.G. (1989): Maruion BP (Editor), Paramedical Microbiology. Thirteen Edition, Churchill Livingstone Publication, 143-152, 561-562.

David, T. Plummer (2001): An Introduction to practical biochemistry, 3rd

Hi-Media Manual of Bacteriological Media Preparation (2003).

Ed. Tata McGraw Hill P. No. 159, 221.

Kotach et al./Vol. VII [2] 2016/39 - 45

39

Influence of deep cryogenic treatment on the mechanical properties of AISI-H11 Hot Die Steel

Katoch, Sanjeev1; Sehgal, Rakesh2

Abstract

and Singh, Vishal

Received: August 17, 2016 Accepted: November 28, 2016 Online: December 31, 2016

One of the latest processes which have shown its potential to enhance the mechanical properties of material is cryogenic treatment. Cryogenic treatment affects the bulk properties of the material at the crystal level. In the present study influence of deep cryogenic treatment on hot die steel grade AISI H11 is investigated experimentally. DCT has been performed at -154°C for 6, 21, and 36 hours and tempered for 2hours at 600°C. The mechanical properties obtained after DCT have been characterized with a distinction to understand the influence of cryogenic treatment vis-à-vis vacuum heat treatment and tempering on the hardness and toughness. The results show that cryogenic treated samples ATC1 (36) T have 7, 38 and 57% higher toughness than ATC1 (21), ATC1 (6) T, and A3T respectively while ATC1 (21) T treated samples have 2.8, 0.4 and 5.8% higher hardness than A3T, ATC1 (6) T and ATC1 (36) T samples, respectively.

Keywords: Hot die steel | Cryogenic treatment | Tools and Dies | Tool steels | Carbides; Hardness Introduction

Morphology of microstructure plays vital role in the mechanical properties and service life of tools and dies. Nowadays deep cryogenic treatment is applied on tools and dies to enhance their mechanical properties, and this treatment exhibits the encouraging effects on various tool and die materials. Cryogenic treatment affects the bulk properties as well as surface properties of the materials and hence its effects are permanent. AISI H11 HDS is one of the grades of Chromium hot die steel family which is used as tools and dies for die casting of aluminum, zinc and magnesium; and as forging dies, punches and piercers. These hot works applications require high toughness, shock resistance and red hot hardness. This grade faces strong challenges such as wear resistance along-with toughness. Researchers have cited the usefulness of cryogenic treatment on the modification of microstructure, homogeneity of crystal structure and mechanical properties of materials. Cryogenic treatment improves the micro hardness value, enhances the number of secondary carbides and improves dry

ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation Volume VII: No. 2 2016 [39 – 45] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]


For Correspondence: 1Centre for Material Science and Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur-177005 (H.P.), India 2Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur-177005 (H.P.), India

Email: [email protected]



40

sliding wear behavior in comparison to vacuum treated samples of hot die steel grade AISI H13. Modification of microstructure and improvement in the mechanical properties of AISI H13 hot die steel has been reported by the cryogenic treatment. The aim of present experimental work is to study the effect of different cryogenic treatments on hardness, impact strength and microstructure of HDS AISI-H11.

Material and Methodology

Hot die steel, grade AISI- H11; in spheroidized annealed condition was selected for experimental study and its chemical composition analyzed with optical spark emission Spectrometer (Model: DV6, Make: Baird, USA), following ASTM E 415-2014 standard is as follows (wt.%): 0.37,C;0.91,Si; 0.31, Mn; 5.32,Cr ; 1.31, Mo; 0.34, V; 0.014, P; 0.007 S; balance –Fe. Material chemical composition conforms to HDS AISI- H11.Prismatic blocks of dimensions 6.35x6.35x9 mm were extracted from spheroidized annealed 16 mm round bars for hardness and metallographic study and Prismatic sample (10x10x55mm) were extracted in the longitudinal direction for Charpy impact testing as per ASTM E23-07.

Heat Treatment

Vacuum heat treatment of machined samples was carried out in horizontal front loading electrical heated vacuum furnace, (Make Hind High Vacuum, Bangalore, India, Capacity: 600x600x900mm), at process parameters; austenization temperature: 1040°C, Vacuum maintained: 10-2

S .No.

mbar, soaking time at austenization temperature: 30minutes and quenching at gas pressure of 5bar with Nitrogen gas to room temperature.

Table 1 provides the details of sample treatment conditions. After quenching samples were taken out from the furnace and divided in to two groups namely A3T: vacuum heat treated and three times tempered for 2 hours, C1: vacuum heat treated plus cryogenic treated at -154°C for varied soak time 6, 21, and 36 hours and tempered for 2hours. A3T group samples of HDS H11 were tempered at 550, 570 and 600°C respectively for 2 hours, coded as A3T, in Box type electrical heated furnace, Capacity: 300Kg, Temperature range up to 750°C. C1group samples were deep cryogenic treated at -154 for varied soak time 6, 21and 36 hours with pre and post tempering at two different temperatures.

Nomenclature Depiction of treatment

1. A 3T VFA = 1040° C, ST = 30 Minute, Nitrogen gas quench, quench pressure = 5bar, Three T = 550°C, 570°C, 600°C respectively for 2 hours .

2. A T C1(6)T VFA = 1040°C, ST = 30 Minute, Nitrogen gas quench, Quench pressure = 5bar, T = 550°C for 2 hours, C1, ST = 6 hours, T = 600°C for 2 hours.

3. AT C1(21)T VFA = 1040°C, ST = 30 Minute, Nitrogen gas quench, Quench pressure = 5bar, T = 550°C for 2 hours, C1, ST = 21 hours, T = 600°C for 2 hours.

4. AT C1(36)T VFA = 1040°C, ST = 30 Minute, Nitrogen gas quench, Quench pressure = 5bar, T=550°C for 2 hours, C1, ST = 36 hours, T= 600°C for 2 hours.

Number in parentheses shows the soaking times in hours at cryogenic temperature.

Table 1: Heat Treatment Sequence Followed for HDS H11

Cryogenic treatment was done at -154°C in a Computerized controlled cryogenic processor with tempering facility up to 200°C (Make: Primero Enserve, Chennai,


41

India). Slow cooling rate (1°C/Min) from ambient to deep cryogenic treatment soak temperature (-154°C) and a slow heating rate (1°C/Min) from cryogenic treatment temperature to ambient temperature were applied.

Hardness Test

Micro hardness value was measured on Micro Vicker hardness tester, model: MVK-H2, make: Akashi, Japan, by following ASTM standards E384-08a [9]. Indentation load applied in hardness test was 1000gf (9.8N) with dwell time of 15 second. Five hardness readings were taken at different points to estimate the average value of hardness for each sample.

Charpy Impact Testing

The relative toughness of materials was measured with the Charpy V-notch impact test. This test was performed on calibrated Impact test machine, least count: 2J, Model: IT-30, Make: FIE, India, as per ASTM standards designation E23-07a [8]. Environment conditions during the test were: temperature: 24.5°C and relative humidity RH 54%. Sample surface roughness and V-notch dimension were kept precisely as per standard E23 and verified using Surface Roughness tester, (Model:SJ201P, Make: Mitutoyo, Japan), Profile Projector (Make: Mitutoyo, Japan) and V-notch template respectively. The value of Charpy impact strength was measured using three Charpy impact tests for conventional and varied cryogenic treatment samples.

Microsturctural Analysis

Samples for micro structural analysis were prepared as per ASTM standards designation E3-01(Reapproved 2007) [10]. Specimen

molds were prepared with Cold setting resins, grinding of molds were done with silicon carbide emery paper of grit size 120, 200, 600, 800, 1000, 1600, 2000, 3000 and fine polished using diamond slurry, particle size 6micron,with white kerosene oil as a suspension media on rotating velvet cloth. Polished specimen were etched with 3% Nital (97%Nitric Acid + 3% Ethanol) and dried in hot air. A3T and C1 group’s specimens micro structural features were studied under the field emission scanning electron microscope model: Quanta FEG450 make: FEI, Holland. SEM microstructure images of C1 and A3T group samples are shown in “Figure 4” and “Figure 5”.

Results And Discussion

Hardness Test

Micro hardness value (HV1

Treatment Condition

) were obtained for A3T, A T C1 (6) T, A T C1 (21) T, and A T C1 (36) T AISI H11 HDS at five equally spaced points along the diagonal length of each specimen. Table 2 depicts the results of mean micro-hardness value (measured at five different locations in the samples) along-with standard deviation and standard error of mean.

Mean Micro-hardness (HV1

Standard Deviation )

SE of Mean

A3T 446 4.415 1.974

ATC1(6)T 456.2 2.863 1.280

ATC1(21)T 458.6 5.366 2.4

ATC1(36)T 436 4.472 2

Table 2: Results of mean micro-hardness of conventionally and varied cryogenic treated samples of HDS AISI H11

The mean micro-hardness value of CHT and DCT samples are shown in the Fig.1.


42

ATC1(21)T treated sample have significantly higher micro- hardness, which is around 2.8% higher than the A3T sample and also highest in the C1, DCT sample which are around 0.4 and 5.8% higher than the ATC1(6)T, ATC1(36)T, respectively. The results demonstrate that the DCT influences the micro-hardness of the samples in comparison to the A3T samples; the observed micro-hardness value for treatment C1 increases up to 21 hour soaking time and then shows decrease in micro-hardness with further increase in soaks time at DCT i.e. 36 hours soaking.

Figure 1: Micro-hardness of conventional and varied

cryogenic treated HDS AISI - H11

In the earlier studies Das et al., Gill et al., Koneshlou et al. and Amini et al. concluded that increase in the micro-hardness is due to the elimination of retained austenite, more homogeneous carbide distribution and higher degree of carbide distribution. Figure1 also depicts that there is increase in the micro- hardness up to the soaking time of 21 hours in C1 treatment. But in case of 36 hours soaking time there is decrease in the micro-hardness as compared to the A3T and decrease was approximately 2% in case of C1 treatment. This result corroborates the finding of Das et al. who concluded that there is reduction in the hardness value with

increasing soaking time at the cryogenic temperature and to have best mechanical properties optimum holding time is 36 hours in case of D2 Cold work steel for deep cryogenic treatment. Amini et al. also showed the decrease in hardness of 80CrMo12 5 cold work tool steel and predicted that 48 hours holding time is optimum to have best hardness value in this tool steel grade.

Charpy Impact strength

Results of toughness (CVN) for A3T and varied DCT treated sample of HDS AISI H-11 are shown in Table 3 which depicts the results of mean value of three samples for each treatment group along-with standard deviation and standard error of mean.

Treatment Condition

Mean Charpy Impact strength (J)

Standard Deviation

SE of Mean

A3T 18.6 1.154 0.66

ATC1(6)T 27.3 1.154 0.66

ATC1(21)T 21.3 1.154 0.66

ATC1(36)T 29.3 2.309 1.33

Table 3: Results of Charpy impact strength of conventionally and varied cryogenic treated samples of HDS AISI H11

The trend of toughness of A3T and varied DCT samples are shown in the Figure 2. ATC1 (36) T treated samples have significantly higher toughness, which is around 57% higher than the A3T sample and also highest in the C1 sample. Enhancement in toughness observed in case of ATC1 (36) T is around 7 and 38% higher than the other DCT samples viz. ATC1 (6) T and ATC1 (36) T respectively. DCT sample shows the remarkable improvement in the toughness over the A3T sample and enhancement is

446 456.2 458.6436

A3T ATC1(6)T ATC1(21)T ATC1(36)T0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

Micr

o Vi

cker

Har

dnes

s (HV

1)

Treatment Conditions


43

approximately 46, 14 and 32% for the treatment group viz. ATC1 (6) T, ATC1 (21) T and ATC2 (36) T respectively. This result is in line with earlier findings of li et al. [14] that shows that DCT treated AISI H13 samples have the higher toughness due to the modification of microstructure with DCT.

Figure 2: Charpy impact strength of conventional and

varied cryogenic treated HDS AISI - H11

To have the better understanding of the influence of varied cryogenic treatments vis-à-vis resulted variation of micro structural constituents on the fracture toughness, the fractographs analysis was carried out with the help of field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM). Figure 3 (a) illustrates fractographs of a conventional treated sample (A3T), Figure 3 (b) , (c) and (d) represents fractographs of varied cryogenic treated samples ATC1(6)T2, ATC1(21)T2 and ATC1(36)T2 respectively.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d) Figure 3: Field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) fractographs of fracture surfaces of different treatments: (a) A3T, (b) ATC1(6)T, (c) ATC1(21)T and (d) ATC1(36)T HDS AISI - H11.

FESEM fractographs of conventional treated sample (A3T) shows cleavage facets in Charpy impact strength of conventional and microcracks appearing along the cleavage plane. In case of varied cryogenic treated samples dimples of various sizes and small zone of microvoid coalescence are evidenced on the grain facets and interfaces.

Microstructure

Cryogenic treated FESEM Micrograph shown in “Figure 4” indicates more density and even distribution of precipitated

19

27

21

29

A3T ATC1(6)T ATC1(21)T ATC1(36)T0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Cha

rpy

Impa

ct S

treng

th (J

)

Treatment Conditions


44

secondary carbides in comparison to A3T sample as shown in “Figure 5”. Number of secondary carbides increases after the cryogenic treatment and morphology of secondary carbide in A3T and C1 group samples are noticeably different. Results of this study are in concurrence with previous studies, that reported the enhancement of number of secondary carbides, responsible

Figure 4: FESEM Image of Cryogenic treated (C1) sample.

Figure 5: FESEM Image of A3T sample. for the strengthening of matrix and load bearing capacity of tools and dies.

Conclusion

The effect of different DCT on the static mechanical prosperities and microstructure of HDS AISI H11 are investigated. The major conclusions of this research study are:

• The micro hardness of DCT samples C1 increases in comparison to the vacuum heat treated samples A3T. Micro Vicker hardness of C1 treated samples increases up to 21 hour soaking time and then decreases

with further increase in duration of soaks time at DCT (i.e. 36 hours soaking).

• Toughness strength (CVN) increases in DCT with longer soak time. There is 57% higher Toughness (CVN) in case of ATC1 (36) T sample than the A3T sample and is also highest in the C1 group sample. Enhancement in toughness observed in case of ATC1 (36) T is around 7 and 38% higher than the other DCT samples viz. ATC1 (6) T and ATC1 (36) T respectively.

• 21 hours soaking times at DCT (-154°C), enhances the number of carbides precipitations and formation of very fine needle type carbides.

Acknowledgment

The authors gratefully acknowledge the authorities of National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur (H.P) for providing FESEM characterization lab facilities; Institute of Auto Parts and Hand tools Technology, Ludhiana for extending facilities under the expert supervision for spectroscopic analysis, micro-indentation test, vacuum heat treatment, Charpy impact testing and cryogenic treatment facility required for the study.

NOMENCLATURE CHT : Conventional Heat Treatment C1 : Cryogenic Treatment at -154°C CVN : Charpy V- Notch Impact Strength DCT : Deep Cryogenic Treatment HDS : Hot Die Steel SCT : Shallow Cryogenic Treatment ST : Soak time VFA : Vacuum Furnace Austenization T : Tempering

References

Amini, K.; Nategh, S. and Shafyei, A. (2010): “Influence of different cryo-


45

treatments on tribological behavior of 80CrMo12 5 cold work tool steel,” Materials and Design, 31, 4666–4675.

ASTM E 415 (2014): “Standard test method for Analysis of carbon and low alloy steel by spark atomic emission spectrometry”, ASTM Annual Book of Standards, West Conshohocken, PA, United States.

ASTM E23 (2009): Standard test method for notched bar impact testing of metallic materials. ASTM Annual Book of Standard’s, vol. 3.01, West Conshohocken, PA, United States.

ASTM E3-01(Reapproved2007) (2009): Standard Guide for preparation of metallographic specimens, ASTM Annual Book of Standards, vol. 3.01, West Conshohocken, PA, United States.

ASTM E384-08a(2009): Standard test method for Micro indentation hardness of materials. ASTM Annual Book of Standard’s, vol. 3.01, West Conshohocken, PA, United States.

Das, D.; Dutta, A. K. and Ray, K. K. (2010): “Sub-Zero treatments of AISI D2 Steel: Part I. Microstructure and hardness,” Materials Science and Engineering, A 527, 2182–2193.

Fanju, M.; Kohsuke, T.; Ryo, A.; and Hidea, K. (1994): “Role of η - Carbide precipitation in the wear resistance improvement of Fe-12Cr-Mo- V-1.4C tool steel by the cryogenic treatment,” ISIJ Int., l34 (2), 205-210.

Gill, S.S.; Singh, R.; Singh, H. and Singh, J. (2012): “Effect of cryogenic

treatment on AISI M2 high speed steel: Metallurgical and mechanical characterization,” JMEPEG, 21, 1320-1326. DOI: 10.1007/s11665-011-0032-z.

