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Everglades

ContentsArticlesOverview 1

The Everglades 1

Ecology 27

Geography and ecology of the Everglades 27Draining and development of the Everglades 41Restoration of the Everglades 57Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan 71List of invasive species in the Everglades 72

Indigenous peoples 86

Indigenous people of the Everglades region 86Calusa 94Miccosukee 102Tequesta 104Seminole 110

National Park 119

Everglades National Park 119Marjory Stoneman Douglas 138The Everglades: River of Grass 152

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 154Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 156

Article LicensesLicense 159

1

Overview

The EvergladesThis article is about the Florida wetlands. For other uses, see Everglades (disambiguation).

Southern third of the Florida Peninsula, showing the area managed bythe South Florida Water Management District, Lake Okeechobee, the

Everglades, Big Cypress National Preserve, the South FloridaMetropolitan Area, the Ten Thousand Islands, and Florida Bay.

The Everglades are subtropical wetlands in thesouthern portion of the U.S. state of Florida,comprising the southern half of a large watershed.The system begins near Orlando with the KissimmeeRiver, which discharges into the vast but shallowLake Okeechobee. Water leaving the lake in the wetseason forms a slow-moving river 60 miles (97 km)wide and over 100 miles (160 km) long, flowingsouthward across a limestone shelf to Florida Bay atthe southern end of the state. The Everglades areshaped by water and fire, experiencing frequentflooding in the wet season and drought in the dryseason. Writer Marjory Stoneman Douglaspopularized the term "River of Grass" to describe thesawgrass marshes, part of a complex system ofinterdependent ecosystems that include cypressswamps, the estuarine mangrove forests of the TenThousand Islands, tropical hardwood hammocks,pine rockland, and the marine environment of FloridaBay.

Human habitation in the southern portion of theFlorida peninsula dates to 15,000 years ago. Twomajor tribes eventually formed in and aroundEverglades ecosystems: the Calusa and the Tequesta.After coming into contact with the Spanish in the late16th century, both tribes declined gradually duringthe following two centuries. The Seminoles, a tribe of Creeks who assimilated other peoples into their own, madetheir living in the Everglades region after being forced there by the U.S. military in the Seminole Wars of the 19thcentury.

The Everglades 2

The primary feature of the Everglades is the sawgrass prairie.

Draining the Everglades was first suggestedin 1848, but was not attempted until 1882.Canals were constructed throughout the firsthalf of the 20th century, and spurred theSouth Florida economy, prompting landdevelopment. However, problems withcanals and floods caused by hurricanesforced engineers to rethink their drainageplans. In 1947, Congress formed the Centraland Southern Florida Flood Control Project,which built 1400 miles (2300 km) of canals,levees, and water control devices. The SouthFlorida metropolitan area grew substantiallyat this time and Everglades water wasdiverted to cities. Portions of the Evergladeswere transformed into farmland, where the primary crop was sugarcane. Approximately 50 percent of the originalEverglades has been turned into agricultural or urban areas.[1] When the construction of a large airport was proposed6 miles (9.7 km) north of Everglades National Park, an environmental study predicted it would destroy the SouthFlorida ecosystem. Restoring the Everglades then became a priority.

National and international attention turned to the environment in the 1970s, and UNESCO and the RamsarConvention designated the Everglades as one of only three wetland areas of global importance. Restoration began inthe 1980s with the removal of a canal that straightened the Kissimmee River. The water quality of Lake Okeechobee,a water source for South Florida, became a significant concern. The deterioration of the environment was also linkedto the diminishing quality of life in South Florida's urban areas. In 2000, a plan to restore the Everglades wasapproved by Congress; to date, it is the most expensive and comprehensive environmental repair attempt in history.The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan was signed into law, but the same divisive politics that had affectedthe region for the previous 50 years have compromised the plan.

Origin of the word

This map made by the U.S. military shows theterm "Everglades" was in use by 1857.

The first written record of the Everglades was on Spanish maps madeby cartographers who had not seen the land. They named the unknownarea between the Gulf and Atlantic coasts of Florida Laguna delEspíritu Santo ("Lake of the Holy Spirit").[2] The area appeared onmaps for decades without being explored. Writer John Grant Forbesstated in 1811, "The Indians represent [the Southern points] asimpenetrable; and the [British] surveyors, wreckers, and coasters, hadnot the means of exploring beyond the borders of the sea coast, and themouths of rivers".[3]

British surveyor John Gerard de Brahm, who mapped the coast ofFlorida in 1773, called the area "River Glades". Both MarjoryStoneman Douglas and linguist Wallace McMullen suggest that cartographers substituted "Ever" for "River".[3] [4]

The name "Everglades" first appeared on a map in 1823, although it was also spelled as "Ever Glades" as late as1851.[5] The Seminoles call it Pa-hay-okee, meaning "Grassy Water",[4] and the region was labeled "Pa-hai-okee" onan American military map in 1839, although it appeared as "Ever Glades" throughout the Second Seminole War.[3]

