ContentsPrefaceAcknowledgments

S e c t i o n i Gross Anatomy of the Brain

1 Overview of the Central Nervous SystemGross Anatomy of the BrainNeuroanatomical TermsComponents of the Central Nervous SystemCerebral Topography

Lateral Surface of the BrainFrontal LobeParietal LobeOccipital LobeTemporal Lobe

Medial Surface of the BrainInferior (Ventral) Surface of the Cerebral CortexPosterior Aspect of the Cerebral Cortex: Temporal and OccipitalLobes

Forebrain Structures Visible in Horizontal and Frontal Sections of theBrain

VentriclesBasal Ganglia

DiencephalonLimbic Structures

Topography of the Cerebellum and BrainstemCerebellumBrainstem

Dorsal View of the BrainstemVentral View of the Brainstem

2 Development of the Nervous SystemEarly Aspects of DevelopmentMorphogenesis of the Central Nervous System

The Spinal CordThe Brain

Myelencephalon (Medulla)MetencephalonMesencephalon (Midbrain)Prosencephalon (Forebrain)

Myelination in the Central Nervous SystemAbnormalities in Development of the Nervous System

Spina BifidaSyringo(hydro)myeliaTethered CordEncephaloceleDandy-Walker SyndromeAnencephalyFolate Therapy for Prevention of Neural Tube Defects

Mechanisms Underlying Neural DevelopmentSignal Induction and Neural Cell DifferentiationNeuronal Generation and Cell DeathFactors Affecting Formation and Survival of NeuronsHow Axons Are Directed to Their Targets and Synapses AreFormed: Neurochemical Specificity

3 Meninges and Cerebrospinal FluidThe Meninges

Coverings of the BrainDura MaterArachnoid MaterPia Mater

Coverings of the Spinal CordSpinal Dura MaterSpinal Arachnoid MaterSpinal Pia Mater

Lumbar CisternBrain Ventricular System

The Choroid PlexusCerebrospinal Fluid

FormationCirculationFunctionsCompositionAlteration of the Cerebrospinal Fluid in Pathologic ConditionsThe Blood-Brain Barrier and Blood–Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier

Disorders Associated With MeningesMeningitisMeningiomas

Disorders of the Cerebrospinal Fluid SystemHydrocephalusIncrease in Intracranial Pressure

S e c t i o n ii The Neuron

4 Histology of the Nervous SystemThe Neuron

The Cell MembraneThe Nerve Cell BodyThe NucleusThe Cytoplasm

Nissl Substance or BodiesMitochondriaGolgi ApparatusLysosomesCytoskeleton

DendritesAxonAxonal Transport

Fast Anterograde TransportSlow Anterograde TransportFast Retrograde Transport

Types of NeuronsMultipolar NeuronsBipolar NeuronsPseudo-Unipolar NeuronsUnipolar NeuronsOther Types of Neurons

NeurogliaAstrocytes

Protoplasmic AstrocytesFibrous AstrocytesRadial GliaFunctions of Astrocytes

OligodendrocytesMicrogliaEpendymal Cells

Myelinated AxonsPeripheral Nervous SystemCentral Nervous SystemDifferences in the Composition of Myelin in the Central NervousSystem and Peripheral Nervous System

Composition of Peripheral NervesClinical Considerations

Disorders Associated With Defective MyelinationMultiple SclerosisGuillain-Barré Syndrome

Neuronal InjuryInjury of the Neuronal Cell BodyAxonal Damage

5 Electrophysiology of NeuronsIntroductionStructure and Permeability of the Neuronal MembraneStructure of ProteinsMembrane Transport Proteins

Carrier Proteins (Carriers or Transporters)Channel Proteins

Transport of Solutes Across Cell MembranesSimple DiffusionPassive Transport (Facilitated Diffusion)Active Transport

Sodium-Potassium Ion PumpCalcium Pump

Intracellular and Extracellular Ionic ConcentrationsElectrophysiology of the Neuron

TerminologyIon-Related TermsElectrical Charge–Related TermsCurrent Flow–Related TermsMembrane Potential–Related Terms

Ion ChannelsClassification of Ion Channels

Equilibrium PotentialsIonic Basis of the Resting Membrane PotentialIonic Basis of the Action PotentialPropagation of Action Potentials