Katoch, S.; Sehgal, R. and Singh, V. (2014): “Effect of Cryogenic Treatment on Hardness, Microstructure and Wear Behavior of Hot Die Steel Grade AISI-H13”, Proceeding of Int. Conference on Advances in Tribology and Engineering Systems, (Springer India) 159-166. ©.DOI: 10.1007/978-81-322-1656-8_13.

Koneshlou, M.; Meshinchi, K. and Khomamizadeh, F. (2011): “Effect of cryogenic treatment on microstructure, mechanical and wear behaviors of AISI H13 hot work tool steel,” Cryogenics, 51, 55–61.

Lal, M. D.; Renganarayanan, S. and Kalanidhi, A. (2001): “Cryogenic treatment to augment wears resistance of tool and die Steel,” Cryogenics, 41, 149-55.

Li, S.; Xie, Y. and Wu, X. (2010): “Hardness and toughness investigations of deep cryogenic treated cold work die steel,” Cryogenics, 50, 89-92.

Molinari, A.; Pellizzari, M.; Gialanella, S.; Straffelini, G. and Stiasny, K. H. (2001): “Effect of deep cryogenic treatment on the mechanical properties of tool steels,” Mater process technol,118, 350-355.

Totten, G.E. (2006): Steel Heat Treatment Handbook: Metallurgy and Techniques, Taylor & Francis, UK.

Kamboj et al./Vol. VII [2] 2016/46 - 52

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A comparative study of physico-chemical and bacteriological parameters of three different ritual bathing ghats of Ganga River in India

Kamboj, Nitin; Bharti, Manisha; Kamboj, Vishal; Rani, Anchal and Sharma, Shalini


Abstract

In the present research paper a study was carried out to compare the Ganga River water quality by collecting samples from four different ritual bathing Ghats of Ganga river viz. site 1 Goa Beach, Rishikesh (control Site), Sites 2 Swarg Ashram Ghat, Rishikesh, Sites 3 Hari ki Pauri Ghat, Haridwar, Sites 4 Shukratal Ghat, Shukratal during the October, 2016. Water samples were collected from four different ritual bathing Ghats to analyze the physico-chemical and bacteriological characteristics. In total, 12 parameters were studied and readings were taken using the standard protocols. According to the analysis it revealed that the variations in values were observed. The samples from site 1 have pH value of 8.07 while the samples from site 2, site `3 and site 4 have the pH values of 8.01, 7.89, and 8.01 respectively.

Keywords: Physico-chemical Parameters | Water quality | River Ganga | Rituals | Uttarakhand

Sample form Goa Beach Rishikesh cover the highest DO value of 9.8 mg/L while the Shukratal Ghat found the minimum DO value of 4.45 mg/L samples from Swarg Ashram Ghat and Hari ki Pauri Ghat have the DO values of 9.5 and 8.9mg/L respectively.

Introduction

The river Ganges in India is the most holy rivers of the world by Hindus from time immemorial. Bhagirathi is the source stream of Ganga. It originates from Gangotri Glacier at Gaumukh at an elevation of 3,892 m (12,770 feet). Many small streams included the headwaters of Ganga. The important among these are Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, Pindar, Mandakini and Bhilangana. At Devprayag, where Alaknanda joins Bhagirathi, the river acquires the name Ganga. It traverses a course of 2,525 km before flowing into the Bay of Bengal. The most ethnically significant hotspot of the river is at Haridwar where according to Hindu mythology it is said to have descended from the heavens. The holy city of Haridwar is located in the north Indian state of Uttarakhand at a distance of 214 km from Delhi at the foothills of Shivalik. The



For Correspondence: Department of Zoology and Environmental Science Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India Email: [email protected]


47

distance from Rishikesh to Haridwar is about 28.3 km. Haridwar extends from latitude 29º 58’ N in the north to longitude 78º 13’E in the east. The city is situated at a height of almost 300 m above sea level and the temperature usually hovers around 40ºC during summers. Winters see the mercury dipping to as low as 6ºC. The river has been the focus of national and international intervention and study for past several decades to identify and establish causes and impact of anthropogenic activities on river water quality. Ganga river basin, which was comparatively free from anthropocentric activities until the 1940s, became a disposal site for agricultural, industrial and sewage wastes after independence of India in 1947 (Singh, 2010). Ganga plain is one of the most densely populated regions of the world, due to its availability of water, fertile soil and suitable landscape. Presence of Escherichia coli in water can lead to dangerous health problem for consumers (Choudhury et al., 2014). Today, over 29 cities, 70 towns and thousands of villages extend along the Ganga banks. Nearly all of their sewage—over 1.3 billion liters per day—goes directly into the river, along with thousands of animal carcasses, mainly cattle (Bhardwaj et al., 2010; Matta, Gagan, 2014a). Cultural and religious tourism on the banks of the river Ganga along with heavy influx of tourists has been one of the reasons of deterioration in water quality (Farooquee et al. 2008). Now a day the Ganga water is polluted and not suitable for drinking (Kamboj and Aswal, 2015; Kamboj et al., 2015; Matta, Gagan, 2014b; Matta, Gagan, 2015).

This study was conducted at three different holy cities of Ganga which is situated on the

bank of river Ganga Rishikesh, Haridwar and Shukratal. Haridwar is one of the important tourism of Uttarakhand. It is situated on the right bank of river Ganga and at the foot hills of Shivalik ranges. It is located at 29°58' N of latitude and 78°10' E of longitude. It is one of the most ancient towns and a very important pilgrim centre of India where people from all over the country come round the year to have a dip in the river Ganga on an average around two lakh people visit this city daily. It is closely inter woven with culture and tradition and the health, and years the river has been indiscriminately polluted. Every year in month of shravan kanwar mela is organized and during kanwar mela physico chemical parameters are at their highest permissible limit (Kamboj, 2012) Shukratal is also an important historical place of district Muzaffarnagar (U.P.), one of the most holy destinations of northern India. This study was undertaken to evaluate the dynamic changes in water quality of River Ganga from Rishikesh to Shukratal. Therefore the objectives of present investigation are: i). Study of physico- chemical properties of Ganga water at three different ritual bathing Ghats. ii). Analysis of the impact of tourism, recreational and religious activities on Ganga water.


The Ganga River was selected for the study to know the water quality status of Ganga River because it is related to spiritually Hindu cultural pilgrims places and ritual bathing Ghats has its own important. For the study purpose four different sampling sites including control site have been selected. The description of all four sampling sites is given below:


48

Sampling Sites

Sites Name coordinates

Site -1 Goa Beach Rishikesh (control Site)

30° 07’ 28.46’’ N, 78° 19’ 07.38’’ E

Sites 2 Swarg Ashram Ghat Rishikesh

30°07’ 19.92’’ N, 78° 18’ 52.06’’ E

Sites 3 Hari ki Pauri Ghat Haridwar

29° 57’ 22.35’’ N, 78° 10’ 15.68’’E

Sites 4 Shukratal Ghat Shukratal

29° 29’ 27.95’’ N, 77° 59’ 24.79’’E

Table 1: Study sites and their coordinates

Sampling and Analysis

The experimental method involved the collection of grab samples in clean plastic containers of 5 liter capacity from following the different locations at three sampling sites: a). Rishikesh b). Haridwar and c) Shukratal during October in year 2016. The physico-chemical and bacteriological analysis of total 12 (pH, EC, TDS, Hardness, D.O., B.O.D., Alkalinity, Available phosphorus, Sodium, Potassium, TC and FC) parameters were done using standard methods (APHA, 2012 and Trivedy and Goel, 1996) and microbiological analysis was done using Dubey and Maheshwari, 2002.

Result and Discussion

The results obtained from analysis of water samples of river Ganga shown in table-1. The reported value refers to the mean values of water samples collected from different bathing ghats at different areas along the stretch of river Ganga. The findings indicated that the quality of river Ganga varies considerably from Rishikesh to Shukratal. A summary of the results is given below:

pH: The pH indicates the acidic or alkalinity material present in the water. In the present

study the maximum pH was observed at site 1 (8.07) and minimum pH was observed at site 3 (7.89). Kumar and Bhushan (2012) observed the value of pH range between 7.31 and 8.53 during their study of water quality of River Ganga at Shukratal.

Conductivity: The salt concentration is generally measured by determining the Electrical Conductivity of water. Excess salt increase the osmotic pressure of the soil solutions that can result in physiological drought conditions. In the present study the maximum Electrical Conductivity was observed maximum at site 1 (290.1 µS/cm) and the minimum was observed at site 4 (258.0 µS/cm).

TDS: The higher TDS causes gastro-intestinal irritation to the human beings, but the prolonged intake of water with higher TDS can cause kidney stone and heart disease. The presence of high value of TDS may be due to the influence of anthropogenic sources such as domestic sewage, solid waste dumping. In the present study the maximum TDS was observed site 1 (187.7 mg/l) and the minimum was observed at site 4 (172.9 mg/l). Praveen et al. (2013) was observed the value of total dissolved solids range between (255 - 501 mg/l) in of River Ganga at Kanpur. Kamboj et al., (2015) reported the value of total dissolved solid range between 612.76-847.23 mg/l in Solani River at Roorkee.

Hardness: Maximum Hardness found at site 1 (118mg/l) and minimum hardness found at site 3 (85.0 mg/l). Total hardness in the range of 0-17 mg/L as soft; 17-60 mg/L as slightly hard; 60-120 mg/L as moderately hard; 120-


49

180 mg/L as hard and more than 180 mg/L as very hard Lehr et al.(1980).

Dissolved oxygen: Dissolved oxygen is an important parameter in water quality assessment and reflects the physical and biological process prevailing in the water, the D.O. value indicates the degree of pollution in water bodies. In the present study the D.O. of Ganga water at four sites ranged between 4.45-9.8mg/l. Maximum value of D.O. found at site 1 (9.8 mg/l) and Minimum D.O. concentration in water samples found at site 4 (4.45mg/l) and were not found well within desirable limit (> 6.0 mg/L) as per the specifications of BIS, 2012. Joshi and Sati (2011); Matta et al. (2015a) reported that the Dissolved Oxygen values at Har ki Pauri, Singh Dwar and Daksha Temple during snans the values declined to about 7.8 mg/L, 8.6mg/L and 8.4 mg/L. The values recorded were within the prescribed limits of WHO standards for drinking water.

Biochemical oxygen demand: Biochemical oxygen demand is the amount of oxygen utilized by micro-organism in stabilizing the organic matter. BOD in general gives a qualitative index of organic substance which is degraded quickly in a short time period. In the present study the BOD of site 4 found very high (20.5 mg/l) which were not found within desirable limit (<2.0mg/l) as per the specifications of BIS, 2012.

Alkalinity: Alkalinity concentration in all the water samples of Ganga Canal were also found well within desirable limit (200 mg/L) as per the specifications of BIS, 2012 of drinking water. Maximum Alkalinity was observed at site 1 (77.0 mg/l) and minimum Alkalinity

Available phosphorus: In the present study Available phosphorus varies from 0.09-0.186 ppm. Maximum value of Available phosphorus found at site 4 (0.186 ppm) and minimum value found at site 2 (0.10 ppm).

was observed at site 4 (65.0 mg/l).

Sodium: In the present study the maximum value of sodium concentration was observed at site 4 (16.4mg/l) and minimum of sodium concentration was observed at site 1(3.5 mg/l).

Potassium: Potassium were also found high at site 4 (3.2 mg/l) and low at site 1 (0.51 mg/l). The values of sodium and potassium were found

TC and FC: The Total Coliform (TC) count ranged between 210 colonies/ 100 ml at site-1 and 289 colonies/ 100 ml at Site-4 (Table 2). TC was also noted in increasing order along the stretch of Ganga Canal. Similar status of Ganga river water quality at Haridwar was also found during Kumbh-2010, when Coliform level increased by 28.99% at Har ki Pauri, 13.92% at Singhdwar and 19.30% at Daksha Temple. This was described owing to mass bathing, release of flowers and other materials (Joshi and Sati, 2011).The FC count was observed minimum as 110 colonies/ 100 ml (winter) at site Site-2, whereas it was found maximum (205 colonies/ 100 ml) at Site-4 as depicted in Table- 2. Diseases can occur as a result of drinking the water from wells, which is polluted by a combination of different waste water micro-organisms, eating contaminated fish or indulging in recreational activities in polluted water bodies containing water borne pathogens (Kumar et al., 2010; Matta et al., 2015b). Consequently, fecal pollution can

within desirable limit as per the specifications of BIS, 2012.


50

degrade the quality of water and restrict its use for drinking and other recreational activities (Kulshreshtha and Sharma, 2006; Matta et al., 2015c).

Thus, the five water quality parameter problem parameters identified are DO and BOD at site 4, available phosphorus at site 4, TC and FC (Table 2) due to the ritual bathing and other activities.

S. No. Parameters Site – 1 (Control )

Site – 2 Site -3 Site - 4 BIS 2012

DL PL 1. pH 8.07 8.01 7.89 8.01 6.5 8.5 2. EC, µScm 290.1 278.00 269.0 258.0 500 1500 3. TDS, mg/l 187.7 186.26 180.23 172.9 500 2000 4. Hardness, mg/l 118 90.00 85.00 99.0 200 600 5. D.O., mg/l 9.8 9.5 8.9 4.45 > 6.0 - 6. B.O.D., mg/l 1.3 1.3 1.4 20.5 < 2.0 - 7. Alkalinity, mg/l 77.0 76.0 75.0 65.0 200 600 8. Available

phosphorus (ppm) 0.10 0.09 0.083 0.186 < 0.1 -

9. Sodium mg/l 3.5 3.14 3.10 16.4 - 200 10. Potassium mg/l 0.51 0.60 1.49 3.20 - 12 11. TC, colonies/ 100ml 210* 218* 268* 289* absent Absent 12. FC, colonies/ 100ml 116* 110* 164* 205* absent Absent

* Bold values indicates concentration more than permissible limit Table 2: Water quality data of 12 physico-chemical and bacteriological

characteristics at four sampling sites of Ganga River during October 2016.

Conclusion

The present study concluded that the Ganga River water found prone to river water contamination through ritual bathing and other anthropogenic activities at four different sampling sites including control site have been selected. The concentration of various physico-chemical and bacteriological parameters viz. pH, EC, TDS, Hardness, D.O., B.O.D., Alkalinity, Available phosphorus, Sodium, Potassium, TC and FC were recorded and among these parameters D.O., B.O.D., Available phosphorus were not recorded within the permissible limits at Shukratal ghat. Total Coliform and fecal Coliform

References

APHA, (2012). In: Standard methods for the examination of the water and waste water. American Public Health Association, New York, 1995.

Bhardwaj, V., Singh, D.S., Singh, A.K. (2010). Water quality of the Chhoti Gandak River using principal component analysis, Ganga Plain, India. J Earth Syst Sci. 119:117–127.

Dubey, R.C., and Maheshwari, D.K. (2004). In: A textbook of microbiology.

Farooquee, N.A., Budal, T.K., Maikhuri, R.K. (2008). Environmental and socio-cultural impacts of river rafting and camping on Ganga in Uttarakhand Himalaya. Curr Sci. 94:5–10.

Joshi, N., and Sati, V. (2011). Assessment of Water Quality of River Ganges at Haridwar during Kumbh Mela-2010. Report and Opinion.3 (7):30-36]. (ISSN: 1553-9873).

Kamboj, N. (2012). Evaluation of Some Water Quality Parameters of River Ganga during Kanwer Mela-2011 at


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Haridwar, India. Sustainable Environmental Research, 1(2): 125-128

Kamboj, N. and Aswal, R.S. (2015). Suitability of Ganga canal water for drinking purpose at Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India. Journal of Environmental and applied bioresearch, 3(3):137-141.

Kamboj, N. and Choudhary, M. and Chinmoy, P. (2014). Potable water is a serious Environmental issue: A special study on Umiam area, of RI-Bhoi District, Meghalaya, India. International Research Journal of Environmental Sciences, 3(9): 37-42.

Kamboj, N., Chaubey, A.K., Kumar, S. and Parasher, C.K. (2015). Assessment of Physico-Chemical Parameter of Solani River at Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India. International journal of current research, 7 (6):16670-16673.

Kamboj, N., Chaubey, A.K., Kumar, S. and Parasher, K.P. (2015). Quality Assessment Of Municipal supplied water for drinking purpose, District Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India Journal of Global Biosciences

Kumar, A., Bisht, B.S., Joshi, V.D., Singh, A.K. and Talwar, A. (2010). Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological Study of Water from Rivers of Uttarakhand.

Journal of Human Ecology, 32(3): 169-173.

(ISSN 2320-1355), 4(5):2375-2379.

Kulshrestha, H. and Sharma, S. (2006). Impact of mass bathing during Ardhkumbh on water quality status of river Ganga. Journal of Environmental Biology, 27(2) 437-440.

Kumar, M. and Bhushan, B. (2012). Assessment of water quality of river Ganga at shukratal in relation to portability norms. Bionano frontier ISSN 0974-0678, Eco revolution Colombo, srilanka.