The Everglades 3

GeologyThe geology of South Florida, together with a warm, wet, subtropical climate, provides conditions well-suited for alarge marshland ecosystem. Layers of porous and permeable limestone create water-bearing rock and soil that affectthe climate, weather, and hydrology of South Florida.[6] The properties of the rock underneath the Everglades can beexplained by the geologic history of the state. The crust underneath Florida was at one point part of the Africanregion of the supercontinent Gondwana. About 300 million years ago, North America merged with Africa,connecting Florida with North America. Volcanic activity centered around the eastern side of Florida covered theprevalent sedimentary rock with igneous rock. Continental rifting began to separate North America from Gondwanaabout 180 million years ago.[7] When Florida was part of Africa, it was initially above water, but during the coolerJurassic Period, the Florida Platform became a shallow marine environment in which sedimentary rocks weredeposited. Through the Cretaceous Period, most of Florida remained a tropical sea floor of varying depths.[8] Thepeninsula has been covered by seawater at least seven times since the bedrock formed.[9]

Limestone and aquifersFluctuating sea levels compressed numerous layers of calcium carbonate, sand, and shells. The resulting permeablelimestone formations that developed between 25 million and 70 million years ago created the Floridan Aquifer,which serves as the main source of fresh water for the northern portion of Florida. However, this aquifer lies beneaththousands of feet of impermeable sedimentary rock from Lake Okeechobee to the southern tip of the peninsula.[10]

Limestone formations in South Florida. Source:U.S. Geological Survey

There are five geologic formations that make up the southern portionof Florida: the Tamiami Formation, Caloosahatchee Formation,Anastasia Formation, Miami Limestone (or Miami Oolite), and theFort Thompson Formation. The Tamiami Formation is a compressionof highly permeable light colored fossiliferous sands and pockets ofquartz, 150 feet (46 m) thick. It is named for the Tamiami Trail thatfollows the upper bedrock of the Big Cypress Swamp, and underliesthe southern portion of the Everglades. Between the TamiamiFormation and Lake Okeechobee is the Caloosahatchee Formation,named for the river over it. Much less permeable, this formation ishighly calcitic and is composed of sandy shell marl, clay, and sand.Water underneath the Caloosahatchee Formation is typically verymineralized. Both the Tamiami and Caloosahatchee Formationsdeveloped during the Pliocene Epoch.[11] [12]

Surrounding the southern part of Lake Okeechobee is the FortThompson Formation, made of dense, hard limestone, shells, and sand.Rain water is less likely to erode the limestone to form solutionholes—smaller versions of sinkholes that do not intersect with thewater table. In this formation the beds are generally impermeable.[13]

Underneath the metropolitan areas of Palm Beach County is the Anastasia Formation, composed of shelly limestone,coquina, and sand representing a former mangrove or salt marsh. The Anastasia Formation is much more permeableand filled with pocks and solution holes.[13] The Fort Thompson and Anastasia Formations, and Miami Limestoneand were formed during the Sangamon interglacial period.[14]

The geologic formations that have the most influence on the Everglades are the Miami Limestone and the Fort Thompson Formation. The Miami Limestone forms the floor of the lower Everglades. Close examination of surface rock of the Miami Limestone reveals that it is made up of ooids: tiny formations of egg-shaped concentric shells and calcium carbonate, formed around a single grain of sand. The Miami Limestone was formerly named the Miami

The Everglades 4

Oolite, which comprises facies of ooids and fossilized bryozoan organisms.[15] The unique structure was some of thefirst material used in housing in early 20th-century South Florida. The composition of this sedimentary formationaffects the hydrology, plant life, and wildlife above it: the rock is especially porous and stores water during the dryseason in the Everglades, and its chemical composition determines the vegetation prevalent in the region. The MiamiLimestone also acts as a dam between Fort Lauderdale and Coot Bay.[16]

The metropolitan areas of Miami, Fort Lauderdale, and West Palm Beach are located on a rise in elevation along theeastern coast of Florida, called the Eastern Coastal Ridge, that was formed as waves compressed ooids into a singleformation. Along the western border of the Big Cypress Swamp is the Immokolee Ridge (or Immokolee Rise), aslight rise of compressed sand that divides the runoff between the Caloosahatchee River and The Big Cypress.[17]

This slight rise in elevation on both sides of the Everglades creates a basin, and forces water that overflows LakeOkeechobee to creep towards the southwest.[18] Under both the Miami Limestone formation and the Fort Thompsonlimestone is a surface aquifer that serves as the South Florida metropolitan area's fresh water source, called theBiscayne Aquifer. Rainfall and stored water in the Everglades replenish the Biscayne Aquifer directly.[14]

With the rise of sea levels that occurred during the Pleistocene approximately 17,000 years ago, the runoff of waterfrom Lake Okeechobee slowed and created the vast marshland that is now known as the Everglades. Slower runoffalso created an accumulation of almost 18 feet (5.5 m) of peat in the area. The presence of such peat deposits, datedto about 5,000 years ago, is evidence that widespread flooding had occurred by then.[19]

Hydrology

Predevelopment flow direction of water fromLake Okeechobee to Florida Bay Source: U.S.

