A LEVEL SOCIOLOG

YA-Level Paper 1: Education with Theory & Methods

Topic: EDUCATION

Booklet 1: The Role of the Education

System

FUNCTIONALISM & The Role of the Education SystemFunctionalism is based on the view that society is a system of different parts held together by a shared culture or value consensus - an agreement among society's members about what values are important. The education system, along with other institutions like the family & religion, performs particular functions that help to maintain this value consensus.

When studying education therefore, functionalists seek to discover what functions it performs – how does it benefit society?Functionalists argue there are THREE central roles of functions of the education system:

1) Socialisation2) Skills3) Social Selection

1) SOCIALISATIONThe first role of the education system according to functionalists is the role of socialisation.Definition: The term ‘socialisation’ refers to the way the education system is an institution that teaches pupils the norms and values of society. This can be done explicitly, through the formal curriculum or implicitly through the informal or ‘hidden’ curriculum.

A) Durkheim: Social Solidarity

The French sociologist Emile Durkheim (1903), argued that society needs a sense of solidarity, or togetherness. Its individual members must feel themselves to be part of a single 'body' or community. He argues that without social solidarity, social life and cooperation would be impossible because each individual would pursue their own selfish desires, with little regard for wider society.

Ah, education….what a splendid social institution!

The education system helps to create social solidarity by socialising students into society's culture – its shared beliefs and values - from one generation to the next. This done in two ways:

Through the FORMAL CURRICULUMThis refers to the lessons that are explicitly taught. For example, the teaching of a country's history, such as Britain’s role in both the First and Second World Wars, instils in children a sense of a shared heritage and a commitment to the wider social group. Similar claims can be made about RE and English Literature, even sport.

Through the INFORMAL CURRICULUMThis refers to the lessons we learn through the day-to-day experiences of being at school. For example, the social skills of punctuality, respect for authority, manners, co-operation with others, etc. School therefore acts as a 'society in miniature', preparing us for life in wider society.

B) Parsons: ‘Focal Socialising Agency’The American functionalist Talcott Parsons (1961) draws on many of Durkheim's ideas. Parsons sees the school as the 'focal socialising agency' in modern society, acting as a bridge between the family and wider society. Along the bridge children learn the social skills of punctuality and friendship and learn that success in education – and in life – comes from applying one’s talents. Such norms and values are taught through what he calls the ‘hidden curriculum’ (Durkheim calls this the informal curriculum).

Definition: The ‘hidden curriculum’ refers to the norms, values and ideas a student is taught indirectly. For example, students do not take have a timetabled lesson or an exam in punctuality or cooperation, but they are taught these lessons throughout their time in the education system.

Activity:Social Norm/Value

How is this taught through the hidden curriculum?

CompetitionCo-operationPunctualitySharing

Where as in the family, a person’s status is ascribed, by contrast, in both school and wider society, a person's status is largely achieved. For example, at work we gain promotion or get the sack on the strength of how good we are at our job, while at school we pass or fail through our own individual efforts. It is crucial that members of society are socialised into this idea if society is to function properly.

2. SKILLSFor functionalists, the second function of the education system is to teach the specific skills that are needed for the workplace.

A) Durkheim: Teaching specialist skillsAccording to Durkheim modern industrial economies have a complex division of labour, where the production of even a single item usually involves the cooperation of many different specialists.

This cooperation promotes social solidarity but for it to be successful, each person must have the necessary specialist knowledge and skills to perform their role. Durkheim argues that through the formal curriculum education teaches individuals the specialist knowledge and skills they need to play their part in the social division of labour.

B) Parsons: Academic SkillsFor Parsons, as well as the education system teaching social skills, a second crucial function is the teaching of academic skills that allow for the selection and allocation of pupils to their future work roles. By assessing individuals' aptitudes and abilities, through tests, schools help to match them to the job they are best suited to.