Lehr, J. H., Wayne, E.G. and Jack, D. (1980). Toxic inorganics and other constituents. In: Water pollution- causes effects and control. New age International (P) Limited, New Delhi. Pp 192-194.


Matta, Gagan (2014b): "WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF GANGA CANAL SYSTEM." Journal of Advanced Scientific Research 5.4.

Matta, Gagan (2015): Effect of water quality on phytoplankton ecology of Upper Ganga Canal, International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 6, Issue 2, 762-768.

Matta, Gagan; Kumar, Ajendra; Srivastava, Sachin; Singh, Vikas

Matta, Gagan; Pandey, R. R. and Saini, K. K. (2015b): Assessment of pollution on

and Dhingra, Gulshan K. (2015a): Impact assessment on water quality of Ganga Canal System in Himalayan Region. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 6, Issue 5, pp 1524 – 1531.


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water quality and phytoplankton diversity in canal system of River Ganga. World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. Vol. 4(11): 889-908

Matta, Gagan; Srivastava, Sachin; Pandey, R. R. and Saini, K. K. (2015c): Assessment of physicochemical characteristics of Ganga Canal water quality in Uttarakhand. Environ Dev Sustain. DOI 10.1007/s10668-015-9735-x

MoEF (2009). Status paper on River Ganga, State of Environment and Water Quality, National River Conservation Directorate Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.

Praveen, A., Kumar, R., Pratima and Kumar, R. (2013). Physio- Chemical Properties of the Water of River Ganga at Kanpur. International Journal of Computational Engineering Research. 3(4)

Singh, N. (2010). Physicochemical properties of polluted water of river Ganga at Varanasi, International Journal of Energy and Environment 1(5):823–832.

Trivedi, R.K. and Goel, P.K. (1986). In: Chemical and biological methods for water pollution studies. Environmental publication Karad.

Tripathi & Tripathi/Vol. VII [2] 2016/53 - 60

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Impact of anthropogenic activities on water quality of prominent water bodies of Varanasi, UP, India

Tripathi, Ruchi1 and Tripathi, Shailendra Kumar

Abstract

2


The was conducted to assess the impact of various types of anthropogenic religious activities on water quality of three ponds Ishwargangi Pond, Kurukshtera Pond and Pushkar Pond of Varanasi. The physico-chemical parameters studied were pH, Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Total Alkalinity, Chloride, Phosphate, Sulphate, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). The water quality characteristics revealed significant increase in the values of turbidity, Chloride, Phosphate, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) as compared to the permissible limit of drinking and irrigation water quality standard (BIS, IS-10500, FAO). The result of Pearson correlation analysis exhibited statistically significant positive correlations between Total dissolved solids (TDS) & pH (r=0.8671, p<0.05), TDS & Total Alkalinity

(r=0.6284, p<0.05), TDS & Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (r=0.6757, p<0.05), Total hardness & Calcium (r=0.9545, p<0.01) and Total hardness & Magnesium (r=0.9985, p<0.01). The value of Phosphate shown statistically significant negative correlation with turbidity (r=-0.6169, p<0.05), Sulphate (r=-0.7068, p<0.05). This study revealed all three ponds have objectionable water quality especially with respect to human health, biotic life and entire ecosystem. Therefore, water of these water bodies needed to be regularly changed after mass bathing to protect the aquatic component from different contaminations. Therefore water from these water bodies need to be changed regularly to protect the aquatic life from different contaminations. The other measures includes establishment of comprehensive water quality monitoring, citizen awareness with a proper urban drain disposal system to prevent water bodies of Varanasi from pollution.

Keywords: Anthropogenic | Physico-chemical parameters | Correlation analysis | Contaminations



For Correspondence: 1Department of Food & Nutrition, Sri Agrasen Kanya P.G. College, Varanasi. India

2Department of Science, Sampurnanad Sanskrit University, Varanasi. India Email: [email protected]


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Introduction

Water is the most delicate part of the environment which is essential for all organisms for their survival. Freshwater bodies (ponds, kunds) are important wetlands constructed by man from ancient times to store rain water in India (Arya et al., 2011; Matta, Gagan, 2014a). The water bodies are often used for various types of anthropogenic religious activities like offering flower, mass bathing, immersion of idol are also one of the important causes that affect the water quality of a water body (Nagar et al., 2016 ; Yadav et al., 2013). These ponds are located mainly near the vicinity of temples and are being used for bathing and performing various religious activities (Chaturvedi and Kumar, 2011; Matta, Gagan, 2014b). All these anthropogenic activity on pond ultimately, deteriorate the water quality, increase the accumulation of toxic chemical and sediment and also the shrinkage of pond`s catchment area. In Varanasi the pond water is mainly affected due to the flow of pilgrims for ritual activities throughout the year and disposal of wastes originating from the temples (Gupta et al, 2011).

The physico-chemical parameters play an important significance in determining the status of aquatic life as well as the suitability of water for drinking, bathing, fishing, irrigation etc. (Sharma et al., 2009). Therefore the present study was conducted to assess the impact of various types of anthropogenic religious activities on water quality of ponds of Varanasi. This study can be used for awareness of general public and policy makers to enhance the water quality of ponds of Varanasi.


Study Area

Water samples were collected from the three ponds Iswargangi, Kurukshetra and Pushkar located at the different sites of Varanasi city during January to March 2016 (fig.1). The list of sampling sites and their geo-coordinates are shown in table-1

Site No.

Name of Water Bodies

Location Latitude Longitude

1 Ishwargangi Pond

Ausanganj, Nati Imli 25°32'56"N 83°0'86"E

2 Kurukshtera Pond

Assi, Durgakund 25°29'01"N 83°0'19"E

3 Pushkar Pond Ravindrapuri 25°28'57"N 83°0'39"E

Table 1: The list of selected water

bodies, their location and geo-coordinates

Sample Collection

Water samples were collected regularly at an interval of fifteen days from selected water bodies in triplicate, in 1 litre clean plastic bottles previously cleaned by distilled water and transported to laboratory for physico-chemical analysis.

Figure-1: Locations of sampling sites

snapped from Google Maps.


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Physico-chemical Analysis

The samples collected from water bodies were analyzed for a number of physico-chemical parameters using the standard procedures (APHA, 2005). The parameters include, pH, Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Total Alkalinity, Chloride, Phosphate, Sulphate, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD).

Statistical Analysis

The results obtained were compared to the permissible limit of drinking water quality standard (BIS, IS-10500). The Pearson correlation analysis was performed to determine the significant relationship between parameters / variables using SPSS.


Physico-chemical characteristics

The result observed in present study shows very high value of Turbidity, Total dissolved solid, Magnesium, Chloride, Phosphate, Biochemical Oxygen Demand and Dissolved oxygen in all three water bodies as compared

to the permissible limit for irrigation water (FAO) and drinking water standard (BIS, IS-10500) (Table 2).

The mean pH value observed in the range between 6.75 to 7.50, indicates slight alkaline nature of water except Iswargangi pond. pH is an important limiting chemical factor for aquatic life. Higher pH of pond water affects most of the biological processes and biochemical reactions in water body that leads to disrupt the biodiversity of aquatic organisms (Arya et al., 2011; Matta, Gagan, 2015). Turbidity of water samples varied from 17.50 to 56.50 (NTU) and were exceeded from the standard value for both irrigation (FAO) and drinking water (BIS, IS-10500). The highest mean concentration was recorded as 56.50 (NTU) in Iswargangi pond and lowest as 17.50 (NTU) in Pushkar pond. Higher levels of turbidity may blocks out the light needed by submerged aquatic vegetation. It also can raise surface water temperatures above normal because suspended particles near the surface facilitate the absorption of heat from sunlight (Akasaka, 2010; Matta et al., 2015a).

Water Quality Parameter Ishwargangi Pond

Kurukshtera Pond

Pushkar Pond

Irrigation Standard BIS, FAO

Drinking Standard

BIS

pH 6.75 7.50 7.50 6.5 - 8.5 6.5 - 8.5 Turbidity (in NTU) 56.50 33.00 17.50 - 5-10 TDS (in mg/l) 760.00 860.00 1035.00 2100.00 2000.00 Total Hardness (in mg/l) 315.00 193.50 217.00 - 600.00 Calcium (in mg/l) 80.50 49.26 56.07 - 200.00 Magnesium (in mg/l) 265.96 163.49 182.84 - 150.00 Total Alkalinity (in mg/l) 153.90 148.51 143.12 140 600.00 Chloride (in mg/l) 740.61 582.63 745.70 500.00 250.00 Phosphate (in mg/l) 87.00 94.00 128.50 0-2 5.00 Sulphate (in mg/l) 131.15 134.50 123.00 - 100.00 COD (in mg/l) 166.80 121.66 212.74 - - BOD (in mg/l) 160.00 139.00 141.00 100.00 - DO (in mg/l) 1.54 2.21 3.07 - -

Table 2: Physico-chemical characteristics of water samples


56

TDS were ranging from 760 to 1035 mg/l and all were below the permissible value for both irrigation (FAO) and drinking water (BIS). The highest concentration was observed as 1035 mg/l in Pushkar pond and lowest as 760 mg/l in Iswargangi pond. Total dissolved solids in pond water come from urban discharge of sewage waste, soap, detergents (Tripathi and Viswakarma 2015). The mean value of total hardness was observed between 193.50 to 315 mg/l in all pond water, which is below the permissible limit for drinking water (BIS, IS-10500). The high content of calcium and magnesium in addition to sulphate and nitrate in the sewage waste discharge in responsible for increasing total hardness of pond water. The hardness of water helps to protect aquatic organisms against harmful effects of pH fluctuation and metal ions (Thakor et al., 2011; Matta et al., 2015b). The concentration of Calcium in water samples were observed between 49.26 to 80.50 mg/l and all samples were within the permissible limit of drinking water (BIS, IS-10500). Higher concentration of Calcium may cause incrustation in water supply structure and adversely affect on domestic use (Raghavendran, 1992). The values of magnesium observed between 163.49 to 265.96 mg/l and all the values were above the permissible limit for drinking water (BIS, IS-10500). Higher concentration of Magnesium in water is probably due to the high decomposition rate of organic matter, high evaporation and other anthropogenic activities. Magnesium associated with the sulphate ion has a laxative effect on persons unaccustomed to it (Parveen et al., 2012).

The mean total alkalinity was varied from 143.12 to 153.90 mg/l. All the values were

exceeded the permissible limit for both irrigation (FAO) and drinking water (BIS, IS-10500). The higher alkalinity may be due to the large scale use of banks as open latrine and washing of excrete in nearby the ponds. Alkalinity also increases the amount of dissolved carbonate, which leads to gives undesirable taste to water (Radhakrishnan et al. 2007; Tripathi and Viswakarma 2015). The degradation of plants, other organism and organic waste might also increase in carbonates and bicarbonates thereby the alkalinity (Chaurisa and Pandey, 2007). The value of chloride was observed between 582.63 to 745.70 g/l. The all three ponds samples chloride value were exceeded the permissible limit for both irrigation water (FAO) and drinking water (BIS, IS-10500) except Kurukshetra pond (582.63 mg/l). Chloride exceeding 250 mg/l in drinking water imparts salts taste to water and causes laxative effects. The higher value of chloride is toxic to fish and aquatic organisms, even in very small amounts (Tripathi and Viswakarma 2015). Phosphate values varied from 87 to 128.50 mg/L, which is above the permissible limit for both irrigation (FAO) and drinking water (BIS, IS-10500). This might be due to discharge of domestic sewage, or leaching of fertilizers used in nearby agricultural field. The phosphorus nutrient is needed for the algal growth, which is a key element in metabolic reactions of aquatic organisms and responsible for eutrophicaton of ponds (Sachin Mishra et al., 2014; Matta et al., 2015c). Sulphate value of all three ponds of Varanasi ranged between 123 to 134.50 mg/l, which is below the permissible limit for drinking water (BIS, IS-10500). Sulphate remains in the pond and


57

does not biodegrade hence higher concentration of sulphate in pond water can be toxic to fish and other organisms.

COD value varied from 121.66 to 212.74 mg/L. This may be due waste water discharge from dying units located near ponds. The BOD value was observed between 139.00 to 166 mg/l, which is above the permissible limit for irrigation water (FAO). This may be due to high temperature and algal bloom in ponds and water hyacinth that covered the whole pond so no sunlight can penetrate in the pond. It is harmful for the aquatic life present in that pond. BOD depends on temperature, extent of biochemical activities and concentration of organic matter and microbial population such as bacteria and fungi (Prasanna and Ranjan, 2010; Sachin Mishra et al., 2014). The DO value of all three ponds varied from 1.54 to 3.07 mg/l. The lower DO value of Iswargangi pond was might be due to the high rate of oxygen consumption by oxidisable matter, which may affect the diversity of aquatic life living in it (Gupta et al, 2011; James et al, 2013).

Correlation analysis

Among the various physiochemical parameters of surface water, only few parameters exhibited significant correlations (Table 3). In present study the value of Total dissolved solids (TDS) shown a statistically significant positive correlation with pH (r=0.8671, p<0.05), Total Alkalinity (r=0.6284, p<0.05), Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (r=0.6757, p<0.05). This indicates that an increased load of dissolved solids influence the pH, total alkalinity and BOD value of surface water (Dabgerwal and

Tripathi, 2016; Eucharista et al, 2016). The values of Phosphate shown statistically significant negative correlation with turbidity (r=-0.6169, p<0.05), Sulphate (r=-0.7068, p<0.05) and positive correlation with chemical oxygen demand (COD) (r=0.8261, p<0.05). The positive correlation of COD and phosphate indicates that increased load of COD through urban discharge in water bodies increases Phosphate concentration, which leads to cause eutrophication. The negative correlation of Phosphate and turbidity indicates that the oxidation of Phosphates improves the clarity of water through increasing settling rate of suspended solids (James et al., 2013). Level of Significance

Positively correlated Parameters

Negatively correlated

Parameters

α= 0.05

TDS & pH (r=0.8671) Total Alkalinity & Turbidity (r=0.7206) Total Alkalinity & TDS (r=0.6284) BOD & TDS (r=0.6757) Sulphate & Chloride (r=0.7158) COD & Phosphate (r=0.8261)

Phosphate & Turbidity (r=-0.6169 ) Phosphate & Sulphate (r=-0.7068)

α= 0.01

Calcium & Total Hardness (r=0.9545) Magnesium & Total Hardness (r=0.9985) Calcium & Magnesium (r=0.9366)

-

Table 3: List of significant positive and

negative correlated water quality

Total hardness was found to have significant positive correlation with Calcium (r=0.9545, p<0.01) and Magnesium (r=0.9985, p<0.01). Similarly the value of Calcium and Magnesium also shown significant positive correlation (r=0.9366, p<0.01). Significant positive correlation between turbidity and total alkalinity (r=0.7206, p<0.05) indicates that the transparency of water is influenced by the increasing concentration of carbonate,


58

bicarbonate and hydroxide alkalinity of water (Vishwakarma and Tripathi, 2015). Similarly significant positive correlation between Sulphate and Chloride (r=0.7158, p<0.05) indicates that the disposal of sewage and cattle house waste water in water bodies increases the chloride concentration that leads to increase Sulphate load in water (Singh et al., 2015).

Conclusion

The study revealed that the water quality of all the three water bodies of Varanasi is declining due to use of water bodies bank for cloth washing, animal bath, performing religious activities and direct discharge of flower waste, temple effluents, animals waste, and municipal waste water. The result of physico-chemical parameters clearly shows that the water is not good for human consumption. Therefore water from these water bodies need to be changed regularly to protect the aquatic life from different contaminations. The other measures includes establishment of comprehensive water quality monitoring, citizen awareness with a proper urban drain disposal system to prevent water bodies of Varanasi from pollution.

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Assessment of water quality index of Jhilmil lake at Haridwar, Uttarakhand

Malik, D. S. and Tomar, Garima

Received: June 24, 2016 Accepted: October 20, 2016 Online: December 31, 2016 Abstract

Jhilmil Lake is a fresh water lake located in south part of Haridwar, Uttarakhand and declared as conservation reserve by Govt. of Uttarakhand. Water Quality Index is a tool to determine the status of the present water quality scenario with respect to priority of parameter against weight value and to assess the allocation wise suitability towards quality of water. Two sampling sites were selected along the lake for sampling purpose from January to December 2013. Water samples were analyzed in terms of physico-chemical water quality parameters. The overall average value of water were found as temperature (22 ± 0 .45°C), pH (7.9 ± 0.25), turbidity (13.4 ± 0.31NTU), total dissolved solids (200±0.09 mg/l), conductivity (0.58 ± 0.68 µS/cm), DO (6.8 ± 0.13 mg/l), BOD (6.6 ± 0.09 mg/l), COD (16.1 ± 0.36 mg/l), alkalinity (102 ± 0.47 mg/l), total hardness (130 ± 0.32 mg/l), sulphate (0.33±0.53 mg/l), phosphate (0.27

± 0.34 mg/l) and nitrate (0.16±0.45 mg/l). The results were compared with standards given by WHO and BIS guideline for drinking water. All parameters were found below the permissible limits for drinking water. All observed parameters were found under category of good quality. It indicates that Jhilmil lake water can be used for drinking of swamp deer and other wild animals of adjacent area of National park. Lake water is also suitable for irrigation practices of nearest villagers.