Geological Survey

The consistent Everglades flooding is fed by the extensive Kissimmee,Caloosahatchee, Myakka, and Peace Rivers in central Florida. TheKissimmee River is a broad floodplain that empties directly into LakeOkeechobee, which at 730 square miles (1900 km2) with an averagedepth of 9 feet (2.7 m), is a vast but shallow lake.[20] Soil deposits inthe Everglades basin indicate that peat is deposited where the land isflooded consistently throughout the year. Calcium deposits are leftbehind when flooding is shorter. The deposits occur in areas wherewater rises and falls depending on rainfall, as opposed to water beingstored in the rock from one year to the next. Calcium deposits arepresent where more limestone is exposed.[21]

The area from Orlando to the tip of the Florida peninsula was at onepoint a single drainage unit. When rainfall exceeded the capacity ofLake Okeechobee and the Kissimmee River floodplain, it spilled overand flowed in a southwestern direction to empty into Florida Bay. Priorto urban and agricultural development in Florida, the Everglades beganat the southern edge of Lake Okeechobee and flowed forapproximately 100 miles (160 km), emptying into the Gulf of Mexico.The limestone shelf is wide and slightly angled instead of having anarrow, deep channel characteristic of most rivers. The verticalgradient from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay is about 2 inches (5.1 cm) per mile, creating an almost 60-mile(97 km) wide expanse of river that travels about half a mile (0.8 km) a day.[22] This slow movement of a broad,shallow river is known as sheetflow, and gives the Everglades its nickname, River of Grass. Water leaving LakeOkeechobee may require months or years to reach its final destination, Florida Bay. The sheetflow travels so slowlythat water is typically stored from one wet season to the next in the porous limestone substrate. The ebb and flow of

The Everglades 5

water has shaped the land and every ecosystem in South Florida throughout the Everglades' estimated 5,000 years ofexistence. The motion of water defines plant communities and how animals adapt to their habitats and foodsources.[23]

Climate

Hurricane Charley in 2004 movingashore on South Florida's Gulf of

Mexico coast

The climate of South Florida is noted for its variability, as average annualtemperatures range from 60 °F (16 °C) to 80 °F (27 °C). Temperatures insummer months typically exceed 90 °F (32 °C), although coastal locations arecooled by winds from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. Freezing inwinter months occurs with varying severity and frequency. The most severeepisode of freezing in the region's recorded history occurred in two weeks ofJanuary 2010, resulting in effects similar to the destruction of a hurricane orsubstantial wildfire.[24] The region's subtropical to tropical climate features a7-month wet season from April through October, when 75 percent ofprecipitation is related to tropical cyclones and thunderstorms.[25] Only25 percent of the annual precipitation falls during the dry season fromNovember to March, usually sparked by cold fronts tracking southward.[26]

Annual rainfall averages approximately 62 inches (160 cm), with the EasternCoastal Ridge receiving the majority of precipitation and the area surroundingLake Okeechobee receiving about 48 inches (120 cm).[27]

Unlike any other wetland system on earth, the Everglades are sustained primarily by the atmosphere.[28]

Evapotranspiration—a term used to describe the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth's landsurface to atmosphere—associated with thunderstorms, is the key mechanism by which water leaves the region.During a year unaffected by drought, the rate may reach 40 inches (100 cm) a year. When droughts take place, therate may peak at over 50 inches (130 cm), and exceed the amount of rainfall.[29] As water leaves an area throughevaporation from groundwater or from plant matter, activated primarily by solar energy, it is then moved by windpatterns to other areas that border or flow into the Everglades watershed system. Evapotranspiration is responsiblefor approximately 70–90 percent of water entering undeveloped wetland regions in the Everglades.[25]

Precipitation during the wet season is primarily caused by thunderstorms formed from Bermuda High pressuresystems, blown ashore with the anti-clockwise flow. However, precipitation levels are often twice as high fromAugust to October due to tropical depressions, storms, and hurricanes. Storm systems are significantly affected by ElNiño and other global climate factors: between 1951 and 1980, precipitation in South Florida varied between 34inches (86 cm) and 88 inches (220 cm).[25] Tropical storms average one a year, and major hurricanes about onceevery ten years. Between 1871 and 1981, 138 tropical cyclones struck directly over or close to the Everglades.[27]

Strong winds from these storms disperse plant seeds and replenish mangrove forests, coral reefs, and otherecosystems. Dramatic fluctuations in precipitation are characteristic of the South Florida climate. Droughts, floods,freezing, and tropical cyclones are part of the natural water system in the Everglades.[25]

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Average, maximum, and minimum levels of rainfall for the lower east coast of Florida,from 1918 to 1985[27]

Period Mean Maximum Minimum

Annual 51.9 inches (132 cm) 77.5 inches (197 cm) 36.7 inches (93 cm)