Clinical Considerations

Lambert-Eaton (Eaton-Lambert) SyndromeGuillain-Barré SyndromeMultiple SclerosisPrion DiseasesCystic Fibrosis

6 Synaptic TransmissionIntroductionTypes of Synaptic Transmission

Electrical TransmissionChemical TransmissionCotransmission

Types of Central Nervous System SynapsesReceptors

Directly Gated Synaptic Transmission at a Peripheral Synapse(Neuromuscular Junction)Directly Gated Transmission at a Central Synapse

Clinical ConsiderationsDiseases Affecting the Chemical Transmission at the Nerve–MuscleSynapse

Myasthenia GravisLambert-Eaton (Eaton-Lambert) Syndrome

Defects in MyelinationCharcot-Marie-Tooth Disease

Disorders Associated With ToxinsBotulismTetanus

7 NeurotransmittersIntroductionDefinitionCriteria Used for Identifying NeurotransmittersMajor Classes of NeurotransmittersMechanism of Transmitter Release

Exocytosis

Recycling of Synaptic Vesicle MembranesSteps Involved in Neurotransmitter Release

Small-Molecule NeurotransmittersNeuropeptide Neurotransmitters

Individual Small-Molecule NeurotransmittersAcetylcholine

SynthesisRemovalDistributionPhysiological and Clinical Considerations

Excitatory Amino Acids: GlutamateSynthesisRemovalPhysiological and Clinical Considerations

Inhibitory Amino Acidsγ-Aminobutyric AcidGlycine

CatecholaminesDopamineNorepinephrineEpinephrine

IndoleaminesSerotonin

Imidazole AminesHistamine

PurinesNeuroactive Peptides

Opioid PeptidesNociceptin

Physiological and Clinical ConsiderationsTachykinins: Substance P

Gaseous NeurotransmittersNitric Oxide

Differences From Other TransmittersSynthesis and RemovalPhysiological and Clinical Considerations

CotransmissionReceptors

Nicotinic Acetylcholine ReceptorN-Methyl-D-Aspartic Acid ReceptorKainate ReceptorAMPA/Quisqualate ReceptorGABAA ReceptorsGlycine Receptor5-HT3 Receptor

Metabotropic ReceptorsCholinergic Muscarinic ReceptorsMetabotropic Glutamate ReceptorsDopamine ReceptorsAdrenergic ReceptorsGABAB ReceptorsOpioid ReceptorsNociceptin ReceptorsSerotonin (5-HT) ReceptorsHistamine ReceptorsAdenosine Receptors

Pattern Recognition ReceptorsToll-Like Receptors

Mechanisms of Regulation of ReceptorsDesensitizationDown-Regulation

Ionotropic Receptors

S e c t i o n iii Organization of the Central NervousSystem

8 The Spinal CordIntroductionGross AnatomyInternal StructureCytoarchitectural Organization of the Spinal Gray MatterSpinal SegmentsSpinal Cord Tracts

Long Ascending TractsFasciculus GracilisFasciculus CuneatusDorsal (Posterior) Spinocerebellar TractCuneocerebellar TractVentral (Anterior) Spinocerebellar TractRostral Spinocerebellar TractSpinothalamic Tract

Long Descending TractsCorticospinal TractRubrospinal TractTectospinal TractLateral Vestibulospinal TractMedial Vestibulospinal TractReticulospinal TractsMedial Longitudinal Fasciculus

Fasciculi PropriiSpinal Cord Lesions

Spinal Cord TransectionBrown-Séquard SyndromeAmyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (Lou Gehrig’s Disease)SyringomyeliaTabes DorsalisMultiple SclerosisCombined Systems DiseaseLesions of the Dorsal Root

Lesions of the Ventral RootSpinal Cord InjurySpinal Reflexes

Myotatic ReflexReceptorsCircuitry and MechanismsReciprocal Inhibition in the Myotatic ReflexInverse Myotatic ReflexResetting of the Muscle Spindle Through the Gamma LoopModulation of Muscle Tone by Gamma Motor Neurons

Flexion (Withdrawal) ReflexReceptorsCircuitry and Mechanism

Crossed Extension ReflexReceptorsCircuitry and Mechanism

Locomotion 9 Brainstem I: The Medulla

Gross Anatomical View and Internal OrganizationGross Anatomical ViewInternal Organization

Major Fiber Tracts and Associated NucleiInternal Nuclei of the BrainstemLevels of the Medulla

Clinical ConsiderationsLateral Medullary SyndromeMedial Medullary SyndromeDorsal Medullary Syndrome

10 Brainstem II: Pons and CerebellumIntroductionGross Anatomical View of the PonsInternal Organization of the Pons

Fiber Pathways

Major Cell GroupsCaudal PonsRostral Pons

Basilar Aspect of the PonsPontine Tegmentum

Lower (Caudal) Half of the PonsUpper (Rostral) Half of the Pons

The CerebellumClinical Considerations

Caudal Tegmental Pontine SyndromeCaudal Basal Pontine SyndromeRostral Basal Pontine SyndromeRostral Tegmental Pontine SyndromeOther Related Syndromes of the Pons

The Locked-In SyndromeThe Medial Tegmental SyndromeThe One-and-a-Half Syndrome

11 Brainstem III: The MidbrainIntroductionInternal Organization of the Midbrain

Level of the Inferior ColliculusTectumTegmentum (Including the Periaqueductal Gray Matter)Crus Cerebri

Level of the Superior ColliculusTectumTegmentumCrus Cerebri

Clinical ConsiderationsWeber’s SyndromeBenedikt’s SyndromeGaze Palsy (Parinaud’s Syndrome)

12 The Forebrain

IntroductionDiencephalon

ThalamusEpithalamus

Habenular Complex and Stria MedullarisPineal Gland

SubthalamusHypothalamus

Lateral HypothalamusMedial HypothalamusAnterior–Posterior Levels of Hypothalamus

Basal GangliaPrincipal Component Structures

Caudate NucleusPutamenGlobus Pallidus

Fiber Pathways of the Basal GangliaLimbic System and Associated Structures of the Basal Forebrain

Hippocampal FormationSeptal AreaBed Nucleus of the Stria TerminalisNucleus AccumbensSubstantia InnominataAmygdala

Other Major Pathways of the ForebrainInternal CapsuleAnterior Commissure

Clinical ConsiderationsThalamusHypothalamusBasal GangliaLimbic StructuresCerebral Cortex

13 The Cranial NervesIntroductionClassification of the Cranial Nerves

Efferent Nerves (From the Central Nervous System)General Somatic EfferentsSpecial Visceral EfferentsGeneral Visceral Efferents

Afferent Fibers (to the Brain)General Somatic AfferentsSpecial Sensory AfferentsSpecial Visceral AfferentsGeneral Visceral Afferents

Anatomical Organization of the Cranial Nerves Within the BrainstemCranial Nerves Associated With the Lower Brainstem and AdjoiningRegions of the Spinal Cord

Hypoglossal Nerve (Cranial Nerve XII)Spinal Accessory Nerve (Cranial Nerve XI)Vagus Nerve (Cranial Nerve X)Glossopharyngeal Nerve (Cranial Nerve IX)Vestibulocochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve VIII)

Cranial Nerves of the Pons and MidbrainFacial Nerve (Cranial Nerve VII)Trigeminal Nerve (Cranial Nerve V)

Cranial Nerves of the Pons and Midbrain Associated With theControl of Eye Movements

Abducens Nerve (Cranial Nerve VI)Trochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve IV)Oculomotor Nerve (Cranial Nerve III)Control of Eye Movements: Role of the Pontine Gaze CenterCortical and Vestibular Control of Extraocular Eye MusclesVertical Gaze Center

Cranial Nerves of the ForebrainOptic Nerve (Cranial Nerve II)

Olfactory Nerve (Cranial Nerve I)

S e c t i o n iv Sensory Systems

14 Somatosensory SystemGeneral Organization of Sensory Systems

Sensory ReceptorsModalityIntensityDurationLocationStimulus TransductionReceptive Field

Relay NucleiCortical Mechanisms

Classification of Nerve FibersSomatosensory System

Sensory ModalitiesTactile Sensations (Touch, Pressure, and Vibration)ProprioceptionPainTemperature

15 Visual SystemIntroductionComponents of the EyeDifferent Layers of the Retina

The Pigment Epithelium LayerThe Layer of Rods and ConesThe External Limiting MembraneThe Outer Nuclear LayerThe Outer Plexiform LayerThe Inner Nuclear LayerThe Inner Plexiform Layer

The Layer of Ganglion CellsThe Optic Nerve Layer

Müller CellsThe Photoreceptors

ConesRodsMelanopsin-Containing Retinal Ganglion Cells

PhototransductionProcessing of Signals From the Photoreceptors by Different RetinalCells

Bipolar, Horizontal, and Ganglion CellsSignificance of Changes in On-Center and Off-Center Bipolar andGanglion Cell Activities

Color VisionBlood Supply of the RetinaVisual and Retinal FieldsVisual Pathways

The Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of ThalamusThe Geniculocalcarine TractVisual CortexThe Superior Colliculus

Binding MechanismVisual Reflexes

Pupillary Light ReflexAccommodation Reflex

Prominent Defects in VisionHypermetropiaMyopiaAstigmatismStrabismic AmblyopiaNight BlindnessColor BlindnessArgyll Robertson Pupil

Adie’s PupilMarcus-Gunn PupilWeber’s SyndromeParinaud’s SyndromeRetinitis PigmentosaMacular Degeneration

Deficits After a Lesion at Different Sites in the Visual Pathway16 Auditory and Vestibular Systems

IntroductionAuditory System

Physics of SoundComponents of the Ear

External EarMiddle EarInner Ear

Mechanism of Sound ConductionCentral Auditory Pathways

Cochlear NucleiSuperior Olivary NucleiLateral Lemniscus and Associated NucleiInferior ColliculusMedial Geniculate NucleusPrimary Auditory Cortex

Descending PathwaysClinical Disorders Associated With the Auditory System

Conduction DeafnessSensorineural DeafnessHearing TestsTinnitus

Vestibular SystemAnatomical Components

SacculeUtricle

Semicircular CanalsVestibular Sensory ReceptorsCentral PathwaysAscending Vestibular PathwaysCerebellar Afferent and Efferent ProjectionsVestibulocortical PathwayDescending Vestibular PathwaysVestibular System and Control of Eye MovementsSummary of the Functions of the Vestibular SystemClinical Disorders Associated With the Vestibular System

NystagmusVertigoMotion SicknessInflammation of the Vestibular LabyrinthMénière’s Disease

17 Olfaction and TasteIntroductionOlfactory System

StimulusReceptorsSensory TransductionCentral Pathways

Spatial OrganizationClinical Conditions in Which the Olfactory Sensation is Altered

TasteStimulusReceptorsTransduction of the Taste StimulusCentral PathwaysTaste PerceptionClinical Conditions in Which the Taste Sensation is Altered

S e c t i o n v Motor Systems

18 The Upper Motor NeuronsIntroductionThe Corticospinal Tract

Origin of the Corticospinal TractHistology of the Motor CortexCourse of the Corticospinal TractDistribution of the Corticospinal Fibers Within the Spinal CordFunctions

Primary Motor CortexPrimary Somatosensory CortexSupplementary and Premotor Area CorticesRole of the Posterior Parietal Cortex

Summary of the Components and Functions of the CorticospinalTract

The Corticobulbar TractsLesions of Corticobulbar Fibers That Supply Nuclei of CranialNervesOther Projections of the Corticobulbar Tracts

To Sensory Relay NucleiCorticoreticular FibersCortical Projections to the Red Nucleus

Descending Motor Systems From the BrainstemReticulospinal TractsVestibulospinal TractsRubrospinal TractTectospinal Tract

The Upper Motor Neuron Syndrome19 The Basal Ganglia

IntroductionComposition of the Basal Ganglia

Afferent Source of the Basal GangliaInternal Connections of the Basal Ganglia

Connections of the Neostriatum With the Globus PallidusConnections of the Neostriatum With the Substantia NigraConnections Between the Globus Pallidus and Subthalamic Nucleus

Output of the Basal GangliaFunctional Mechanisms of the Basal Ganglia

Possible Role of Intrinsic CircuitsModulatory Role of Dopamine

Movement DisordersParkinson’s DiseaseChorea (Huntington’s Disease)HemiballismAthetosisDystoniaTardive DyskinesiaTourette’s SyndromeRestless Legs SyndromeMyoclonusEssential Tremor

20 The CerebellumIntroductionGross Organization of the CerebellumAfferent Connections of the Cerebellum

Spinal Cord (Spinocerebellum)Dorsal (Posterior) Spinocerebellar TractVentral (Anterior) Spinocerebellar TractCuneocerebellar TractRostral Spinocerebellar Tract

BrainstemInferior Olivary NucleusBrainstem Structures Associated With Posture and Balance

Cerebral Cortex

Red NucleusDeep Pontine Nuclei

Other Inputs to the Cerebellar CortexTectumTrigeminal SystemMonoaminergic Systems

The Anatomical and Functional Organization of the Cerebellar CortexMossy and Climbing Fibers

Mossy FibersClimbing Fibers

Cerebellar CortexHistology

Granular Cell LayerPurkinje Cell LayerMolecular Layer

Functional Properties of the Cerebellar CortexEfferent Projections of the Cerebellar Cortex: The Feedback Circuitry

Efferent Connections of the Vestibulocerebellum andSpinocerebellumEfferent Connections of the Cerebellar Hemispheres

Motor Learning and the CerebellumCerebellar Disorders

AtaxiaHypotoniaCerebellar Nystagmus and Gait AtaxiaSyndromes Associated With the Midline Region of the CerebellarCortexSyndromes Associated With the Cerebellar Hemispheres

S e c t i o n vi Integrative Systems

21 The Autonomic Nervous SystemIntroduction

Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous SystemSympathetic Division

Spinal Sympathetic Preganglionic NeuronsParavertebral Ganglia and the Sympathetic ChainsPrevertebral GangliaFunctions of the Sympathetic Nervous System

Parasympathetic DivisionBrainstem Parasympathetic Preganglionic NeuronsSpinal Parasympathetic Preganglionic NeuronsFunctions of the Parasympathetic Nervous System

Enteric Nervous SystemNonadrenergic Noncholinergic Neurotransmission

Autonomic Innervation of Some Selected OrgansUpper EyelidIris and the Ciliary Body of the Eye

Sympathetic InnervationParasympathetic Innervation

Sublingual and Submandibular Salivary GlandsSympathetic InnervationParasympathetic Innervation

Parotid Salivary GlandsSympathetic InnervationParasympathetic Innervation

Lacrimal GlandsSympathetic InnervationParasympathetic Innervation

HeartSympathetic InnervationParasympathetic Innervation

LungsSympathetic InnervationParasympathetic Innervation

Gastrointestinal Tract

Sympathetic InnervationParasympathetic Innervation

Adrenal Medulla (Suprarenal Gland)Kidney

Sympathetic InnervationParasympathetic Innervation

Urinary BladderSympathetic InnervationParasympathetic InnervationAfferent InnervationSomatic InnervationMicturition

Male Reproductive SystemErectile TissueSympathetic InnervationParasympathetic InnervationSomatic InnervationAfferent InnervationMale Sexual ResponseMale Erectile Dysfunction

Female Reproductive SystemSympathetic InnervationParasympathetic InnervationSomatic InnervationAfferent Innervation

Blood VesselsSympathetic InnervationParasympathetic InnervationSystemic Blood Pressure

Neurotransmitters in the Autonomic Nervous SystemPreganglionic TerminalsPostganglionic Terminals

Major Receptors Involved in the Autonomic Nervous System

Cholinergic ReceptorsAdrenergic Receptors

Brainstem Areas Regulating Cardiovascular FunctionThe Nucleus of the Solitary TractCaudal Ventrolateral Medullary Depressor AreaRostral Ventrolateral Medullary Pressor AreaNucleus AmbiguusIntermediolateral Cell ColumnBaroreceptor ReflexCardiopulmonary Reflex

Brainstem Areas Regulating Respiratory FunctionRespiratory Neuronal GroupsChemoreceptor Reflex

Selected Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous SystemOrthostatic HypotensionHorner’s SyndromeArgyll Robertson PupilHirschsprung’s Disease (Megacolon)Frey’s SyndromeRaynaud’s DiseaseCongestive Heart FailureChagas’ DiseaseNeurogenic Bladder

22 The Reticular FormationIntroductionAnatomical Organization of the Reticular Formation

General CharacteristicsAfferent Connections

Sensory SystemsMotor SystemsAutonomic (and Higher Order Visceral Regulatory) Regions

Efferent ProjectionsOrganizational Considerations

Pathways to Regions Mediating Sensory Functions and Effectson Cortical Excitability LevelsPathways to Regions Mediating Motor FunctionsPathways Mediating Autonomic FunctionsPathways Modulating Functions of the Hypothalamus andLimbic System

Sleep and WakefulnessStages of SleepRapid Eye Movement (Paradoxical) Sleep and Its Anatomical LociRole of Other Regions in Sleep and WakefulnessSleep Disorders

NarcolepsyOther Conditions Associated With HypersomniaInsomniaSomnambulism (Sleepwalking)Night TerrorsRestless Legs SyndromeSleep ApneaSleep Disorders in Psychiatric Patients

Coma23 The Hypothalamus

IntroductionHypothalamic Anatomy

Hypothalamic NucleiConnections of the Hypothalamus

Afferent ConnectionsEfferent Projections

Nature and Functions of Hypothalamic PeptidesHormones That Target the Anterior Pituitary

Growth HormoneThyroid-Stimulating HormoneAdrenocorticotropic HormoneGonadotropic Hormones

ProlactinOther Peptides Found in the Hypothalamus

Vasoactive Intestinal PolypeptideCholecystokininNeurotensinSubstance PPro-Opiomelanocortin PeptidesAngiotensin II

Overview of the Integrative Functions of the HypothalamusRegulation of Cardiovascular Processes

Hypothalamic Control of Cardiovascular FunctionsTemperature RegulationFeeding Behavior

Early Concept on Regulation of FeedingMore Recent ViewsSignals That Induce FeedingSignals That Induce SatietyAn Overall View

Drinking BehaviorSexual BehaviorAggression and RageBiological RhythmsSleep

Dysfunctions of the HypothalamusHyperthermiaGenital Dystrophy and Abnormalities in Sexual DevelopmentFeeding, Obesity, and EmaciationDiabetes InsipidusEffects Upon the Cardiovascular System: Hypertension and Horner’sSyndromeSleep DisordersAggression and Rage

24 The Limbic System

IntroductionHippocampal Formation

Histology and Local Anatomical ConnectionsAfferent ConnectionsEfferent ConnectionsFunctions and Dysfunctions of the Hippocampal Formation

Aggression and RageEndocrine FunctionsLearning and Memory Functions of the Hippocampal Formation

Septal AreaHistologyAfferent ConnectionsEfferent ConnectionsFunctions of the Septal Area

Related Basal Forebrain NucleiAmygdala

HistologyAfferent ConnectionsEfferent ConnectionsFunctions and Dysfunctions of the Amygdala

Limbic Components of the Cerebral CortexAnatomical ConnectionsFunctions of the Cerebral Cortex

Prefrontal CortexAnterior Cingulate Gyrus

Pathological Activity Within Limbic CircuitsMeasurement of Brain Activity: The ElectroencephalogramEpilepsy

25 The Thalamus and Cerebral CortexIntroductionAnatomical and Functional Characteristics of the Gray Matter of theCerebral Cortex

Morphological Features

Cytoarchitectonic Division of the Cerebral CortexNeurotransmittersCortical Layers Associated With Inputs and OutputsExcitability Characteristics of Neurons Within a Cortical Column

Afferent Connections of the Cerebral CortexThe Thalamus

Defining Characteristics of Thalamic NucleiFunctional Organization of the Thalamus

Other (Nonthalamic) Regions That Project to the Cerebral CortexBrainstem Reticular FormationForebrain

Localization of Function Within the Cerebral CortexThe Parietal Lobe

Effects of LesionsRegions Associated With Visual Functions

Projection Patterns From the Lateral Geniculate NucleusAnalysis of Form PerceptionFeatures of Cortical Columns Within the Occipital Cortex

Functions of the Temporal NeocortexInferotemporal Cortex (Inferior Temporal and Occipitotemporal[Fusiform] Gyri)Middle Temporal GyrusSuperior Temporal GyrusEffects of Lesions of the Occipital and Temporal Regions of theCortex

Regions Associated With Speech DeficitsTemporal–Parietal Region (Wernicke’s Area)Frontal Lobe (Broca’s Area)

Functions of the Frontal LobeMotor Regions of the CortexSummary and Review of Descending Cortical PathwaysLesions of the Motor Regions of the Frontal Lobe

Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex

General Functions of the Cerebral Cortex: Cerebral Dominance, CorticalExcitability, and Learning and Memory

Cerebral DominanceRole of the Corpus Callosum in Hemispheric Transfer ofInformationExamples of Cerebral Dominance

Cortical Excitability: A SummaryLearning and Memory

Disorders Affecting Cognitive Processes and Mental Status26 Blood Supply of the Central Nervous System

IntroductionArterial Supply of the Brain

Internal Carotid ArteriesThe Ophthalmic ArteryThe Posterior Communicating ArteryThe Anterior Choroidal ArteryThe Anterior Cerebral ArteryThe Middle Cerebral Artery

Vertebro-Basilar CirculationThe Vertebral Artery

The Anterior Spinal ArteryThe Posterior Inferior Cerebellar ArteryThe Posterior Spinal Artery

The Basilar ArteryThe Anterior Inferior Cerebellar ArteryThe Labyrinthine (Internal Auditory) ArteryThe Pontine ArteriesThe Superior Cerebellar ArteryThe Posterior Cerebral Arteries

Cerebral Arterial Circle (Circle of Willis)Watershed Brain AreasMeningeal Arteries

Venous Drainage of the Brain

The SinusesThe Superior Sagittal SinusThe Inferior Sagittal SinusThe Transverse SinusesThe Confluence of SinusesThe Cavernous SinusesThe Sphenoparietal Sinuses

The Cerebral VeinsThe Superficial Cerebral VeinsThe Deep Cerebral Veins

The Meningeal VeinsThe Spinal Cord

ArteriesPosterior Spinal ArteriesAnterior Spinal ArteryThe Spinal Medullary ArteriesRadicular Arteries

Veins27 Vascular Syndromes

IntroductionNeuroimaging

Computed TomographyMagnetic Resonance Imaging

Functional Magnetic Resonance ImagingMagnetic Resonance AngiographyMagnetic Resonance SpectroscopyPositron Emission TomographySingle-Photon Emission Computed TomographyAngiography (Arteriography)

Vascular SyndromesCerebral Vascular Syndromes

Anterior Cerebral Artery SyndromeMiddle Cerebral Artery Syndrome

Posterior Cerebral Artery SyndromeMidbrain Vascular Syndromes

Weber’s SyndromeClaude’s SyndromeParinaud’s SyndromeBenedikt’s SyndromeSuperior Cerebellar Artery Syndrome

Pontine Vascular SyndromesCaudal Basal Pontine SyndromeLocked-in SyndromeMedial Tegmental Pontine SyndromeCaudal Tegmental Pontine SyndromeOne-and-a-Half SyndromeRostral Basal Pontine SyndromeDorsolateral Tegmental Pontine SyndromeRostral Tegmental Pontine Syndrome

Medullary Vascular SyndromesLateral Medullary SyndromeMedial Medullary SyndromeDorsal Medullary Syndrome

HematomasEpidural HematomaSubdural Hematoma

Subarachnoid HemorrhageStrokeWatershed Stroke

28 Behavioral and Psychiatric DisordersIntroductionSchizophrenia

Behavioral AspectsMajor Subtypes

Paranoid SchizophreniaDisorganized (Hebephrenic) Schizophrenia

Catatonic SchizophreniaUndifferentiated Schizophrenia

Course of DevelopmentHereditary FactorsBrain AbnormalitiesNeurochemical Factors

DopamineSerotoninOther Transmitters

Drug TreatmentsDepression and Other Mood Disorders

Major Depressive (Unipolar) DisorderBipolar DisorderDysthymia and CyclothymiaHereditary FactorsBrain AbnormalitiesNeurochemical Factors and Drug Treatments

DopamineNorepinephrineSerotonin

The Role of Lithium for Treatment of Bipolar DisorderNeuroendocrine Function and Sleep

Anxiety Disorders and Drug TreatmentsPanic DisorderObsessive-Compulsive DisorderPosttraumatic Stress DisorderConversion Disorder (Functional Neurological System Disorder)Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Autism Spectrum DisordersSubstance Abuse and Brain Function

Neural MechanismsMolecular SitesBrain Circuits Mediating the Rewarding Effects of Drugs

Examples of Specific Drugs of AbuseHallucinogensOpioids

Drugs of Abuse Used by Those Afflicted with Anxiolytic DisordersStimulants

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderEating Disorders

Anorexia NervosaBulimia Nervosa

GlossaryIndex