Keywords: Physico-chemical parameters | Water quality index | Jhilmil lake

Introduction

Lakes and surface water reservoirs are the planet’s most important fresh water resources and provide innumerable ecological and social benefits (Arain et al. 2008). Lakes and inland bodies of water which are formed in rock basins which are various shape and sizes. They act as a natural water reservoir and hold a large quantity of water which can be used for various aspects including hydroelectricity (Sarah et al., 2011). Several cities, industrial infrastructures and agriculture




For Correspondence: Department of Zoology & Environmental Sciences Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar (U.K.) Email: [email protected]


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complexes have been built up in vicinity of rivers and other water bodies. Development of human communities and increase in irresponsible use of water resources has deteriorated river and lake water qualities (Sanchez and Manuel, 2007). The physical and chemical properties of fresh water body are characterized by the climatic, geochemical, geo-morphological and pollution conditions. The water quality characteristics influence the ability of species living in a given aquatic habitat. The quality of surface water is mainly affected by natural processes (weathering and soil erosion) as well as anthropogenic inputs (municipal and industrial wastewater discharge). The anthropogenic discharges represent a constant polluting source, whereas surface runoff is a seasonal phenomenon, mainly affected by climatic conditions (Singh et al. 2004). Dissolved constituents of water bodies are often determined as a major component for baseline limnological studies. Water quality monitoring has a high priority for the determination of current conditions and long term trends for effective management. The supply of clean and safe water has a significant effect on the expectation of water transmissible diseases (Lerda and Prosperi, 1996).

The water quality index is a mathematical instrument which provides a single number that expresses overall water quality at a certain location and time, based on several water quality parameters. Water resource professionals generally communicate water quality status and trends in terms of the

evaluation of individual water quality variables. While this is readily understood within the water resources community, It does not readily get translated to communities having profound influence on water resources. Many researchers of developed countries gives criteria of definition of water quality of natural water bodies (Harkins, 1974, Bolton et al. 1978). The present investigation was based on the analysis of water quality in relation to physico-chemical parameters of Jhilmil lake. The lake water is basically used for drinking of wild animals and irrigation purpose by local marginal farmers. The objective of this research was evaluate water quality of Jhilmil lake that receives agriculture and domestic drainage from nearest village throughout the year.

Materials and methods

Jhilmil lake is located at Haridwar district of Uttarakhand and cover an area of 3800 ha of reserve forest. It is infested by aquatic plants e.g. Typha sp. (common bulrush), Lemna sp and Azolla sps. This is a natural course of the river Ganga in south part of Haridwar. The water samples were collected from two sites and stored in a clean plastic bottles with screw caps. Study was carried out for a time period of twelve months from January to December. The study sites were selected as site-1 at Jhilmil lake and Dudhwa Dayalpur village site-2.

The physico-chemical parameters included temperature (⁰C), pH, conductivity (µs/cm), dissolved oxygen (mg/l), biological oxygen demand (mg/l), chemical oxygen demand (mg/l), alkalinity (mg/l),


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total hardness (mg/l), sulphate (mg/l), phosphate (mg/l), nitrogen (mg/l). For the estimation of D.O. and B.O.D. water samples were fixed at the sites. All the collected water samples were analyzed in the laboratory. The collected samples were stored at 4°C followed standard procedures mentioned in Standard methods for examination of water and Waste water 20th Edition published by APHA (1998) and Chemical and Biological Methods for Water Pollution Studies by Trivedi and Goel (1986). Temperature was measured by using Celsius thermometer (0-110⁰C). Turbidity, Electrical Conductivity and pH were measured using Jackson Turbidity Unit, Conductivity meter and Digital pH meter. TDS, Total alkalinity, DO, BOD, COD and Total hardness were measured by gravimetric and titration method. Phosphate, nitrogen and sulphate were analyzed by using UV-VIS spectrophotometer.

WQI calculation

The water quality index was calculated by using the standards method of drinking water quality. The calculated values were compare with the standard and recommended by the WHO and BIS. The weighted arithmetic index method (Brown et al. 1972) was used for the calculation of WQI of the water body.

Calculation of Quality Rating

(qn): qn is calculated by using the following formula:

qn= 100[(Vn-Vi]/Sn-Vi)]

Where: qn= Quality rating for the nth water quality parameter.

Vn= Estimated value of the nth parameter at a given sampling station.

Sn= Standard permissible

Vi= Ideal value of the nth parameter in pure water. Ideal values for all parameters are taken zero except pH(7) and DO(14.6) (Tripaty and Sahu, 2005).

Calculation of unit weight (Wn): Calculation of Wn for various water quality parameters are inversely proportional to the recommended standards for the corresponding parameters.

Wn= K/Sn. The overall water quality index was calculated by aggregating the quality rating with the unit weight linearly.

WQI = ∑ qn Wn / ∑Wn

91-100 Excellent water quality

71-90 Good water quality

51-70 Medium or average water quality

26-50 Fair water quality

0-25 Poor water quality

Table 1: Water quality index (WQI) Scale

Results and discussion

The reported values refer to the mean value of water samples collected in the month of January to December from two different sites of Jhilmil lake. In the present study, physico-chemical parameters viz. water temperature, turbidity, pH value, electrical conductivity, TDS, BOD, COD, DO, sulphate, phosphate, nitrate, alkalinity and total hardness were tested of lake water, which were found between the range of BIS/WHO permissible limit. However, the details analysis of these parameters is


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discussed below (Table 2). Water temperature plays an important factor which influences the chemical and biological characteristics of water body. High water temperatures increase the metabolic oxygen demand, which in conjunction with reduced oxygen solubility and impact on life cycles of many species (RISC 1998). In the study, the water temperature of Jhilmil lake varied between 20⁰C and 22⁰C with an average value of 21.23⁰C to the lake system. Ahangar (2012) observed the approx same temperature range 6 to 21⁰C in his study of Anchar lake. There is a minute difference of the temperature value in site-1 and site-2 of Jhilmil lake water. The factors like water temperature bring about changes the pH of water. Most of biological and chemical reactions of water influenced by pH. The pH of the lake is within the permissible limits as prescribed by WHO (2006), EPA (2003) for drinking, recreation, agricultural and aquatic life. The pH of lake water was alkaline values ranges from 7.8±0.25 to 8.1± 0.27. Basharat et al. (2015) also observed 7.8 pH value of Dal lake at Srinagar. Specific conductivity is a typical way to monitor the performance of water purification systems. The conductivity provide us a good and rapid measure of the total dissolved solids in water (Srivastava et al., 2011). Electrical conductivity were recorded as 0.51±0.68µS/cm and 0.65±0.77µS/cm at site-1 and site-2 respectively in this study. Conductivity of water depends upon the concentration of ions and its nutrient status. Turbidity

measurements provide an approximation for concentrations of suspended material such as clay, sand, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter, plankton and other microorganisms in water. The turbidity values were recorded as 10.7±0.31NTU and 16.2±0.38NTU in water sample of both sites.

Turbidity of water is caused by suspended and colloidal matter. Alkalinity of water is mainly due to carbonate, bicarbonates and hydroxyl ions. It is an index of nutrient status in a water body. The permissible limit of alkalinity in the water sample is 200-600mg/l. The values of alkalinity of lake water were 100±0.47m g/l and 201±0.49mg/l which is under permissible limit. Khan and Ishaq, (2013) observed the similar trends of alkalinity of river Yamuna. The amount of hardness in the water sample were recorded 150±0.32m g/l and 210±0.35mg/l at both sites. Hardness of potable water should less than or equal to 10 and 500mg/l respectively. A limit of 300ppm has been recorded as a desired limit and 600ppm as the permissible limit for potable water given by BIS (1991). The values of total hardness are within the limits (<500 mg/l) as prescribed by WHO (2004) also for the drinking water purposes. Result of present study, total hardness average value 180mg/l was compared with the given limits by BIS&WHO and observed that hardness of lake water were under the prescribed limit.

In natural water, dissolved solids are composed mainly carbonate, bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides, calcium, magnesium,


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sodium, potassium, phosphates, nitrates, iron and manganese etc. Total dissolved solids increases salinity and changes in the ionic composition of water. In the present investigation, the values of total dissolved solids were recorded at site-1 200±0.09ppm and site-2 400±0.11ppm respectively. Dissolved oxygen is essential for water quality and health of a lake. This is due to its importance as a respiratory gas, and its use in biological and chemical reactions (Mustapha, 2008). The presence of dissolved oxygen is required for aquatic pants and other life forms. Higher rate of decomposition of organic matter and limited flow of water leads to consumption of oxygen is higher in a water body. USEPA (1998) defines the healthy water value of DO within the range of 5−14.6 mg/l. If values of DO observed less 5 or greater than 14.6, it indicates that the impairment of water body. In this study, values of dissolved oxygen were observed 8.4±0.13 mg/l at site-1 and 5.3±0.10mg/l in water sample, which was below the permissible limit as prescribed by BIS.

BOD is the most important parameter used to estimate the nature of the quality of water. The biochemical oxygen demand values indicated high concentration of biodegradable matter and high oxygen consumption by heterotrophic organism. The BOD values of lake water were recorded as 4.2±0.09mg/l and 9±0.82mg/l. BOD values shows that there was a significant water pollution in site-2 due to some anthropogenic activity. COD determines the amount of oxygen required

for chemical oxidation of organic and inorganic matter. High level COD indicated presence of all forms of organic matter, both bio degradable and non bio degradable contributed the degree of pollution in lake. During the analysis the values of COD were observed 5.3±0.36g/l

And 18.2±0.51mg/l . In an aquatic, environment nitrogen is present in combined forms of ammonia, nitrates, nitrite and dissolved organic compounds. The nitrate level is found in natural water bodies is up to 1mg/l and is not toxic. In the present study, nitrate values were recorded 0.022±0.14 to 0.013±0.14mg/l. In the study sites, the amount of nitrate concentration of lake water were below the permissible limit of WHO (2004) for drinking. Nonetheless, in unpolluted waters the level of nitrate-nitrogen is usually less than 0.1 mg/l (Chapman, 1996). Phosphorous is an essential nutrient for primary producers, hence act as one of the limiting factors for growth of aquatic plants. The mean values of phosphate were recorded 0.0132±0.40 and 0.418±0.61mg/l at site-1 and site-2 respectively. Sulphate is an important constituent of hardness with calcium and magnesium. It provides an objectionable taste at 300-400mg/l concentration and naturally occurring anion in all kind of water. Sulphate can not be removed from drinking water except by expensive such as distillation, reverse osmosis or electrolytes. In the study, sulphate were recorded as 0.307±0.53mg/L and 0.366±0.57mg/l in water sample from both of the sites. A limit of 200mg/l to


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400mg/l (desirable limit to maximum) has been recommended by BIS (1991). The values of nitrate ranges from 0.022mg/l

and 0.013mg/l were observed in the present study that was under WHO standards limit.

S. No Parameters (Units) Sampling Site-

1 Sampling Site-

2

Drinking water quality standards

WHO BIS 1. Temperature(⁰C) 20±0.45 22±0.45 - -

2. pH 7.8±0.25 8.1±0.27 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 3. TDS(mg/l) 200±0.09 400±0.11 500 1000 4. Conductivity(µS/cm) 0.51±0.68 0.65±0.77 - 400 5. Turbidity(NTU) 10.7±0.31 16.2±0.38 - - 6. Alkalinity(mg/l) 100±0.47 201±0.49 200 - 7. Hardness(mg/l) 150±0.32 210±0.35 300 500 8. DO(mg/l) 8.4±0.13 5.3±0.10 - 3-14 9. BOD(mg/l) 4.2±0.09 9.0±0.82 - - 11. COD(mg/l) 15.3±0.36 18.0±0.51 - - 12. Sulphate(mg/l) 0.307±0.53 0.366±0.57 200 500 13. Phosphate(mg/l) 0.132±0.34 0.418±0.01 - 5 14. Nitrate(mg/l) 0.022±0.14 0.013±0.10 45 45 Table 2: Physico-chemical characteristics (mean value of lake water)

In the present study, nine parameters as pH, total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity, biochemical oxygen demand, total alkalinity, hardness, dissoved oxygen, sulphate and nitrate were selected for determination of water quality index of

lake for drinking purposes. All values of physico-chemical parameters were observed under fair and average water quality at both sites respectively. There is a little involvement of human activities as washing and bathing of animals at Site-2.

S. No. Parameters Observed values Standard values(Sn)

Unit weight(Wn)

Quality rating(qn) Wnqn values Site-1 Site-2 Site-1 Site-2 Site-1 Site-2

1. pH 7.8 8.1 6.5-8.5 0.219 53 73 11.60 15.98 2. TDS 200 400 500 0.003 40 80 0.12 0.24 3. Conductivity 0.51 0.65 300 0.371 0.17 0.21 0.06 0.07 4. BOD 4.2 9.0 5.0 0.372 84 180 31.24 66.96 5. Alkalinity 100 201 120 0.015 83 167 1.24 2.50 6. Hardness 150 270 300 0.006 50 90 0.30 0.54 7. DO 8.4 5.3 5.0 0.372 64 96 23.80 35.71 8. Sulphate 0.30 0.36 150 0.012 0.20 0.002 0.002 0.00002 9. Nitrate 0.022 0.013 45 0.041 0.04 0.02 0.001 0.00082 ∑Wn= 2.0 ∑Wnqn=

68.36 ∑Wnqn= 122.0

Table 3: Calculation of water quality index of lake water

Conclusion

In conclusion the various parameters viz. water temperature, transparency, pH value, electrical conductivity, TDS, BOD, COD, DO, alkalinity, total hardness, phosphate, sulphate, nitrogen and total hardness were tested of Jhilmil lake water which were

found between the range of BIS/WHO permissible limit. On the basis of water quality index grading lake water is not polluted because there is not any drainage of industrial effluent into lake. Lake water is under good quality for drinking and irrigation purpose.


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References

Ahangar, I. A. (2012): Seasonal variations in physico-chemical characteristics of Anchar lake Kashmir, India. International Journal of Advanced Biological Research. Vol-3(2): 352-357.

APHA (1998): In: Standard methods for examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association 19th

Arain, M. B.; Kazi, T. G.; Jamali, N. and Shah, A. Q. (2008): Evolution of physico-chemical parameters of Manchar lake water and their comparison with other global published values. Journal Analytical Environmental Chemistry. Vol-9(2): 1101-109.

Mustaq, Basharat; Raina, Rajni; Yousuf, A. R. and Manhas, Amit (2015): Chemical characteristics of Dal lake Srinagar. Journal of Environment Protection and Sustainable Development. Vol-1:1-7.

BIS (1991): In: Indian standards for drinking water, Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi. pp-1050.

Bolton, P. W.; Curie, J. C. and Ternet, D. J. (1978): An index to improve water quality classification, Water and pollution control. Vol-25: 271-280.

Brown, R. M.; McCleiland, N. I.; Deininger, R. A. and O’Connor, M. F. (1972): A water quality index- crossing the psychological barrier (Jenkis, S. H.,ed) Proc. Int. Conf. on Water Pollution Res. Jerusalem, Vol-6: 787-797.

edition Inc. New York. pp-1472.

Chapman, D.; Clarke, M. and Helmer, R. (1996): Water quality monitoring.

UNEP and WHO. pp-348.

EPA. (2003): National Recommended Water Quality Criteria 2003. Available: http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/pc/revcom.pdf

Harkins, R. D. (1974): An objective water quality index. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation. Vol-46: 589-591.

Khan, A. and Ishaq, F. (2013): Assessment of ecological aspects and impact of pollution on limnological conditions of river Yamuna. European Journal of Experimental Biology. Vol-3(2): 18-31.

Lerda, D. E. and Prosperi, C. H. (1996): Water mutagen city and toxicology in riotercero (cordoba, argentina). Water Research. Vol-30: 819-821.

Mustapha, M. K. (2008): Assessment of the water quality of Oyun reservoir, Offa, Nigeria, using selected physico-chemical parameters. Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Vol-8: 309-319.

Resources Inventory Standards Committee (1998): Guidelines for interpreting water quality data. Ministry of Environment, Lands, and Parks. Victoria, BC. pp-45.

Sanchez, E. and Manuel, F. (2007): Use of the water quality index and dissolved oxygen deficit as simple indicators of watersheds pollution. Ecological Indicators. Vol-7: 315–328.

Singh, K. P.; Malik, A.; Mohan, D. and Sinha, D. (2004): Multivariate statistical techniques for the evaluation of spatial and temporal variations in water quality of Gomti river (India)–A Case Study. Water Research. Vol-


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38(18): 3980-3992.