Wet season 34.5 inches (88 cm) 53.5 inches (136 cm) 23.4 inches (59 cm)

Dry season 17.4 inches (44 cm) 30.9 inches (78 cm) 7.3 inches (19 cm)

Formative and sustaining processesThe Everglades are a complex system of interdependent ecosystems. Marjory Stoneman Douglas described the areaas a "River of Grass" in 1947, though that metaphor represents only a portion of the system. The area recognized asthe Everglades, prior to drainage, was a web of marshes and prairies 4000 square miles (10000 km2) in size.[30]

Borders between ecosystems are subtle or imperceptible. These systems shift, grow and shrink, die, or reappearwithin years or decades. Geologic factors, climate, and the frequency of fire help to create, maintain, or replace theecosystems in the Everglades.

Water

A storm over the Shark River in the Everglades,1966

Photo:Charles Barron / State Library andArchives of Florida

Water is the most dominant force and substance in the Everglades, andit shapes the land, vegetation, and animal life in South Florida. Startingat the last glacial maximum, 21,000 years ago, continental ice sheetsretreated and sea levels rose. This submerged portions of the Floridapeninsula and caused the water table to rise. Fresh water saturated thelimestone that underlies the Everglades, eroding some of it away, andcreated springs and sinkholes. The abundance of fresh water allowednew vegetation to take root, and formed convective thunderstorms overthe land through evaporation.[31] [32]

As rain continued to fall, the slightly acidic rainwater dissolved thelimestone. As limestone wore away, the groundwater came into contactwith the land surface and created a massive wetland ecosystem.[31]

Although the region appears flat, weathering of the limestone createdslight valleys and plateaus in some areas. These plateaus rise and fall only a few inches, but on the subtle SouthFlorida topography these small variations affect both the flow of water and the types of vegetation that can takehold.[33]

The Everglades 7

Rock

Uneven limestone formations in anEverglades sawgrass prairie

The underlying bedrock or limestone of the Everglades basin affects thehydroperiod, or how long an area within the region stays flooded throughout theyear.[31] Longer hydroperiods are possible in areas that were submerged beneathseawater for longer periods of time, while the geology of Florida was forming.More water is held within the porous ooids and limestone than older types ofrock that spent more time above sea level.[34] A hydroperiod of ten months ormore fosters growth of sawgrass, whereas a shorter hydroperiod of six months orless promotes beds of periphyton, a growth of algae and other microscopicorganisms. There are only two types of soil in the Everglades, peat and marl.Where there are longer hydroperiods, peat builds up over hundreds or thousandsof years due to many generations of decaying plant matter.[35] Where periphytongrows, the soil develops into marl, which is more calcitic in composition.

Initial attempts at developing agriculture near Lake Okeechobee were successful,but the nutrients in the peat were rapidly removed. In a process called soilsubsidence, oxidation of peat causes loss of volume.[36] Bacteria decompose dead sawgrass slowly underwaterwithout oxygen. When the water was drained in the 1920s and bacteria interacted with oxygen, an aerobic reactionoccurred. Microorganisms degraded the peat into carbon dioxide and water. Some of the peat was burned by settlersto clear the land. Some homes built in the areas of early farms had to have their foundations moved to stilts as thepeat deteriorated; other areas lost approximately 8 feet (2.4 m) of soil depth.[37]

FireFire is an important element in the maintenance of the Everglades. The majority of fires are caused by lightningstrikes from thunderstorms during the wet season. Their effects are largely superficial, and serve to foster specificplant growth: sawgrass will burn above water, but the roots are preserved underneath. Fire in the sawgrass marshesserves to keep out larger bushes and trees, and releases nutrients from decaying plant matter more efficiently thandecomposition.[38] Whereas in the wet season, dead plant matter and the tips of grasses and trees are burned, in thedry season the fire may be fed by organic peat and burn deeply, destroying root systems.[38] Fires are confined byexisting water and rainfall. It takes approximately 225 years for one foot (.30 m) of peat to develop, but in somelocations the peat is less dense than it should be for the 5,000 years of the Everglades' existence.[39] Scientistsindicate fire as the cause; it is also cited as the reason for the black color of Everglades muck. Layers of charcoalhave been detected in the peat in portions of the Everglades that indicate the region endured severe fires for years ata time, although this trend seems to have abated since the last occurrence in 940 BCE.[39]

The Everglades 8

Ecosystems

Major landscape types in the Everglades beforehuman action. Source: U.S. Geological Survey

