estimation. estimators & estimates estimators are the random variables used to estimate...

Estimation

Estimators & EstimatesEstimators are the random variables used to estimate population parameters, while the specific values of these variables are the estimates.

Example: the estimator of is often

n

XX

n

ii

1

but if the observed values of X are 1, 2, 3, and 6, the estimate is 3.

So the estimator is a formula; the estimate is a number.

Properties of a Good Estimator

1. Unbiasedness

2. Efficiency

3. Sufficiency

4. Consistency

Unbiasedness

An estimator (“theta hat”) is unbiased if its

expected value equals the value of the parameter

(theta) being estimated. That is,

)ˆ(E

In other words, on average the estimator is right on target.

Examples

. ofestimator unbiasedan is X , )XE( Since

Since E(X/n) , X/n is an unbiased estimator of .

. ofestimator unbiasedan is s , )E(s Since 2222

. 1

)X-(X s that Recall 1

2

2

n

n

i

If we divided by n instead of by n-1, we would not have an unbiased estimator of 2. That is why s2 is defined the way it is.

Bias

The bias of an unbiased estimator is

zero.

)ˆE( bias

Mean Squared Error (MSE)

])ˆ[( 2 EMSE

22 equal tohappenswhich

bias

Efficiency

The most efficient estimator is the one with the smallest MSE.

Efficiency, MSE Since 22 bias

for unbiased estimators (where the bias is zero), MSE = 2.

So if you are comparing unbiased estimators, the most efficient one is the one with the smallest variance.

If you have two estimators, one of which has a small bias & a small variance and the other has no bias but a large variance, the more efficient one may be the one that is just slightly off on average, but that is more frequently in the right vicinity.

Example: sample mean & median

As we have found, the sample mean is an unbiased estimator of .

It turns out that the sample median is also an unbiased estimator of .

We know the variance of the sample mean is 2/n.

The variance of the sample median is (/2)(2/n).

Since is about 3.14, /2 >1.

So the variance of the sample median is greater than 2/n, the variance of the sample mean.

Since both estimators are unbiased, the one with the smaller variance (the sample mean) is the more efficient one.

In fact, among all unbiased estimators of , the sample mean is the one with the smallest variance.

Sufficiency

An estimator is said to be sufficient if it uses all the information about the population parameter that the sample can provide.

Examples

Example 1: The sample median is not a sufficient estimator because it uses only the ranking of the observations, and not their numerical values [with the exception of the middle one(s)].

Example 2: The sample mean, however, uses all the information, and therefore is a sufficient estimator.

Consistency

An estimator is said to be consistent if it yields estimates that converge in probability to the population parameter being estimated as n approaches infinity.

In other words, as the sample size increases, The estimator spends more and more of its time closer and closer to the parameter value.

One way that an estimator can be consistent is for its bias and its variance to approach zero as the sample size approaches infinity.

Example of a consistent estimator

distribution of estimator when n = 50

distribution of estimator when n = 5

distribution of estimator when n = 500As the sample size increases, the bias & the variance are both shrinking.

Example: Sample Mean _We know that the mean of X is .So its bias not only goes to zero as n

approaches infinity, its bias is always zero.The variance of the sample mean is 2/n.As n approaches infinity, that variance

approaches zero.So, since both the bias and the variance go

to zero, as n approaches infinity, the sample mean is a consistent estimator.

A great estimator: the sample mean X

We have found that the sample mean is a great estimator of the population mean .

It is unbiased,

efficient,

sufficient,

& consistent.

Point Estimators versus Interval Estimators

Up until now we have considered point estimators that provide us with a single value as an estimate of a desired parameter.

It is unlikely, however, that our estimate will precisely equal our parameter.

We, therefore, may prefer to report something like this: We are 95% certain that the parameter is between “a” and “b.”

This statement is a confidence interval.

Building a Confidence Interval

We know that Pr(0 < Z < 1.96) = 0.4750

Then Pr(-1.96 < Z < 1.96) = 0.95

0 1.96 Z

0.4750

-1.96

961961 .

n

-X .-

We also know that is distributed as a standard normal (Z).

So there is a 95% probability that

n

-X

Continuing from: with 95% probability,

n

X

n

1.96 X n

1.96 - X

n 1.96 -X

n 1.96-

n 1.96 X- -

n 1.96- X-

n 1.96- X

n 1.96X

Multiplying through by ,

Subtracting off ,

Multiplying by -1 and flipping the inequalities appropriately,

Flipping the entire expression,

1.96

n

-X 1.96-

So we have a 95% Confidence Interval for the Population Mean

n

1.96 X n

1.96 - X

Example: Suppose a sample of 25 students at a university has a sample mean IQ of 127. If the population standard deviation is 5.4, calculate the 95% confidence interval for the population mean.

25

4.5 1.96 127

25

4.5 1.96 - 127

129.12 .88 124

n

1.96 X n

1.96 - X

2.12 127 2.12 - 127

We are 95% certain that the population mean is between 124.88 & 129.12 .

When we say we are 95% certain that the population mean is between 124.88 & 129.12,

it means this:

The population mean is a fixed number, but we don’t know what it is.

Our confidence intervals, however, vary with the random sample that we take.

Sometimes we get a more typical sample, sometimes a less typical one.

If we took 100 random samples and from them calculated 100 confidence intervals, 95 of the intervals should contain the population mean that we are trying to estimate.

What if we want a confidence level other than 95%?

n

1.96 X n

1.96 - X

In our formula, the 1.96 came from our the fact that the Z distribution will be between -1.96 and 1.96 95% of the time.

To get a different confidence level, all we need to do is find the Z values such that we are between them the desired percent of the time.

Using that Z value, we have the general formula for the

confidence interval for the population mean :

n Z X

n Z- X

Notice: In our confidence interval formula, we used “less than” symbols:

X - Z X Z n n

Either of these is acceptable. Recall that the formula is built upon the concept of the normal probability distribution. The probability that a continuous variable is exactly equal to any particular number is zero. So it doesn’t matter whether you include the endpoints of the interval or not.

Your textbook uses “less than or equal to” symbols:

X - Z X Z n n

Determining Z values for confidence intervals

Suppose we want a 98% confidence interval.We need to find 2 values, call them –k and k, such that

Z is between them 98% of the time.Then Z will be between 0 and k with probability half of

0.98, which is 0.49 .Look in the body of the Z table for the value closest to

0.49, which is 0.4901 .The number on the border of the table corresponding

to 0.4901 is 2.33. So that is your value of k, and the number you use for

Z in your confidence interval.

-k 0 k Z -2.33 2.33

0.4900

0.9800

Sometimes 2 numbers in the Z table are equally close to the value you want.

For example, if you want a 90% confidence interval, you look for half of 0.90 in the body of the Z table, that is, 0.45.

You find 0.4495 and 0.4505. Both are off by 0.0005.The number on the border of the table

corresponding to 0.4495 is 1.64.The number corresponding to 0.4505 is 1.65.Usually in these cases, we use the average of 1.64

and 1.65, which is 1.645.Similarly for the 99% confidence interval, we usually

use 2.575. (Draw your graph & work through the logic of this number.)

Which interval is wider: One with a higher confidence level (such as 99%) or one with

a lower confidence level (such as 90%)?

Let’s think it through using an unrealistic but slightly entertaining example.

You have the misfortune of being stranded on an island, with a cannibal & a bunch of bears.

It gets worse…You get captured by the cannibal.The cannibal, who knows the island well, decides to give you a chance to avoid being dinner. He says if you can correctly estimate the number of bears, he’ll let you go.To give you a fighting chance, he’ll let you give him an interval estimate.

You think that there are probably about a hundred bears on the island.

Would you be more confident of not being dinner if you gave the cannibal a narrow interval like 90 to 110 bears, or a wider one like 75 to 125 bears?

You would definitely be more confident with the wider interval.

Thus, when the confidence level needs to be very high (such as 99%), the interval needs to be wide.

Let’s redo the IQ example with a different confidence level.

n Z X

n Z- X

We had a sample of 25 students with a sample mean IQ of 127. The population standard deviation was 5.4 . Calculate the 99% confidence interval for the population mean.

Our general formula is:

We said that the Z value for 99% confidence is 2.575.

Putting in our values,

25

4.5 2.575 127

25

4.5 2.575 - 127

or 124.22 < < 129.78

We had for the 95% confidence interval:

124.88 < < 129.12

We just got for the 99% confidence interval:

124.22 < < 129.78

The 99% confidence interval starts a little lower

& ends a little higher than the 95% interval.

So the 99% interval is wider than the 95%

interval, as we said it should be.

What do we do if we want to compute a confidence interval for , but we don’t know

the population standard deviation ?

We use the next best thing, the sample standard deviation s.But with s, instead of a Z distribution, we have a t (with n-1 degrees of freedom). So,

n Z X

n Z- X

becomes

n t X

n t- X

1-n1-n

ss

Example: From a large class of normally distributed grades, sample 4 grades: 64, 66, 89, & 77. Calculate the 95% confidence interval for the class mean grade .

n t X

n t- X

1-n1-n

ss

is the appropriate formula.

So we need to determine the sample mean, sample standard deviation, and the t-value.

4 grades: 64, 66, 89, & 7795% confidence interval for

X64

66

89

77

296

Adding our X values,we get 296.


X64

66

89

77

296

74X

Dividing by 4, we findour sample mean is 74.


X64 -10

66 -8

89 15

77 3

296

2)( XX

74X

XX

So, next we subtract our sample mean 74 from each of our X values,

Keep in mind that the sample standard deviation is

1

)(1

2

n

XXs

n

i


X64 -10 100

66 -8 64

89 15 225

77 3 9

296 398

2)( XX

74X

XX square the differencesand add them up.

1

)(1

2

n

XXs

n

i


X64 -10 100

66 -8 64

89 15 225

77 3 9

296 398

s2 = 398/3

=132.7

2)( XX

74X

XX Then we divide by n-1 (which is 3) to get the sample variance s2,

1

)(1

2

n

XXs

n

i


X64 -10 100

66 -8 64

89 15 225

77 3 9

296 398

s2 = 398/3

=132.7

s = 11.5

2)( XX

74X

XX and take the square root to get the sample standard deviation s.

1

)(1

2

n

XXs

n

i

So we have and s = 11.5

n t X

n t- X

1-n1-n

ss

74X

4

5.11 3.182 74

4

5.11 3.182 - 47

Since n = 4, dof = n-1 = 3

Since we want 95% confidence, we want 0.95 as the middle area of our graph, and .025 in each of the 2 tails.

We find the 3.182 in our t table.

Our formula is

Putting in our numbers we have

0 3.182 t3

0.0250.950.025

So our 95% confidence interval is 56 < < 92.

The interval is very wide, because we only have 4 observations. If we had more information, we’d be able to get a narrower interval.

From our previous confidence intervals, we can see that we have a basic format, which can be

used when the point estimator is roughly normal.

n t X

n t- X

1-n1-n

ss

point estimate

std . dev. or estimate of

the std. dev. of our pt. estimate

z or t

Desired parameter

point estimate

z or t



n Z X

n Z- X

Calculating confidence intervals for the binomial proportion parameter

When the number events of interest (X) and the number of events not of interest (n-X) are each at least five, the binomial distribution can be approximated by the normal and we can develop a confidence interval for the binomial proportion parameter .

That is, we can develop a confidence interval for ,if X ≥ 5 and n-X ≥ 5 .

We need a point estimate for , & the standard deviation of our point estimate.

For the point estimate we will use the

binomial proportion variable X/n or p .

Its standard deviation was .

Since we don’t know , we will use our

sample proportion p in the standard deviation

formula.

(1 )

n

Use our format to get the confidence interval for the binomial proportion .

point estimate



z or t

Desired parameter

point estimate

z or t



(1 ) (1 )p p p pp z p z

n n

We have our confidence interval for the binomial proportion .

(1 ) (1 )p p p pp z p z

n n

Example: Consider a random sample of 144 families; 48 have 2 or more cars. Compute the 95% confidence interval for the population proportion of families with 2 or more cars.

48 1

144 3p

n = 144

21

3p

0 1.96 Z

0.95

0.4750

Our z value is 1.96 .

(1 ) (1 )p p p pp z p z

n n

0.333 0.077 0.333 0.077

1 2 1 21 13 3 3 3

1.96 1.963 144 3 144

We now have n = 144, z = 1.96, 1 2

p and 13 3

p

So our 95% confidence interval for is:

0.256 < < 0.410 .

(1 ) (1 )p p p pp z p z

n n

Suppose we want a confidence interval not for a mean but for

the difference in two means (1-2).

For example, we may be interested in

the difference in the mean income for two counties, or

the difference in the mean exam scores for two classes.

We will use the same basic format, but it will be a bit more complicated.

21 XX

21 XX

point estimate



z or t

Desired parameter

point estimate

z or t



Our “desired parameter” is 1 – 2 .

Our point estimate is .

Initially, we will assume that we have the population standard deviations, so we will use a z.

We need the standard deviation of the point

estimate, .

To get that we will first determine the variance of .

21 XX

Recall:V(aX + bY) = a2V(X) + b2V(Y) + 2ab[C(X,Y)]

Letting a = 1, b = -1, 21 XYandXX

),()1)(1(2)()1()()1()( 2122

12

21 XXCXVXVXXV

If our samples are independent, the covariance term is zero, and the expression becomes

)()1()()1()( 22

12

21 XVXVXXV

)()()( 2121 XVXVXXV or

)()()( 2121 XVXVXXV

Recall that .

Applying subscripts for our samples,

nXV

2

)(

2

2

2

1

2

121 )(

nnXXV

& the standard deviation of is

2

2

2

1

2

1

nn

21 XX

We now have

Apply our basic format

point estimate



z or t

Desired parameter

point estimate

z or t



2

2

2

1

2

121

21

2

2

2

1

2

121 )()(

nnzXX

nnzXX

Example: From 2 large classes, with normally distributed grades, sample

4 grades (64, 66, 89, & 77) & 3 grades (56, 71, & 53). If the population variances for the 2 classes are both 96, compute the 90% confidence interval

for the difference in means of the class grades.

2

2

2

1

2

121

21

2

2

2

1

2

121 )()(

nnzXX

nnzXX

We will use the formula we just developed:

We need the 2 sample means & the z value.

Adding the observations & dividing by the number of observations, our sample means are

(64 + 66 + 89 + 77) / 4 = 74 and

(56 + 71 + 53) / 3 = 60

The z value for 90% confidence, as we found before, is 1.645 .

0 1.645 Z

0.90

0.4500

Assembling our formula:

2

2

2

1

2

121

21

2

2

2

1

2

121 )()(

nnzXX

nnzXX

3

96

4

96645.1)6074(

3

96

4

96645.1)6074(

21

31.121431.121421

31.2669.121

31.2669.121

We are 90% certain that the difference in class mean grades is between 1.69 and 26.31 .

Notice that this interval does not include zero.

If 1 – 2 = 0, then 1 = 2 .

That implies that the probability is less than 10% that the class mean grades are equal.

Interpreting the results

What do we do if we want to compare means, but we don’t know the population variances?

As before, we use the sample variances & the t distribution.

Our formula was

2

2

2

1

2

121

21

2

2

2

1

2

121 )()(

nnzXX

nnzXX

2

2

2

1

2

121

21

2

2

2

1

2

121 )()(

n

s

n

stXX

n

s

n

stXX

Now the formula is

For the t, the number of degrees of freedom is determined by a very messy formula.

The degrees of freedom for the t for the confidence interval for the difference between means with

unknown variances

22 2

1 2

1 2

2 22 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

the integer part of

1 1

s sn n

dofs sn n

n n

From 2 large classes, with normally distributed grades, sample 4 grades (64, 66, 89, & 77) & 3 grades (56, 71, & 53). Compute the 90% confidence interval for the difference in means of the class grades.

This time we need to calculate the sample variances.

Let’s do the same example as before, but without knowing the population variances.

Class 1 Class 2

X1 X2

64 56

66 71

89 53

77

296 180

74 4

2961

X

60 3

1802

X

11

XX 22

XX 21

1)( XX

22

2)( XX

1

)(s Recall 1

2

2

n

XXn

ii We calculate the sample means

as before.

Class 1 Class 2

X1 X2

64 -10 100 56 -4 16

66 -8 64 71 11 121

89 15 225 53 -7 49

77 3 9

296 180

74 4

2961

X

60 3

1802

X

11

XX 22

XX 21

1)( XX

22

2)( XX

1

)(s Recall 1

2

2

n

XXn

ii

Then subtract the sample mean from each observation, square that difference,

Class 1 Class 2

X1 X2

64 -10 100 56 -4 16

66 -8 64 71 11 121

89 15 225 53 -7 49

77 3 9

296 398 180 186

74 4

2961

X

60 3

1802

X

11

XX 22

XX 21

1)( XX

22

2)( XX

1

)(s Recall 1

2

2

n

XXn

ii and add up.

Class 1 Class 2

X1 X2

64 -10 100 56 -4 16

66 -8 64 71 11 121

89 15 225 53 -7 49

77 3 9

296 398 180 186

74 4

2961

X

60 3

1802

X

11

XX 22

XX 21

1)( XX

22

2)( XX

67.1323

3982

1

s

0.932

1862

2

s

1

)(s Recall 1

2

2

n

XXn

ii Dividing by n-1, we have

our sample variances.

What are the dof & t value?

22 2

1 2

1 2

2 22 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

the integer part of

1 1

dof

s sn n

s sn n

n n

0 2.1318 t4

0.900.05

So the degrees of freedom is the integer part of 4.86 or 4.

For 90% confidence & 4 dof, the t value is 2.1318 .

2

2 2

132.67 93.04 3

= 4.860132.67 93.0

4 33 2

2

2

2

1

2

121

21

2

2

2

1

2

121 )()(

n

s

n

stXX

n

s

n

stXX

Assemble our formula

1 2

132.67 93.0 132.67 93.0(74 60) 2.1318 (74 60) 2.1318

4 3 4 3

1 23.08 31.08

1 214 17.08 14 17.08

Notice here that zero is contained in our 90% confidence interval.

So we can’t rule out the possibility that the class mean grades are equal.

We have another confidence interval for this situation.

Sometimes we believe the variances of 2 populations are equal, even though

we don’t know the actual values.

2

2

2

1

2

121

21

2

2

2

1

2

121 )()(

nnzXX

nnzXX

In our earlier formula above, we can drop the distinguishing subscripts on our variances.

2

2

1

2

2121

2

2

1

2

21 )()(nn

zXXnn

zXX

Factoring out the variance, we have

21

221

21

21

221

11)(

11)(

nnzXX

nnzXX

21

221

21

21

221

11)(

11)(

nnstXX

nnstXX

pp

Next we replace the variance by a pooled sample variance, based on information from both samples.

The dof for the t value is n1 + n2 – 2 .

The pooled sample variance

When the 2 samples are the same size, this estimator gives an estimate that is halfway between the two sample variances.

When the samples are not the same size, the estimate will be closer to the sample variance from the larger sample.

2

)1()1(

21

2

22

2

112

nn

snsns

p

So our confidence interval for the difference in the population means, when we don’t know the population variances but we believe that they are equal is:

21

221

21

21

221

11)(

11)(

nnstXX

nnstXX

pp

where2

)1()1(

21

2

22

2

112

nn

snsns

p

and the number of degrees of freedom is n1 + n2 – 2 .

We had:

Let’s do the same example as before, assuming that the unknown population

variances are believed equal.

0.93s ,67.132s ,60 ,74 2

2

2

121 XX

2

)1()1(

21

2

22

2

112

nn

snsns

p

234

0.93)2(67.132)3(

8.1165

584

We have: 8.116s ,60 ,74 2

p21 XX

0 2.015 t5

0.900.05

We want 90% confidence.

dof = n1 + n2 – 2 = 4 + 3 – 2 = 5

So our t value is 2.015 .

We have: 2.015 t8116s 60X 74X 2p21 ,.,,

21

221

21

21

221

11)(

11)(

nnstXX

nnstXX

pp

3

1

4

18.116015.2)6074(

3

1

4

18.116015.2)6074(

21

63.161463.161421

We are 90% certain that the difference in the population means is between -2.63 & 30.63.

Again, since zero is in this interval, we can’t rule out the possibility that the class mean grades are equal.

63.3063.221

We can also develop a confidence interval for the difference in population proportions

1 – 2

The point estimate is the difference in the sample proportions

1 2p p

1 2 1 2( ) ( ) ( )V p p V p V p

Recalling that our previous estimate of was ,

we have

(1 )p p

n

1 1 2 21 2

1 2

(1 ) (1 )( )

p p p pV p p

n n

( )V p

The estimated standard deviation of our point estimate becomes

1 1 2 2

1 2

(1 ) (1 )p p p p

n n

Similarly to the case of the difference in population means,

Next we need the standard deviation of our point estimate.

Using our basic format, we find the confidence interval for the difference in population proportions.

1 1 2 2 1 1 2 21 2 1 2 1 2

1 2 1 2

(1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (1 )( ) ( )

p p p p p p p pp p z p p z

n n n n

point estimate



z or t

Desired parameter

point estimate

z or t



Example: Samples from 2 states show proportions of Democrats 1/3 & 1/5 with sample sizes 100 & 225.

Calculate the 99% confidence interval for the difference in population proportions.

0 2.575 Z

0.99

0.4950

The z value for a 99% confidence interval is 2.575 .

1 1 2 2 1 1 2 21 2 1 2 1 2

1 2 1 2

(1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (1 )( ) ( )


n n n n

1 2

(0.33)(0.67) (0.20)(0.80)(0.33 0.20) 2.575

100 225

(0.33)(0.67) (0.20)(0.80) (0.33 0.20) 2.575

100 225

1 1 2 2 1 2

We have:

0.33, 1-p 0.67, 0.20, 1 0.80, n 100, n 225, z 2.575p p p

Applying the formula

yields

or1 20.13 0.14 0.13 0.14

So the 99% confidence interval for the difference in population proportions is

1 20.01 0.27

1 1 2 2 1 1 2 21 2 1 2 1 2

1 2 1 2

(1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (1 )( ) ( )


n n n n

1 20.01 0.27

Can we conclude that the two population proportions are not equal?

No. Since zero is in the interval, 1 may equal 2 .

Given our confidence interval:

How do you decide the appropriate sample size for a project?

2 Decisions:• Desired confidence level• Maximum difference D between the estimate of

the population parameter & the true value of the population parameter (that is, the maximum error you’re willing to accept)

For example, if you’re estimating the population mean using the sample mean , X

. and between difference maximum the is XD

Suppose you have chosen 95% as your desired confidence level.

You know that there is a z value (call it z0) such that - z0 < Z < z0 95% of the time.

You also know that Z. a as ddistribute is

n

X

y.probabilit 95% with So,00

z

n

Xz

. have wey,probabilit 95% With00

z

n

Xz

. have we,by gMultiplyin00

nzX

nz

n

.

,

nz is D, called wewhich

and X between difference the of value largest the that here see We

0

n

0

zD So,

n. size sample the for solve can weand

, n

zD now, have We0

First, square both sides of the equation: n

zD2

2

0

2

Multiply through by n:22

0

2 znD

Divide through by D2:2

2

2

0 Dzn

Dropping the subscript on z for convenience, we have the formula: 2

2

2

Dzn

2

2

2

Dzn

So we have a formula for determining the appropriate sample size n when we want to

estimate the population mean.

2

2

2

Dzn

Example: Suppose you’re trying to estimate the mean monthly rent of 2-bedroom apartments in towns of 100,000 people or less. The population standard deviation is 20. You want to be 95% sure that your estimate is within $3 of the true mean. How large a sample should you take?

2

2

2

3

20961

)(

)().(

3170.

You need to sample 171 observations.

It’s not 170, because sample sizes smaller than 170.3 provide you with less information & therefore less than the desired level of confidence.

Our formula for n has the population standard deviation in it.

What do we do if we don’t know ?

In the past, we used the sample standard deviation s. Why can’t we do that here?

s came from the sample. We haven’t taken the sample yet. We’re still trying to figure out how many observations our sample should have.

If previous researchers have done related work, you may be able to use their estimate for the standard deviation.

Alternatively, you can do a small preliminary sample, & based on that information, estimate the standard deviation.

Determining the appropriate sample size n for estimating the population proportion .

Again we will use - z0 < Z < z0 with the desired confidence level as

our starting point.

p-We know that is approximately standard normal.

(1- )

n

0 0So with the desired level of confidence, -z .(1 )

pz

n

0 0Starting from -z (1 )

pz

n

0 0

(1- ) (1- ) (1- )Multiply through by , -z z

n n np

We see here that the maximum difference D

between our estimator p & our parameter is: 0

(1- )z

n

0

(1 )We have now, D z

and we can solve for the sample size n.n

First, square both sides of the equation:

2 20

(1 )D z

n

Multiply through by n:2 2

0 (1 )nD z

Divide through by D2:20 2

(1 )n z

D

Dropping the subscript on z for convenience, we have the formula:

22

(1 )n z

D

There’s one big problem with this formula. What is it?

We want to collect a sample in order to estimate , but we have the unknown in our equation for determining the sample size!

We can’t use the sample proportion as we did before, because we haven’t taken the sample yet.

As it happens, we can resolve this problem fairly easily.

22

(1 )n z

D

The largest possible value for occurs when is ½, and that largest value is ¼.

Play with some values for & 1-, and convince yourself that this is true. For example,

(1/3)(2/3) = 2/9 < 1/4

(3/10)(7/10) = 21/100 < 1/4

(1/100)(99/100) = 99/10,000< 1/4

22

(1 )n z

D

If we know the largest possible value for pq, we can determine the largest sample size we should need for

Plugging in the maximum value of ¼ for , we have

2

2

D

4

1

zn

2

2

D

1

4

1z 2

2

D4

z

2

2

D4

1z

2

2

D4

zn So our formula for n is:

Sometimes you have a rough idea of what is, but you’re trying to get a more precise value.

You can use your rough idea to determine the sample size.

If 1 is your rough idea, then the sample size formula becomes

2 1 12

(1 )n z

D

2

2

D4

zn

So we have 2 formulae for determining the appropriate sample size for estimating the population proportion.

If you have no idea at all what p is, you use:

If you have a rough idea of 1 for the value of , you use:

2 1 12

(1 )n z

D

Example: We are estimating the proportion of families with 2 or more cars. We want to be 95% certain that

the estimate is within 3% (0.03) of the correct percentage. What is the necessary sample size?

We’re clueless on the proportion p, so we use the formula

2

2

D4

zn

2

2

0304

961

).(

).( 11067.

The z value for 95% confidence is 1.96 .

0 1.96 Z

0.95

0.4750

2

2

D4

zn Filling in our

values, we get

So the needed sample size is 1068.

estimation. estimators & estimates estimators are the random variables used to estimate...

Documents