even today a third of the world does not have access to...

SCIENCE REPORTER, NOVEMBER 2013

CO

VER

CO

VER

STO

RY

BINDESHWAR PATHAK

Even today a third of the world does not have access to basic sanitation, resulting in water and soil pollution, and widespread health problems like cholera and dysentery. On the ocassion of the World Toilet Day on 19 November, here’s an insight into the evolution of toilets in world history and efforts in India to bring sanitation to every household, from the man who is the brain behind the Sulabh Shauchalyas and well known for his wide-ranging work in sanitation to improve public health.

SANITATION is a concept that encompasses water supply, safe

disposal of human waste, waste water and solid waste, control of vectors of diseases, domestic and personal hygiene. Consideration of the social, environmental and ecological aspects of sanitation is critical to ensure improvements in health and quality of life, as well as promoting sustainable development.

A UNICEF report has underlined that the sanitation problem is most acute in rural areas, where only 18% of the population worldwide has access to toilets. In the urban areas of the developing countries too, over 37% of the population lacks such facilities.

A comparison between toilet facilities available in urban and rural areas in India over two decades, viz. 1991 to 2011, shows that the situation in rural areas is not as encouraging as it could have been. But the level of satisfaction has increased with improvements. An increase of even a few percentage points is significant, considering the magnitude of the problem in India.

Toilets over the AgesToilets have been with humans ever since they left forests and decided to move ahead on the civilisational highway. In the forests, for thousands of years, humans defecated like other fellow animals. This open defecation continues in the human societies to some extent even today. However, some of the oldest civilizations viz. Egypt, India and Mesopotamia had developed toilets by the third millennium BC. Wet toilets were in use from 2,500 BC to 1,700 BC in India, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Crete.

At Mohenjodaro in modern Pakistan, one can see an extant flush type toilet of the Harappan settlements of 2,500 BC. After excretion, one would pour a bucket of water which would take the waste out of the town via a honey-comb drainage system. At some other sites of that civilization including Dholavira in Gujarat, people used well-constructed underground drains, now known as sewers. Every residential unit had a bathroom fitted with terracotta pipes to carry out wash water.

Unlike India, the Egyptians did not have a structured disposal system. Due to lack of water, they either waited for the Nile annual flood to sweep the waste away or they mixed fertile mud of the flood with

Ancient toilet in the City of David archaeological excavation

12


human excrement to be used as manure. On the other hand, the Mesopotamian civilisation, which developed in the doab of the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, had ample water availability, which they used in their toilets.

In about 1700 BC, in the Knossos Palace of Crete and Island in the Mediterranean Sea, there were flush toilets in the residential part of the queen. In his excavation, the famous archeologist Arthur Evans also found a ceramic bathtub in the queen’s bathroom. It was exclusively used by the queen and was directly connected with the drainage system. Like their Indian counterparts, the Greek royalty also used terracotta drain-pipes.

After the seventh century BC, Roman Europe made a significant contribution to the field of toilets, bath and drainage.

In 615 BC, Emperor Lucius Tarcuinis constructed Europe’s oldest sewer known as Cloaka Maxima in Rome. Earlier, it was open and meant for receiving ground water. Around the third century BC, the sewer was covered and waste water was also released into it. A portion of this old sewer is still operational.

Much later in 380 BC in Athenian Agora also sewers were constructed for the disposal of wastewater. Aristotle had advised his countrymen to throw away waste at least two kilometres away from the castle.

In 200 BC, in the Antonius Public Bath of Rome there were 1600 holes in planks over the flowing river water for defecation. Such river-top toilets were in use in some other parts of the world also, and this practice still continues in the hills and interiors of some countries including

India. During this period, in public toilets in Rome, seats with holes in the middle were arranged in a semi-circular shape.

By the second century BC, the Romans had developed a very elaborate bath system. Their public bath was almost a complex with separate rooms for undressing/re-dressing, massage, hot/warm/cool water etc. Such baths were social centers where, besides freshening themselves, the beneficiaries also sat together and gossiped. In some warm water streams at several places in the Empire, both sexes took bath together. Both the developed cities of Pompeii and Herculaneious had all these facilities. However, they were erased in the Vesuvius volcano eruption of 84 BC. The excavations have unraveled them, as the volcanic ash worked as a safe cover to keep them intact.

COVERCOVER STORY

Marble toilet seats in ancient public toilets, Dion, Greece

Some of the oldest civilizations viz. Egypt, India and Mesopotamia had developed toilets by the third millennium BC. Wet toilets were in use from 2,500 BC to 1,700 BC in India, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Crete.

13


In the field of sanitation, the Roman Empire is also known for some strange practices. Emperor Vespasianus imposed tax on toilets in 69 AD, perhaps the first in the world. Despite public opposition, he did not budge. In public toilets there, two users sat together without any cover between them. There was a pitcher full of water and a sponge-head stick for cleaning oneself. There was a stone tank which was filled with rain water.

Emperor Heliogabas was assassinated in his toilet. Around 315 AD, most of the 144 public toilets in Rome were W.C. type. In 395 AD, when the Roman Empire split, the countries of the eastern part like Syria, Turkey, etc. appear to have ignored the sanitation lessons of the western counterpart. The Eastern world reverted to the old practice of open defecation.

Around 1088 AD, a new experiment was made in the field of toilets. Toilets in the Lochister Fort in England were made in the fort wall. Such toilet seats had a

COVER STORY

Child seat and chamber pot, early 6th century BC, Agora Museum, Athens

A comparison between toilet facilities available in urban and rural areas in India over two decades, viz. 1991 to 2011, shows that the situation in rural areas is not as encouraging as it could have been.

SANITATION SCENARIO IN INDIA FROM THE 2011 CENSUS DATA

Sl. No. Households by Absolute number Percentage

type of latrine facility Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban

1 Total number of 246,692,667 167,826,730 78,865,937 100 100 100 Households

2 Latrine facility within 115,737,458 51,575,339 64,162,119 46.9 30.7 81.4 the premisesA Water Closet 89,852,052 32,616,824 57,235,228 36.4 19.4 72.6i Piped sewer system 29,471,391 3,696,144 25,775,247 11.9 2.2 32.7ii Septic Tank 54,758,885 24,671,448 30,087,437 22.2 14.7 38.2iii Other System 5,621,776 4,249,232 1,372,544 2.3 2.5 1.7B Pit Latrine 23,279,128 17,681,985 5,597,143 9.4 10.5 7.1i With slab/ventilated 18,813,022 13,746,699 5,066,323 7.6 8.2 6.4 improved pitii without slab/open pit 4,466106 3,935,286 530,820 1.8 2.3 0.7C Other Latrine 2,606,278 1,276,530 1,329,748 1.1 0.8 1.7i Night Soil disposed into 1,314,652 372,009 942,643 0.5 0.2 1.2 open drainii Night soil removed by 794,390 586,067 208,323 0.3 0.3 0.3 humansiii Night soil serviced by animals 497,236 318,454 178,782 0.2 0.2 0.23 No Latrine within the premises 130,955,209 116,251,391 14,703,818 53.1 69.3 18.6i Public Latrine 7,997,699 3,253,892 4,743,807 3.2 1.9 6.0ii Open 122,957,510 112,997,499 9,960,011 49.8 67.3 12.6

COMPARISON OF INDIAN HOUSEHOLDS WITH TOILET FACILITY IN 1991, 2001 AND 2011 Have Toilet Facility Within Premises Do Not Have Toilet Facility Within Premises 1991 2001 2011 2001 2011

Total 23.70 36.4 46.9 63.6 53.0Rural 9.48 21.9 30.7 78.1 69.3Urban 63.85 73.7 81.4 26.3 18.6Rural – Urban Diff. 51.8 50.7 51.8 -50.7

14


COVER STORY

slant ensuring the waste fell outside the peripheral wall either in the open barren land or in a surrounding moat. Such toilets were used in some forts of Rajasthan as well. The toilets were useful for security reasons as it was not advisable for the King and the nobility as also ladies of the nobles to go outside for defecation. For this reason only, Indian scriptures advised the Kings not to go for evacuation beyond the distance of an arrow-throw.

However, toilets and other sanitation arrangements were limited to only the privileged classes and the common man had no access to them. Consequently, the primitive practice of open defecation continued. The situation on the sanitation front was so grim that societies were repeatedly ravaged by health hazards. The devastating epidemics of plague in 1348 and 1350 decimated the European population almost by half. That is why, sanitarians call the period from the fifth to fifteenth century as the Black Age in the sanitation world history.

Several other nasty practices were in vogue. People in Holland and other major European countries used to empty their night-soil pots into the streets from the window of the first floor in the darkness

of the evening, with the night-soil often falling on the innocent passersby. In the Indian subcontinent, ladies had to complete this unavoidable daily chore before sunrise or after sunset.

One royal toilet-related eccentricity was reported from France. Louis XIII and his son Louis XIV used throne-like chamber pots. While doing business, both these French emperors used to give audience to select people. Louis XIII used old linen in place of any tissue paper for ablution. Toilet papers were not invented at this time. Budal, a member of the Jesus society and confession priest for the females of the French royal family, was regarded as a symbol of good luck and thus people named the toilet bowl after him.

The sixteenth century is also known for the earth closet, which became quite popular. An earth closet is a lavatory in which dry earth is used to cover excreta. Until a hundred years ago, the traditional place of easement for people living in the country was a cesspit or an earth-closet. An improved variety was invented by a British Clergyman named Henry Moule in 1860, which comprised of commode with a bucket below the seat, and a hopper

behind it containing fine dry earth or ashes. After the evacuation drill was over, a lever was pulled to release a measured amount of earth into the bucket which covered the waste. The closet was often inside a shed or privy, which provided some privacy and protection from inclement weather. For the next decades or so in the second half of the nineteenth century, the earth closet and the water-closet were in hot competition. It is on record that Moule’s device remained in use till 1850.

The real breakthrough came when John Harrington, a courtier as well as godson of Queen Elizabeth I invented the first modern flush toilet in 1596. The general abhorrence against toilets at that time was so strong that John Harrington was banished from the Elizabethan court for making a horrible thing. Much later he was recalled, rehabilitated and given the title of “Sir”. Harrington could make only two pieces – one for his own use and the second was installed in the Queen’s bathroom in the Richmond Palace. This simple system had an overhead tank and flushing mechanism and thus was a pioneer WC in the field.

From the fourteenth to the seventeenth century, night soil was thrown from the windows on the first floor on the streets. They were always full of solid waste and foul water. The dress code for the ladies of that period was to

According to early excavators, in Mohenjodaro most toilets were post-cremation sump pots or burial urns. The top of this brick structure had a hole that was linked to a small drain that emerged out of the base into a basin of rectangular shape. Early excavators proposed this to be a toilet. (left)

Throne-like chamber pot

15


COVER STORY

put on long maxi-like garments whose lower ends tended to touch this dirt. It is to prevent this that the fashion of putting on high heeled shoes ensued!

A German doctor Christian Fratzpautin even published a book in Latin entitled Pharmacy of Stool. In Paris in 1668, Police Commissioner Nichola-de-Ralen passed an edict ordering the construction of toilets in all houses. Later, in 1770 in Paris, all private houses were ordered to construct urinals within one month or face eviction.

With the beginning of the eighteenth century, a series of innovations started coming up in the field of toilets. Architect J.F. Brondel described the ideal toilet as one that was next to the bedroom, having a covered seat and the whole system was attached to the wall so that it was hidden. Later he also introduced valve-type toilet in British style. In 1739, at a ball in Paris, for the first time separate toilets for both sexes were made.

The path-breaking invention of John Harrington was forgotten for nearly 179 years when Alexander Cummings, a watch-maker of London came with the first patent in 1775. It was his initiative that the WC once again caught public imagination. The Harrington piece was simple enough, without any mechanism to stop the foul smell from coming back to the bathroom. Cummings provided an ‘S’ type trap due to which some water always remained in the pan working as a seal, preventing the spread of the foul smell. This bend kept improving in the coming times.

Only two years after that Thomas Prosser got registered a second patent, which was an improvement on Cummings’ WC. Through a circular cock, water level could be regulated. When the lever was pulled, waste was flushed. This design, called “pan closet”, suppressed the foul smell completely. Its drawbacks were that the sound of pan revolution was high and its cleaning power was less. In 1778, this design was perfected by Joseph Bramah, and was to remain the most satisfactory water closet for the next several years.

In the coming days, several sanitarians like Joseph Blumer, James Grease, David Lease, Architect Jellow, Thomas Launtry, John Athlay, John Bin and some others from 1778 to 1793 came forward with their patents for further improving the toilet and making it user-friendly. John Athlay produced a WC in which water was supplied automatically as the user sat on it.

There were many other sanitary heroes in the nineteenth century

-- inventors, engineers, producers, manufacturers and architects – who had to fight for sanitary law reforms. It was George Jennings who first applied the sanitary technology to public conveniences. He had introduced his ideas at the Great Exhibition of 1851, with his “Monkey Closets” in the retiring rooms at Hyde Park and later at Sydenham. This was despite the strongest objections, with him being told that the visitors were not coming to the exhibition merely to wash. He was later to be awarded a gold medal for his much needed contributions to sanitary technology.

By the 1890s, Jennings and his followers had improved toilet-related sanitation devices on public thoroughfares all over England. Thirty-six towns and many others are listed in the catalogue of 1895 as having been improved by public conveniences.

George Jennings had also supplied his toilets to thirty railway companies in England, USA, Buenos Aires, Cape Town and Mexico. The streets of Paris, Berlin and Florence were provided with public urinals devised by him. Jennings’ ideas were revolutionary: firstly, conveniences were built underground with cast iron arches and railings to mark their whereabouts. Those built above-ground were distinctive little buildings in their own right with their pillars, panels and lamps. He built the urinals in slate and also devised the central pillar with urinals around it, saving space and water. Seeing the Jennings catalogues of designs of superb urinals, one can say that they are little temples of convenience.

In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, there was a trend to produce ornamental water closets, baths and basins. The wealth from colonies to the European countries and the emergence of ceramic as the raw material paved the way for such costly experiments. The toilets appeared in a dazzling variety of pattern with names like ‘Ruby Hispani’, ‘Natural Wild Rose’, ‘Pencelled Blackthrone’, ‘Peacock Blue Poppy’ and ‘Japanesque’.

A Sulabh toilet complex

Sulabh Effl uent Treatment Technology

In the Sulabh Effl uent Treatment Technology, the effl uent is passed through a sedimentation tank where solid particles settle, they are then passed through an aeration tank to reduce the biochemical demand (BOD).

16


The men responsible for this decorative explosion were also responsible for developing the water closets that we use today. Hellyer improved Bramah’s valve closet nearly hundred years after Alexander Cummings patent and gave it the famous name of Optimus. He produced sixteen of them with slight variations in their workings from Optimus A to Optimus P. This series of toilets were produced till the outbreak of the Second World War when production came to a standstill because of a tight economic situation. The extant pieces can be seen today in museums only.

The Gladstone Museum of Pottery, Trent, England has several decorated toilets on display. When in demand, they were installed in Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle, Hampton Court Palace, Holyrood House and Osborne for Queen Victoria, in Marlborough House, Windsor, Buckingham Palace and Balmoral for Edward VII. They were also

installed for George V, the Czar of Russia, the King of Siam, the Duke of Wellington, in the British Parliament, the Royal Courts of Justice and the War office.

Thereafter, Hellyer’s ‘wash out’ closet, Daniel Thomas Bostels’ ‘Excelsior’, Thomas Twyford’s ‘National’, and his ceramic pedestal version called ‘Unitas’ and the pieces of several others like those of Edward John, Thomas Crapper and John Shanks also became quite popular.

With the growing demand from the sanitary loving people several factories came up to meet the supply. They produced hundreds of innovations and variations on the water closet. Today only four are made: the ‘wash-down’ and the ‘symphonic’, the ‘squatting bowl’ and the ‘wash-out’ for the suppliers abroad.

Of late, there have been further changes in toilet technology. Due to global warming and paucity of water, WCs are becoming a luxury. Therefore, there is a frantic search for water-free toilets. Some

innovations have come from USA and South Africa, but they are not only costly but also not culturally acceptable.

Human Waste Management in IndiaIn the Pauranic period, religious sanction existed prohibiting people from defecating near human habitation. It was suggested that people go at some distance from their houses for defecation. People would dig a small pit in the ground, put some grass and leaves in it. After defecating here, they would again put some grass and leaves over the excreta in the pit and fill it with soil.

In the Mauryan period, there was a law stating that a person could be fined up to 100 Pun (monetary unit) if he defecated in the open and 10 Pun if he urinated in public. However, exemption was given to those who were sick or on medicines.

In the Mughal period also, practices both of defecation in the open and manual

COVER STORY

ANTI-MANUAL SCAVENGING BILL PASSEDThe Indian Parliament recently passed a Bill seeking to prohibit employment of individuals as manual scavengers by prescribing stringent punishment, including imprisonment up to fi ve years. The Bill has provisions for rehabilita� on of manual scavengers and their family members as well. The Bill seeks to wipe out the “social s� gma” by arranging for alterna� ve jobs and off ering other provisions to those in such work and their families.

Under the new law, each occupier of an insanitary latrine is responsible for conver� ng or demolishing it at his own cost. If he fails to do so, the local authority will convert the latrine and recover the cost from him. Each local authority, cantonment board and railway authority are responsible for surveying insanitary latrines within their jurisdic� on. Such latrines, where manual scavenging happens, will have to be demolished; otherwise somebody will be engaged to do it.

Source AFP

17


COVERCOVER STORY

Over the years, a number of committees were formed to look into the matter. They suggested improvements in the working conditions of the scavengers, but did not talk about the need to eliminate manual cleaning of excreta.

It is at this point, in 1970, that I founded Sulabh International Social Service Organisation. Until I became an adult, I lived in a village. There was hardly a household with toilet facility and villagers did the necessities in the open. Members of our family, including myself were no exception.

Later, as part of the Gandhi Centenary Celebration Committee in Bihar, I had first-hand experience of manual scavenging as a member of the Scavengers Liberation Cell.

At around this time, I also read abook by Wagner of WHO titled Excreta Disposal for Rural Areas in Small Communities, which advocated installation of alternately used pour flush compost pit privy. Reasoning that if the design was suitable in one set of conditions (rural areas) then its adoption in similar conditions elsewhere i.e. urban areas may be feasible, I advocated its installation both in urban and rural areas.

My first break in the field was getting an order to build two toilets in the town of Arrah. In 1974, the work of construction as also conversion of bucket toilets into

Sulabh design based toilets was decided to be initiated all over Bihar and in 1978 it was recommended to be adopted in other States of the country.

Sulabh Technology Sulabh has the credit of making nearly 1.3 million toilets by constructing new or converting bucket toilets into Sulabh design based two-pit toilets. The two-pit pour-flush compost toilet has encouraged girls to attend schools full time and has reduced their dropout rate from school. It has also helped women to defecate with privacy, dignity and security.

What has helped most the spread of Sulabh two-pit pour-flush compost toilet

cleaning of human excreta by human scavengers prevailed. Some members of the feudal class and the upper segment of the merchant class resorted to defecation in a confined place to ensure privacy. This led to the necessity of engaging persons to clean excreta, which in turn created the scavenging community.

During the British period there was introduction of sewerage and septic tank systems. But these innovations could not be adopted on a large scale because of the heavy cost of construction and maintenance, as well as the need for enormous quantities of water for flushing. Even during the British period, defecation in the open and manual cleaning of human excreta continued.

Mahatma Gandhi wanted to end the practice of defecation in the open and manual cleaning of human excreta by human scavengers. He appealed to the people to keep India clean and restore the dignity of the untouchables. Gandhiji advocated the use of trench latrines, which he himself was using while he was in Phoenix Ashram in Durban, South Africa. He asked his followers and freedom fighters to use trench latrines in their homes as far as possible and also suggested adoption of the practice of tatti pe mitti i.e. covering human excreta with soil so that flies do not sit on human faeces and to prevent foul smell spreading.

ADVANTAGES OF A TWO-PIT POUR-FLUSH COMPOST TOILET• It is technically appropriate, cost eff ec� ve, socio-culturally acceptable and easy to construct with locally available material.

• It can be constructed in diff erent physical, geological and hydrogeological condi� ons.

• It is free from health hazards as it does not pollute surface or ground water, if proper precau� ons and safeguards are taken during construc� on.

• Pits are generally designed for a three-year desludging interval. If desired, can be designed for a longer period or reduced even to two years.

• It needs only 1.5 to 2 litres of water for fl ushing, while conven� onal fl ush toilet needs 12 to 14 litres of water.

• It needs less space than a sep� c tank toilet system.

• It does not need scavengers for cleaning the pits or disposal of sludge. This can be done by the householder.

• The brick lining in la2 ce forma� on exposing soil towards the inner side of the pit facilitates absorp� on of gases which dispenses with the need to install vent pipe.

• It makes available rich fer� lizer and soil condi� oner.

• It can be easily connected to sewers when introduced in the area.

• A low volume fl ushing cistern can be a4 ached to avoid pour fl ushing.

Reasoning that if the design was suitable in one set of conditions (rural areas) then its adoption in similar conditions elsewhere i.e. urban areas may be feasible, I advocated its installation both in urban and rural areas.

Environment friendly two-pit, pour-fl ush compost toilet known as Sulabh Shauchalaya

18


design is the delivery mechanism. Sulabh takes upon itself the responsibility of:• Processing paperwork relating to

receipt of funds by the beneficiary under the low income related subsidy programme of the government for construction of household toilets

• Doing quality construction work • Obtaining certificate from the

beneficiary and• Undertaking free of cost defect

removal work of any construction for a given period of years.

There also is the necessity of a toilet by the floating population at places of congregation viz. markets, railway and bus stations, cinemas or at special events like sports events, etc. For this, building community toilets was essential. Sulabh has taken up construction of new public

SULABH INTERNATIONAL MUSEUM OF TOILETS

I fi rst got the idea for this museum a5 er visi� ng Madam Tussauds when I visited England. On my return to India, I wrote le4 ers to nearly a hundred foreign embassies, of whom sixty replied sending material pertaining to toilet prac� ces in their countries. I also collected material and informa� on from other sources. Eventually, the Museum was established in Delhi in 1992 and formally inaugurated in March 1994.

The objec� ve was, and con� nues to be, to make it a storehouse of toilet-related history and technologies for students, researchers, journalists and other interested sec� ons.

By now, there are about three hundred objects on display, divided into ancient, medieval and modern age categories. It starts from 2500 BC from in-house toilets from Harappan se4 lements in India, which happened to be WC. It also exhibits the model of the fi rst modern fl ush toilet invented by John Harrington in 1596 in England.

Our collec� on includes the throne-like chamberpot of Louis-IV of France (while using which he gave audience to select people), Incinolet from USA (which burns excreta quickly and conserves fresh water) and the eco-friendly tent toilet for campaigning using bio-degradable plas� c bag. Addi� onally, the museum has a collec� on of humorous and toilet-based toys to a4 ract � ny-tots.

The museum has gained worldwide popularity and millions have visited its website and lakhs of people have physically seen it. Almost all the print and electronic media have done their stories and several documentaries have been made on this museum, which has also been included in the list of world’s ten weirdest museums.

COVERCOVER STORY

19


toilets as also running and maintaining existing public toilets.

By now Sulabh has constructed and maintains nearly 8000 public toilet complexes all over the country. Construction and maintenance of such a large number is primarily due to efficient round-the-clock maintenance.

More recently, a biogas plant was attached to the public toilets and Sulabh Effluent Treatment Device. The unique feature of the biogas technology is that the plant is human excreta based and has a fixed dome. The biogas is used for cooking, lighting mantle lamps for street lighting, and warming oneself in winters.

In the Sulabh Effluent Treatment Technology, the effluent is passed through a sedimentation tank where solid particles settle, they are then passed through an aeration tank to reduce the biochemical demand (BOD). Then, sand filtration separates suspended particles, and water is passed through the charcoal bed which makes the effluent colourless and odourless. Subsequently, pathogens are killed by passing through the U.V. chamber. This effluent can be used for horticulture and kitchen garden watering purposes. The effluent is thus processed and recycled.

The most important part of the entire system is the excreta disposal mechanism. In the Sulabh design toilet there is on-site disposal facilitated by alternate use of the two pits. Of the two, one pit is put to use, which takes two to three years to fill up. When this happens, the flow of excreta to the pit is blocked by placing across a brick in the channel through which the excreta flows into the first pit. The second pit is then put to use, taking approximately two to three years to get filled up. During this period the excreta in the first pit dries up.

This system results in dispensing with the necessity of engaging a scavenger as dried excreta can be taken out by the householder himself. The lattice formation of the brick lining ensures absorption of carbon dioxide and traces of methane and ammonia. The on-site disposal facility of the two-pit system ensures combining storage and disposal stages making the usefulness of the system unique. The human waste gets converted to manure with nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus.

The biogas digester linked to public toilet and attached with Sulabh Effluent Treatment device ensures that the BOD of the toilet effluent is reduced to a purity of less than 10 mg/l. The gases in the bio-digester plant are methane, carbon

dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and trace gases.

The commonality in the two systems is: a) in both the systems gases produced are not allowed to escape into the atmosphere, and b) in both the technologies good soil nutrients are produced viz. phosphorus, nitrogen and potash and can be used for horticulture and kitchen garden purposes.

Whereas in the two-pit technology carbon-dioxide gets absorbed in the soil facing the pit, the methane from the biogas plant gets burnt when used for cooking or for lighting purposes. The two-pit system is ideal for individual households. The community toilet with biogas plant attached to the Sulabh Effluent Treatment device is most suited for hostels, hospitals, high-rise buildings, etc.

Dr Bindeshwar Pathak, the brain behind Sulabh International, is a Padma Bhushan recipient. He has also received the Energy Globe Award, the Dubai International Award for Best Practices, and the Indira Gandhi Priyadarshini Award for Environment. Stockholm Water Prize was awarded to him in 2009. In June 2013, he also received the Legend of Planet award from the French senate in Paris. Dr Pathak is founder of the Sulabh International Social Service Organisation, Sulabh Gram, Mahavir Enclave, Palam-Dabri Marg, New Delhi–110045; Email: [email protected]/[email protected]

Construction and maintenance of such a large number is primarily of Sulabh toilets is due to effi cient round-the-clock maintenance. More recently, a biogas plant was attached to the public toilets and Sulabh Effl uent Treatment Device.

Designs of Sulabh

COVERCOVER STORY

20

even today a third of the world does not have access to...

Documents