Sawgrass marshes and sloughs

Several ecosystems are present in the Everglades, and boundariesbetween them are subtle or do not exist. The primary feature of theEverglades is the sawgrass marsh. The iconic water and sawgrasscombination in the shallow river 100 miles (160 km) long and 60 miles(97 km) wide that spans from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay is oftenreferred to as the "true Everglades" or just "the Glades".[40] [41] Prior tothe first drainage attempts in 1905, the sheetflow occupied nearly athird of the lower Florida peninsula.[31] Sawgrass thrives in the slowlymoving water, but may die in unusually deep floods if oxygen isunable to reach its roots, and it is particularly vulnerable immediatelyafter a fire.[42] The hydroperiod for the marsh is at least nine months,and can last longer.[43] Where sawgrass grows densely, few animals orother plants live, although alligators choose these locations for nesting.Where there is more room, periphyton grows.[44] Periphyton supportslarval insects and amphibians, which in turn are used as food by birds,fish, and reptiles. It also absorbs calcium from water, which adds to thecalcitic composition of the marl.[45]

Sloughs, or free-flowing channels of water, develop in betweensawgrass prairies. Sloughs are about 3 feet (0.91 m) deeper thansawgrass marshes, and may stay flooded for at least 11 months out ofthe year and sometimes multiple years in a row.[46] Aquatic animalssuch as turtles, alligators, snakes, and fish thrive in sloughs; they usually feed on aquatic invertebrates.[47]

Submerged and floating plants grow here, such as bladderwort (Utricularia), waterlily (Nymphaeaceae), andspatterdock (Nuphar lutea). Major sloughs in the Everglades system include the Shark River Slough flowing out toFlorida Bay, Lostmans River Slough bordering The Big Cypress, and Taylor Slough in the eastern Everglades.

Wet prairies are slightly elevated like sawgrass marshes, but with greater plant diversity. The surface is covered inwater only three to seven months of the year, and the water is, on average, shallow at only 4 inches (10 cm) deep.[48]

When flooded, the marl can support a variety of water plants.[49] Solution holes, or deep pits where the limestone hasworn away, may remain flooded even when the prairies are dry, and they support aquatic invertebrates such ascrayfish and snails, and larval amphibians which feed young wading birds.[50] These regions tend to border betweensloughs and sawgrass marshes.Alligators have created a niche in wet prairies. With their claws and snouts they dig at low spots and create pondsfree of vegetation that remain submerged throughout the dry season. Alligator holes are integral to the survival ofaquatic invertebrates, turtles, fish, small mammals, and birds during extended drought periods. The alligators thenfeed upon some of the animals that come to the hole.[51] [52]

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Tropical hardwood hammock

In a tropical hardwood hammock, trees are verydense and diverse.

Small islands of trees growing on land raised between 1 foot (0.30 m)and 3 feet (0.91 m) above sloughs and prairies are called tropicalhardwood hammocks.[53] They may range from one (4,000 m²) to tenacres (40,000 m²) in area, and appear in freshwater sloughs, sawgrassprairies, or pineland. Hammocks are slightly elevated on limestoneplateaus risen several inches above the surrounding peat, or they maygrow on land that has been unharmed by deep peat fires. Hardwoodhammocks exhibit a mixture of subtropical and hardwood trees, suchas Southern live oak (Quercus virginiana), gumbo limbo (Burserasimaruba), royal palm (Roystonea), and bustic (Dipholis salicifolia)that grow in very dense clumps.[54] Near the base, sharp saw palmettos(Serenoa repens) flourish, making the hammocks very difficult for

people to penetrate, though small mammals, reptiles and amphibians find these islands an ideal habitat. Water insloughs flows around the islands, creating moats. Though some ecosystems are maintained and promoted by fire,hammocks may take decades or centuries to recover. The moats around the hammocks protect the trees.[55] The treesare limited in height by weather factors such as frost, lightning, and wind; the majority of trees in hammocks growno higher than 55 feet (17 m).

PinelandSome of the dryest land in the Everglades is pineland (also called pine rockland) ecosystem, located in the highestpart of the Everglades with little to no hydroperiod. Some floors, however, may have flooded solution holes orpuddles for a few months at a time. The most significant feature of the pineland is the single species of South Floridaslash pine (Pinus elliotti). Pineland communities require fire to maintain them, and the trees have several adaptationsthat simultaneously promote and resist fire.[56] The sandy floor of the pine forest is covered with dry pine needlesthat are highly flammable. South Florida slash pines are insulated by their bark to protect them from heat. Fireeliminates competing vegetation on the forest floor, and opens pine cones to germinate seeds.[57] A period withoutsignificant fire can turn pineland into a hardwood hammock as larger trees overtake the slash pines.[58] Theunderstory shrubs in pine rocklands are the fire-resistant saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), cabbage palm (Sabalpalmetto), and West Indian lilac (Tetrazygia bicolor). The most diverse group of plants in the pine community arethe herbs, of which there are two dozen species. These plants contain tubers and other mechanisms that allow themto sprout quickly after being charred.[59]

Prior to urban development of the South Florida region, pine rocklands covered approximately 161660 acres(654.2 km2) in Miami-Dade County. Within Everglades National Park, 19840 acres (80.3 km2) of pine forests areprotected, but outside the park, 1780 acres (7.2 km2) of pine communities remained as of 1990, averaging 12.1 acres(49000 m2) in area.[56] The misunderstanding of the role of fire also played a part in the disappearance of pine forestsin the area, as natural fires were put out and pine rocklands transitioned into hardwood hammocks. Prescribed firesoccur in Everglades National Park in pine rocklands every three to seven years.[60]