Srivastava, A.; Kumar, R.; Gupta, V.; Agarwal, G.; Srivastava, S. and Singh, I. (2011): Water quality assessment of Ramganga river at Moradabad by physico-chemical parameters analysis. Journal of chemical and pharmaceutical research. Vol-2(3): 119-127.

Sarah, S.; Jeelani, G. and Ahmed, S. (2011): Assessment the variability of water quality in ground water-fed Perennial lake of Kashmir. Journal Earth System Science. Vol-120(3): 399-411.

Tripaty, J. K. and Sahu, K. C. (2005):

Seasonal hydrochemistry of groundwater in the barrier-spit system of Chilika lagoon. Journal of Environmental Hydrology. Vol. 12(7): 1-9.

Trivedy, R. K. and Goel, P. K. (1998): In: Chemical and biological methods for water pollution studies. Environment publication, Karad, Maharashtra, India. pp- 69-88.

USEPA (1998): EPA national water quality report. United States Environment Protection Agency. pp- 24-40.

WHO (2004): Guidelines for Drinking water quality. PP - 3 (1).

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The Impact of Environmental Awareness on Teachers’ Attitude towards Environmental Education

Singh, Aileesha

Received: July 16, 2016 Accepted: September 02, 2016 Online: December 31, 2016 Abstract

Environmental issues have become a subject of due importance because of increasing interaction between population and its environment. The rise in pollution in an alarming rate has given birth to various health problems influencing the economical growth of a country. The root cause of this problem is the low level of awareness among people towards environment.

From the survey of the literatures on environmental awareness and its education, it can be concluded that for a successful green movement, the planning and execution of the awareness programmes in the education sector of a country is important. Thus, the subject about a teacher’s attitude towards environmental awareness becomes important to promote environmental education at all educational levels-primary, secondary, senior secondary. Some studies also concluded in their brief reports about differences in teachers’ attitude in environmental awareness in accordance with teachers’ qualification, gender, school boards, rural and urban setups. It was generally observed that teachers showing knowledge towards the

environmental concerns like- pollution, conservation, recycling, protection, along with higher and qualitative qualifications and trainings were seen having more positive attitude towards their active responsibility in delivering the environmental content by adopting possible strategies and models for making the connections and satisfying the cognitive and affective domains of environmental education thus successfully strengthening their learners in psychomotor domain.

Thus it confirms that the level of environmental understanding among children is high when teachers realize their conscious role-playing towards the importance of environmental awareness. If the teachers themselves are highly active in getting aware towards such issues, only then, they will be able to kindle the flame among their students. So it becomes important to have a planned environmental educational curriculum and training both pre-service and in-service, for teacher educators for educational levels, as it is a chain reaction spinning and working in the whole educational system within a country.



For Correspondence: Susana Methodist Girls’ B.Ed College, Roorkee E-mail: [email protected]

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The mammoth task of realizing the importance of environmental awareness among teachers to harness the nation’s human resource potential in conserving the environment, is important to have a balanced relationship between the environmental education and other educational disciplinary subjects thus eliminating the environmental stagnation.

Keywords: Environment | teachers’ attitude | environmental education

Introduction

The biggest impact of the scientific and industrial revolution in recent past year can be seen in the rise of new factors disturbing the balanced relation between man and its environment in an alarming rate. The need for environmental awareness is thus necessary to be recognized by all, as there is less knowledge or action provided for the same.

Environmental education refers to a systematic and organized plan, designed to teach about the interaction between the human and its environment, to live a sustainable and balanced life. In broad terms, it include, the teaching-learning process carried out within a system in co-ordination with other subject disciplines. It includes an effort to educate a diversified class of learners, ranging from students to general public and other audience. Environmental education focuses and promotes:

• Knowledge and understanding related to various environmental challenges.

• Awareness programmes-sensitizing the public of all ages.

• Practices to mitigate the environmental problems by the apt utilization of green economy.

• Building and encouraging the stewardship of environment protection.

Hence, ensuring the health: - physical, mental and social, of a Nation. This catalyzes the environmental awareness programmes by addressing its issues and associated challenges by expertise. The role of expertise, here, is generally played by teachers.

Famous entrepreneur, Bill Gates, quoted, “technology is just a tool. In terms of getting kids working together and motivating them, the teacher is the most important.”So, until a teacher is not self motivated and concerned towards the need of environmental awareness, it is impossible to get its class work done in same direction.

The reviews of literatures on environmental awareness and its education also highlighted directly and in-directly then role playing of teachers in promoting awareness. Awareness regarding the need to protect the environment cannot be implemented after a person reaches adulthood; it has to start at the very basic level through an educational process in school (Gopinath, 2014). Thus, the subject about a teacher’s attitude towards environmental awareness becomes important to promote environmental education at all educational levels-primary, secondary, senior secondary. The teachers’ environmental education awareness and attitude in accordance with the variables sex, school board and teachers’ qualification showed differences. The female teachers of CBSE Boards who have higher qualification are

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more aware and held positive attitude towards both the environment and environmental education (Kumari, Gangwar, Jaspal Singh, A.P. Singh, 2012) . a well trained teacher can effectively apply the acquired philosophy into practice, by developing strategies for both general and environmental education goals and will successfully be able to bring the contents in the “cognitive”, “affective” as well as “psychomotive” domain of learning in students (Sahay, Singh, IGNOU). Awareness creation is a key measure to address the impact of climate change. In the educational sector, teacher can play an important role in educating the students about climate change, related issues and solutions. This is possible only when teachers themselves have the necessary level of awareness. This therefore necessitates the need for introducing climate change programme into education reforms (Ekpoh, Uduak, Imo, Jackson).

Thus the above mentioned report findings suggest that the level of environmental understanding among children is high when teachers realize their conscious role-playing towards the importance of environmental awareness. If the teachers themselves are highly active in getting aware towards such issues, only then, they will be able to kindle the flame among their students. So it becomes important to have a planned environmental educational curriculum and training both pre-service and in-service, for teacher educators for educational levels, as it is a chain reaction spinning and working in the whole educational system within a country.

Conclusion

For a successful green movement, the planning and execution of the awareness programmes in the education sector of a country is important. Teachers who are the key elements of this socialization as the practitioners of the education in schools are of great importance, because the teachers, performing the educational goals of schools, play an important role in shaping the future of the society (Berns, 2009:233). So if the teachers themselves are motivated and aware towards the various environmental challenges, then only they can positively raise and transfer the knowledge to the society.

As we enter a new millennium, equipped with all kinds of scientific and digitized system it becomes, important to create the surge of interest, enthusiasm and activities to awake and make them vigilant towards its environment. Thus, helping its nation to overcome and grow- social, economic and culturally.

References

Ballantyne, R.; Fien, J.; Packer, J. (n.d.). School Environmental Education Programme Impacts upon Student and Family Learning: A Case Study Analysis.

Berns, R. M. (2009): Child, Family, School, Community, Socialization and Support. Belmont, USA: Cengage Learning.

Gopinath, G. (2014): A Study on The Environmental Awareness Among Secondary School Students In a District of Kerala State. International Journal of Educational and Psychological Research. Volume 3( 2), 54-57.

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Karatas, Abdullah (2013): The Role of Faculties of Education in Increasing Sustainable Environmental Awareness of Society. European Journal of Sustainable Development (2013), 2, 4, 233-242.

Kumari, S.; Gangwar, R.K.; Singh, J. and Singh, A.P. (2012): Assessment of Environmental Awareness and Attitude among the School Teachers in Bareilly City. International Journal of Innovative Research and Development. Volume 1, (8), 486-492.

Mishra, S.S. and Samanta, T.K. (2014): A Comparative Study of Environmental Knowledge and Awareness Among the Boy and Girl Student s of Different Classes of Three Schools of Burdwan Town, West Bengal, India. Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed journal of Dialogues on Education. Vol.3, (1), 5-18.

Sahay, M. and Singh, D. P (n.d.). Assessment of Environmental Awareness, Knowledge and Skills of B.Ed Teacher

Students of the ODL System: A Case Study of IGNOU Regional Centre, Patna.

Sengupta, S.; Das, J. and Maji, P.K. (2010): Environmental Awareness related Behaviour of twelfth Grade Students in Kolkata: Effects of Streams and Gender. Retrieved from Anwesa, Volume 5: 1-8.

Sharma, N.K. (n.d.). A study of Environmental Awareness of College Students In Relation to Sex, Rural-Urban Background and Academic Streams Wise. The Online Journal of New Horizons in Education. Volume 4, (2), 15-20. Retrieved from www.tojned.net.

Singh, A.; Kumari, S. and Singh, J. (2014): A Comparative Study of Environmental Awareness among Secondary School Teachers in Bareilly District U.P., India. Universal Journal of Environmental Research and Technology, 4 (1): 60-64.

http://www.tojned.net/�

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Removal of methyl orange dye from textile effluent using adsorption on chitosan hydrogel beads

Agarwal, Anuja and Vaishali


Pollution is a worldwide problem that has led to a corresponding interest in pollution control. With the positive influence, dyes are widely used in many fields such as textiles, paper, plastic, food, painting, and medicine. Most synthetic dyes are toxic and can bring serious problem of water pollution. The removal of such type of dye-stuffs from effluent is necessary as such effluents cause abnormal coloration to the surface water and block photosynthetic bacteria and aquatic plants from sunlight. Methyl orange (MO) is an azo dye having high solubility in aqueous solution and is mutagenic, human carcinogen. MO mainly occurs in the effluents discharge from textiles, paper, printing, leather industries etc. Adsorption has been recognized as the most popular treatment process for the removal of dyes from an aqueous solution due to its simplicity, high efficiency, easy recovery and the reusability of the adsorbent. In recent years, low-cost absorbents for waste water treatment have attracted a lot of attention.

Chitosan (CS), the deacetylated product of chitin, exhibits a high adsorption capacity towards many classes of dye. CS based hydrogel beads have shown the highest adsorption capacity for numerous dyes. We attempted to prepare chitosan hydrogel beads crosslinked with glutaraldehyde as an adsorbent to remove MO from waste water effluents.

A Batch adsorption study was conducted as a function of contact time. Dye concentration was determined by spectrophotometric titration at λmax 375 nm. The equilibrium adsorption capacity was reached with in 24 hrs and the maximum adsorption capacity was around 155 mg/g at 30o

C. The data was treated for pseudo first order, pseudo second order and also for intra particle diffusion equation to study kinetic parameters.

Color removal efficiency were calculated as function of pH, temperature and initial concentration of MO dye solutions. The CRE decrease with increasing pH while increase with increasing temperature and initial concentration. The results show that CS is an effective adsorbent for MO dye from waste water effluents.



For Correspondence: Department of Chemistry, J.V. Jain College, Saharanpur, India Email: [email protected]


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Introduction

Pollution is worldwide problem that has created interest in pollution control. On the positive side, dyes can give beautiful color to various products, and therefore they are widely used in many fields such as textiles, paper, plastic, food, painting, and medicine (Altinisik et al., 2010; Safa and Bhatti, 2011). However, the waste water from industries using dye may still contain up to 15 % of the dye (Moussavi and Khosravi, 2011). Most synthetic dyes are toxic and can bring about serious water pollution, destroy community structure of aquatic organisms, and further become a hazard to all mankind. It is reported that around 25 % of diseases facing humans suffering today because of long-term exposure to environmental pollution (Tang et al., 2012; Matta, et al., 2016).

Azo dyes represent about 50 % of all dye varieties and these dyes are of great environmental concern due to their huge applications and recalcitrance. The removal of such type of dye-stuffs from effluent before discharging into neutral water bodies is extremely important from an environmental point of view. Such effluents cause abnormal coloration to the surface water and block photosynthetic bacteria and aquatic plants from sunlight (Cheung et al., 2009).

Methyl orange (MO) (Sodium 4-[(4-dimethyl amino) phenyl di azienyl] benzene sulphonate) is an azo dye and it was selected in this study as a model anionic dye because of mutagenic in nature, highly soluble in aqueous solution and its persistence, once it is discharge into natural environment. MO

mainly occurs in the effluents discharge from textiles, paper, printing, leather industries etc. (Han et al., 2008) and during dyeing operation about 10 % of MO ends up in waste waters. There are many processes to remove MO molecules from colored effluents and the treatment methods can be divided into three catagories: (1) physical methods such as adsorption ( Namasivayam and Kavitha, 2002; Chatterjee et al., 2009b ): (2) chemical methods such as ozonation (Gharbani et al., 2008; Khadhraoui et al., 2009), photo degradation and electrochemical process (Elahmadi et al., 2009); and (3) biodegradation (Gopinath et al., 2009; Matta and Gjyli, 2016).

Adsorption has been found to be a more feasible process for pollutants removal from industrial effluents in comparison to other existing methods (Jain and Sikarwar, 2008). The reason is, the most of those processes involve high costs and low efficiency. Nowadays, adsorption has been recognized as the most popular treatment process for the removal of dyes from an aqueous solution due to its simplicity, high efficiency, easy recovery and the reusability of the adsorbent (Garg et al., 2003; Aksu, 2005; Matta, et al., 2016). Activated carbon is the most popular adsorbent due to its excellent performances in adsorption (Baccar et al., 2009). However, its high cost and difficulty in regeneration limits its applicability (Mahmoodi et al., 2011). In recent years, low-cost absorbents for waste water treatment have attracted a lot of attention. Agricultural wastes (Bhattacharyya and Sharma 2005; Vadivelan and Kumar 2005) and industrial by-products (Batzias and Sidiras 2007; Hamdaoui 2006; Jain and Jayaram 2010; Kumar and


75

Sivanesan 2007), activated carbon prepared from coir pith, clay minerals (Gurses et al., 2004), rice husk, leaf powder (Bhattacharyya and Sharma 2004), fly ash (Acemigolu, 2004), bacterial bio sorbents and fungus (Fu and Viraraghavan, 2002) have been studied in detail for the removal of dyes in aqueous media. However, low adsorption capacities of these adsorbents towards dyes limit their applications in practical field.

Chitosan (CS), the deacetylated product of chitin, exhibits a high adsorption capacity towards many classes of dye due to its multiple functional groups, biocompatibility and biodegradability. CS-based adsorbents are versatile materials in view of their use in different forms; from flake or powder to hydrogel bead types. Recent review papers reported that CS-based adsorbents that are usually used in the form of hydrogel beads have shown the highest adsorption capacity for numerous dyes (Crini and Badot, 2008). However, low mechanical strength of CS hydrogel beads limits their commercial application as an adsorbent. Several chemical modification steps, including chemical cross-linking (Chiou et al., 2004), poly amination and carboxy alkyl substitution, have been performed to increase the mechanical strength of CS hydrogel beads.

We attempted to prepare chitosan hydrogel beads crosslinked with glutaraldehyde as an adsorbent to remove MO from waste water effluents.

Materials and Method

Materials

Chitosan, a natural polymer of animal origin was purchased by India Sea Food, Kerala, and was used as received. Its percentage of

deacetylation after drying was 89%. Glutaraldehyde was procured from Loba Chemie Pvt. Ltd, India and used as a crosslinking agent between chitosan chain units of polymer. Methyl orange was obtained from Merck, India. All other chemicals like acetic acid, methanol, NaOH, HCl, KCl, KH2PO4 etc. were used of analytical grade. Double distilled water was used throughout the studies.

Methods

Preparation of chitosan beads

Chitosan (1.0 g) was dissolved in 40 ml of 2% acetic acid under stirring condition for 3h at room temperature. The homogeneous mixture was extruded in the form of droplets using a syringe into NaOH-methanol solution (1:20 (w/w)) under stirring condition at 400 rpm. The resultant beads were then placed in a water jacket containing glutaraldehyde maintained at 50oC for about 10 minutes. Finally the beads were washed with hot and cold water successively and then vacuum dried.

Color removal efficiency (CRE) & Adsorption studies

10 ml dye solution of known concentration with 0.2 g of beads was taken in conical flask at desired temperature and pH. It was shaken for 10 min and then kept for 24 h and lastly the remaining concentration of dye was estimated spectrophotometrically at λmax (375 nm) of MO dye. The CRE (%) for CS beads was calculated by given formula-

CRE (%) = (1 – Ac/Ai) X 100

Where, Ai and Ac are the absorbance of the dye solution before and after the adsorption process.


76

A Batch adsorption study was conducted as a function of contact time. The equilibrium adsorption capacity was reached with in 24 h. Adsorption is calculated by given formula-

qe =(𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶) × 𝑉𝑉/𝑊𝑊

Where, qe is the adsorption of dye per gram dry weight of the adsorbent in mg/g, Co is the initial concentration of MO in the solution in mg/l, Ceq

Figure 1: Adsorption of MO dye onto CS hydrogel beads

as a function of contact time at initial concentration of 5000 mg/l.

is the equilibrium concentration of MO in the solution in mg/l, V is the volume of the solution in ml and W is the dry weight of the hydrogel beads in g.


The CS hydrogel beads cross-linked with glutaraldehyde was used for the study of the influence of contact time for adsorbing MO. The effect of the contact time on the adsorption capacity of CS hydrogel beads for MO is shown in Figure 1. The contact time varied in the range 0 – 24 h, and the initial concentration of dyes was fixed at 5000 mg/l. As Figure 1 shows, the time required to achieve the equilibrium at temperature 30 ̊C was about 24 hrs.

The kinetics of dye adsorption on the CS hydrogel beads was determined with three

different kinetic models, i.e., the pseudo-first order, pseudo-second order and the intra-particle diffusion model.

The pseudo-first order equation of Lagergren is one of the most widely used equation, being the first rate equation developed for sorption in solid/liquid systems.

log (qe - qt) = log qe - 𝐾𝐾12.303

t

Where, qe and qt are the amounts of dyes adsorbed at equilibrium and at time t, k1 is the rate constant of the pseudo-first order kinetics. The slopes and intercepts of the plots log (qe − qt) versus t (Figure 2) were used to determine the pseudo-first order rate constant, k1

Figure 2. Pseudo-first order model fitted for the

adsorption of MO on the CS hydrogel beads.

The adsorption data were also treated according to the pseudo-second order kinetics using t, which is proposed by Ho and McKay

𝑡𝑡𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡

= 1𝐾𝐾2𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2

+ 1𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

t

Where, k

, and qe, the values obtained being presented in Table 1.

2 is the rate constant of the pseudo-second order kinetics. The values of k2 and qe were obtained from the intercept and slope of the straight lines resulted by plotting t/qt against t (Figure 3).

020406080

100120140160180

0 10 20 30

Adso

rptio

n (m

g/g

of b

eads

)

Time (h)

y = -0.071x + 2.131R² = 0.977

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

0 10 20 30

log

(qe-

qt)

Time (h)


77

Figure 3. Pseudo-second order model fitted for the

adsorption of MO on the CS hydrogel beads.

In order to assess the nature of the diffusion process reasonable for the adsorption of dyes onto the CS hydrogel beads, attempts were made to calculate the pore diffusion coefficients. The intra-particle diffusion model was proposed by Weber and Morris. The initial rate of intra-particle diffusion is calculated by linearization of the curve.

q = f(t0.5

Figure 4. Weber and Morris intra-particle diffusion

model fitted for the adsorption of MO on CS hydrogel beads.

)

qt = 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡0.5

Generally, the intercept of the plot of qt versus t0.5

Kinetic model

gives an idea about the boundary layer thickness, the larger the value of the intercept, the greater the boundary layer diffusion effect is. The values of intra-particle diffusion rate constant are presented in Table-1.

Parameter value

Pseudo-first-order equation

qe(cal) (mg g-1 K) 1(h-1 R) 2

126.18 16.35 x 10 0.977 -2

Pseudo-second-order equation

qe(cal) (mg g-1 K) 2(g mg-1h-1 R) 2

200.0 1.19 x 10 0.997 -3

Intra-particle diffusion

Kp(g mg-1min-1 ) R2

37.78 0.799

Table 1: Constants of different rate models for CS beads at the initial concentration of 5000 mg/l

If the regression of qt versus t0.5

is linear and passes through the origin, then the intra-particle diffusion is the sole rate-limiting step. The deviation of the straight line from the origin indicates that this process is not the rate-limiting step.

The effect of temperature, initial concentration and pH on the adsorption of MO onto CS hydrogel beads.

It is evident from table 2 that % CRE decreases with increasing pH of the dye solution. The % CRE increased with increasing initial concentration of methyl orange dye. Color removal of dyes occurred due to the adsorption of dye molecules onto chitosan beads hence adsorption of dye on chitosan beads increased with increase of initial concentration of dye and temperature while decreased with increase of pH.

y = 0.005x + 0.021R² = 0.997

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0 10 20 30Time (h)

t/qt

Initial conc. Of dye MO (x 10-4

% CRE (pH 5.0) M)

% CRE (pH 7.0)

30o 40C o 30C o 40C oC

3.59 59.2 80.7 50.8 74.8 1.795 29.6 51.8 23.8 42.5 Table 2: Illustrates the effect of temperature, pH

and conc. on the removal of CR chitosan hydrogel beads

y = 37.78xR² = 0.799

0

50

100

150

200

0 1 2 3 4 5

qt

t0.05


78

Conclusion

In this study, the capacity of CS hydrogel beads to adsorb MO from aqueous solutions was examined. Kinetic data were successfully fitted by the pseudo-second order equation, which gave the best correlation with experimental data, for the studied systems. The increase of temperature and initial dye concentration led to the increase of the CRE for dye while increasing pH decreases the CRE of dye.

References

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Batzias, F. A. and Sidiras, D. K. (2007): “Simulation of dye adsorption by beech sawdust as affected by pH,” Journal of Hazardous Materials 141, 668-679.

Bayramoglu G.; Altintas B. and Arica M. Y. (2009): Chem. Eng. J. 159, 339-346.

Bhattacharyya, G. K. and Sharma, A. (2004): “Azadirachta indica leaf powder as an effective biosorbent for dyes: a case study with aqueous congo red solutions. J. Environ. Manage. 71, 217-229.

Bhattacharyya, G. K. and Sharma, A. (2005): “Kinetics and thermodynamics of methylene blue adsorption on neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf powder,” Dyes and Pigments. 65, 51-59.

Chatterjee, S.; Lee, D. S.; Lee, M. W.; Woo, S. H. (2009b): “enhanced adsorption of congo red from aqueous solutions by chitosan hydrogel beads impregnated with cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide.” Bioresource Technol. 100, 2803-2809.

Cheung, W. H.; Szeto, Y. S. and Mckay, G. (2009): “Enhancing the adsorption capacities of acid dyes by chitosan nano particles,” Bioresource Technol. 100. 1143-1148.

Chiou, M. S.; Ho, P. Y. and Li, H. Y. (2004): “Adsorption of anionic dyes in acid solutions using chemically cross-linkedchitosan beads. Dyes Pigments 60, 69-84.

Crini, G. and Badot, P. M. (2008): “Application of chitosan, a natural aminopolysaccharide, for dye removal from aqueous solutions by


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Elhmadi, M. F.; Bensalah, N. and Gadri. A. (2009): “Treatment of aqueous westws contaminated with congo red dyes by electrochemical oxidationand ozonation processes.” J. Hazard. Mater. 168, 1163-1169.

Fu, Y. and Viraghavan, T. (2002): “Removal of congo red from an aqueous solution by fungus Aspergillus niger”. Adv. Environ. Res. 7, 239-247.

Garg, V. K. and Gupta, R. (2003): “Dye removal from aqueous solution by adsorption on treated sawdust, Bioresource Technol. 89, 121-124.

Gharbani, P.; Tabatabaii, S, M. and Mehrizad, A. (2008): “Removal of congo red from textile wastewater by ozonation.” Int. J. Environmental Science Technology 5, 495-500.

Gopinath, K. P.; Murugesan, S.; Abraham, J. and Muthukumar, K. (2009): “Bacillus sp. Mutant for improved biodegradation of congo red: random mutagenesis approach.” Bioresource Technol. 100, 6295-6300.

Gurses, A.; Karaca, S.; Dogar, C.; Bayark, R.; Acikyildiz, M. and Yalcin, M. (2004): “Determination of adsorptive properties of clay/water systems: methylene blue sorption. J. Colloid Intref. Sci. 269, 310-314.

Hamdaoui, O. (2006): “Batch study of liquid phase adsorption of methylene blue using cedar sawdust

Han. R.; Ding, D.; Xu, Y.; Zou, W.; Wang, Y.; LI, Y. and Zou, L. (2008): “Use of rice husk for adsorption of congo red from aqueous solution in column mode,” Bioresource Technol. 99, 2938- 2946.

Ho., Y. S. and Mckay (2006): “Review of second order models for adsorption systems.” J. Hazard. Mater 136, 681-689.

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Matta, Gagan and Gjyli, Laura (2016): Mercury, lead and arsenic: impact on environment and human health India. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 9 (2). 718 - 725.

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Chandorkar et al./Vol. VII [2] 2016/81 - 85

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Role of certain Biochemicals In Maintanance of osmotic balance in Philosamia Ricini during starvation

Chandorkar, Shuchita; Shouche, Shobha2and Pathak, J.P.N.2

Abstract

The impact of starvation was observed in fifth instar larvae of Philosamia ricini. Larvae were kept starved for three days under normal temperature and humidity. The haemolymph was taken for the analysis of carbohydrates, proteins and free amino acids. These biomolecules showed a significant decrease in concentration with respect to the control.

Keywords: Haemolymph | Starvation | Larvae | Biomolecules

Received: August 08, 2016 Accepted: October 10, 2016 Online: December 31, 2016

Introduction

Insect haemolymph contains a number of solutes, which maintain osmotic balance. Among them organic molecules are very important because they are related to physiology of insect. It is evident that amino acids and protein play an important role to maintain the internal environment of haemolymph in different stages of insect life. They largely affect various metabolic pathways as well as physiological conditions of insect (Edwards,1982). Chen (1962) described the presence of various amino acids in seven different orders of insects. Wyatt et al.. (1955) studied the concentration of sugar, proteins and free amino acids in the silk worm Bombyx mori and other species of insect. Treherne (1958) investigated the absorption and metabolism of some sugars in the locust, Schistocerca gregaria. Cohen et al. (1982) determined the role of free amino acids during dehydration and rehydration of insect which loses water even in mildly stressful conditions. Various forms of stress such as dietary inadequacy (Collet, 1976) starvation (Lim and Lee, 1981) have been shown to influence haemolymph contents. Free amino acid concentration was measured in the haemolymph samples of third instar



For Correspondence: 1Future vision, college Ujjain (M.P.) 2Govt. MVM Ujjain, (M.P.) Email: [email protected]; [email protected]


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larvae of blow fly, Calliphora vicina, at various stages prior to the pupation by Evans and Crossley, (1974). In 1991, Ali et al.. investigated the biochemical composition including the amino acids, carbohydrates and lipids in a lepidorteran insect Schoenobius inotata. They reported the presence of 17 amino acids along with their concentrations in the insect. In this study, we have attempted to determine impact of starvation on the haemolymph composition of Philosamia ricini.

Material and Methods

Control

The worms of Philosamia ricini, were reared under normal conditions i. e. at 29⁰C ±2⁰C, R.H. 90%±5% (Pant and Agarwal, 1965). The larvae of Philosamia ricini are voracious feeder, specially fifth instar larvae, and were provided full diet as per recommendation of Sericulture Department.

Thermal stresses

Fifth instar larvae were kept at 36ºC±2ºC, and relative humidity was 90%±5% for three days. Haemolymph was withdrawn on the fifth day for analysis (i.e. they were exposed to high temperature stress for three days). Worms for low temperature stress, were kept at 10ºC±2ºC, R.H. 90%±5%, for three days. Thus in both cases, haemolymph was withdrawn on the fifth day for analysis.

Estimation of total carbohydrates

The estimation of carbohydrates was performed by the method of Dubois et al. (1956).

Estimation of total Proteins

The total proteins were estimated by the method of Lowry et al. (1951).

Estimation of total free amino acids

The free amino acids were analyzed by colorimetric method (Lee and Takahashi; 1966).

Observation and Results

The worms which were kept without food for three days, showed a drastic decrease in the concentration of carbohydrates. They showed a decrease in the concentration of proteins as well as free amino acids significantly.

Carbohydrates Proteins Amino acids

control 10.6±1.1 23.33±1.1 10.54±0.67

starved 3.8±0.06 16.8±0.83 6.9±0.79

Graph & Table 1: Concentration of carbohydrates, proteins and amino acids (mg/ml) in the fifth instar larvae of Philosamia ricini during starvation

Discussion

According to Satake et al. (2000) Trehalose concentration in the hemolymph increased slightly during the first 6 h of starvation and decreased thereafter, whereas glucose concentration decreased rapidly immediately after diet deprivation. Starvation-induced hypertrehalosemia was completely inhibited by neck ligation, suggesting that starvation stimulates the release of a hypertrehalosemic factor(s) from the head. The percentage of active glycogen phosphorylase in the fat body increased within 3 h of starvation and

05

10152025

control

starved


83

its glycogen content decreased gradually. These observations suggest that production of trehalose from glycogen is enhanced in starved larvae. However, hypertrehalosemia during starvation cannot be explained by the increased supply of trehalose into hemolymph alone, as similar changes in phosphorylase activity and glycogen content in the fat body were observed in neck-ligated larvae, in which hemolymph trehalose concentration did not increase but decreased gradually.

Waytt et al.. (1955) studied the concentration of sugar, proteins and free amino acids in the silk worm Bombyx mori and other species of insects. They examined haemolymph from a series of developmental stages of silk worm. They concluded that there is gradual rise in protein level during development of Bombyx mori form about 1.2% in fourth instar to a maximum of over 5% at the time of spinning. The free amino acids composition of haemolymph of Bombyx mori and two other species of insets, Galleria and Diprion differ strikingly in proportions. Treherne (1958) investigated the absorption and metabolism of some sugars in the locust, Schistocerca gregaria. He reported that the absorption of labeled glucose from the mid gut of the insect has been related to the rate of its conversion to trehalose, which is accumulated in the haemolymph.

During the investigations of the composition of haemolymph of Australian black tipped locust, Chortoicetes terminifera, it was found that the concentration of free amino acids varied individually and collectively in locust fed on different diets (Djajakusumah and Milles (1966). They found that the dehydration of insects show a loss in the

volume of haemolymph, but little change in osmotic pressure. When dehydrated insects imbibe distilled water in the absence of food, the volume of haemolymph also increases. The decrease in volume of haemolymph was with a loss of amino acids and gain of soluble proteins and the increase in volume is associated with the loss of soluble proteins and gain of amino acids. This result is consistent with the suggestions that free amino acids in the haemolymph of insects are involved in the osmoregulation (Beadle and Shaw 1950; Schoffeniels 1960).

In 1982, Edwards, showed that the organic molecules play an important role in osmoregulation. He reported that the changes in the inorganic ion composition of haemolymph from fourth instar larvae of Aedes aegypti was correlated with the changes in the concentration of organic ions. Among organic molecules, free amino acids have a significant role in regulating haemolymph osmotic pressure with respect to the osmotic pressure of water in which the insect lives. The effect of water stress and rehydration on the haemolymph volume and amino acid concentration in Cysteodemus armatus was studied by Cohen et al. (1982) determined the role of free amino acids during dehydration and rehydration of insect which loses water even in mildly stressful conditions. When insect was rehydrated, then the amino acid concentration decreased significantly but during dehydration the concentration increased from that of control value.

In 2007, Nakamura et al. reported the haemolymph patterns of amino acids after three days of starvation in different salinities inbrine shrimp Artemia franciscana. They


84

found that in the haemolymph eight amino acids such as taurine, alanine, threonine, lysine, glycine, arginine and leucine comprised 70% of total free amino acids, due to internal proteolysis during the starvation. Cohen and Patana (1982) reported that in the fourth instar larvae of Spodoptera exigua, during starvation for 10 hrs, amino acid concentration decreased significantly in the haemolymph but concentration of proteins increased.

In Philosamia ricini, the concentration of carbohydrates, proteins and amino acid decreased significantly which may be due to starvation cause dehydration so solutes were removed from haemolymph.

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Lim, S. J. and Lee, S. S. (1981): The effect of starvation on haemolymph metabolites, fat body and ovarian development in Oxya japonica (Acididae: Orthoptera) J. Insect Physiol. 27, 93-96.

Lowry, O. H.; Rosenberg, N.J.; Favor A.I. and Remdall, R. J. (1951): Protein measurement with the Folin phenol reagent. J Biol. Chem. 193: 265-275.

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Treherne, J. E. (1958): The absorption and metabolism of some sugars in the locust, Schistocreca gregaria. J. Exp. Biol. 35, 611-625.

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Verma & Singh/Vol. VII [2] 2016/86 - 93

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Human Hair: A Competent Biological Composite Fiber – A Review

Verma, Akarsh and Singh, Vinay

Received: June 08, 2016 Accepted: September 11, 2016 Online: December 31, 2016 Abstract

Biological fibers have recently become eye-catching to researchers, engineers and scientists as an alternative reinforcement for FRP (fiber reinforced polymer) composites, due to their low cost, fairly good mechanical properties and high aspect strength. One of the immaculate biological fibers is the human hair. On the whole, three to four tons of human hair fibers are wasted in India annually; hence they pose an environmental challenge. In order to find commercial application the wasted human hair fiber is nowadays finding its use in the field of material science. Human hair is basically a nano-composite biological fiber with well characterized microstructures. Different techniques and technologies have been employed to study the different characteristics of the human hair to prove it a biological composite fiber. The main component of hair is keratin which is tough, insoluble and incredibly strong. An important aspect is that a single strand of hair can withstand the load of 100-150 grams. Hair is

elastic and it is capable of regaining its original position on removal of the deformation load. Therefore, the present review paper reports the current scenario of human hair as biological composite fiber and its application in various fields.

Keywords: human hair | composite | mechanical properties | fiber

Introduction

Biological fibers have been already used some 3000 years ago in composite systems in the ancient Egypt, where straw and clay were mixed together to build the walls. In the last few years, biological fibers have become an attractive reinforcement for polymeric composites from economical and ecological point of view. There is an increase in the environmental awareness in the world which has aroused an interest in the research and the development of biodegradable materials. Biological/Natural fibers can be obtained from natural resources such as plants, animals or minerals.

With the increase of global energy crisis and ecology risk, the unique advantages of biological fibers such as its abundance quantity, non-toxic, non-irritation of the skin, eyes, or respiratory system, non-corrosive



For Correspondence: G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, India Email: [email protected]


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property, biological fiber reinforced polymer composites have attracted much interest owing to their potential of serving as alternatives reinforcement to the synthetic ones. The lower weight and higher volume of the biological fibers as compared to the synthetic fibers improve the fuel efficiency and reduced emission in auto applications.

Fig. 1: Classification of natural fibers

Hair is a protein filament that grows from follicles found in the dermis or skin. It is one of the defining characteristics of mammals. The human body, apart from areas of glabrous skin, is covered in follicles which produce thick terminal and fine vellus hair. Most common interest in hair is focused on hair growth, hair types and hair care, but hair is also an important biomaterial primarily composed of protein, notably keratin. Keratins are proteins, long chains (polymers) of amino acids. In terms of raw elements, on an average, hair is composed of 50.65% carbon, 20.85% oxygen, 17.14% nitrogen, 6.36% hydrogen, and 5.0% sulphur. Amino acid present in hair contain cytosine, serine, glutamine, threonine, glycine, leucine, valine and arginine.

The word “hair” usually refers to two distinct structures:

• the part beneath the skin called the hair follicle or when pulled from the skin, called the bulb. This organ is located in the dermis and maintains stem cells, which not only re-grow the hair after it falls out, but also are recruited to regrow skin after a wound.

• the shaft, which is the hard filamentous part that extends above the skin surface.

The cross section of human hair shaft may be divided roughly into three zones:

• the cuticle, which consists of several layers of flat, thin cells laid out overlapping one another as roof shingles.

• the cortex, which contains the keratin bundles in cell structures that remain roughly rod like.

• the medulla, a disorganized and open area at the fiber’s center.

Fig. 2: Schematic of human hair structure (a) and

cross-section (b)

• Mechanical properties of human hair fiber

Some researchers investigated the effects of human hair additives in compressive strength of asphalt cement mixture and concluded that


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addition of hair to the asphalt cement mixture greatly improves its capability to bear more loads applied to it. Scientists studied the mechanical behaviour of polypropylene matrix and human hair fiber and founded that composite with 3-5 wt. % of human hair fiber shows higher flexural strength, flexural modulus and Izod impact strength than non-reinforced polymer but at 10-15 wt. % it lowers the flexural strength, flexural modulus and Izod impact strength as compared to the non-reinforced polymer. Researchers examined the mechanical properties and structure of alpha-keratin fibers such as wool, human hair and related fibers and concluded that the human hair possesses the highest tensile strength amongst the compared fibers. He further unlocked the exceptional properties of human hair such as its unique chemical composition, slow degradation rate, high tensile strength, thermal insulation, elastic recovery, scaly surface, and unique interactions with water and oils that has led to many diverse uses of the corresponding fiber.

• Chemical experimentations on human hair fiber

Hair is a proteinaceous fiber with a strongly hierarchical organization of subunits, from the α-keratin chains, via intermediate filaments to the fiber. Hair contains a high amount of sulphur because α-amino acid cysteine (HO2CCH(NH2)CH2

Scientists founded an innovative chemical technique of improving the soil fertility by using human hair fibers. Some described the hair as a protein filament that grows from follicles found in the dermis, or skin. Most

SH) is a key component of the keratin proteins in hair fiber. He focussed on the comparative study of chemical composition of the human hair on different races of different continents. Scientists studied on protein based composite biomaterials which can be formed into a wide range of biomaterials with tunable properties,

including control of cell responses. They provided new biomaterials which is an important need in the field of biomedical science, with direct relevance to tissue regeneration, nano-medicine and disease treatments. Studies identified and characterized the processes leading to destruction of cysteine residues. They compared proteins from different species, including those of thermophilic bacteria living near the boiling point of water.

Studies on keratin which is a fiber, found in hair and feathers. Keratin fiber has a hierarchical structure with a highly ordered conformation, is by itself a bio-composite, product of a large evolution of animal species. Through their research it was concluded that the keratin fibers from chicken feathers shows an eco-friendly material which can be applied in the development of green composites. Some previously developed a matrix solid phase dispersion (MSPD) method and it proved to offer quantitative results when isolating cocaine, benzoylecgonine (BZE), codeine, morphine and 6-monoacethylmorphine (6-MAM) from human hair samples which further determined the chemical composition of human hair. Overall they scrutinized the dynamical, mechanical and chemical analysis of polymeric composites reinforced with keratin biological fiber from human hair composites and founded the capability of human hair as a proficient fiber in the industry.


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common interest in hair is focused on hair growth, hair types and hair care, but hair is also an important biomaterial primarily composed of protein, notably keratin.

• Finite element investigations of human hair fiber

Jager et al. (2007) using the mathematical concepts carried out the terminal differentiation of hair matrix keratinocytes and tried to optimise the percentage of human hair fiber in different matrixes. With further advancement in technology, Matthew et al. (2000) executed the finite element modelling of composite materials and structures using the ANSYS and ABAQUS modules. Soden et al. (1996) achieved the success in performing the experiments related to lamina properties, lay-up configurations and loading conditions for a range of fiber reinforced composite laminates. Mangalgiri (1999) studied the composite materials for aerospace applications using the human hair as the fiber. They altogether concluded that if the composition of the laminate structure is known enough, the FEA (Finite Element Analysis) look like well suited for predicting the mechanical response of composite structure. However, if the composition of laminate structure is unsure, the difference between simulation and experimental results can logically be even 100% and it is supported by the results obtained from their investigation.

• Thermal analysis of human hair fiber

Ref (Chai et al., 2012) are over and done with the thermal properties of human hair and tried to wind up the flammability of bio-derived composite materials with human hair

as the fiber. Adding to the thermal analysis, Chapple and Anandjiwala (2010)reviewed the flammability of natural fiber-reinforced composites and strategies for fire retardancy. Kozlowskiy and Wladyka (2008) endeavoured to cram the flammability and fire resistance of composites reinforced by natural fibers such as the human hair. Ref Manfredi et al. (2006) had design a methodology to study the thermal degradation and fire resistance of unsaturated polyester modified acrylic resins and their composites with human hair fibers. They all carried out their inspections by using the Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) tests.

• Intervention of nanotechnology and other techniques to study the human hair as a biological fiber

Most recently, Ray and Okamoto (2013) investigated on the human hair using the nano-indentation technique and concluded that the hardness and elastic modulus of hair decreased as the indentation depth increased. They also found out that the mechanical properties of hair surface decreased from root to tip. Also, Ref Scientist reviewed the cross section and elasticity of human hair fiber and keratin using Atomic Force Model (AFM) and pointed out that although it is possible to extract nano-mechanical information like elastic modulus or elasticity from AFM but it is very difficult to measure hardness using an AFM. They also studied the nano-mechanical properties of hair as a function of hair composition, microstructure, ethnicity, damage and treatment and presented the systematic study of nano-mechanical properties of human hair including hardness,


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elastic modulus and creep, using the nano-indentation technique.

Meredith (2008) had a trial with the morphology of fibers including the human hair fiber. He saw it with the help of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and tried to give the surface properties of human hair. Adding to it, Poslusznya et al. (2013)studied the chromatography of the human hair fiber.

• Ecological importance of human hair

Human hair is considered as a waste material in most parts of the world and it is found in municipal waste streams which cause numerous ecological issues. Gupta (2009) studied on human hair as a waste and its utilization and concluded that the human hair has a large number of uses in areas ranging from agriculture to medicine to engineering industries. Hybrid composites are materials which are made by combining two or more different types of fibers, fiber-particle or particle-particle in a common matrix. Hybrid composites offer some advantage over the use of one type of fibers or particles alone in a polymer matrix. The natural fibers like human hair, jute, sisal, hemp, banana, etc. And natural particulates like almond, coconut, walnut, wood, etc. Are renewable, economic and can be incinerated for energy recovery. This swot was demonstrated by Morton and Hearle (1993). Further, Babu et al.(2013) studied on the biological based polymers and concluded that it has widely increased the attention due to environmental concerns and the realization that global petroleum resources are finite. Finally, Saxena et al. (2013) and Saheb and Jog (1999) has valued the human hair fiber

potential and forecasted its value ability as the most promising ecological fiber in the near future.

Conclusion

After the elaborate study of the literature presented, various conclusions have been drawn and summarized as: Firstly, it is clear that human hair is the well accepted choice as a composite fiber in the field of advanced engineering materials science. The experimental results discussed in the literature for various fabricating processes show that the effect of adjoining human hair in the matrix is not showing a fixed pattern in different operating conditions. In such cases, more scientific experimental studies are needed for different range of operating parameters. Secondly, considerable experimental studies have been carried out to examine the effect of human hair as a composite fiber in different matrixes. Researchers have well tested the feasibility and applicability of the human hair as a composite fiber in diverse conditions and have found many achievements in their relevant fields. So, finally it can be concluded from the above results that the human hair is applicable for various manufacturing processes and also, more research is needed in the field of weather forecasting of various composites taking the human hair as their chief fiber. Till now, none of the studies have inspected the human hair with various sizes/lengths in different ambient conditions to understand the basic physics of this god gifted composite fiber. So exploration of this area can be used to exploit the human hair as a more competent biological composite fiber in future.


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Khoathane, M. C.; Vosster, O. C. and Sadiku, E. R. (2008): “The Effect of Fiber Loading on the Mechanical and Thermal Characteristics of the Composites,” Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 27: 1533-1544.

Wambua, P.; Ivens, J. and Verpoest, I. (2003): “Natural Fiber can replace glass in fiber reinforced plastic,” Journal of Composite Science and Technology. 63: 259-264.

Popescu, C. and Hocker, H. (2007): “Hair the most sophisticated biological composite material,” Chemical Society Reviews. 37: 1282-1291.

Wei, G.; Bhushan, B. and Torgerson, P. M. (2005): “Nano - mechanical characterization of human hair using Nano-indentation and SEM,” DOI: 10.1016: 248-266.

Ganiron Jr., T. U. (2014): “Effects of Human Hair Additives in Compressive Strength of Asphalt Cement Mixture,” International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology. 67: 11-22.

Choudhry, S. and Pandey, B. (2012): “Mechanical Behaviour of Polypropylene and Human Hair Fibers and Polypropylene Reinforced Polymeric Composites,” International Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering. 2(1): 118-121.

Fueghelman, M. (1997): “Mechanical Properties and Structure of Alpha-Keratin Fibers: Wool, Human Hair and Related Fibers,” University of New South Wales Press, Sydney.

Thompson, R. M. (2010): “Hair based composite,” U.S. Patent No.-US 12/304.

Jain, D. and Kothari, A. (2012): “Hair Fiber Reinforced Concrete,” Research Journal of Recent Sciences. 1: 128-133.

Barone, J. R.; Schmidt, W. F. and Liebner, C. F. E. (2005): “Compounding and moulding of polyethylene composites reinforced with human hair fiber and its vibrational analysis,” Journal of Composite Science and Technology. 65: 683-692.

Barone, J. R. (2005): “Polyethylene/keratin fiber composites with varying polyethylene crystallinity,” Journal of Composites, 36: 1518-1529.

Ahmad, S. (2014): “Preparation of Eco-Friendly Natural Hair Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Composite (FRPC) Material by using Polypropylene and Fly Ash: A Review,” International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 5(11): 969-972.

Belani, D.; Pitroda, J. and Umrigar, F. S. (2013): “Use of Human Hair as Natural Fiber for Fly Ash Bricks”.

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Hu, X.; Cebe, P.; Weiss, A. S.; Omenetto, F. and Kaplan, D.L. (2012): “Protein based composite materials,” Journal of Materials Today, 15: 208-215.

Volkin, D. B., and Klibanov, A. M., “Thermal destruction processes in proteins involving cysteine residues,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 262, 1987, pp. 2945-2950.

Hernandez, A. L. M., and Santos, C. V. (2012): “Keratin Fibers from Chicken Feathers: Structure, Properties and Applications,” Nova Science Publishers, 149-211.

Hernandez, A. L. M.; Santos, C. V.; Victorm, M. D. I. and Castano (2007): ”Dynamical-mechanical and thermal analysis of polymeric composites reinforced with keratin bio fibre obtained from human hair,” Journal of Composite Sciences, 38: 405-410.

Pillai, R. R. and Ramanathan, A. (2009): “An innovative technique of improving the soil using human hair fibers,” Paper 62, ID. No. 106.

Robbins, C. (1994): “Chemical and Physical Behaviour of Human Hair,” Third ed., Springer, New York.

Jager, K.; Fischer, H.; Tschachler, E. and Eckhart, L. (2007): “Terminal differentiation of hair matrix keratinocytes".

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element modelling of composite materials and structures,” CRC Press, Woodhead Publishing Limited.

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Abstract

The present study was carried out for assessment of physico chemical parameters of ground water, Roorkee region, Uttarakhand. This study would provide baseline data for ground water management. For this purpose

Assessment of physico-chemical characteristics of ground water, Roorkee (Uttarakhand), India

Kamboj, Nitin; Rani, Anchal; Bharti, Manisha; Kamboj, Vishal and Sharma, Shalini

Received: June 21, 2016 Accepted: September 19, 2016 Online: December 31, 2016

, three sampling sites viz, Salempur, Ramnagar and Paniyala were selected to analyse various parameters like Temperature, TDS, Conductivity, pH, DO, BOD, Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Chloride, Alkalinity and Free CO2 were analyzed as per the standard methods prescribed by APHA (1995) and Trivedy and Goel (1986). All these twelve parameters were found within the permissible limit. As per study, it was found that the TDS level in water sample were in ranges between 504.1mg/l to 504.9mg/l. The present study concluded that all the twelve parameters were above the desirable limit but within the permissible limit.

Keywords: Ground Water | Uttarakhand | Physico-chemical

Introduction

Ground water is a major source of fresh water and fulfills about 97% of fresh water requirement (Rao and Husain, 2003; Matta, Gagan, 2014b). During the past several decades ground water qualities have emerged as one of the most important and confronting environmental issues. Man made activities, agricultural and industrial use of ground water increased day by day resulting in the shortage of ground water (Sivagurunathan, 2005 and Kesavan and Parameswari, 2005; Matta, Gagan, 2015). Ground water pollution is mainly due to process of industrialization and urbanization that has progressively developed over time without any regard for environmental consequences. Its quality is based on the physical and chemical soluble parameters due to weathering from source rocks and anthropogenic activities. Protection of ground water is a major environmental issue since the importance of water quality and developing strategies to protect aquifers from contamination are necessary for proper



For Correspondence: Department of Zoology and Environmental Science Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India Email: [email protected]


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planning and designing water resources (Bajpayee et al., 2001; Matta, Gagan, 2014a). Groundwater is affected by many factors, such as physico-chemical characteristics of soil, rainfall, soil erosion, weathering of rocks, chemical reactions below land surface, activity of micro-organisms, human and agricultural wastes and effluents pollute the ground water by leaching (Reza and Singh et al., 2009). Ground water protection against contamination by the human activities is one of the most important tasks of environmental awareness on a world wide scale. If the ground water reservoir is left unchecked, the minor contamination can damage the whole reservoir with the passage of time. (Kamboj, 2012; Matta et al., 2015b

The safe portable water is absolutely essential for healthy living. Ground water is ultimate and most suitable fresh water resource of human consumption in both urban as well as rural areas. The importance of ground water for existence of human society cannot be over emphasized. There are several states in India where more than 90% populations are dependent on ground water for drinking and other purposes (Ramchandraiah, 2004; Matta et al., 2015a). In India, there are over 20 million private wells in addition to government tube wells. The wells are generally considered as the worst type of ground water sources in the term of physico-chemical contamination due to lack of concrete plinth and surrounding damage system (WHO, 1997). Over burden of the population pressure, unplanned urbanization, unrestricted exploration and dumping of polluted water at inappropriate place enhance the infiltration of harmful

compounds to the ground water (Pandey and Tiwari, 2009; Matta et al., 2015c).

)

There are various ways of ground water contamination such as use of fertilizer in farming (Altman and Parizek, 1995). Sewage from effluent bearing water body (Adekunle, 2009). Most of the industries discharge their effluent without proper treatment into nearby open pits or pass them through unlined channels, resulting in the contamination of ground water (Jinwal and Dixit, 2008). According to World Health Organization (WHO), there were estimated 4 billion cases of diarrhea and 2.2 million deaths annually. The consumption of unsafe water has been implicated as one of the major causes of the disease most gradual deterioration of water quality was resulted by the increase in human population and urbanization (WHO, 2004).


Study area

Present study was conducted in Roorkee, district Haridwar, Uttarakhand. For the study three different sites demarcated at Roorkee region. The description of sampling sites and their GPS coordinates and mean sea level are given below in Table 1.

S. no.

Sampling Sites

Mean Sea Level

(MSL)

Location coordinates

1. Salempur 268m Longitude -29.9600ºN, Latitude -78.1600ºE

2. Ramnagar 268m Longitude -29.9870ºN, Latitude -78.1400ºE

3. Paniyala 268m Longitude – 29.9217ºN, Latitude-78.1275ºE

Table 1: Details of sampling sites at different locations with coordinates

Collection of samples

The water sample collection and analysis has been done as per the standard methods prescribed in Bureau of Indian Standards


96

(BIS): 10500 (2012) method. The water samples were collected from tube wells which were located at above mentioned three sites at Roorkee.

Analysis procedure of ground water sample

Two physico chemical parameters i.e., temperature and pH were analysed on site and remaining ten parameters Total Dissolved Solid, Conductivity, DO (Dissolved Oxygen), BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand), Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Chloride, Alkalinity, Free CO2

were analysed in laboratory. Analysis of Calcium and Magnesium were analysed by Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) and TDS and conductivity were analysed by conductivity and TDS meter while all the remaining parameters were analysed by titrimetric methods using standard methods (APHA, 2012 and Trivedy and Goel, 1986)

The statistically analysed of twelve parameters of ground water of Roorkee region sampling sites were

.


Salempur, Ramnagar and Paniyala from March to April month of the year 2016 are given in table 2. During the study average temperature of groundwater was recorded to be 19.5 ºC. Kamboj et al., (2015) observed the minimum and maximum values of temperature 19.30-19.64 ºC in water samples of Solani River during the March- April, 2015. In present study the average pH value was found to be 7.3. Kamboj and Aswal, (2015) observed the pH value varied from 7.66-7.76 for suitability of Ganga canal water for drinking purpose at Haridwar city. Average value for total alkalinity was found to be 299.4mg/l.

Kamboj et al., (2015) observed the value of Alkalinity 229.6 (mg/l) was found in municipal supplied water for drinking purpose in Haridwar city. Average value for Electrical Conductivity is 843.6µS/cm. Kumar, G.A. et al., (2015) observed the Conductivity value varied from 570-10305 (µS/cm

Dissolved oxygen is an important parameter in water quality assessment and reflects the

) for groundwater of Agra city. Average value for TDS is 504.5 mg/l. Kumar, G.A. et al.,(2015) observed the TDS value varied from 356-654 (mg/l) for groundwater of Agra city.

However, some evidence indicates its role in heart diseases and hardness of 150-300 mg/l and above may cause kidney problems and stone formation. The average value of total Hardness was 222.6 mg/l observed. Rao et al., (2013) observed the value of Total Hardness 221-474 (mg/l) in Vuyyuru, Part of East Coast of India.

In the present study the average value of calcium was 86.7 mg/l observed. Kamboj and Choudhary, (2013) observed the value of calcium ranged between 31-151(mg/l) in ground water samples of Gazipur Municipal Corporation of Delhi landfill sites. Magnesium is an essential ion for functioning of cells in enzyme activation, but at higher concentration, it is considered as laxative agent, whose deficiency may cause structural and functional changes in human beings. The permissible limit is 30 mg/l as per BIS standards. In the present study the average value of Magnesium was 49.1 mg/l observed. Shayamala, et al., (2008) observed the value of Magnesium 30-100 (mg/l) in Vuyyuru, Part of East Coast of India.


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physical and biological processes prevailing in the water, the D.O. value indicate the degree of pollution in water bodies. In the present study the average D.O. was 3.53 mg/l observed. Rao et al., (2013) observed the value of D.O 4.27-5.16 (mg/l) in Vuyyuru, Part of East Coast of India. The Chloride plays an important role in balancing level of electrolyte in blood plasma, but higher concentration can produce some physical disorder. In the present study the average value of chloride was 287.1 observed. Rao et al., (2013) observed the value of Chloride 278-347.94 (mg/l) in

Vuyyuru, Part of East Coast of India. Choudhary et al., (2014) find the value of chloride 9.5± 2.22 in Ri- Bhoi District, Meghalaya. Biochemical oxygen demand is the amount of oxygen utilized by micro-organism in stabilizing the organic matter. BOD in general gives a qualitative index of organic substance which is degraded quickly in a short time period. In the present study the average B.O.D. of groundwater was 0.41mg/l. The average value of free CO2

was found 17.6 mg/l.

S. No. Parameters Site-1 (Ramnagar)

Site-2 (Salempur)

Site-3 (Paniyala)

Average Value

BIS std. (IS 10500:2012)

1. Temperature (ºC) 19.5 19.5 19.5 19.5 -- 2. TDS(mg/l) 504.6 504.9 504.1 504.5 500-2000 3. Conductivity(µS/cm 841 ) 842.1 847.6 843.6 781-3125 4. pH 7.2 7.4 7.3 7.3 6.5-8.5 5. DO(mg/l) 3.5 3.4 3.7 3.53 > 6 6. BOD(mg/l) 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.41 < 2 7. Hardness(mg/l) 221.8 224.1 222.1 222.6 200-600 8. Chloride(mg/l) 286.3 288.1 286.9 287.1 250-1000 9. Calcium(mg/l) 86.3 87.1 86.8 86.7 75-200

10. Magnesium(mg/l) 49.4 49.8 48.3 49.1 30-100 11. Alkalinity(mg/l) 299.5 300.5 298.2 299.4 200-600 12. Free CO2 17.3 (mg/l) 17.5 18.1 17.6 --

Table 2:Analyzed data of twelve ground water parameters at three sites from March to April 2016

Conclusion

The present study assessed the ground water quality of Roorkee region at three different experimental sites namely Ramnagar, Salempur and Paniyala. The study concluded that the water quality of all the sites were within the desirable limits as per specified BIS specifications 2012 and suitable for drinking purpose. The present study will be helpful in drawing attention of water sector planning and management department, industrial management planning authorities, municipalities and thus maintain and sustain the ground water quality for drinking

purpose in above said region. Additionally several strong, legislation and policies are required to save ground water quality in near future as the industrialization is increasing day by day.

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Kamboj, N.; Chaubey, A.K.; Kumar, S. and Parasher, C.K. (2015): Assessment of Physico-Chemical Parameter of Solani River at Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India. International journal of current research, 7 (6):16670-16673.

Kamboj, N.; Chaubey, A.K.; Kumar, S. and Parasher, K. P. (2015): Quality Assessment Of Municipal supplied water for drinking purpose, District Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India Journal of Global Biosciences

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Kumar and Rani/Vol. VII [2] 2016/100 - 102

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Role of science and technology in teaching learning process

Kumar, Roopendra1 and Rani, Sunita2

Abstract

Received: June 17, 2016 Accepted: September 29, 2016 Online: December 31, 2016

Aim of the present paper is forwarded for the society, the role of science and technology in teaching- learning process. By using science and technology in the educational field, the quality of teaching learning process is improved effectively. Science plays an effective role to improve Quality of teaching-learning process. Psychology, political science, social science, mathematics etc are also comes under science. Science is a methodical approach to studying the natural world. Science asks basic questions, such as how does the world work? How did the world come to be? What was the world like in the past, what is it like now, and what will it be like in the future, etc. And other hand the use of technology in the classroom teaching-learning is very important for it provides opportunities for teachers and students to operate, store, manipulate, and retrieve information, encourage independent and active learning, and self-responsibility for learning such as distance learning, motivate teachers and students to continue using learning outside school hours, plan and

prepare lessons and design materials such as course content delivery and facilitate sharing of resources, expertise and advice. The early evidence in the core area of Teachers and Teaching indicates that a majority of teachers report using the laptop in lesson development and classroom instruction. Teachers are locating more up-to-date information, accessing information more easily and quickly, presenting lessons, and creating student assignments. These uses are having positive impacts on their teaching. Technology use in the classroom enhances and improves student learning. School systems and teachers are being held accountable for student success and improvement.

Keywords: Science | Technology | Teaching | Learning

Introduction

Traditionally, college lectures consist of teachers verbally communicating information to the Students. And students passively receiving and encoding it in their memory. In a typical college classroom, this presents as a teacher lecturing at the front of the room while students feverishly take notes. Active, or experiential, teaching is a student-



For Correspondence:

Dept. of Psychology 1Kanya Gurukul Campus 2Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar, India Email: [email protected]


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centered. It includes any technique that involves the students in the learning process and holds students responsible for their own learning.(Hackathorn, Soloman, Blankmayer, Tennial and Garczyns, 2011). Therefore the aims of nowadays education demand to choose educational methods promoting active process of cognition that develop skills of learning, creative use of knowledge, skills of self-assessment, cooperation, indulgence to different points of view. Interactive educational methods help to realize those tasks and provide cooperation among teachers and students. So technologies make learning environment alive and more attractive. (Cunska and Savicka. 2012) .

Teacher educators’ perceptions of the importance of cognitive psychology research and particular topics, their use of cognitive psychology research in elementary mathematics methods courses in which preserves teachers learn specifically about mathematics pedagogy and student Learning, and potential factors related to the incorporation of cognitive research in mathematics education course work. This information can inform researchers’ choice of research questions and dissemination venues, which, in turn, could facilitate a stronger connection between cognitive science and educational practice. Knowledge about the topics predominant in cognitive psychology studies of mathematical thinking is considered an important aspect of the knowledge required to teach mathematics effectively. (Laski, Reeves, Ganley and Mitchel, 2013). cognitive and educational psychologists have been developing and evaluating easy-to-use learning techniques that could help students achieve their

learning goals. (Dunlosky. Rawson. Marsh Mitchell. Nathan and Daniel 2013).

Positive education is defined as education for both traditional skills and for happiness. The high prevalence worldwide of depression among young people, the small rise in life satisfaction, and the synergy between learning and positive emotion all argue that the skills for happiness should be taught in school. There is substantial evidence from well controlled studies that skills that increase resilience, positive emotion, engagement and meaning can be taught to schoolchildren. (Martin , Seligman, Randal, Ernst, Gillham, Reivich and linkins, 2009). social science knowledge and technological innovations can help us teach better and learn also. (King and Sen, 2013) Instructional technology may support and increase the efficiency of the

teaching-learning transaction or even modify educational processes, especially with regards to distance education and "anytime, anywhere" access (Mehra and Mittal, 2007).

ICT is an electronic means of capturing, processing, storing, communicating information. The use of ICT in the classroom teaching-learning is very important for it provides opportunities for teachers and students to operate, store, manipulate, and retrieve information, encourage independent and active learning, and self-responsibility for learning such as distance learning, motivate teachers and students to continue using learning outside school hours, plan and prepare lessons and design materials such as course content delivery and facilitate sharing of resources, expertise and advice. (Ali, Haolader, Muhammad, 2013).


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Teaching and instructional aids include the use of slide projector, television, radio, audio and video cassettes, etc., in the teaching and learning situations. The integration of technology in the process of teaching and learning is thought by many researchers and to increase student and teacher productivity as well as to make vast amounts of information available. (Al-Zaidiyeen, Mei, Fook, 2010).

Conclusion

Todays’ education system in the world has been improved and effected than traditionally education system. And teaching learning process has been made purposeful. Students could self study and made self concept with understanding level. So role of science and technology is very important for raise a level of today’s education system. Science inspires to give creative performance for the students. Technology makes a thoughtful mind of the students. So science and technology play an important role for the teaching learning process to effective teach and learn.

References

Al - Zaidiyeen, N. J.; Mei, L. L. and Fook, F. S. (2010): Teachers’ Attitudes and Levels of Technology Use in Classrooms: The Case of Jordan Schools. International Education Studies, 3 (2),211-218.

Ali, G.; Haolader, F. A. and Muhammad, K. (2013): The Role of ICT to Make Teaching-Learning Effective in Higher Institutions of Learning in Uganda. International Journal of Innovative

Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, 2 (8), 4061-4073.

Cunska, A. and Savicka, J. (2012): Use of ICT Teaching-Learning Methods make School Math Blossom. Procedia-social and behavioural science, 69:1481-1488.

Hackathorn, J.; Soloman, E.; Blankmayer, K.; Tennial, R. and Garczyns, A. (2011): Learning by doing: An empirical study of active teaching techniques. The Journal of Effective Teaching, 11 (2): 40-54.

Katherine, J. D.A.; Rawson, E. J.; Marsh, M. J.; Nathan and Daniel, T. (2013): Improving Students’ Learning With Effective Learning Techniques: Promising Directions . From Cognitive and Educational Psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1):4 –58.

King, G. and Sen, M. (2013): How Social Science Research Can Improve Teaching. American Political Science Association,621-629.

Laski, E.; Reeves, T.; Ganley, C. and Mitchel, R. (2013): Mathematics teacher Educators’ perceptions and use of cognitive research. International mind,brain and education society and black well publishing inc, 7: 63-74.

Martin E. P. Seligman; Randal M. Ernst; Gillham, J.; Reivich, K. and linkins, M. (2009): Positive education: positive psychology and classroom interventions. Oxford Review of Education, 35(3), 293–311.

Deepika Vats/Vol. VII [2] 2016/103 - 104

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Pond culture and their management in Shasthra Dhara of Doon City

Vats, Deepika


By comparison to other aquaculture fish species, very little is known about selective breeding for quantities traits furthermore, there are few documental selective breeding programs in the scientific science in literature. It then seems possible to create synthetic strains with the high genetic variability which may be a good material to start selective breeding programs in this species. In tropical waters, available of spawn is assured throughout the year.

Keywords Pond culture | quantitative traits | Doon city

Introduction

Fish culture by utilizing a large network of natural and man-made reservoirs like a pond, tanks, and cages etc. as well as by increasing food production/unit area. Fish culture is used for looking its productivity as manures, fertilizers and supplementary feed. In pond culture, they totally depend on the availability of nutrients recycling and primary nutrients in the form of organic and organic fertilization. Aquaculture ponds are fertilized to increase production, for natural food (Phytoplankton, zooplanktons).

Material and Method

To obtain a large production it is necessary to develop a sustainable fisheries pond. There is a need to be locally raised crops and animals waste as a source of protein and energy for the supply of proper and cost effective nutrients to fish as a supplementary feed.By recycling agriculture wastes, by-products, by semi-intensive culture to increase the yield. They are nutrients component and energy required. Fish meal is commonly used. Supplementary feed is the artificial source of dietary nutrients like protein, fats and carbohydrates.Different agriculture and animal by - products (maize, gluten, cottonseed, rice polish and or rice polish



For Correspondence: Department of Zoology, Uttaranchal College of Science & Technology, Dehradun

Deepika Vats/Vol. VII [2] 2016/103 - 104

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wheat bran and fish meal etc.) are utilized as a source of dietary nutrients in fish culture.

Fig. 1: Cultivation of fishes during pond management

Results and discussion

The fishes were collected from local rivers of Doon Valley and brought to the laboratory. It is designed as a working and laboratory. It is designed as a working and teaching tool for extension agents and or main pond operations. Most importantly, countries all over the world are using time and money to discover which of the fish commonly found in their own water wii grow in the fish pond. The fishes are grown in a pond are the once the farmer want to grow for their beneficial uses pond size is limited by topography availability of inputs and constructions cost.Covered area 100m2 in surface area are related to harvesting of fishes.Site be from flooding and close.Multiple uses such as stock watering and supplementary garden irrigation.Water should be free from pesticides –Ponds be created by constructed

by hand labor. Commonly cultured fish are degraded in ponds. These are hard ,disease resistant, easy to reproduce and fast growing. Wild fish will compete with stocked fingerlings for food causing slow growth removed these from stocked ponds. The ponds should be completely drained and dried before refilling and stocking new fish. Mahua oil cake, tea seed like stem bark cake other plant derivatives like stem bark, seed root, bark, seed flower seed powder, seed husk and ammonia, bleaching powder are the toxicants for the beneficial .Distressed or killed fish is then removed by repeating netting .The weeds are thus completely removed as the first step in fish culture. They controlled by manual, mechanical, chemical and biological.

Liming and fertilization help increase the abundance of phytoplankton and other natural food productions organisms. Chemical and organic fertilizers may be applied separately in or combinations to ponds. Soil and water may be tested in a laboratory or with a kit to determine whether liming is required. The proper number of fish should be stocked into ponds to ensure goods fish growth and economic value.

References:

Torrons, Eugene Lessle (1973): Fish culture in Cameroon. Peace corps program and training Journal. ACTION, Washington, D. C.

Singh, P. P., (1964): Fishes of Doon Valey. Icythological, 3(1-2): 86-92.

Dillions, olan W. Jr., et. al., Warm water fishes ponds farmers, Bulletin 2250. USDA. Washington, D.C.14p.

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