Europeans and China:

the Opium Wars and the Boxer Rising

Why, and with what effects, did the Chinese resist European influence?

Key terms

Qing Dynasty

Opium wars – 1839-1842 and 1856-1860

Unequal treaties (e.g.Treaty of Nanjing)

Boxer Rebellion

Europe's scramble for Africa did not leave South and East Asia at peace. Beginning in the

seventeenth century, Great Britain formed and maintained an economic relationship with India. By

the end of the eighteenth century, British rule of India was firmly planted and London came to view

India as the jewel of its empire. This view guided its foreign policy. For decades, Britain used its

military victories and naval superiority to ensure uninterrupted routes to India and beyond, hence

its island holdings in the Mediterranean, along the west African coast, at the southern tip of Africa,

and, most importantly, the Suez Canal. By the end of the eighteenth century, Indo-British economic

ties were so entrenched in a neo-mercantile system that India provided a stepping stone for British

trade with China. Britain traded English wool and Indian cotton for Chinese tea and textiles;

however, as Chinese demand slackened, Britain sought other means of attracting trade with China.

By the 1830s, Britain realized it could make up the trade deficit with China by selling Indian opium

into the Chinese market, making opium Britain's most profitable and important crop in world

markets. Eventually, opium poured into China faster than tea poured into British hands; soon,

Chinese merchants, already addicted themselves and buying for an addicted population, paid

British opium traders in pure silver.

Concerned with the sharp rise in opium addiction and the associated social costs and rise in criminal

acts, the Chinese government, led by the aging Manchu dynasty, took action against the British. In

1839, the Chinese destroyed British opium in the port city of Canton, sparking the Opium Wars of

1839- 1842. Easily dominating the backward Chinese forces, the British expeditionary force

blockaded Chinese ports, occupied Shanghai, and took complete control of Canton. The 1842

Treaty of Nanking granted Britain extensive trading

and commercial rights in China, marking the first in

a series of unequal treaties between China and

European imperial powers. By the end of the

century, after five wars between China and various

European powers, France, Britain, Germany, Japan,

and Russia held territorial and commercial

advantages in their respective spheres of influence.

These spheres of influence comprised territories,

ports, shipping lines, rivers, et cetera in which one

nation held exclusive rights to profits and

investment.

In addition, and most irritating to the Chinese, Europeans maintained extraterritoriality inside

thousands of Chinese port cities. Extraterritoriality meant that foreigners were exempt from

Chinese law enforcement and that, though on Chinese land, they could only be judged and tried by

officials of their own nation who generally looked the other way when profit was the goal. The

resulting lawlessness on the part of the Europeans, combined with the actuality of European

economic, political, and military domination of the Chinese, contributed to a virulent anti-imperial

sentiment.

In 1900, the Boxer Rebellion saw that sentiment explode into mass

social unrest and war. With secret encouragement from the Chinese

empress, the Boxers, dedicated to ending foreign exploitation in

north China, killed scores of European and seized the large foreign

legation in Beijing. Reacting immediately, an international

expeditionary force of Japanese, Russian, British, American,

German, French, Austrian, and Italian troops put down the revolt

and sacked Beijing to protect the interests of their respective

countries. Afterward, the European powers propped up a weak

central government for their own economic benefit.

Beyond China, European imperialism in Asia remained strong.

Britain moved into Hong Kong in 1842, into Burma in 1886, and

into Kowloon in 1898. France took direct control over the

provinces of Indochina--Annam, Tonkin, and Cochinchina (which

together make up modern day Vietnam), Laos, and Cambodia.

Opium Wars, two armed conflicts in China in the mid-19th century between the forces of

Western countries and of the Qing dynasty, which ruled China from 1644 to 1911/12. The first

Opium War (1839–42) was fought between China and Britain, and the second Opium War

(1856–60), also known as the Arrow War or the Anglo-French War in China, was fought by

Britain and France against China. In each case the foreign powers were victorious and gained

commercial privileges and legal and territorial concessions in China. The conflicts marked the

start of the era of unequal treaties and other inroads on Qing sovereignty that helped weaken and

ultimately topple the dynasty in favor of republican China in the early 20th century.

The First Opium War vs.

The Opium Wars arose from China’s attempts to suppress the opium

trade. Foreign traders (primarily British) had been illegally exporting

opium mainly from India to China since the 18th century, but that

trade grew dramatically from about 1820. The resulting widespread

addiction in China was causing serious social and economic

disruption there. In March 1839 the Chinese government confiscated

and destroyed more than 20,000 chests of opium—some 1,400 tons

of the drug—that were warehoused at Canton (Guangzhou) by

British merchants. The antagonism between the two sides increased

a few days later when some drunken British sailors killed a Chinese

villager. The British government, which did not wish its subjects to

be tried in the Chinese legal system, refused to turn the accused men over to the Chinese courts.

Hostilities broke out several months later when British warships

destroyed a Chinese blockade of the Pearl River (Zhu Jiang)

estuary at Hong Kong. The British government decided in early

1840 to send an expeditionary force to China, which arrived at

Hong Kong in June. The British fleet proceeded up the Pearl

River estuary to Canton, and, after months of negotiations there,

attacked and occupied the city in May 1841. Subsequent British

campaigns over the next year were likewise successful against

the inferior Qing forces, despite a determined counterattack by

Chinese troops in the spring of 1842. The British held against

that offensive, however, and captured Nanjing (Nanking) in late

August, which put an end to the fighting.

Peace negotiations proceeded quickly, resulting in the Treaty of Nanjing, signed on August 29. By

its provisions, China was required to pay Britain a large indemnity, cede Hong Kong Island to the

British, and increase the number of treaty ports where the British could trade and reside from one

(Canton) to five. Among the four additional designated ports was Shanghai, and the new access to

foreigners there marked the beginning of the city’s transformation into one of China’s major

commercial entrepôts. The British Supplementary Treaty of the Bogue (Humen), signed October

8, 1843, gave British citizens extraterritoriality (the right to be tried by British courts) and most-

favored-nation status (Britain was granted any rights in China that might be granted to other foreign

countries). Other Western countries quickly demanded and were given similar privileges.

The Second Opium War vs.

In the mid-1850s, while the Qing government was embroiled in trying to quell the Taiping

Rebellion (1850–64), the British, seeking to extend their trading rights in China, found an excuse

to renew hostilities. In early October 1856 some Chinese officials boarded the British-registered

ship Arrow while it was docked in Canton, arrested several Chinese crew members (who were later

released), and allegedly lowered the British flag. Later that month a British warship sailed up the

Pearl River estuary and began bombarding Canton, and there were skirmishes between British and

Chinese troops. Trading ceased as a stalemate ensued. In December Chinese in Canton burned

foreign factories (trading warehouses) there, and tensions escalated.

The French decided to join the British military expedition, using as their excuse the murder of a

French missionary in the interior of China in early 1856. After delays in assembling the forces in

China (British troops that were en route were first diverted to India to help quell the Indian Mutiny),

the allies began military operations in late 1857. They quickly captured Canton, deposed the city’s

intransigent governor, and installed a more-compliant official. In April 1858 allied troops in British

warships reached Tianjin (Tientsin) and forced the Chinese into negotiations. The treaties of

Tianjin, signed in June 1858, provided residence in Beijing for foreign envoys, the opening of

several new ports to Western trade and residence, the right of foreign travel in the interior of China,

and freedom of movement for Christian missionaries. In further negotiations in Shanghai later in

the year, the importation of opium was legalized.

The British withdrew from Tianjin in the summer of 1858, but they returned to the area in June

1859 (en route to Beijing to sign the treaties) and were shelled by the Chinese from shore batteries

at Dagu at the mouth of the Hai River and driven back with heavy casualties. The Chinese

subsequently refused to ratify the treaties, and the allies resumed hostilities. In August 1860 a

considerably larger force of warships and British and French troops destroyed the Dagu batteries,

proceeded upriver to Tianjin, and, in September, captured Beijing and plundered and then burned

the Yuanming Garden, the emperor’s summer palace. Later that year the Chinese signed the Beijing

Convention, in which they agreed to observe the treaties of Tianjin and also ceded to the British

the southern portion of the Kowloon Peninsula adjacent to Hong Kong.

Unequal treaties

Treaty of Nanjing, signed on August 29. By its provisions, China was required to pay

Britain a large indemnity, cede Hong Kong Island to the British, and increase the

number of treaty ports where the British could trade and reside from one (Canton) to

five.

British citizens eventually received extraterritoriality (the right to be tried by British

courts) and most-favored-nation status

Treaties of Tianjin: provided residence in Beijing for foreign envoys, the opening of

several new ports to Western trade and residence, the right of foreign travel in the

interior of China, and freedom of movement for Christian missionaries.

Beijing Convention – Chinese agree to observe Treaties of Tianjin

Describe the Chinese opium trade of the early nineteenth century.

It was organized by members of the East India Company

British ships took the opium from India to the Chinese coast

Native merchants then smuggled the opium into China

Successive emperors declared the trade illegal

British merchants wanted Chinese tea but it had to be paid for in silver

The ‘illegal’ opium trade was a way of financing the tea purchases

By the 1830s, there were an estimated 12 million addicts in China

The rampant demand and porous border encouraged the Americans to join the trade,

importing an inferior Turkish brand of opium

What were the ‘unequal treaties’ forced on China?

The unequal treaties were signed between Western powers and the Qing dynasty of

China.

The treaties were imposed on China.

China was threatened with military action if they were not accepted.

China got very little in return.

The Treaty of Nanking, 1842, was one of the first treaties.

It opened up five trading ports to Britain including Canton and Shanghai.

It allowed Christian missionaries into China.

It allowed foreign offenders to be tried by their own consular authorities.

The Treaty of Tianjin in 1858 forced China to open more ports.

It also legalized the importation of opium. The main beneficiaries of the treaties were Britain, France, USA, and Russia.

Describe the impact of the opium trade on China in the 1830s.

British ships took opium from India to the Chinese coast.

It was organized by members of the East India Company.

Native merchants smuggled the opium into China.

Successive emperors declared the trade illegal.

British merchants wanted Chinese tea but it had to be paid for in silver.

The illegal opium trade was a way of financing the tea purchases.

By the 1830s, there were an estimated 12 million addicts in China.

Many Chinese were unemployable because of their addiction.

There was increasing crime as the Chinese tried to fund their addiction.

The huge demand and porous border encouraged the Americans to join the trade.

The emperor refused to legalize and tax the opium trade.

It led to ill-feeling between the Chinese government and Western merchants.

The opium trade partly led to the first Opium War.

China lost silver.

Why did the Chinese resist European influence?

The Qing dynasty did not want to change Chinese culture. Attitudes of the ruling elite

had not changed since Ming times.

It was not to question the cultural superiority of Chinese civilization and the position of

the empire as the hub of the perceived world. To promote the adoption of foreign ideas

was viewed as tantamount to heresy.

China wanted to remain isolated

China did not want any trade

The Emperor believed China had all it needed

He did not want to corrupt Chinese culture

The Chinese thought their culture was superior to the West.

Imperialism in China 1820-1900

China was a major target of European Imperialism.

A number of significant events that occurred during this period:

Opium Trade

First and Second Opium Wars

Treaty of Nanking, 1842

Tientsin Treaty, 1858

Beijing Conventions, 1860

The Chinese culture attempted to deal with the European culture by attempting to

isolate themselves from any contact with the Europeans whom they considered

barbarians.

China in the 1800’s

Even in the past China was the most populated nation in the world

Although it was not industrialized China was able to meet the needs of the people and

was virtually self sufficient

China had little interest in trading with European nations as they felt that the goods

were inferior to Chinese goods

In fact the European nations were only allowed to trade at one port – Canton

This made the imperial powers desperate to access the huge Chinese market

To do this they had to find a product the Chinese would trade for

The Opium Wars - War on Drugs

The British East India company soon found the product – opium

The drug was highly controlled in both England and India but was manufactured and

smuggled into China to extend British control

Many of the Chinese became addicted to the drug and were then dominated by the

British

The Chinese government was so weakened by the smuggling that they were powerless

to stop it

Even pleas to Queen Victoria fell on deaf ears and the opium trade continued

The drug trade in south-east Asia eventually led to open war between the British and

the Chinese

The Chinese were overmatched and the British easily defeated them forcing an unfair

treaty on the Chinese

The Treaty of Nanking

The Treaty of Nanking opened four more ports to British goods and allowed the

British East India Company to extend their power into China

With China weakened the other countries of Europe soon carved out spheres of

influence

The USA was envious and implemented the Open Door Policy allowing equal trade

with China

Even Japan took part in dividing up China

The Boxer Rebellion

The Boxer Rebellion targeted both the Manchu dynasty in China and the influence of European

powers within China. Though the Boxer Rebellion failed it did enough to stir up national pride

within China itself.

In 1895, China had been defeated by Japan. This was a humiliation for the Chinese as Japan had

always been considered as a lesser nation to China. China lost control of Korea and Formosa to

Japan. Within the elite of Chinese society, it was believed that this defeat was entirely the blame

of the Europeans who were dominant in China and that they alone were responsible for China’s

defeat.

Many Chinese began to feel the same. It was believed that the Europeans were driving China’s

domestic and foreign policy and that the situation was getting out of control. By the end of the

Nineteenth Century, a strong sense of nationalism swept over China and many wanted to reclaim

China for the Chinese. In 1898, these feelings boiled over into rebellion composed largely of

unemployed peasants and farmers, anti-foreign in belief and violent in action. They were called the

Boxers by foreigners because of the martial arts many of the rebels practiced. The rebellion began

in north China in the Shantung Province. This province was a German sphere of influence and

Germany dominated the rail lines, factories and coal mines that existed in Shantung. The Germans

made considerable profits while the Chinese there were paid very poor wages and lived very poor

lifestyles.

The beginning of the Boxer Rebellion can be traced to the 1899 killing of

two priests by two Boxer members visiting a German missionary in Juye

County, China. In response, Kaiser Wilhelm II, the German leader at the

time, dispatched German troops to the scene of the crime, which further

angered the rebels. The ongoing presence of foreign military to intimidate

and attempt to control the local population ignited a spark of rebellion. By

late October they occupied a Catholic church that had once been a temple

to the Jade emperor and continued on their path of violence. “Support the

Qing, destroy the foreigners” became their slogan as they continued to

resist foreign military control.

In Shantung, gangs of Chinese people roamed the streets chanting “Kill the Christians” and “Drive

out the foreign devils”. Germans who lived in Shantung were murdered as were other European

missionaries. Those Chinese who had converted to Christianity were also murdered.

Those behind the Shantung rebellion belonged to a secret society called Yi Ho Tuan – which meant

“Righteous Harmony Fists” when translated into English. This was shortened to Boxers and the

rebellion has gone done in history as the Boxer Rebellion. By 1900, the rebellion had started to

spread across northern China and included the capital Peking.

One of the targets of the Boxers was the Manchu government. They were seen as being little more

as unpatriotic stooges of the European ‘masters’ who did nothing for national pride.

The inspiration behind the Manchu government was the Empress Dowager. She

was nicknamed “Old Buddha” – but never to her face. She had been married to the

former emperor and was a very clever person. China was a society where women

were ‘kept in their place’, therefore, she was an oddity within that male dominated

society. Empress Dowager Tzu realized what was going on and made secret

contact with the Boxers offering them her support which they accepted. This

allowed the Boxers to turn their full attention to the Europeans.

Peking had many Europeans living in it in 1900. Their lifestyle was completely

different to that of the Chinese who lived in the city. The Europeans effectively treated the Chinese

in Peking as their slaves. It was not surprising that the Boxers found many ready supporters in

Peking.

As the Chinese aversion and anger to foreigners escalated, their safety became increasingly

precarious as the Boxers’ armed struggle continued. One British newspaper gave the following

account:

Peking, May 20 [1900.] From all parts of the surrounding country news is constantly arriving of

fresh atrocities committed by the “Boxers.” On the 20th inst., at Shan-lai-ying, sixty miles from

Peking three Christian families were murdered, only two persons escaping. . . .

Besides this, much of the rolling stock was burned or otherwise damaged by the rioters, and some

large warehouses full of valuable merchandise were burned after their contents had been looted.

The total amount of the damage is roughly estimated at half a million taels [a weight measurement

in China.] Among the rolling stock destroyed was the Imperial Palace car, which alone cost 1,700

taels. . . .

Initially Qing troops suppressed the Boxers, but in January 1900 the dynasty ordered that the

Boxers should not be considered bandits. When the Boxer Rebellion reached Beijing’s (Peking’s)

foreign embassies in the spring of 1900, more violence was unleashed against foreigners.

In June 1900, it became clear that the Europeans lives were in danger and many prepared to leave

the city. The German ambassador in China wanted to register one final protest at the way the

Europeans were being treated in China. As he made his way to the Royal Palace to protest, he was

dragged from his sedan chair (being carried by Chinese) and murdered. The message was clear.

Even the high and mighty were not safe. The rest of the Europeans crowded into the British

Legation for their own safety. They were defended by an assortment of 400 European soldiers and

sailors nicknamed the “Carving Knife Brigade” because of their lack of proper weapons. They

fought off the Boxers with great bravery.

The Boxers burned Christian churches, killed Chinese Christians, and violently intimidated any

Chinese official who attempted to suppress their revolt. The violence continued to escalate into

what is known today as the “siege of the legations,” or the occupation of foreign embassies. The

empress dowager implored all foreigners to leave the city immediately, and when many remained

barricaded out of fear for their lives, she declared war on all foreigners and allied herself with the

Boxers. In response, the Eight-Nation Alliance (Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan,

Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) sent their own military forces to end the siege.

The Siege of the Legation lasted for 55 days until an international force marching from Tientsin on

the coast managed to relieve them. The Boxers were overwhelmed. Fearing for her safety, the

empress fled to Xi’an, a safe location at the time, with her high-ranking Qing officials and remained

there until a final peace agreement, the Boxer Protocol, was signed in 1901.

66 Europeans had been killed in this time and 150 had been wounded. This type of treatment was

unforgivable from a European point of view. America had also been shocked by the treatment of

the Europeans.

The international force, as a punishment, went on a rampage in Peking. Peking was extensively

damaged. The Chinese government was also ordered to pay $450 million in compensation – a vast

sum of money for any nation let alone one as poor as China. The European force then took its

revenge on the Boxers. Those caught were given little mercy and they were beheaded in public.

The Manchus were effectively forgiven as was the Dowager Empress despite her apparent

treachery. She and her family were allowed to return to the Forbidden Palace in Peking facing no

punishment other than European nations re-establishing their authority over the Chinese. She had

no other choice but to be compliant.

Troops of the Eight Nations Alliance, left to right: Britain, United States, Australian Colonial, British India,

Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Italy, Japan

The empress dowager and the Qing court had suffered another humiliating defeat. For the past 60

years, Western powers had slowly eroded Chinese sovereignty and undermined Qing legitimacy

and power. By the turn of the twentieth century new leaders of resistance movements, such as the

Boxers, introduced the possibility for their nation to be strong once again.

Kaiser Wilhelm’s II “Hun Speech” 1900 on the Boxer Rebellion

Wilhelm II delivered this speech in Bremerhaven on July 27, 1900. He was addressing German

troops who were departing to suppress the Boxer rebellion in China. The speech is infused by

Wilhelm's fiery and chauvinistic rhetoric and clearly expresses his vision of German imperial

power. There were two versions of the speech. The Foreign Office issued an edited version,

making sure to omit one particularly incendiary paragraph that they regarded as diplomatically

embarrassing.

“Great overseas tasks have fallen to the new German Empire, tasks far greater than many of my

countrymen expected. The German Empire has, by its very character, the obligation to assist its

citizens if they are being set upon in foreign lands. The tasks that the old Roman Empire of the

German nation was unable to accomplish, the new German Empire is in a position to fulfill. The

means that make this possible is our army.

It has been built up during thirty years of faithful, peaceful labor, following the principles of my

blessed grandfather. You, too, have received your training in accordance with these principles,

and by putting them to the test before the enemy, you should see whether they have proved their

worth in you. Your comrades in the navy have already passed this test; they have shown that the

principles of your training are sound, and I am also proud of the praise that your comrades have

earned over there from foreign leaders. It is up to you to emulate them.

A great task awaits you: you are to revenge the grievous injustice that has been done. The

Chinese have overturned the law of nations; they have mocked the sacredness of the envoy, the

duties of hospitality in a way unheard of in world history. It is all the more outrageous that this

crime has been committed by a nation that takes pride in its ancient culture. Show the old

Prussian virtue. Present yourselves as Christians in the cheerful endurance of suffering. May

honor and glory follow your banners and arms. Give the whole world an example of manliness

and discipline.

You know full well that you are to fight against a cunning, brave, well-armed, and cruel enemy.

“Should you encounter the enemy, he will be defeated! No quarter will be given! Prisoners will

not be taken! Whoever falls into your hands is forfeited. Just as a thousand years ago the Huns

under their King Attila made a name for themselves, one that even today makes them seem mighty

in history and legend, may the name German be affirmed by you in such a way in China that no

Chinese will ever again dare to look cross-eyed at a German.”

Maintain discipline. May God’s blessing be with you, the prayers of an entire nation and my

good wishes go with you, each and every one. Open the way to civilization once and for all!

Now you may depart! Farewell, comrades!”

Why was the Boxer Rebellion significant for China?

As a result of the Boxer Rebellion, the Eight Nation Alliance brought 20 000 armed

troops to China, defeating the Imperial Army and capturing Beijing. Uncontrolled

plunder of the capital and the surrounding countryside ensued, along with the summary

execution of those suspected of being Boxers.

The Boxers were unofficially encouraged to rebel against foreigners.

The Qing dynasty was crumbling and Chinese culture was under attack.

The Rebellion led to attacks on Christian missionaries and priests.

Empress Dowager Cixi declared war against all foreign powers.

In the fighting between the Chinese and the Eight Nation Alliance there were many

atrocities.

The Boxer Protocol provided for the execution of government officials who had

supported the Boxers.

Foreign troops were to be stationed in Beijing.

450 million taels of silver to be paid as an indemnity over 39 years to the eight nations.

It was the beginning of the end of the Manchu dynasty.

How successful was the Boxer Rebellion?

In 1900, the Boxers converged on Beijing to ‘exterminate foreigners’. Foreigners and

Chinese Christians took refuge in the Legation Quarter, which was placed under siege

for 55 days. The Boxers gained support from the Empress Dowager Cixi who declared

war on foreign powers.

The Boxer Protocol of 1901 provided for the execution of government officials who had

supported the Boxers, provisions for foreign troops to be stationed in Beijing and a heavy

fine, more than the government’s annual tax revenue, to be paid to the eight nations over

39 years.

The Boxers attacked foreigners and Christians.

They persuaded the Empress Dowager Cixi to support the Boxers.

The Legation Quarter was laid siege to for 55 days.

The Eight Nation Alliance defeated the Boxers.

There was uncontrolled plunder of the capital.

There were executions of those suspected of being Boxers.

Government officials who supported the Boxers were executed.

How important for the West was intervention in China? Explain your answer.

West European nations and the USA were keen to open up China for trade. The West

wanted China’s silk, tea and porcelain, while China wanted armaments, steamships,

modern machinery, military training and opium.

During the nineteenth century, the trade with China was relatively small compared to the

trade with India, Australia, Canada and many African states. The trade with these

countries brought in many raw materials and provided markets for manufactured goods.

The West wanted more trade.

The West wanted high priced goods such as silk and tea

In quantity and value, the trade was small for most of the century.

India was more profitable with precious stones, spices and textiles being traded for

manufactured goods.

Effects of European Imperialism in China

What were the effects of the European imperial adventure? Some look at the world today through

an economic lens and see both great successes and great disasters that emerged from the imperial

era: some primitive nations received the necessary infrastructure to develop, as the successful

capitalist states in east Asia seem to suggest, while others were destroyed by economic and social

exploitation, as the countries of Africa seem to suggest. However, we are looking in the very long

run. Let us consider a few contemporaneous consequences of imperialism for European and world

society.

An interdependent world economy developed with Europe at its center. Colonies provided

necessary raw materials for the advanced industrial production in European factory centers such as

London, Manchester, and Berlin. Capital flowed out of the wealthy nations of Western Europe and

into colonial areas to support projects that required heavy capital investment and promised strong

returns, such as railroad construction, industrial development, et cetera. London became the

financial center of the world, serving as a clearing-house for billions of dollars worth of world-

wide investment. Capital became fluid throughout the world, loans were extended for the long run,

domestic stock markets skyrocketed and, depending upon the extent of empire, remained somewhat

insulated from the boom and bust cycles of late nineteenth century capitalism.

Barely a handful of countries, outside of the western hemisphere, remained independent. Ethiopia,

Siam, and Liberia were three conspicuously colorless locations on a world map tinted with imperial

ink. Europe was at the epicenter of political domination of the world due to its imperial successes.

It could leverage trade, strategic bases, and access to necessary waterways in order to achieve

diplomatic success.

The dark side of imperialism, the arguments for cultural and racial superiority of the European

peoples, were common throughout the imperial world. Rudyard Kipling, writing about the

American imperial venture in the Philippines, spoke of a "White Man's burden" to civilize,

improve, and educate the native populations that was in large part based on social Darwinism.

The ecological effects of imperialism were mixed throughout the world. Imperialism led to the

dislocation of thousands of small societies--especially in Africa--when the Europeans drew

haphazard and illogical lines on the colonial maps. Industrial development disturbed the pristine

environment of previously undamaged territories, the traditional societies were replaced by

European businessmen and investors. While slavery had gone out of favor some time ago, African

and Asian men and women were viewed as cheap labor for European factories; therefore, slavery

conditions persisted.

On an intellectual level, the rapid proliferation of empire in the late nineteenth century contributed

to a growing critique of capitalism from the Marxist left. In, 1916, Vladimir I. Lenin, the

revolutionary communist leader in Russia, argued in his pamphlet Imperialism, the Highest Stage

of Capitalism that capitalist states required vast empires to maintain enough markets with whom to

trade. This, in turn, contributed to the exploitation of native populations and, as capitalist investors

brought industry to the empire, the awakening of the native workers to their destiny under the

Marxist scheme of economic development. With workers of the world--from Europe to the farthest

reaches of the empire--then united against capitalism, socialism will follow after imperialism.