The Everglades 10

A cross section of fresh water ecosystems in the Everglades, with relative average water depths

Cypress

A pond in The Big Cypress

Cypress swamps can be found throughout the Everglades, but thelargest covers most of Collier County. The Big Cypress Swamp islocated to the west of the sawgrass prairies and sloughs, and it iscommonly called "The Big Cypress."[61] The name refers to its arearather than the height or diameter of the trees; at its most conservativeestimate, the swamp measures 1200 square miles (3100 km2), but thehydrologic boundary of The Big Cypress can be calculated at over2400 square miles (6200 km2).[62] Most of The Big Cypress sits atop abedrock covered by a thinner layer of limestone. The limestoneunderneath the Big Cypress contains quartz, which creates sandy soilthat hosts a variety of vegetation different from what is found in other areas of the Everglades.[61] The basin for TheBig Cypress receives on average 55 inches (140 cm) of water in the wet season.[63]

Though The Big Cypress is the largest growth of cypress swamps in South Florida, cypress swamps can be foundnear the Atlantic Coastal Ridge and between Lake Okeechobee and the Eastern flatwoods, as well as in sawgrassmarshes. Cypresses are conifers that are uniquely adapted to thrive in flooded conditions, with buttressed trunks androot projections that protrude out of the water, called "knees".[64] Cypress trees grow in formations with the tallestand thickest trunks in the center, rooted in the deepest peat. As the peat thins out, cypresses grow smaller andthinner, giving the small forest the appearance of a dome from the outside.[65] They also grow in strands, slightlyelevated on a ridge of limestone bordered on either side by sloughs.[66] Other hardwood trees can be found in cypressdomes, such as red maple, swamp bay, and pop ash. If cypresses are removed, the hardwoods take over, and theecosystem is recategorized as a mixed swamp forest.

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Mangrove and Coastal prairie

Red mangrove trees bordering a tidal estuary inthe Everglades

Eventually the water from Lake Okeechobee and The Big Cypressmakes its way to the ocean. Mangrove trees are well adapted to thetransitional zone of brackish water where fresh and salt water meet.The Everglades have the most extensive continuous system ofmangroves in the world.[67] The estuarine ecosystem of the TenThousand Islands, which is comprised almost completely of mangroveforests, covers almost 200000 acres (810 km2).[68] In the wet seasonfresh water pours out into Florida Bay, and sawgrass begins to growcloser to the coastline. In the dry season, and particularly in extendedperiods of drought, the salt water creeps inland into the coastal prairie,an ecosystem that buffers the freshwater marshes by absorbing seawater. Mangrove trees begin to grow in fresh water ecosystems when

the salt water goes far enough inland.[69]

There are three species of trees that are considered mangroves: red (Rhizophora mangle), black (Avicenniagerminans), and white (Laguncularia racemosa), although all are from different families.[70] All grow inoxygen-poor soil, can survive drastic water level changes, and are tolerant of salt, brackish, and fresh water.[71] Allthree mangrove species are integral to coastline protection during severe storms. Red mangroves have thefarthest-reaching roots, trapping sediments that help build coastlines after and between storms. All three types oftrees absorb the energy of waves and storm surges. Everglades mangroves also serve as nurseries for crustaceans andfish, and rookeries for birds. The region supports Tortugas pink shrimp (Farfantepenaeus duorarum) and stone crab(Menippe mercenaria) industries;[72] between 80 to 90 percent of commercially harvested crustacean species inFlorida's salt waters are born or spend time near the Everglades.[68] [73]

Florida Bay

A clump of mangroves in the distance, FloridaBay at Flamingo

Much of the coast and the inner estuaries are built by mangroves; thereis no border between the coastal marshes and the bay. Thus the marineecosystems in Florida Bay are considered to be a part of the Evergladeswatershed and one of the ecosystems connected to and affected by theEverglades as a whole. More than 800 square miles (2100 km2) ofFlorida Bay is protected by Everglades National Park, representing thelargest body of water in the park boundaries.[74] There areapproximately a hundred keys in Florida Bay, many of which aremangrove forests.[75] The fresh water coming into Florida Bay fromthe Everglades creates perfect conditions for vast beds of turtle grassand algae formations that are the foundation for animal life in the bay.Sea turtles and manatees eat the grass, while invertebrate animals, suchas worms, clams and other mollusks eat the algae formations and microscopic plankton.[76] Female sea turtles returnannually to nest on the shore, and manatees spend the winter months in the warmer water of the bay. Sea grasses alsoserve to stabilize the sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves.

The Everglades 12

History

Native AmericansPeople arrived in the Florida peninsula approximately 15,000 years ago. Paleo-Indians came to Florida probablyfollowing large game that included giant sloths, saber-toothed cats, and spectacled bears. They found an aridlandscape that supported plants and animals adapted for desert conditions.[77] However, 6,500 years ago, climatechanges brought a wetter landscape; large animals became extinct in Florida, and the Paleo-Indians slowly adaptedand became the Archaic peoples. They conformed to the environmental changes, and created many tools with thevarious resources available to them.[78] During the Late Archaic period, the climate became wetter again, andapproximately 3000 BCE the rise of water tables allowed an increase in population and cultural activity. FloridaIndians developed into three distinct but similar cultures that were named for the bodies of water near where theywere located: Okeechobee, Caloosahatchee, and Glades.[79]

Calusa and Tequesta

From the Glades peoples, two major tribes emerged in the area: the Calusa and the Tequesta. The Calusa was thelargest and most powerful tribe in South Florida. They controlled fifty villages located on Florida's west coast,around Lake Okeechobee, and on the Florida Keys. Most Calusa villages were located at the mouths of rivers or onkey islands. The Calusa were hunter-gatherers who existed on small game, fish, turtles, alligators, shellfish, andvarious plants.[80] Most of their tools were made of bone or teeth, although sharpened reeds were also effective forhunting or weapons. Calusa weapons consisted of bows and arrows, atlatls, and spears. Canoes were used fortransportation, and South Florida tribes often canoed through the Everglades, but rarely lived in them.[81] Canoe tripsto Cuba were also common.[82]

Estimated numbers of Calusa at the beginning of the Spanish occupation ranged from 4,000 to 7,000.[83] The societydeclined in power and population; by 1697 their number was estimated to be about 1,000.[82] In the early 18thcentury, the Calusa came under attack from the Yamasee to the north, and asked the Spanish to be removed to Cubawhere almost 200 died of illness. Soon they were relocated again to the Florida Keys.[84]

Second in power and number to the Calusa in South Florida were the Tequesta. They occupied the southeasternportion of the lower peninsula in modern-day Dade and Broward counties. Like the Calusa, the Tequesta societiescentered around the mouths of rivers. Their main village was probably on the Miami River or Little River. Spanishdepictions of the Tequesta state that they were greatly feared by sailors who suspected them of torturing and killingsurvivors of shipwrecks.[85] Spanish priests attempted to set up missions in 1743, but noted that the Tequesta wereunder assault from a neighboring tribe. When only 30 members were left, they were removed to Havana. A Britishsurveyor in 1770 described multiple deserted villages in the region where the Tequesta lived.[86] Commondescription of Native Americans in Florida by 1820 used only the term "Seminoles".[87]

The Everglades 13

Seminole

Seminoles made their home in theEverglades

Following the demise of the Calusa and Tequesta, Native Americans in southernFlorida were referred to as "Spanish Indians" in the 1740s, probably due to theirfriendlier relations with Spain. Creeks invaded the Florida peninsula andconquered and assimilated what was left of pre-Columbian societies into theCreek Confederacy. Seminoles originally settled in the northern portion of theterritory, but were forced to live on a reservation north of Lake Okeechobee.They soon ranged farther south where they numbered approximately 300 in theEverglades region.[88] They made a living by hunting and trading with whitesettlers, and raised domesticated animals.[89] Seminoles made their villages inhardwood hammocks or pinelands, had diets of hominy and coontie roots, fish,turtles, venison, and small game.[90] Their villages were not large, due to thelimited size of the hammocks.

In 1817, Andrew Jackson invaded Florida to hasten its annexation to the UnitedStates, in what became known as the First Seminole War. After Florida became aU.S. territory in 1821, conflicts between settlers and Seminoles increased, causing the Second Seminole War from1835 to 1842 and the Third Seminole War from 1855 to 1859. Between the two latter conflicts, almost4,500 Seminoles were killed or relocated to Indian territory.[91] The Seminole Wars pushed the Indians farther southand directly into the Everglades. By 1913, Seminoles in the Everglades numbered no more than 325.[90]

Between the end of the last Seminole War and 1930, the tribe lived in relative isolation. The construction of theTamiami Trail, beginning in 1928 and spanning from Tampa to Miami, altered their ways of life. They began towork in local farms, ranches, and souvenir stands.[92] As metropolitan areas in South Florida began to grow, theSeminoles became closely associated with the Everglades, simultaneously seeking privacy and serving as a touristattraction, wrestling alligators and selling craftworks.[93] As of 2008, there were six Seminole reservationsthroughout Florida featuring casino gaming that support the tribe.[94]

Exploration

Map of the Everglades in 1856:Military action during the SeminoleWars improved understanding of the

features of the Everglades

The military penetration of southern Florida offered the opportunity to map apoorly understood and largely unknown part of the country. An 1840 expeditioninto the Everglades offered the first printed account for the general public to readabout the Everglades. The anonymous writer described the terrain the party wascrossing: "No country that I have ever heard of bears any resemblance to it; itseems like a vast sea filled with grass and green trees, and expressly intended asa retreat for the rascally Indian, from which the white man would never seek todrive them".[95]