3. SOCIAL SELECTIONThe third crucial function of the education system according to functionalists is social selection.Definition: The term ‘social selection’ refers to the way a person is chosen to perform a particular social role or job in society, through their performance in the education system. A person’s capability to perform a particular role is indicated through their qualifications.

A) Parsons: The ‘flat bridge’ and MeritocracyDefinition: The term ‘meritocracy’ refers to the idea that success is based on a person’s merit alone, rather than other social factors. Achievement is therefore a result of the individual’s talent, hard work and effort.

According to Parsons, the education system is a meritocracy or a ‘flat bridge’, meaning everyone is able to make to crossing from family to wider society, regardless of social class, ethnicity, gender, etc.As the education system is based on meritocratic principles, it means those that possess the most talent, or put in the most amount of effort and hard work, will be rewarded with the best and highest qualifications. They are then selected by universities or employers to perform a particular job in society. It is important to recognize that not all students will succeed; however they all have the opportunity to do so.Crucially, the meritocratic values demonstrated by the education system are accepted as fair by most people in society. Those that are successful are seen as deserving, and those who aren’t are themselves to blame for not trying hard enough.Something to ponder – all British children are entitled to a free state education. All sit the same exams at the end of Year 11. The system must surely be fair. Correct?

B) Davis & Moore: Role Allocation and The ‘Neutral Filter’ (Sifts, Sorts and Selects)

Like Parsons, Davis and Moore (1945) also see education as a device for social selection and role allocation.

Through tests and qualifications, individuals are able to demonstrate what they can and cannot do. The education system acts as a ‘giant filter’ which ‘sifts, sorts, then selects' pupils according to their ability. The most able gain the highest qualifications, which then gives them entry to the most important and highly rewarded

positions in society. Conversely, those that gain low or no qualifications have demonstrated that they do not have the necessary skills for higher status occupations and consequently are only able to enter less important and unrewarded positions. For Davis and Moore, this is an important function of the education system, as it ensures all the jobs are filled with the most appropriate people.

Inevitably, this process leads to social inequality, with the most qualified having more money & status than the least qualified. For Davis & Moore this inequality is necessary as by offering higher rewards the more talented a person is, or the more effort they put in, leads to competition for those jobs and results in the best people being selected for them. Think of it as ‘survival of the fittest’!

Crucially, the ‘filter’ is neutral, meaning that social selection is solely dependent on talent and hard work, rather than any other social factors. Davis and Moore’s argument therefore is that social selection is meritocratic.After all, everyone in Britain has access to a free education, from the same age, is the law to attend and are taught the same curriculum. Therefore, there is no other reason why some should achieve higher qualifications than others. Is there? What factors other than talent and hard work might impact the job a person is able to get?

EVALUATION OF THE FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE: Marxists are very critical on the functionalist view of the education system:i) Firstly, there is evidence that equal opportunity in education does

not exist. For example, achievement is greatly influenced by characteristics such as class background and wealth.

ii) Secondly, Functionalists see education as a process that instils the shared values of society as a whole, but Marxists argue that education in capitalist society only transmits the ideology of a minority - the ruling class.

iii) Thirdly, Melvin Tumin (1953) criticises Davis and Moore for justifying inequality as being deserved. The status of nurses provides a great example that may be seen to disprove the theory of Davis and Moore’s ‘role allocation’. Most people would agree that nursing is one of the most important professions in our society, however this is not reflected in their salary.

Interactionists criticise functionalists for having an 'over-socialised view' of people as mere puppets of the education system and wrongly imply that pupils passively accept all they are taught and never reject the school's values.

The New Right also criticise the functionalist view for being outdated, and argue that in today’s society, the state education system fails to prepare young people with the skills necessary for the workplace. This is because state control of education discourages efficiency, competition and choice.

Quick recap:Role Relevant authors and their arguments

S

SSTHE NEW RIGHT & the Role of the Education SystemThe New Right is a conservative political view, closely associated with the functionalist perspective. Since the 1980s, supporters of the New Right have been influential in the way the education system is run in British society, when Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister (1979-1990).

The New Right are similar in many ways to functionalists:A) Socialisation

They believe that education should socialise pupils into shared values, such as competition and cooperation, and instil a sense of national identity, ideas outlined by Durkheim over a century earlier. By imposing a single National Curriculum, it seeks to guarantee that schools socialise pupils into a single cultural heritage.

B) SkillsThey agree that the education system should serve the needs of the economy by preparing young people for their future, appropriate work roles.

C) Social SelectionLike functionalists, the New Right believe that some people are naturally more talented than others, hence the differences in grades within every school. They agree that the education system is run on meritocratic principles of open completion and the brightest and most able should be selected for the most appropriate job.

However, a key difference with functionalism is that the New Right do not believe schools in today’s society are achieving these goals.

One obvious reason for this is that Parsons was writing in the 1960s, Davis & Moore in the 1940s and Durkheim over a hundred years ago! Are their views outdated? “Yes” says the New Right. The main reason they differ however is that they argue the education system should not be run by the state.

MARKETISATION OF EDUCATIONThe New Right argue the state education systems take a one size fits all approach, imposing uniformity and disregarding local needs. The local consumers who use the schools – pupils, parents and employers – have no say. Schools that waste money or get poor results are not answerable to their consumers. This means lower standards of achievement for pupils, a less qualified workforce and a less prosperous economy.

The New Right’s solution to these problems is the marketisation of education – creating an education market, where parents can ‘shop around’ for the best school.Definition: The term ‘marketisation of education’ refers to the process of introducing market forces of consumer choice and competition between suppliers into areas run by the state, such as education.

Chub & Moe: Consumer Choice in AmericaA good example of the New Right perspective on education comes from the work of Chubb & Moe (1990). They argue that the state-run education in the United States has failed because:

It has not created equal opportunity and has failed the needs of disadvantaged groups.

It is inefficient because it fails to produce pupils with the skills needed by the economy.

Private schools deliver higher quality education because, unlike state schools, they are answerable to paying consumers – the parents.

Chubb & Moe base their arguments on a comparison of the achievements of 60,000 pupils from low-income families in 1,015 state and private schools, together with the findings of parent survey and case studies of ‘failing’ schools apparently being ‘turned around’. Their evidence shows that pupils from low-income families consistently do about 5% better in private than in state schools.

Based on these findings, Chubb and Moe call for the introduction of a market system. A state education that would put control in the hands of the consumers (parents and local communities). They argue that this would allow consumers to shape schools to meet their own needs and would raise standards.

To introduce the market into state education, Chubb & Moe propose a system in which each family would be given a voucher to spend on buying education from a school of their choice. This would force schools to become more responsive to parents’ wishes, since the vouchers would be the school’s main source of income. Like private businesses, schools would have to compete to attract customers by improving their ‘product’.

These principles are already at work in the private education sector. In Chubb & Moe’s view, educational standards would be greatly improved by introducing the same market forces into the state sector.

Question Time:Q1: Outline TWO ways the education system transmits a shared culture. (4)

Q2: Outline three roles of the education system according to the functionalist perspective. (6)

Let’s evaluate! Do you agree with the functionalist view of the education system or the New Right view of the education system? Explain your answer.

MARXISM & The Role of the Education SystemAs we have seen, functionalists are largely positive about society, and the education system. In both cases MERITOCRATIC principles apply, based on VALUE CONSENSUS. Marxists disagree entirely. They see education as a tool used by the ruling–class to maintain capitalist domination of society, and the functions that functionalists identify are in fact functions for CAPITALISM.

Just a reminder of Marxist principles…Karl Marx (1818-83) described capitalism as a two-class system. In the capitalist

EVALUATION OF THE NEW RIGHT PERSPECTIVE: Since the introduction of Free Schools and Academies schools are now able

to choose their own curriculum. This goes against the idea that having a National Curriculum would socialise children into the same cultural heritage. In addition there have always bee various faith schools which hold different cultural values.

Gerwitz (1995) argues that competition between schools would benefit middle-class parents, who can use their cultural & economic capital to access more desirable schools.

Marxists argue that removing schools from state control is simply a way to privatise schooling in the pursuit of profit. For example, the vouchers used in America are provided by the state and funded through tax payer’s money, but are then paid to private companies who operate the ‘state’ school system.

system, the ruling class (the bourgeoisie) own the means of production (land, factories, machinery etc.), and make their profits by exploiting the labour of the working class (the proletariat).

This section will look at how the education system can be seen to maintain this unequal system through the same ideas:

1) Ideological Control (Socialisation)2) Skills3) Cultural Reproduction (Social Selection)

1)IDEOLOGICAL CONTROL (Marxist version of Socialisation)

Definition: The term ‘ideological control’ refers to the way a dominant set of ideas or ideology is maintained. In simple terms we could call this ‘brainwashing’.

As we have seen, the capitalist system creates a few very wealthy & powerful people (the minority), and many poor and powerless people (the majority). So, why do the majority accept this and not try to change it? The answer, IDEOLOGICAL CONTROL.

A) Althusser: The ‘school is a tool’ for capitalism

The Marxist Althusser argued that the ruling class (bourgeoisie) control all aspects of society, including the government. Therefore, all decisions taken by the government will inevitably benefit the capitalist system. Since the government controls the state education system, it make sense that it is designed to operate in a way that both legitimates the capitalist system (makes it seem OK), and therefore maintains its existence.

According to Althusser, ruling-class power is maintained via two complementary ‘apparatuses’:

The ideological state apparatuses (ISAs), which maintains the rule of the bourgeoisie by controlling people's ideas, values and beliefs. ISAs include religion, the mass media and the education system. The term you should be thinking of here is…__________________________ ________________________.

The repressive state apparatuses (RSAs), which maintains the rule of the bourgeoisie by force (or the threat of it). RSAs include the police, courts, prisons and, ultimately, the armed services.

Which ‘apparatus’ would you say is the more effective in maintaining capitalist domination? Why?

In Althusser's view, the education system is an important ISA, as it teaches all young people that class inequality is fair and inevitable. If they accept these ideas then they are less likely to challenge or threaten capitalism.Education therefore plays a crucial role in maintaining capitalist exploitation.

B) Bowles & Gintis: The Correspondence Principle

Definition: The ‘correspondence principle’ refers to the way the education system parallels or mirrors the relationships and structures found in the workplace.

The American Marxists Bowles and Gintis (1976) develop Althusser’s ideas further, arguing too that the role of the education system is to create an obedient workforce willing to be exploited by the capitalist system.

From questionnaires of 237 New York high school students, Bowles and Gintis conclude that schools reward precisely the kind of personality traits that make for a worker who is willing to do as they are told. For instance, they found that students who showed independence and creativity tended to gain low grades, while those who showed characteristics linked to obedience and discipline (such as punctuality) tended to gain high grades. Educational success, therefore, is not entirely related to intellectual ability, but how well a person has been socialised or ‘brainwashed’ into the values that benefit capitalism.

Bowles and Gintis argue that through the hidden curriculum (the most crucial in their view), the education system socialises or ‘brainwashes’ students into the norms and values required in the workplace. They refer to these parallels between school and workplace as examples of the ‘correspondence principle'.Education prepares pupils the workforce in the following ways:1. H ierarchy: Teacher and pupil = boss and worker. Same unequal relationship.2. E xtrinsic rewards : Hard work = exam results; hard work = wage. The experience doesn’t provide any pleasure, only the end result. (Carrot and stick!)3. A lienation : Students lack control over their education, such as over what to study, timetabling. This reflects the alienation experienced in the workplace through a lack of control over production. For example, managers decide when, where, how to produce. 4. D ocile Daydreamers : Schoolwork – boring and tedious; adult work – boring and tedious.

School is great work experience, especially for pupils in the bottom sets. They learn to put up with boredom, being bossed around and being at the bottom of the heap. School therefore operates in the ‘long shadow of work’.If you’re working class, how does the school do your HEAD in?(no looking please)HE

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2. SKILLS

For Marxists, the academic skills that are taught through the education system have a direct link to the needs of capitalism and the skills required for its workforce. It is not a coincidence that compulsory education coincided with the growth of industrialisation and the need for an educated workforce capable of operating machinery for those who own the means of production (bourgeoisie).

The changing needs of the economy coincides with the changing needs of capitalism. For example, since the birth of the internet in the 90s and the increasing importance of computer literacy in the workplace, ICT has been made a compulsory subject in state school to ensure an army of workers who have the skills necessary to be exploited in a changing economy. A good example of this is that this year 1 million children will be given a Micro Bit computer so they are able to learn computer coding.

In addition, the academic skills taught in state schools (working-class schools) differ greatly to the subjects taught in private schools. Marxists argue these reflect the types of jobs each class is being trained to do. This ties in with ’cultural reproduction’ that we will look at next. Activity:

Subject State or Private Job it is required forLatinBTEC Health and Social CareHairdressingPolitics

Even the compulsory subjects; maths, English & science, are taught differently according to Marxists. The lower the social class, the lower the level of academic knowledge that will be taught. Hence why these are the subjects that are most often taught in sets.

3. CULTURAL REPRODUCTION (Marxist version of Social Selection)

Definition: The term ‘cultural reproduction’ is the transmission of existing cultural values and norms from generation to generation. Cultural reproduction often results in class reproduction from generation to generation.

A) Bourdieu: Cultural ReproductionFor Bourdieu, the education system operates on a higher-class culture. For example, the teachers are middle-class, the language that is used is middle-class, the subjects that given the highest status are subjects that will lead to middle-class jobs, the norms and values that are rewarded reflect middle-class norms and values.

This of course results in a system that nurtures the academic and social growth of higher-class students, whist limiting the academic and social growth of working-class students. A consequence of this, is the education system reproduces generation after generation of low-achieving, yet passive and obedient workers, whilst the middle-classes thrive. The education system therefore maintains the capitalist status quo by ensuring the working-class are only capable of being selected for working-class jobs.

Myth-making

machine

B) Bowles and Gintis: The ‘Myth of Meritocracy’

For Bowles and Gintis, the idea that success in the education system is a result of talent and effort is just not true. In reality, evidence shows that the main factor that influences success in the education system, leading to a high income, is social class background.

However, most people do not realise this and instead believe the education system to be fair. This is because the education system promotes the ‘myth of meritocracy’, so cultural reproduction can continue unchallenged. They therefore describe the education system as 'a giant myth-making machine'.Evidence to support this includes:

The existence of private education. The average cost of a private education in the UK is £300,000. Just 7% of the UK public attended private school, yet 71% of senior judges, 62% of senior armed forces officers, and 50% of members of the House of Lords attended private schools. Yet people still believe private schools are a fair addition to our education system.

Elite self-recruitment. All too often occupations are achieved not on the basis of ability or ‘what you know’ but rather ‘who you know’. Those who have attended public school and Oxbridge are able to use the contacts they have made to secure themselves and their family high status occupations. eg. PM Cameron & the Mayor of London Boris Johnson both went to Public (private) Schools.

Bowles & Gintis therefore see the education system as a ‘class filter’, ensuring the higher classes are selected for high-status jobs and the lower-classes selected for low-status jobs, whilst at the same time thinking it is fair. People therefore see success or failure as their own doing, rather than a product of capitalism.

EVALUATION OF THE MARXIST PERSPECTIVE: Functionalists would obviously disagree with the Marxist view of the

education system. Instead arguing that it is meritocratic and that working-class students can and have achieved social mobility.

Neo-Marxist’s (Newer Marxists) have also criticised the traditional Marxist view:

i) Firstly, they argue education system does not necessarily ‘brainwash’ students into accepting capitalist inequality, but can instead raise awareness of it. This is referred to as raising class-consciousness.In which subjects might this occur?

ii) Secondly, Paul Willis (1977) conducted a study called ‘Learning to Labour’, using participant observations and unstructured group interviews. It focused on 12 working-class delinquent boys (‘lads’) in a Midlands comprehensive school in the 1970s. He found that his ‘lads’ were active in their rejection of schooling and the creation of their own counter-school culture. They found school boring and meaningless and so

flouted its rules and values, for example by smoking and drinking, disrupting classes and playing truant. They saw the idea of meritocracy and that that working-class pupils can achieve middle-class jobs as a ‘con’.However, by rejecting education, their lack of qualifications meant the only jobs available to them on leaving school were low skilled, low status, dead-end jobs. Hence in this different way they stayed working class.

Feminists have also criticized the Marxist view of the education system for ignoring the fact that schools reproduce not only capitalism, but patriarchy.

Marxist-feminist Beverley Skeggs (1997) argues that education reproduces and reinforces a combination of gender and social class inequality. She found working-class females work more likely to be placed on low-level ‘caring’ courses in further education, such as health and social care. As a result the girls saw themselves both as suited to ‘feminine’ caring work and as incapable of middle-class professions. This prepares them for low-paid work such as care assistants and also for unpaid ‘women’s work’ in the home.

Exam style questions:Q1: Outline TWO ways the education system legitimates and maintains the capitalist system. (4)

Q3: Outline THREE ways the education system corresponds with the workplace. (6)

Let’s evaluate! Which perspective, functionalists or Marxists, puts forward the most convincing argument for the role of the education system? Explain your answer.

EXAM FOCUS Below is an example of the type of questions you may get asked in the exam, based on this booklet. The key skills are in bold.

Item A Some sociologists claim that education reproduces and legitimises social class inequality. They argue it operates in the interests of the ruling class, preparing working-class pupils for working-class jobs and justifying this outcome as fair.Other sociologists disagree. They claim that education offers all pupils an equal

opportunity to succeed.

Item BFunctionalist and Marxist sociologists are interested in similar aspects of the role of the education system. For example, both examine the relationship between education and work. Both perspectives also look at how norms and values are transmitted through education. However, while Marxists and functionalists focus on similar issues, they reach very different conclusions about the role of education.

A-LEVEL QUESTIONS

Q1: Outline TWO ways the education system prepares students for the workplace. (4)

Q2: Outline THREE ways in which the correspondence principle operates within school. (6)

Q3: Applying material from Item A, analyse TWO ways that the education system ‘reproduces and legitimates social class inequality.’ (10)

Q4: Applying material from Item B and your own knowledge, evaluate the view that ‘while Marxists and functionalists focus on similar issues, they reach very different conclusions about the role of education’. (30)

EXAM GUIDANCEQ1 & Q2 are short questions and you do not need to include authors/studies/perspectives for full marks.Do not spend too long on these questions. ‘Get in, get out’!

Q3 should include the following for full marks: Brief introduction defining any key concepts in the question and/or

identifying the relevant perspective/theory. TWO detailed points that directly address the question. Each making

reference to relevant authors/studies/evidence/theory. At least one application of material from the item. Brief conclusion that analyses/evaluates the overall information, ie, which

point is the most significant/convincing and/or evidence that undermines the arguments overall.

10 marks = 15 mins = 1 ½ sides of writing.

Q4 should include the following for full marks: Introduction defining any key concepts in the question and outlining the

debate you are going to consider in the essay. At least FOUR detailed points that directly address the question. Each

making reference to relevant authors/studies/evidence/theory. EVALUATION – There must be alternate arguments and criticisms presented

for any chance of higher marks. This is the key skill you are being assessed on.

At least one application of material from the item. Conclusion that analyses/evaluates the overall information, ie, which

argument is the most significant/convincing and/or evidence that undermines the arguments overall.

30 marks = 45 mins = At least 4 sides of writing.