ETHICS

ETHICSPhilosophy 120Also known asReligious Studies 120

Professor Marcella Norling1We are discussing no small matter, but how we ought live.Socrates, in Platos Republic

2The Oxford English Dictionary definition of PHILOSOPHY:Use of reason and argument in seeking truth and knowledge of reality, especially knowledge of the causes and nature of things and of the principles governing existenceParticular system or set of beliefs reached by this3Branches of PhilosophyEpistemology: What is knowledge?Ontology: What is the nature of existence?Aesthetics: What is beauty?Ethics: What should I do?4Ethics, or moral philosophy, ask basic questions about the good life, about what is better and worse, about whether there is any objective right and wrong, and about how we know it if there is.An ethical theory isA systematic exposition of a particular view about what is the nature and basis of good or right6 An ethical theory provides reasons or norms for judging acts to be right or wrong and attempts to give a justification 7DESCRIPTIVE: Factual, describes what IS

NORMATIVE: Evaluative, describes what SHOULD BE8

WHAT SHOULD I DO?9 EGOISMYou should act in your own best interest10UTILITARIANISMYou should act to create the greatest good for the greatest number11KANTIANISMYou should do your moral duty by following the Categorical Imperative:Form 1) Do only that which you would will to be a universal lawForm 2) Treat all people as ends, never as merely means12VIRTUE ETHICSYou should be a good (virtuous) person13NATURAL LAW ETHICSYou should act in accordance with your human nature and with the natural laws of the universe14FEMINIST ETHICSRecognize and care for all people as equally human, and attend ethically to the full range of human experience however shaped by gender. 15If NO objective truth exists:Relativism: Do what your society says is rightSubjectivism: Do what you think is rightEmotivism: Do what you feel is rightNihilism: Do whatever. Or not. Doesnt matter.16DIVINE COMMANDDo what your religion says is right17What is ethical relativism?The view that ethical values and beliefs are relative to the various individuals or societies that hold them.The view that NO objective right or wrong exists.18Two forms of ethical relativism:Cultural ethical relativism

Individual ethical relativism19Arguments FOR and AGAINST ethical relativismMoral DiversityMoral UncertaintySituational Differences20Moral DiversityFOR ER:There is no agreement on basic moral principlesAGAINST ER:Disagreement does not prove there is no truth.Some apparent disagreements are factual, not moral21Moral UncertaintyFOR ERWe just dont know for sure what is right, or if anything is right or wrong

AGAINST ERMaybe we just dont know YETWe may be unsure if we can know, but not knowing does not prove we cant know We act as if we believe some things are better than other things22Situational DifferencesFOR ER:Times and places are so different, one moral code could not possibly be right for allAGAINST ER:There may be same underlying values, just expressed differentlyObjective truth may exist without being absolute23Objective is not the same as absoluteOBJECTIVISM: says truth exists,objectivelySomething may be right, good, true, but exceptions may exist in various contexts ABSOLUTISM:Says rules or principles have NO EXCEPTIONSContext and the particular are not considered24Some attempts to come up with a universal morality:Four Directives of the Parliament of the World ReligionsUnited Religions InitiativeUnited Nations Universal Declaration on Human RightsNuremberg CodeGeneva Conventions25Declaration of the Parliament of the Worlds Religions (1993)Four Irrevocable Directives 1. Commitment to a culture of non-violence and respect for life 2. Commitment to a culture of solidarity and a just economic order 3. Commitment to a culture of tolerance and a life of truthfulness 4. Commitment to a culture of equal rights and partnership between men and women.26Psychological EgoismThe view that we all act in our own interest all the time

Descriptive: It is a claim about how people ARE

NOT an ethical theory, just a possible foundation for a theoryPsychological EgoismIs TRUE because:

We do what we want so our actions are selfishEven unselfish actions bring us pleasurePeople do what they can get away withIs NOT True because:

We sometimes act out of a sense of obligationOur own pleasure may be a by-product of unselfish actions, not a motivation

ETHICAL EGOISMAn ethical theory which claims that we all SHOULD act in our own interest

NORMATIVE, makes a claim about how humans SHOULD act

Arguments for Ethical EgoismPsychological egoism is true; we all are selfish, therefore we all should act selfishlySince everyone else will be selfish you should be too or you will lose outEveryone will be better off if we each look after our own interestsArguments against Ethical EgoismPsychological egoism is untrue

If PE is true, it is superfluous (unnecessary) to tell us to act selfishly if we all do anyway

Cannot get Ought from Is (if something IS a certain way, does not prove it SHOULD be that way)

Arguments against Ethical Egoism (cont.)We seem inhuman if we truly do not care about others; we ought not hurt them even in self interestIt is inconsistent and contradictory for me to will you to act in your interest when it may not be in my interest that you do soFamous Egoist: Thomas HobbesPublished Leviathan in 1651Without strong central government, Hobbes says we will be in a war of all against allLife in time of war is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short

Famous Egoist: Adam SmithPublished Wealth of Nations in 1776Intellectual foundation of capitalismClaims everyone will be better off if we each act in our own interest Invisible hand of free market keeps balance

Famous Egoist: Ayn RandAuthor, screenwriter Emigrated to US from USSR in 1926Promoted egoism which she called objectivism, or rational self-interestWrote The Virtue of Selfishness

Hobbes LEVIATHANCh XIII Of the Natural Condition of Mankind Concerning their Felicity and MiseryNature hath made man so equal in the faculties of the body and the mindthe weakest has strength to kill the strongestby secret machination or by confederacy with others.As to the faculties of the mindI find yet a greater equality among men, for such is the nature of menthey will hardly believe there be any so wise as themselves.From this equality of ability arises equality of hope in the attaining of our ends.Hobbes LEVIATHANCh XIII Of the Natural Condition of Mankind Concerning their Felicity and MiseryHereby it is manifest that during the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called war, and such a war is of every man against every man.In such condition, there is no place for industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertainno commodious buildingno arts; no letters; no society; continual fear and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.Hobbes LEVIATHANCh XIV Of the First and Second Natural Laws, and of ContractsThe Right of Nature is the liberty each man has to use his own powerfor the preservation of his ownlife.For as long as every man holds this right of doing anything he likes, so long all men are in the condition of war. Right is laid aside, either by simply renouncing it or transferring itThe mutual transferring of right is that which men call CONTRACT.Hobbes LEVIATHAN CH XV Of the Other Laws of NatureBut when a covenant is made, to break it is unjust: and the definition of INJUSTICE is no other than the non-performance of the covenant. Hobbes LEVIATHANPart II: Of CommonwealthCh XVII Of the Causes, Generation, and Definition of a Commonwealthcovenants without swords are but wordsthe laws of nature are contrary to our natural passionsThe only way to erecta common poweris to confer all their power and strength upon one man or upon one assembly of men

UtilitarianismWe should act to create the GREATEST GOOD for the GREATEST NUMBER

GGGNJeremy BenthamGodfather to JS MillPromoted utilitarian ideasCreated the Hedonic Calculus to measure pleasure

Benthams Hedonic CalculusThe Hedonic Calculus is an instrument for measuring the amount of pleasure to be created by a particular actIntensityDuration (length of time)Certainty (likelihood)Propinquity (proximity, nearness in space/time)Fecundity (fertility, ability to increase upon itself)Purity (pleasure minus the amount of pain )Extent (effects overall)John Stuart MillUtilitarianism 1861Godson of Jeremy BenthamRaised on principle of utility by Bentham and Mill Sr.Improved upon Benthams ideas on utility

INTRINSIC good: Good in and of itself

INSTRUMENTAL good: Good for getting to something elseMILL said we must measure both QUANTITY and QUALITY when measuring pleasuresMILL said there are HIGHER and LOWER pleasures.Humans can appreciate higher pleasures; pigs cannot.ACT Utilitarianism: Consider the consequences of this act alone

RULE Utilitarianism: Consider the consequences of this act as a general practice (if most people did it most of the time)Immanuel Kant1785, published Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals

Kants Categorical ImperativeForm OneI. I am never to act otherwise than so that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law

(Modern version: Do only that which you would will to be a universal law)Kants Categorical ImperativeForm TwoII. So act as to treat humanity, whether in thine own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end withal, never as a means only

(Modern version: Treat all people, yourself included, as an end, never as merely a means) Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called good without qualification, except a Good Will. Even if it should.... lack power to accomplish its purpose... like a jewel, it would still shine by its own by its own light, as a thing which has whole value in itselfKants four examples of how to apply the Categorical Imperative:Suicide2. Lying Promise3. Rusting Talents4. Aid the NeedyHow to become virtuous, according to Aristotle:1. Practice habits of virtueIntellectual virtues: can learn from a teacher-Moral virtues: can only learn through experience and habit2. Aim for the Golden MeanThe Golden Mean is the midpoint between extremes, between deficiency and excess

An example of the midpoint is the virtue of courage:Too little=cowardlyCourage= just enough (the mean)Too much=foolhardy

3. Strive for excellence (arete)Develop your character to be the best it can beThe word natural can meanThe Norm: characteristic of most members of a speciesRight purpose: Using something as intended, for its intended purposeOccurring in nature: not created artificially, happens on its own without human interventionSociobiology:Systematic study of the biological basis of all forms of societal behavior in all speciesSt. Thomas Aquinas accomplished the GREAT SYNTHESISCombining Aristotle with Christianity to produce a religiously based concept of the ordered universe with natural laws operating in itNatural Law? Used and abused:Social Darwinism: Applies biological principles to societal constructs; survival of the fittest; justified exploitation of workers by industrialistsRacism: Presumes biological inferiority of some groups; used to justify slavery, legal inequality, limit access to goodsSexism: Woman and men naturally have different roles; used to justify unequal legal, educational, and economic rightsDO men and women reason differently about morality?IF men and women reason differently about morality, WHY might that be?Explanations for a difference MIGHT include:BIOLOGYSOCIAL TRAININGPSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENTBIOLOGICAL INFLUENCESBrain structure HormonesPhysical strength/ body and muscle massBeing able to get pregnantGiving birthSOCIAL/CULTURAL INFLUENCESocialization from birthEducationExpectations (vocational, familial)Role training as caregiversPSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENTFreudMale life task: differentiate from feminine, develop autonomyFemale life task: seek similarity to, and relationship with, feminineTraditional Ethical PerspectivesFEMININE:ResponsibilityRelationshipSolidarityPersonalPartialPrivateNaturalFeelingCompassionateConcreteMASCULINE:RightsIndividualAutonomyImpersonalImpartialPublicContractualReasonFairUniversalTraditional justice theories of Ethics see people as:Detached (digital, isolated units)Self-sufficientEqual in social powerCalculators and plannersTraditional idea of rationality :Leaves out a lotExaggerates the role of reasonIs a highly abstract idealizationCARE ETHICSWe are all embedded in a web of social relationshipsIdeal self of other theories is false, and it is not the only modelMorally crucial work takes place in private areas of lives