The land seemed to inspire extreme reactions of both wonder or hatred. Duringthe Second Seminole War an army surgeon wrote, "It is in fact a most hideousregion to live in, a perfect paradise for Indians, alligators, serpents, frogs, andevery other kind of loathsome reptile."[96] In 1897, explorer Hugh Willoughbyspent eight days canoeing with a party from the mouth of the Harney River to theMiami River. He sent his observations to the New Orleans Times-Democrat.Willoughby described the water as healthy and wholesome, with numerous

springs, and 10,000 alligators "more or less" in Lake Okeechobee. The party encountered thousands of birds near the

Shark River, "killing hundreds, but they continued to return".[97] Willoughby pointed out that much of the rest of the country had been explored and mapped except for this part of Florida, writing, "(w)e have a tract of land one

The Everglades 14

hundred and thirty miles long and seventy miles wide that is as much unknown to the white man as the heart ofAfrica."[98]

DrainageA national push for expansion and progress in the United States occurred in the later part of the 19th century, whichstimulated interest in draining the Everglades for agricultural use. According to historians, "From the middle of thenineteenth century to the middle of the twentieth century, the United States went through a period in which wetlandremoval was not questioned. Indeed, it was considered the proper thing to do."[99] Draining the Everglades wassuggested as early as 1837,[5] and a resolution in Congress was passed in 1842 that prompted Secretary of TreasuryRobert J. Walker to request those with experience in the Everglades to give their opinion on the possibility ofdrainage. Many officers who had served in the Seminole Wars favored the idea.[5] In 1850 Congress passed a lawthat gave several states wetlands within their state boundaries. The Swamp and Overflowed Lands Act ensured thatthe state would be responsible for funding the attempts at developing wetlands into farmlands.[100] Florida quicklyformed a committee to consolidate grants to pay for any attempts, though the The Civil War and Reconstructionhalted progress until after 1877.

Hamilton Disston's land sale notice

After the Civil War Florida formed an agency called the Internal ImprovementFund (IIF) whose purpose was to improve the state's roads, canals, and rail lines.The IIF found a Pennsylvania real estate developer named Hamilton Disstoninterested in implementing plans to drain the land for agriculture. Disstonpurchased 4000000 acres (16000 km2) of land for $1 million in 1881,[101] and hebegan constructing canals near St. Cloud. The canals seemed to work in loweringthe water levels in the wetlands surrounding the rivers at first.[102] They wereeffective in lowering the groundwater, but it became apparent that their capacitywas insufficient for the wet season.[103] Though Disston's canals did not drainwell, his purchase primed the economy of Florida. It made news and attractedtourists and land buyers. Within four years property values doubled, and thepopulation increased significantly.[101]

The IIF was able to invest in development projects due to Disston's purchase, andan opportunity to improve transportation presented itself when oil tycoon HenryFlagler began purchasing land and building rail lines along the east coast ofFlorida, as far south as Palm Beach in 1893.[104] Along the way he built resorthotels, transforming territorial outposts into tourist destinations, and the land bordering the rail lines into citrusfarms.[105] By 1896 the rail line had been extended to Biscayne Bay.[106] Three months after the first train hadarrived, the residents of Miami voted to incorporate the town. Miami became a prime destination for extremelywealthy people after the Royal Palm Hotel was opened.[107]

During the 1904 gubernatorial race, the strongest candidate, Napoleon Bonaparte Broward, based a significantportion of his campaign on draining the Everglades. He called the future of South Florida the "Empire of theEverglades". Soon after his successful election, he fulfilled his promise to "drain that abominable pestilence-riddenswamp",[108] and pushed the Florida legislature to form a group of commissioners to oversee reclamation of floodedlands. In 1907 they established the Everglades Drainage District and began to study how to build the most effectivecanals, and how to fund them.[5] Governor Broward ran for the U.S. Senate in 1908 but lost. Broward was paid byland developer Richard J. Bolles to tour the state to promote drainage. He was elected to the Senate in 1910, but diedbefore he could take office. Land in the Everglades was being sold for $15 an acre a month after Broward died.[109]

Meanwhile, Henry Flagler continued to build railway stations at towns as soon as the populations warrantedthem.[106]

The Everglades 15

Growth of urban areas

A canal lock in the Everglades Drainage Districtaround 1915

With the construction of canals, newly reclaimed Everglades land waspromoted throughout the United States. Land developers sold20,000 lots in a few months in 1912. Advertisements promised withineight weeks of arrival, a farmer could be making a living, although formany it took at least two months to clear the land. Some burned off thesawgrass or other vegetation to find the peat a source of fuel thatcontinued to burn. Animals and tractors used for plowing got mired inthe muck and were useless. When the muck dried, it turned to a fineblack powder and created dust storms.[110] Though initially cropssprouted quickly and lushly, they just as quickly wilted and diedseemingly without reason.[111]

The increasing population in towns near the Everglades provided hunting opportunities. Raccoons and otters werethe most widely hunted for their skins. