essentials of avian medicine a guide for practitioners

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Essentials of Avian Medicine A Guide for Practitioners

Second Edition

Peter S. Sakas, DVM, MS

Hist edition by

Louise Bauck, BSc, DVM. MVSc


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Neither the author nor AAHA assumes responsibility for or makes a rep-

resentation about the suitability or accuracy of the information contained

in this work for any purposes, and makes no warranties, either express or

implied, including the warranties of merchantability and fitness for a par-

ticular purpose. Neither AAHA nor the author shall be held liable for

adverse reactions to or damage resulting from the application of this

information including, but not limited to, drug identification, usagedosage, or equivalency or resulting from any misstatement or error con-

tained in this work. The condition of a specific patient or the circum-

stances in a particular situation may warrant alterations in drug dosages

or treatment from those set forth herein. Package information provided

by manufactuers should always be reviewed before administration or

preparation. Rapid advances in veterinary medicine may cause informa-

tion contained herein to become outdated, invalid, or subject to debate by

veterinary professionals. AAHA and the author are held harmless from

any and all claims that may arise as a result of any reliance on the infor-

mation provided.

American Animal Hospital Association Press

12575 W. Bayaud Avenue

Lakewood, Colorado 80228

(800) 2522242

www.aahanet.org

© 2002 by American Animal Hospital Association Press

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,

including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and

retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

ISBN 1583260358

http://www.aahanet.org/http://www.aahanet.org/


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Dedication

This book is lovingly dedicated to my wife Karen, and our children,

Courtney and Christopher, who are the light of my life, and have

endured much during this project.

It is also affectionately dedicated to my parents, Steve and Georgia Sakas, whose loving upbringing and support throughout my life have

had an immense impact on my success personally and professionally.

Special Dedication

To Theodore J. Lafeber, Jr., DVM (1925-2001), a consummate vet

erinarian and wonderful human being, who was the source of inspi

ration to me and countless other veterinarians who had the good

fortune to know him. He was one of the true pioneers in the field of avian medicine. With his enthusiasm, energy, and knowledge, he

reached out and stimulated veterinarians, bird breeders, pet store

owners, and pet bird owners alike, endeavoring to educate them

about all aspects of pet bird care. Dr. T. J. Lafeber gave me my start

in avian medicine and served as my mentor and friend. Much of what

I have accomplished as a veterinarian is directly attributable to him

and I am eternally indebted to him, for his knowledge and support

and for having faith in me.


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Other Books in This Series

Essentials of Reptiles: A Guide for Practitioners

Thomas Huntington Boyer, DVM

Exotic Formulary, Second Edition

Natalie Antinoff, DVM, AB VP

Louise Bauck, DVM, MVSc

Susan Brown, DVM

John E. Harkness, DVM, MS, MEd

Thomas Huntington Boyer, DVM

Peter S. Sakas, DVM

Essentials of Ferrets: A Guide for Practitioners

Karen Purcell, DVM

Susan Brown, DVM

Essentials of Pet Rodents: A Guide for Practitioners

John E. Harkness, DVM, MS, MEd


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I l lust rat ions ....................................................................................................xii i

Tables .....................................................................................................xvii

Fo rew o rd .........................................................................................................xix

Preface.................................... xxi

Acknow led gm ents .....................................................................................xxii i

1 Im portant A dv ice to Give Pet Bird Own ers ............................. 1

Guiding Clients in the Selection o f a Pet B ir d .....................................1Issues to Consider

Characteristics of Pet Birds

Purchasing the Pet Bird ......................................................................12

Counseling Clients on Good Husbandry Practices .........................16The Cage and Its Accessories

The Environment Around the Cage

Household Dangers

Counseling Clients on Nutrition ......................................................... 23Formulated and Combination Diets

Seed Diets

Liquids

Table Foods

The Ideal Diet

Feeding Procedures

Conversion to a Formulated Diet References ...................... 32

2 Managing an Av ian Practice:

General Inform ation fo r the Prac tition er ...........................................35

Reference Materials ....................................................................... 35

Basic Equipment ..................................................................................36Equipment for the Veterinary Office

Equipment for Hospitalized Birds

Surgical Equipment

Contents


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Addi tional Equipment

Marketing and Managing the Avian P ra c tic e .....................................44Time Management

Increasing the Avian Caseload

References ............................................................................................47

3 Avian Diagnostics ............................................................................ 49

Scheduling the Avian Appointment ...................................................49

History Taking ......................................................................................50

The Physical Examination ................................................................... 51Examination of the Cage and Its Contents

Evaluation of the Bird in Its Cage

Capture and Restraint of Pet Birds

The Hands-on Physical Examination

Clinical Pathology ............................................................................... 76Blood Collection

Avian CBC

Fecal Examination

Choanal and Oropharyngeal Smears

Sampling Other Sites

UrinalysisCulture and Sensitiv ity

Blood Chemistry

Ar ti factual Changes

Electrophoresis

Specialized Laboratory Services

DNA Probe Assay

Radiology ..............................................................................................96

Laparoscopy, Ultrasound, and Computer-Assisted Imagery ........ 98

Avian Necropsy....................................................................................

99References .......................................................................................... 100

4 Grooming .........................................................................................105

Restraint .............................................................................................. 105

Nail Trimming ......................................................................................107

Beak Trimming ....................................................................................108

Wing Clipping ......................................................................................110

References ..........................................................................................113


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5 Treatm ent Techniqu es:

Support ive Care for the Sick B ir d......................................................

115Heat ......................................................................................................115

Fluid Therapy ......................................................................................116

Blood Transfusions ............................................................................120

Drug Therapy ......................................................................................120Guidelines for Initiating Therapy

General Guidelines for Intravenous Drug Administr ation

General Guidelines for Subcutaneous and Intramuscular Drug Administration

General Guidelines for Oral Drug Adminis tration

General Guidelines for Topical Drug Administration

General Guidelines fo r Nebulization

Force Feeding/Gavage Feeding ................................................ .123

Anesthesia ..........................................................................................126

Air Sac C annu la tio n ............................................................................128

Pain Management ..............................................................................129

References ..........................................................................................129

6 Avian Therapeutics..............................................................................

133General Guidelines ............................................................................133

Guidelines for Specific Drug Categ o ries .........................................134 Antimicrobial Agents

Anti fungal Agents

Corticosteroids

An tiparasi tic Agents

Nebulizing Agents

Psychotropic Agents

Topical Agents

References ..........................................................................................140

7 Formulary: Avian Drug Do s ag es ........................................................143

Antimicrobial Agents ..........................................................................143

Antifungal Agents ..............................................................................148

Antihelmintic/Antiparasitic Agents ...............................................150

Nebulizing Agents ..............................................................................153

Psychotropic Agents ..........................................................................155


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Topical Agents for Ophthalmic and

Dermatologic Conditions ............................................................156Miscellaneous Agents ........................................................................157

Nutritional Support ............................................................................164

References .......................................................................................... 166

8 Avian Diseas es .................................................................................171

Nutritional Diseases ..........................................................................173Obesity/Hepatic Lipidosis

Vitamin A Imbalances

Calcium, Phosphorus, and Vitamin D3 Imbalances

Iodine Deficiency/Goiter

Hemochromatosis

Viral D iseas es ......................................................................................182Pacheco’s Disease

Pox Virus

Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease

Papillomatosis

Proventricular Dilatation Disease

Newcastle Disease

Pigeon Paramyxovirus

Polyomavirus

Parasitic Diseases ..............................................................................203Helminths

Protozoa

Ar thropods

Mycoses .............................................................................................. 217Mycotoxicosis

Candidiasis

Aspergi llosisZoonoses ............................................................................................ 225

Chlamydiosis (Psittacosis)

Salmonellosis

Tuberculosis

Influenza A

Al lergies

Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis

(Pigeon Breeder’s Lung, Bird Keeper’s Lung)

Dermatologic Cond itions ..................................................................236

Brown Hypertrophy of Cere


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Lipomatosis/Lipomas

Self-Mutilation

Vaccine Reactions

Abscesses/Granu lomas/Tuberculosis Lesions

Xanthomatosis

Dermal Cysts/Macaw “ Acne”

Feather Abnormalities ....................................................................... 241Feather Cysts

Alopecia

Neonatal Feather Dystrophy

French Molt

Feather Picking/ChewingTrauma ................................................................................................246Fractures

Broken Blood Feathers

Torn Pygostyle/Tail Base Laceration

Split Sternum

Subcutaneous Emphysema

Beak Injuries

Cat Bites and Scratches

Respiratory Diseases ....................................................................... 251

Upper Respiratory Infections Pneumonia and Ai r Sacculitis

Asci tes/Hepatomegaly

Al lergic Respiratory Disease

Gastrointestinal Conditions ............................................................. 258Vomiting and Regurgitation

Abnormal Droppings

Enteric Bacterial Diseases

Pancreatic Exocrine Insuf ficiency

Megabacteriosis (Avian Gastric Yeast)

Liver Con dition s ..................................................................................265Reproductive Conditions ................................................................. 267

Unwanted Egg Laying

Egg Binding

Reproductive-Associated Peritonitis

Ovarian Cysts

Ovarian/Oviductal Tumors

Prolapsed Cloaca

Prolapsed Oviduct/Uterus

Sexual Behavior and Aggression


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Mate Aggression

Miscellaneous Diseases Respons ive to

Leuprolide Acetate Therapy .......................................................280

Neoplasia ............................................................................................280Fibrosarcomas

Carcinomas

Cutaneous Lymphosarcomas

Lipomas

Renal o r Gonadal Masses

Pituitary Masses

Neurological Conditions ....................................................................284

Stroke Syndrome Epilepsy

Hypocalcemia Syndrome

Renal Conditions ................................................................................287Gout

Polyuria

Endocrine Conditions ........................................................................289Diabetes Mellitus and Diabetes-Like Conditions

Hypothyroidism

Abdominal Distension ........................................................................291

Cardiovascular Conditions ................................................................292Congenital Heart Diseases

Pericarditis

Hydropericardium/Hemopericardium

Myocardial Insufficiency

Myocarditis

Endocardial Disease

Ar ter iosc leros is/Ather oscleros is

Cardiovascular Therapy

Toxicoses ............................................................................................ 296Toxic Fumes

PTFE Toxicosi s

Lead Toxicosis

Zinc Toxicosis

Pediatric Problems ............................................................................303Nutritional Problems

Aspi rat ion Pneumonia

Crop Stasis

Crop Burn/Crop Fistula


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Infectious Diseases

Mycotic Infections

Orthopedic Problems

Beak Abnormalities

References ..........................................................................................314

Resources .............................................................................................327

Color P la te s ...........................................................................................333

Index .......................................................................................................343


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Illustrations

Figure 1 13Smuggled bird.

Figure 2 17Thinning scales (pressure sores) in the middle of the foot.

Figure 3 18Ulcerated hock.

Figure 4 19Commercial nesting material wrapped around the toes of a canary.

Figure 5 19Coat hanger puncturing beneath the lower beak in a macaw.

Figure 6 38Mouth speculum for examining mouths of birds.

Figure 7 38Scale with pot attachment.

Figure 8 40Modified human infant incubators for birds.

Figure 9 52Blackened feathers caused by trauma or rubbing on cage.

Figure 10 ..................................................................................................53Vomiting bird.

Figure 11 ..................................................................................................57The classic sick bird.

Figure 12 ..................................................................................................57Stained feathers above nares indicating nasal discharge.

Figure 13 .............................................. 58Young budgerigar affected with giardiasis.

Figure 14 ..................................................................................................58Budgerigar with renal adenocarcinoma.

Figure 15 ..................................................................................................60How to hold a bird.

Figure 16 ..................................................................................................67The beak of a bird with fatty liver disease.

Figure 17 .................... 67Macaw baby with a number of developmental abnormalities.

Figure 18 ..................................................................................................68Papillomatous growth in the choanal slit of a macaw.


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Figure 19 ..................................................................................................68Cockatiel with ocular discharge, conjunctivitis, and periophthalmic

swelling.

Figure 20 ..................................................................................................70Crop fistulation in a hand-fed blue-fronted Amazon parrot.

Figure 21 ..................................................................................................71Use of a moistened cotton-tipped applicator to evert the vent

margins.

Figure 22 ......................................................................... 72Compromised circulation caused by a tight leg band.

Figure 23 ..................................................................................................96Radiograph showing grit in the ventriculus.

Figure 24 ..................................................................................................97Barium radiograph of a normal bird.

Figure 25 .......................................................................... . ....................112View of dorsal wing surface with cutting line for primary flight

feathers.

Figure26 ..........................................................................................116Human incubator modified for hospitalized bird.

Figure 27 ................................................................................... 118Quaker parrot with jugular vein exposed (right lateral surface).

Figure 28 ................................................................................................119Placement of vascular catheter for intravenous bolus fluid

replacement therapy.

Figure 29 ................................................................................................ 175Cross-section of liver from bird with hepatic lipidosis.

Figure 30 ................................................................................................ 178Multiple skeletal deformit ies in a neonatal blue and gold macaw.

Figure 31 ................................................................................................ 179Mineralized kidneys in a cockatiel.

Figure32 ........................................................................................187Cockatoo with psittacine beak and feather disease.

Figure 33 ................................................................................................ 188Lovebird with psittacine beak and feather disease.

Figure 34 ................................................................................................ 191Papillomatous growth in the cloaca of an Amazon parrot.

Figure 35 ................................................................................................ 193Extreme case of PDD in an African grey parrot.

Figure 36 .......... 194Barium radiograph of a macaw with PDD.

Figure 37 ................................................................................................ 198Seizing bird suffering from Newcast le disease.


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Figure 38 ................................................................................................201 Avian polyomavirus in a neonatal macaw.

Figure 39 ................................................................................................210Widespread sarcocystis in the striated muscle of a conure.

Figure 40 ................................................................................................214Knemidokoptic mange in a budgerigar (scaly face).

Figure 41 ................................................................................................214Knemidokoptic mange in a canary (scaly leg or tasselfoot).

Figure 42 ................................................................................................215Knemidokoptes mite.

Figure 43 ................................................................................................220 Acute aspergil losis in a young African grey parrot .

Figure 44 ................................................................................................223Fungal granulomas disseminated throughout dorsal portion of lungs.

Figure 45 ...................................... 233Marked enlargement of the small intestine of an Amazon parrot

caused by mycobacteria.

Figure46 ............................................................................................. ..237Large lipoma on the chest of a budgerigar.

Figure 47 ................................................................................................238Self-mutilation in a Fischer’s lovebird.

Figure 48................................................................................................

242Feather cyst on the wing of a canary.

Figure 49 ................................................................................................242Excised feather cyst.

Figure 50 ................................................................................................244Feather picking in a confined and socially isolated severe macaw.

Figure 51 ................................................................................................246Elizabethan collar used to treat feather picking or self-mutilation.

Figure 52 ................................................................................................247Some common bandaging techniques for limb injuries in birds.

Figure 53........................

248Blue and gold m acaw with broken blood feathers and mutilated quills.

Figure 54 ................................................................................................249Torn pygostyle (split tail) in a cockatiel after a fall from the cage.

Figure 55 ................................................................................................250Split sternum in an Amazon parrot.

Figure 56 ................................................................................................254Periorbital swelling in a budgerigar with sinusitis.

Figure 57 ................................................................................................257

Air saccul iti s in an Amazon parrot .


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Figure 58 ................................................................................................269

Egg-bound cockatiel with multiple eggs in the oviduct.Figure 59 ................................................................................................272

Hyperostosis (endosteal bone formation) in an egg-laying cockatiel.

Figure 60 ................................................................................................277Prolapsed oviduct in a cockatiel.

Figure 61 ................................................................................................281Fibrosarcoma on the wing of a cockatiel.

Figure 62 ................................................................................................ 284Barium radiographs of a budgerigar with a renal adenocarcinoma.

Figure 63 ................................................................................................286

Enlarged parathyroid glands in a pionus parrot suffering from ataxia and seizures.

Figure 64 ................................................................................................ 287Visceral gout. Uric acid deposition on the pericardium and heart.

Figure 65 ................................................................................................ 288 Articul ar gout. Tophi on the feet and legs of an affected budgerigar.

Figure 66 ................................................................................................ 298Congestion and hemorrhage in the lungs of a budgerigar that died

from exposure to fumes of overheated PTFE.

Figure 67 ................................................................................................ 299

Metal densities in the ventriculus of a cockatiel.Figure 68 ................................................................................................308

Crop supports for birds with overstretched crops or poor emptying

action.

Figure 69 ................................................................................................ 312Lateral leg deviations.

Figure 70 ................................................................................................ 312 Annular toe const rictions on a macaw.

Figure 71 ................................................................................................ 313Prognathism in a macaw.


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Tables

Table 1 77Blood Volume That Can Be Withdrawn Safely

From Common Sizes of Pet Birds

Table 2 81 Avi an Hematologic and Biochemi cal Values for Selected Species

Table 3 89

Culture Sites and Common FloraTable 4 117

Intravenous Bolus Fluid Administration in Pet Birds

Table5 .................................................................................................. 124Gavage Feeding in Pet Birds

Table 6 171Organization of Diseases, Conditions, and Abnormaliti es

Table 7 190Diagnostic Flow Chart for Psittacine Circovirus

Table 8 241

Common Differential Diagnoses for Complaints That May Feature Feather Loss

Table 9 252Common Differential Diagnoses of Complaints

That May Feature Respiratory Signs

Table 10 ..................................................................................................258Common Differential Diagnoses for

Vomiting and Regurgitation in the Pet Bird

Table 11 ..................................................................................................259Guide to the Evaluation of Abnormal Droppings

Table 12..................................................................................................

281Common Differential Diagnoses for

Masses of the Skin and Subcutis

Table 13 ..................................................................................................285Common Problems That May Be Presented With

Nervous System Abnormalities

Table 14 ................ 305Common Pediatric Problems Seen in

Domestically Raised Large Psittacines


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Foreword

Dr. Sakas attended the University of Illinois, College of Veterinary Medicine, as

did I, back when many veterinary practitioners believed that “If it flies, it dies.” Dr.

Sakas, however, had the good fortune to have Dr. Theodore Lafeber as his mentor.

Dr. Lafeber was a true pioneer in the field of avian medicine and surgery. He

developed a line of avian products, including a pelleted parrot diet and the first

commercially available handfeeding formula for baby parrots.

In vet school, Dr. Sakas was the SCAVMA (Student Chapter of the American

Veterinary Medical Association) class representative, and later president of that

organization. He invited Dr. Lafeber to come and lecture to the veterinary students

about avian medicine, bringing budgerigars for the students to work with. For

many of us, this was our first introduction to handson avian medicine.

Dr. Sakas worked for Dr. Lafeber at Niles Animal Hospital while he was a vet

student and helped Dr. Lafeber write the educational materials that accompanied

his products. Dr. Sakas continued to work with Dr. Lafeber for five years and

eventually took over the practice, which remains approximately 50% exotics

and 50% small animal. The experience that Dr. Sakas gained while in practice

with Dr. Lafeber set him on course to become the excellent avian practitioner

that he is today.

I had the pleasure of knowing Dr. Sakas during vet school, and even then I knew

he was destined to become a leader in the field of avian medicine. We maintained

our friendship while attending avian continuing education conferences, and it was

at an AAV (Association of Avian Veterinarians) conference that I first met his

future wife, Karen. He so impressed my own mother and aunt, who were also

attending an AAV conference with me, that they still speak today of his humor,

graciousness, and fear of heights.

I can think of no one more qualified to author a text on the practice of avian med-

icine than Dr. Sakas, who now oversees a practice of five veterinarians, lectures all

around the country on avian medicine, is on the Admissions Committee for the

University of Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine, and still finds time to be a


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great father to his two children. This text will be an extremely valuable addition to

your library and will be a most helpful, practical book for all avian veterinarians.This text has been developed by Dr. Sakas from his wealth of practical knowledge

gained in his busy avian practice. I predict it will become the book that veterinar-

ians and technicians will turn to in the busy, workaday world of avian practice

when factual and practical information regarding a case is needed.

Avian medicine has progressed beyond anything that any of us could have envi-

sioned back in the days when Dr. Lafeber was teaching us how to properly hold

and medicate a budgerigar. The science of avian medicine changes still—almost

daily—as researchers and practitioners alike add to our knowledge. This textincorporates the most uptodate information available regarding bacterial, fungal,

viral and protozoal infections, as well as the most accurate nutritional, husbandry,

toxicology, pediatrics, grooming, and behavioral information. I have no doubts

that this book will be an excellent resource for the doctors and staff of veterinary

hospitals, whether they treat one or twenty avian patients per day.

Margaret Anne Wissman, DVM

DAB VP, Avian Practice


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Preface

Current pet industry figures place the number of pet birds in the United States at

approximately 60 million and report that pet birds are in an estimated 15% of all

U.S. households.1 The reasons for the increasing popularity of pet birds are

numerous. Birds are basically lowmaintenance pets. They are typically allowed in

housing units that do not allow cats and dogs, and nationwide an increasing num-

ber of pet stores are carrying birds. Further, the number of larger birds available forsale has increased in great part because of success in handraising them domesti-

cally. Such handraised birds are tamer, calmer, and less likely to carry exotic dis-

eases than birds raised in the wild and imported, and they have already “bonded”

to people, making them more desirable pets than wildcaught birds.

The surge in popularity of pet birds has brought with it an explosion of informa-

tion about the understanding of bird diseases, nutrition, and husbandry. Through

the efforts of veterinarians, bird breeders, and aviculturists, great advancements

and improvements have been seen in the field of aviculture—a number of whichhave occurred since AAHA’s 1993 publication of the first edition of this book, A

Practitioner’s Guide to Avian Medicine, by Dr. Louise Bauck. The purpose of this

new edition is to provide practitioners—both those who are already involved in

avian medicine and those who are introducing bird care to their practices—with

the most current, scientifically supported information in the care and treatment of

pet birds in an easytoaccess format.

The book begins with a discussion of important issues for practitioners to review

with new and existing bird owners. The focus then shifts to the essentials of man-aging an avian practice, including the basic equipment needed for handling, diag-

nosing, and treating pet birds as well as strategies for the marketing and

daytoday management of an avian practice and strategies for increasing the

avian caseload. The remainder of the book focuses on the treatment of birds, with

chapters on avian diagnostics and grooming techniques, treatment techniques,

therapeutics, and diseases.

This book is intended as a useful quickreference guide for practitioners, veteri-

nary technicians, and astute aviculturists. However, it is not intended to provide the


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depth of coverage available in larger textbooks or reports of scientific studies.

(Chapter 2 and the Resources section contain lists of some excellent indepthworks that would be useful additions to any avian library.) It does endeavor to

make avian medicine less overwhelming by outlining a starting point for involve-

ment in avian medicine and also aims to provide practical information for those

already in the field.

1. D’Arezzo, C. and Pepperberg, I. M. “Behavior Dysfunction In Captive Psittacine

Birds—A ‘FTHR’ In Your Cap: Practical Guidelines to Parrot Behavior” In

Proceedings o fthe North American Veterinary Conference. 2000: 4: 904—906.


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Acknowledgments

There are numerous people involved in a project of this magnitude. A special thank

you to Dr. Marge Wissman, who authored the Foreword, reviewed the manuscript,

and provided excellent insights and suggestions. I am indebted to Beverly Rokes

for her excellent editorial work on the manuscript and to Cork Rech for shepherd-

ing this project to completion in fine fashion. The editorial staff at AAHA was out-

standing and was a pleasure to work with on this project.

I would also like to thank the outstanding support staff at Niles Animal Hospital

and Bird Medical Center for their support and patience and holding down the

“fort” during this project, especially the longtermers: Ruth Lenover, Sue Cook,

Rebecca Hawkinson, Deb Koss, Jan Meyers, Eileen Fricke, and Sandy Downie. I

would also like to acknowledge my associate veterinarians that have picked up the

slack while I was attending to the book. I would like to especially thank Dr. Sarah

E. Roelofs, who has been a stalwart associate and one of the finest veterinarians

that I have ever known.

I would also like to acknowledge some individuals that played important roles in

my professional development. A special acknowledgement to the late Dr. William

H. Mason (Biology Department Head, Auburn University), who helped me

develop valuable teaching and researching skills, but also for being a dear friend

and mentor who helped me realize my goals. Acknowledgements to the other

members of my graduate committee at Auburn, Dr. William Current, Dr. Wilford

Bailey, Dr. Phil Klesius, and especially Dr. Ronald Schultz (currently at University

of Wisconsin College of Veterinary Medicine), whose keen insight in immunologywas indispensable to my master’s research. Special acknowledgements also to the

faculty and staff at the University of Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine—my

experiences as a student were positive and have served me well, but the continued

close relationship after graduation is especially treasured by me. A heartfelt

acknowledgement to that old marine, Dr. Erwin Small; your mentoring and friend-

ship while I was a student and now as a graduate veterinarian mean the world to

me. You are truly a legend in your own time.


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I would also like to acknowledge my clients and other aviculturists from whom I

have learned so much, and your faith in me is appreciated. Acknowledgementsalso to the bird clubs and associations that I have lectured to on a regular basis

through the years, as you are an important part of aviculture: Northern Illinois

Parrot Society, Greater Chicago Bird Club, West Suburban Cage Bird Club, Joliet

Regional Avian Alliance, State Line Bird Fanciers, Cream City Feathered Friends

(Milwaukee, WI), MACAW (Madison, WI ), LARRA (LaCrosse, WI) and MARE.

I am indebted to fellow avian veterinarians who have provided quality research

and insights into avian medicine, expanding my knowledge base and enabling me

to provide better care for my avian patients. A special acknowledgement to the lateDr. James Grimes (Texas A&M University), whose knowledge, eagerness to share

that information, and friendship were very special to me. I would also like to

acknowledge Dr. Shivaprasad (University of California, Fresno), whose quality

avian pathology, doggedness in an effort to provide answers, and overall knowl-

edge have been deeply appreciated, in addition to his abiding friendship. I would

also like to thank Dr. Roger Wells, for his assistance when I was evaluating PTFE

toxicosis. Acknowledgements to the avian veterinarians whose work through the

years have been essential in the development of the avian medicine knowledge

base that is reflected in this book: Dr. Gregory Harrison, Dr. Walter Rosskopf, Dr.

Alan Fudge, Dr. Keven Flammer, Dr. Susan Clubb, Dr. Scott MacDonald, and Dr.

David Phalen, to name just a few. I would especially like to single out Dr. Branson

Ritchie whose quality work in avian medicine has had a tremendous impact on my

work as an avian veterinarian and as part of this book. Thanks for the kind per-

mission to use his flow chart for the diagnosis of psittacine circovirus. I appreci-

ate his collegiality, friendship, and support. Through his work (and that of his

associates at the University of Georgia), we have made great strides in avian med-

icine, ultimately elevating the level of care and improving the quality of life for ouravian companions.


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• The amount of noise the bird is likely to produce

• Space constraints

• Dangers and responsibilities posed by other pets in the household

• Precautions and special considerations that must be taken into account if chil-

dren are present (children must understand, for example, that birds will bite

and that their beaks are powerful)

• The possibility of human allergic reactions to dust and powder in feathers,

particularly those of cockatoos, cockatiels, and African grey parrots, and pos-

sible allergic responses to aerosolized proteins from the fecal matter of birds

(a condition called hypersensitivity pneumonitis or allergic pneumonitis)

• The amount of work that will be involved in cleaning the cage and its utensils

and in handling and caring for the bird

• A bird’s talking ability (potential owners need to know that good talkers are

often noisy and can be aggressive; they also need to know that there is no

guarantee that any bird will be a good talker)

• The expected longevity of the bird and the need to consider arrangements for

care if the bird’s life span exceeds that of the owner

• The personality and other attributes of the species of bird being considered

(both positives and negatives need to be considered)

• The age of the bird to be purchased (mature versus neonate; weaned versus

not weaned)

Past experience with pet birds, or lack of it, should be an important factor in

determining the type of bird considered. For a novice owner, a small bird is

preferable, as large birds can be quite challenging. Once the care of a smaller bird

is mastered, a larger bird can be considered. If a large bird is not controlled, it can

become highly aggressive as it begins to dominate the owner, and the relationship

can deteriorate into a dissatisfying one. Larger birds are best left to experienced

bird owners.

The potential owner must also make a commitment to learn the signs of illness in

pet birds, to seek veterinary care if illness is suspected, and to ensure that regular


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preventive care by veterinarians is provided. New owners should be instructed to

have their birds checked by a veterinarian soon after purchase, within the guaran-tee period provided by the seller, and to bring the birds to the veterinarian for

yearly physical examinations.

Characteristics of Pet Birds

Finches (Uraeginthus sp ., Poephila spp., Lonchura sp.)

The smallest pet birds seen in avian practice are finches. Many species are com-

monly available, generally with beautiful coloration. Several species are sexually

dimorphic. Most finches are relatively inexpensive, although some of the less

common species can be quite expensive.

Finches are quite vocal but not very loud. Most do well in the presence of other

finches, and bird fanciers who own finches usually have several. Generally, the life

span of finches is relatively short, commonly 8 to 10 years, although the author has

seen some finches in his practice that have lived for more than 14 years. Finches

are good pets for people who are looking for beautiful, relatively quiet birds that

do not require large amounts of time involvement or handling.

Canaries (Serinus canarius)

Once the most popular species of pet bird, canaries have declined in popularity

with the increasing availability of handraised and more interactive varieties of

birds. Canaries are small and relatively inexpensive, with many different col-

orations. Male canaries are noted for their beautiful song, although not all male

canaries are good singers. Female canaries do not sing, which accounts for the

price differential between males and females. Because male canaries sing to attract

a mate, placing another bird in the cage can stop their singing. Males usually will

not sing during their molting periods, which can last for several months.

Because canaries are highstrung birds that can be difficult to hand tame, it is rec-

ommended that they be minimally handled and kept caged. The exceptions are

birds obtained at a young age, which can often be hand tamed and will be affec-

tionate pets. In general, though, canaries can become easily stressed during han-

dling, often appearing to faint. Such an occurrence can be unnerving to an owner


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or veterinarian who opens his or her hand to see a bird lying prone or breathing

heavily and not moving. Although canaries will generally “come to” within a short period of time, such stress should be avoided. Canaries should always be watched

carefully during any procedure that requires handling, including grooming.

The life span of canaries is about 10 to 12 years, although the author saw one in

his practice that lived to be 19 1/2years old. For people who are looking for a bird

with a beautiful song, a male canary is a good choice. For those who are looking

for an affectionate companion, a female canary is a good choice if singing ability

is not a consideration. Easy to care for, canaries are good “starter” birds.

Budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus)

Commonly called parakeets, budgerigars (or budgies) are very popular among bird

owners today. Two varieties are typically seen in avian practice: the common

budgerigar {Melopsittacus undulatus), which generally weighs between 30 and 40

grams, and a variant called the English budgie, which is significantly larger, typi-

cally weighing over 50 grams, and more expensive. Both varieties are animated

and playful and can be very affectionate if hand tamed. In addition, they are good

talkers, often with large vocabularies and the ability to speak in sentences. Male budgies seem to have a greater propensity to talk than females.

In general, budgies are social birds that bond readily to people. Placing a mirror

or another bird in the cage is not recommended, since it may cause a budgie to

become less social with the pet owner, bonding instead with the cage mate or

even its own reflection and possibly reducing the likelihood of the bird talking.

Because they are very intelligent birds, budgies can often be taught to perform

elaborate tricks.

The life span for budgies is considered to be about 10 to 12 years; however, due to

disease and a propensity for developing neoplasia, few achieve longevity. An age

range of 5 to 7 years is more common. The author did see in practice a female budgie

that laid a clutch of eggs at age 18, all of which hatched and developed normally.

Because of their relatively inexpensive price, interactive nature, playfulness, and

ability to be good talkers, budgies are excellent pet birds. In addition, they require

only a minimal amount of care, making them good birds for beginners.


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Cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus)

Outstanding pet birds, cockatiels have surged in popularity in recent years.

Because they readily breed and are easily hand raised, they are commonly avail-

able and inexpensively priced. Described as “a big bird in a small bird’s body,” it

possesses many of the desirable attributes of larger birds, such as being highly

interactive and affectionate, but small in size. Handraised cockatiels are very

social, but even those birds that are not hand raised can be tamed with patience.

Cockatiels have an outstanding ability to whistle and are able to carry an extended

tune. They can also talk (males having a greater propensity for talking than

females), but they usually do not have a wide vocabulary and their words may be

somewhat garbled and unclear. Although at times cockatiels become somewhat

noisy and vocal, they are, overall, not unusually loud birds.

Their social and affectionate nature, coupled with their readiness to breed, can

sometimes cause annoyance to the pet owner. When males and females become

sexually mature, they may develop a seasonal or yearround sex drive, becoming

somewhat aggressive during this period and quite often displaying mating behav-

ior, such as masturbation on favorite toys, food or water cups, perches, and even

the owner. Female cockatiels are notorious for their egglaying behavior, which

can be stimulated by the bird owner (through handling or merely through his or her

presence) or by a favorite toy or object, with no male cockatiel required.

Nevertheless, cockatiels—especially those that are hand raised—are an excellent

choice for a first bird. Not only are they affectionate, interactive, and less intimi-

dating for children than larger birds. Cockatiels also generally have a longer life

span than most other pet birds (often surviving for more than 20 years), easing

some of the heartbreak of pet loss.

Lovebirds (Agapornis spp.)

Lovebirds will make affectionate pets if they are purchased young and have been

hand raised. Birds that have not been hand raised, however, will often be difficult

to tame. Peachfaced lovebirds seem to make better pets than black mask and

Fischer’s lovebirds. A single lovebird is recommended, since it will bond closely

to the pet owner. Paired in a cage, lovebirds will bond to each other but will

become highly aggressive to any other birds that approach their domain. They are


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frequently responsible for unprovoked attacks on other birds in a collection, dam-

aging beaks or amputating toes. Caution should be exercised whenever lovebirdsmay have access to other birds.

Not singers and not noted for their talking ability, lovebirds can, nevertheless,

become very vocal at times. From the author’s experience, their life span can reach

15 to 20 years.

Small Parrots

A current trend in pet bird ownership has been toward small parrots. They cost less

than larger birds, require smaller cages and less space, and possess many appeal-

ing attributes. Small parrots are becoming a pet of choice for many families and

they are increasingly available due to the success of domestic breeders in hand

raising them.

Quaker/Monk Parrots (Myiopsitta monachus)— Possessing an engaging, enter-

taining personality, quaker parrots (also known as monk parrots) can be very affec-

tionate pets, especially if they have been hand raised. They typically develop a

close bond with the pet owner, often with one family member in particular.

Unfortunately, when quakers become sexually mature, their desire to breed can

lead to sexual aggression or bad habits such as feather picking.

Quakers have moderate to good talking ability. Though their words may not be

especially clear, they are quite vociferous. They are longlived birds, generally

living into their twenties. One quaker in the author’s practice lived 28 years.

They are highly adaptable birds and are considered pests in some parts of the coun-

try. In the Chicago area, for example, there are extensive colonies of quakers that

live in the wild, surviving the harsh winters. It is rumored that these birds escapedfrom a quarantine station years ago. Today, they have become well established in

various communities, where they have built large communal nests.

Overall, quakers make affectionate pets. Owners should, however, be cautioned to

expect some seasonal sexual behavior.

Conures (Aratinga spp., Pyrrhura spp., Nandayus sp., Cyanoliseiis sp.)— Over

the years, conures have developed a questionable reputation as pets. Imported

Patagonian conures were feared by knowledgeable aviculturists because they were


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implicated as carriers of the virus that causes Pacheco’s disease. In addition,

conures are very noisy, and some varieties, such as the Nanday and sun conures,are notorious screamers. Most conures are poor talkers, and the words may sound

garbled and not very clear. Another negative is that they may develop an aggres-

sive nature, especially during periods of sexual activity.

Today, however, with the availability of young domestic handraised birds, the

status of conures has improved markedly. Indeed, many species of conures have

become popular as pets, and rightfully so, as they can be very interactive and

playful. Young handraised birds are preferable, since they are more easily han-

dled and more loving. Most conures are relatively longlived, with life spansoften greater than 20 years. Any client considering a conure should be encouraged

to research the different species and evaluate their pluses and minuses.

Senegal/Meyers/RedBellied Parrots (Poicephalus spp.)— Because they are

playful and have entertaining personalities, these small parrots have become very

popular with bird owners in recent years. However, owners should be advised to

make sure that their birds interact with all members of the family. If the bird does

not, it will develop a strong bond with one family member in particular, becoming

“possessive” toward that person.

These parrots have limited talking ability, and when they do talk, their speech may

be difficult to understand. Senegals tend to be somewhat territorial and may become

aggressive toward other birds in a collection. Meyers and redbellied parrots are not

as aggressive and have a somewhat mellower disposition.

Due to their affectionate and interactive nature and their manageable size, these

birds are an excellent choice for a first parrot.

Lories (Lorius spp., Pseudeos sp., Trichoglossus sp., Eos sp., Chalcopsitta sp.)—In the past, the popularity of lories was limited by the fact that they are nectar

eaters. It was a messy production to feed the birds and to clean the nectar and the

resultant sloppy droppings from their cages. However, their popularity has

increased somewhat with the availability of powdered nectar diets that meet the

birds’ nutritional needs.

Lories are among the most playful and entertaining parrots. Natural clowns, they

will roll over onto their backs and play with a ball or other toy while holding it

with their feet. Associated with this energetic personality, however, is a tendency


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to be somewhat highstrung. Their talking ability varies from moderate to good,

with some being quite good mimics.

Lories make excellent pets, but due to their animated behavior, they are probably best

recommended to more experienced bird owners. They will keep the owners amused

with their antics, as well as busy cleaning up their sloppy droppings.

Pionus Parrots (Pionus spp.)— Pionus parrots have developed a reputation for

being loving and affectionate birds. They are relatively quiet and well suited for

condominium or apartment living, where noisy birds are less appropriate.

Although Pionus parrots do vocalize, their speaking ability is generally poor. They

can live 30 to 40 years. Pionus parrots are ideal as a first parrot or for people who

are looking for a quiet, loving companion bird.

Large Parrots

African Grey Parrots (Psittacus sp.)— Probably the best talkers of all the parrots,

African grey parrots have an unmatched ability to imitate sounds and the human

voice. They are extremely intelligent birds, but with that intelligence may come

associated neuroses. Some African grey parrots can be extremely nervous, becom-

ing upset and distrustful of newcomers if there are changes in their routine. In addi-

tion, emotional and/or sexual frustration can lead to aggression or feather picking.

There are two common subspecies of African grey parrots: Congos and Timnehs.

Congos are distinguished by their larger size, black beak, and bright red tail.

Timnehs are smaller, have a lighter, brownish beak and a dusky reddishbrown tail.

Some bird owners feel that Timnehs are less nervous than Congos, seem to social-

ize better, and learn somewhat better. However, handraised African grey parrots of

both subspecies make affectionate companions.

With their phenomenal ability to mimic, their affectionate nature, and their long

life span (many live longer than 40 years), these birds make outstanding pets for

owners who understand their intelligent nature and make the commitment to

interact with them, stimulate them mentally, and meet their emotional needs.

Eclectus Parrots (Eclectus sp.)— Several species of eclectus parrots are avail-

able, all of which are beautifully colored, highly intelligent birds with excellent

talking ability. One of the few parrot species with sexually dimorphic coloration,

the males are predominantly green and the females are predominantly red.


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Eclectus parrots can be very enjoyable pets, will bond quite strongly to their own-

ers, and are longlived. However, they have a number of behavioral quirks thatmake them a poor choice for inexperienced bird owners. Generally highstrung

birds, they can display aggressiveness or feather picking during the breeding sea-

son. People who own pairs of these parrots often find that the female tends to be

the more aggressive bird and will attack or pick on the male. The male tends to be

calmer, leading to the perception that males make the better pet. Purchasing a

handraised young bird can help to minimize problems; however, birds of either

gender, whether hand raised or not, can be a problem during mating season.

Owners who are familiar with bird behavior and problem management will do

much better with eclectus parrots than will more inexperienced owners.

Amazon Parrots (Amazona spp.)—Amazon parrots are the most popular of the

large parrots. Many species are available with different colorations, personali-

ties, and mimicry ability. Talking ability is one of the most important determi-

nants in cost. Although all Amazon parrots possess the ability to talk, some are

considered excellent talkers, such as the yellownaped Amazon and the double

yellowheaded Amazon. The latter species are the parrots often seen singing and

talking on television or performing at animal shows. Unfortunately, along with

their rambunctious nature, these birds tend to show very aggressive behavior,

such as biting and screaming, when they reach sexual maturity. It is not uncom-

mon to see yellownaped and double yellowheaded Amazon parrots put up for

sale at 5 or 6 years of age by owners who can no longer handle the aggression and

biting of a dominant bird.

Other popular species of Amazon parrots include spectacled, Mexican redheaded,

lilaccrown, orangewinged, bluecrowned, and mealy Amazon parrots. The spec-

tacled Amazon parrots are the smallest species and are one of the few Amazon par-

rots with sexually dimorphic coloration. Their talking ability is somewhat limited,

but they possess a nice disposition. Bluecrowned and mealy Amazon parrots are

among the largest of the Amazon parrots and are generally the most mellow. They

are relatively good talkers, but they have a loud call.

Owners should be encouraged to purchase domestic, handraised, young Amazon

parrots, since even the more aggressive species can be affectionate pets if they

have a good start and an experienced bird owner. Older Amazon parrots that are


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put up for sale should be regarded with caution, as they may have undesirable

behavior traits.

Amazon parrots have life spans that may exceed those of their owners. It is not

unusual to see birds that are more than 60 years of age. One yellownaped Amazon

in the author’s practice lived to be over 100 years of age.

Although Amazon parrots can make entertaining, affectionate, interactive pets and

can have great talking ability, they are not recommended for novice bird owners

due to their dominant personality at sexual maturity. Any client wishing to pur-

chase an Amazon parrot should be counseled to research the various species and

their attributes so that a proper selection can be made.

Cockatoos (Cacatua spp.)— Highly intelligent and sensitive birds, cockatoos are

the “cuddlers” of the bird world, enjoying handling and having close physical con-

tact. However, these attributes, which make them so appealing as pets, also have

a downside: cockatoos can become extremely demanding for attention, exhibiting

screaming or feather picking when they do not receive it. Although cockatoos can

talk quite clearly, vocalizing in a highpitched, sweetsounding voice, they usually

do not possess a large vocabulary.

Many different species of cockatoos are available, varying in appearance, person-

ality, and price. Goffin’s cockatoos are the smallest species. They are very active,

playful, and amusing, but because of their highstrung nature, they do not tend to

be “cuddly.” Bareeyed cockatoos are considered to be the best talkers of the cock-

atoos. Although they are not commonly chosen by pet bird owners, probably due

to the somewhat unattractive large patch of bare skin around both of their eyes,

they make good pets. Citron, sulphurcrested, and umbrella cockatoos are more

common as pets due to their attractive appearance and lower cost. They are intel-

ligent, gentle, and enjoy being handled. Rosebreasted cockatoos are attractive

pinkishred and gray birds, but they are highstrung and possess limited talking

ability. Because they have a tendency to become overweight and develop fat

deposits, owners must be counseled on nutritional management. Moluccan cock-

atoos are impressive in size and coloration, but they are among the most demand-

ing of all birds for their owner’s attention. Most would be happy to be cuddled

with their owners 24 hours a day. Due to the impracticality of that arrangement,

they often develop feather picking, selfmutilation, or screaming behaviors. The

latter can be quite deafening due to the large size of these birds.


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Cockatoos are longlived birds, with a life span often exceeding 50 years. Hand

raised young birds are preferred as pets because they are easier to tame than birdsthat were not hand raised. Cockatoos may not be practical for people with aller-

gies, due to their powdery feathers. These birds are ideal pets for nonallergic

clients who are looking for a sweet, cuddly, affectionate bird and have the time to

provide it with a large amount of attention.

Macaws (Ara spp., Anodorhynchus sp.)— Macaws range in size from the small

miniature macaws to the hyacinth macaws, the largest of the parrots. In general,

both the small and large macaws are very intelligent, active, mischievous, and

good talkers. Miniature macaws commonly seen as pets include the noble, yellowcollared, and severe macaws. They are intelligent, playful, and good talkers, but

they can be somewhat “feisty” on occasion and can have behavioral changes dur-

ing periods of sex hormone activity. Overall, they are a good choice for people

who like macaw features but do not want to deal with the size and behavioral chal-

lenges of the larger macaws.

The different species of large macaws vary in size, coloration, and temperament.

Large macaws may tend to favor one person, which can pose problems when the

birds go through sexual hormone cycles. They can, for example, be highly protec-tive of the family member who is the “object of their desire” and aggressive

toward other family members. In addition, sexual frustration can lead to aggres-

sion and feather picking. Finally, because of the large size of these birds, owners

must be financially prepared to invest in extralarge, extrastrong cages and flight

areas. On the positive side, large macaws are longlived, with life spans rivaling

those of humans, and they are, for the most part, entertaining, affectionate pets.

Owners should be counseled about the behavioral characteristics of these birds so

that they can be sure they are selecting the right bird.

The blue and gold macaw is the most common macaw pet variety, largely due to its

personality and to the success of domestic breeding. Intelligent and somewhat tem-

peramental, blue and gold macaws possess fairly good talking abilities. Having a

mischievous nature, they will constantly “test” the pet owner.

Scarlet macaws are the most colorful of all the macaws and are the best talkers.

However, they have a “feisty” disposition and a tendency to give unprovoked

bites. For owners who can deal with these challenges, they make wonderful pets,

but they are not a good choice for a firsttime bird owner.


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Greenwinged macaws, despite their large size and imposing beak, are the gentlest

of the large macaws. A good choice for a first large bird, they are affectionate, gen-erally easy to handle, and have a decent talking ability.

Military macaws are less common as pets than the three large macaws already dis-

cussed, as they are often highstrung, have a tendency to nip, and have a poorer

talking ability than the other macaws. Although they can make wonderful pets in

the right situation, military macaws may be too much of a challenge for inexperi-

enced bird owners.

Hyacinth macaws are, as noted earlier, the largest of all parrots. Beautifully col-

ored and having gentle dispositions, they are the “dream bird” of many bird

fanciers. However, their cost can be prohibitive for many people. In addition, they

do not have great talking ability, and they can show some aggressive behavior

when they reach sexual maturity, which can be especially problematic due to their

size and strength.

Different types of macaws have interbred in captivity, producing several varieties

of hybrid macaws that are seen as pets, including Catalinas, harlequins, rubies, and

shamrocks. In contrast to other types of hybrid animals, they are not sterile. Some

bird organizations do not “recognize” hybrids, as they are not naturally occurring

species. Nonetheless, they possess the typical macaw characteristics and make

excellent pets.

Purchasing the Pet Bird

Clients should be encouraged to purchase pet birds from quality breeders or pet

retailers—that is, from operations that are well established, have excellent refer-ences, and, if possible, hand raise their birds. Birds obtained from quality sources

may initially be more expensive than other birds, but the care that went into their

raising and the support provided to the owner after the sale will make the invest-

ment well worth it.

Smuggling of birds occurs, so caution should be taken when purchasing a bird of

uncertain origin. A smuggled bird will not have undergone a quarantine period

and may carry disease that could affect the bird owner and/or his or her other

birds (Figure 1).


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When looking at birds to purchase, clients

should be encouraged to check for a closedmetal ring on the leg of the bird, which indi-

cates that the bird has been hand raised. The

band is slipped over the foot of the neonate

and will not slip off as the bird grows. A

stainless steel, Cshaped band with three let-

ters and three numbers (e.g., ABC 123) is a

U.S. Department of Agriculture band placed

during the quarantine period for imported

birds and indicates that the bird was not

raised domestically but did go through the

required quarantine process. If a bird has no

band, the client should check the breeder’s

records and other documentation to ensure

that the bird was domestically bred and was

not smuggled. Medical records and other documentation will show whether bands

have been removed for medical reasons, whether microchips are being used

instead of bands, and so forth.

A red flag should be raised if a bird is being sold inexpensively. Although there

may be legitimate reasons, such as lifestyle changes and personality conflicts,

the owner may be trying to pass off a bird that has a medical or surgical problem

or that has been smuggled. Clients interested in purchasing a previously owned

bird should be advised to check its medical record and have the bird examined

by an avian practitioner before the sale is final. Indeed, the purchase of all pet

birds should be contingent on examination by an avian practitioner.

Clients should also be advised to obtain a written guarantee from the seller that

contains a time provision for the buyer to have the bird examined and specifies

what will be done if a problem is found. With such a guarantee signed by both par-

ties, there will not be any questions as to who will take responsibility if treatment

is necessary or a bird needs to be replaced.

If a bird is checked within a few days of purchase, preexisting conditions can be

detected. However, after 5 to 7 days pass, if the bird becomes ill with a bacterial

infection, it would be difficult to definitely implicate a preexisting condition.

Figure 1

Smuggled bird. Red-lored Amazon parrot whose head has been bleached yellow to create the appearance of the more valuable double yellow-headed Amazon parrot.(P. S. Sakas, DVM)


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Prior to taking a new bird home, the buyer should prepare a list of questions and

concerns to discuss with the seller. It is best for the buyer to write down this list,since in the excitement of taking a bird home, key questions might be forgotten.

For birds that are not yet weaned, the buyer should question the seller about the

formula being used, the feeding schedule, and a weaning plan to be enacted when

the bird is converted to selffeeding. For birds that are already weaned, the buyer

should ask about the type of food and supplements, if any, that are currently being

provided and about the feeding schedule being used. Until the bird has acclimated

to the new environment, its diet should not be changed.

Special considerations come into play when young birds are purchased. Young birds are sweet and affectionate and they develop a wonderful bond with people,

but unless they are already weaned the new owner will need to spend time with the

seller learning how to properly hand feed the bird.

The new owner—even if he or she is experienced with birds—should practice

hand feeding the bird under the watchful eye of the seller before taking the bird

home and feeding it without assistance. Ideally, the breeder or pet retailer will

allow the new owner to prepare the food, check the temperature, and feed the bird

under his or her guidance a few times, so that the new owner can develop all thenecessary skills. The owner must learn to prepare the formula that the breeder or

retailer has been using and to feed it at the same consistency and temperature that

has been used, or the bird may refuse to eat. The bird may also refuse to eat if there

is any variation in the way it is fed, such as its position or the position of the

feeder’s hand. Finally, practice is also essential to ensure that new owners learn

proper feeding techniques. Improper handling or accidental overfilling of the crop

can cause the bird to aspirate food into its trachea, lungs, and air sacs, which may

result in sudden death or aspiration pneumonia.

Because hand feeding can harm or kill a bird if done improperly, some breeders

and pet retailers have a policy of not selling any birds before they are weaned.

Young birds that have been weaned before purchase will still develop a strong

bond with the new owner.

When a newly weaned bird is purchased, the new owner should check the bird’s

droppings at the breeder or pet retailer before taking the bird home to develop a

feel for the normal appearance and number of droppings for the bird. When the

bird is taken home, the new owner should carefully evaluate the droppings to make


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sure the bird is continuing to eat satisfactorily. With the stress of being placed in

a new environment, it is not unusual for a newly weaned bird to stop eating.Should the number or appearance of the droppings indicate that the bird is not eat-

ing enough, the bird may need to be hand fed again until it begins to eat on its

own. If such is the case, the owner should check with the breeder for suggestions.

Whether the young bird that is purchased is weaned or being hand fed, the new

owner should be instructed to weigh the bird each morning at the same relative

time before feeding using an accurate scale. Such scales can be purchased inex-

pensively. Whereas a slight fluctuation in daily weight is normal, a steady weight

decline should be cause for concern. Similarly, whereas a decline in weight isnormal when a bird is being weaned, a rapid drop in weight could indicate that

the bird is being weaned too quickly. New owners should record the daily

weights and note trends.

The owner of any new bird should be instructed to isolate the bird for at least 30

days away from any other birds. Even if the bird has been given a clean bill of

health by an avian veterinarian, some conditions may be undetectable or may be

incubating, only to develop at some later time when the bird is stressed. In addi-

tion to the risk of the new bird transmitting a disease to other birds in the collec-tion, the new bird, stressed by being placed in a new environment, is also more

prone to picking up diseases that are already present in birds in the collection.

Such diseases may be subclinical in the healthy, unstressed birds but cause prob-

lems for the new arrival with its lowered resistance. The 30day period is sug-

gested because disease conditions will generally become apparent in this time

frame, especially since the bird is being stressed by placement in the new envi-

ronment.

Contrary to the belief of some people that isolation is important only for larger birds, isolation is important for small birds as well. It is not unusual for small

birds to carry such serious diseases as chlamydiosis and Mycoplasma sp. infec-

tions as well as parasitic infections, such as giardiasis, that are readily transmissi-

ble to the other birds in a collection. Not only should the isolated bird, large or

small, be kept in a separate room from other birds, preferably in a room with sep-

arate air flow, but the owner should be instructed to wash the bird’s utensils sepa-

rately from those of the other birds and to wash his or her hands thoroughly after

handling the isolated bird.


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Even if all of these precautions are taken, it cannot be guaranteed that a new bird

will not be a source of disease for other birds in a collection. Birds can, for example, be carriers of chlamydiosis but show no outward signs of the disease. Other

diseases, such as proventricular dilatation disease (PDD), can persist undetected in

a bird for long periods of time and cause outbreaks years later. Until more research

is conducted and more diagnostic tests are developed, however, the 30day isola-

tion is an owner’s best defense against risk to the birds in his or her collection.

Counseling Clients on Good Husbandry Practices

Many health problems in pet birds are the result of poor husbandry. It is, therefore,

essential that veterinarians counsel bird owners on good husbandry practices and

be able to recognize improper practices.

The Cage and Its Accessories

The Cage

The size of cage needed will depend on the species. A general guide is that the cage

should have adequate space for exercise. At minimum, it should be large enough

for the bird to be able to fully extend its wings. For small birds, the cage should

have room for multiple perches, since small birds—especially finches and

canaries—tend to flit from perch to perch. Even for larger birds, it is recommended

that cages have more than one perch, since such an arrangement will encourage

activity. Cages that are too small can result in battered wing tips and other injuries,

as well as damage or fraying to wing and tail feathers.

Because birds have a tendency to chew, all cages should be constructed with non-

toxic materials. Commercial cages are generally safe, but homemade or refur-

bished cages can possess materials that are harmful. I f a cage is made of wood,

the owner should make sure that the wood was not treated with preservatives,

which are often toxic, and that the cage was not painted with leadbased paint. If

repairs were made to the cage, the owner must ascertain that solder was not used,

as it may contain lead. Cages that have components made from galvanized metal

that was not properly treated should be avoided when possible, since the metal is


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a source of zinc that can lead to “new wire disease,” a heavy metal toxicosis that

is occasionally encountered in birds.2 Galvanized wire (e.g., chicken wire) andclips used to construct cages, as well as galvanized containers and dishes, when

not properly treated, contain zinc.2 Adding to the problem, the white rust on gal-

vanized metal is also toxic. Scrubbing the metal with a brush and a mild acidic

solution (such as vinegar) can remove some of the “loose” zinc, reducing but not

totally eliminating the risk.

All owners should be instructed to check cages for any sharp projections or edges,

which can pose a hazard. In addition, cages for larger birds must be sturdy, as

these birds can easily dismantle a cage designed for a smaller bird. Further, sincelarger birds will damage even a sturdy cage over time, owners should be instructed

to periodically look for any loose or bent pieces of metal that can cause injury. Bar

spacing should also be checked to ensure that it is the correct width for the bird.

Spacing that is too wide can allow a bird to escape or, worse, to get its head caught

between the bars.

Cage Accessories

Because birds spend most of their lives on perches, it is essential that the perches be

comfortable, constructed in ways that will

help prevent foot problems, and be regu-

larly and thoroughly cleaned. Care should

be taken that the perches in a cage are of

different diameters, allowing more even

wear on the feet and helping to prevent

ulceration and bumblefoot. If birds have

thinning scales in the middle of their feet

(Figure 2), the perch diameters are too

small; if the scales are thinning at the

hock (Figure 3), the perch diameters are

too large.

Perches are available in numerous shapes and a variety of materials. Flat perches

are advantageous for small birds. For both large and small birds, the cage should

contain at least one soft perch, such as tubing or rope; for small birds, one perch

Figure 2

Thinning scales (pressure sores) in the middle of the foot. This condition can be caused by the use of all small-diameter perches. (P. S. Sakas, DVM)


41/368

can be padded with paper towels or mole-

skin. Especially for small birds that hopfrom perch to perch, nonrigid perches,

such as swings, branches or twigs, and

plastic hose or tubing, are important, since

they help to absorb the shock and impact

of the bird’s landing. If branches are taken

from outside for perches, they should be

from nontoxic plants and should be clean.

Care should also be taken to ensure that

they have not been sprayed with insecti-

cides or herbicides, since even tiny

amounts of these compounds can be lethal

to a bird. Perches made of untreated white

pine wood (available in hardware stores and lumberyards) are ideal for avid perch

chewers; the wood is hard enough that the bird cannot chew through it too quickly

but not so hard that the bird cannot chew it at all.

Sandpaper perch covers are not recommended, since they do not necessarily wear

down the nails and can be irritating to the feet of some birds. A cement perch, how-

ever, can help to keep the beak and nails from becoming overgrown, if the bird uses

the perch. Because the coarseness of cement perches can be irritating to the bottom

of a bird’s feet if the bird spends too much time on them, the number of concrete

perches in a cage should be limited to one and the bird’s feet should be periodically

checked for thinning scales or redness.

For several reasons, paper is recommended rather than corncob or wood shavings

for the bottom of the cage. First, the use of paper allows the number and appear-

ance of droppings to be easily monitored. Owners who use materials other than

paper in the bottom of the cage need to expend extra effort in monitoring the drop-

pings, as they will become lost in the bedding. Second, all too often, nonpaper

beddings are not changed frequently enough, becoming a source of infection.

Dusty or dirty bedding may be a source of fungal ( Aspergillus) or bacterial

(Klebsiella) contaminants.

When nesting material is used, shredded paper is typically the optimum choice.

Nesting material that is composed of fine threads or artificial fibers can wrap

Figure 3

Ulcerated hock. Can be caused by use of all large- diameter perches. Ulceration can lead to lameness and tendon damage. (P. S. Sakas, DVM)


42/368

around the bird’s toes or legs, cut-

ting off the circulation and leadingto necrosis and the loss of toes

(Figure 4). Canaries and finches

are the birds most affected. Cedar

chips and other aromatic woods

can also be problematic. Their

aroma may be too overwhelming

in a small area and can be irritating

to some birds.

Owners should be instructed to

thoroughly clean food and water

cups daily to minimize bacterial

contamination and to have the cups covered, shielded, or positioned away from

perches so that they are protected from fecal contamination. Dirty water cups are

a common source of infection for pet birds. The use of water bottles is an excel-

lent way to minimize bacterial and fecal contamination of the drinking water.

Cage toys should also be mentioned. Owners should be instructed about the haz-ards of some of the commonly available

cage toys. For example, glass mirrors can

be hazardous to large birds; stainless steel

mirrors are a much better choice. Toys

with sharp edges or hooks can lead to

severe injury. Some toys that are safe for

smaller birds can be dangerous to larger

birds, as they may dismantle the toy,

exposing hazards (Figure 5). They can, for

example, easily remove a bell from a toy

and get it lodged on their beak or crack

open a toy to expose a lead weight within.

Chew toys should be available, since birds

that do not chew enough will have over-

grown or excessively flaky beaks. Many

good chew toys are available commer

Figure 5

Coat hanger puncturing beneath the lower beak in a macaw. The hanger was used to fasten a homemade toy in the cage, which the bird dis

essentials of avian medicine a guide for practitioners

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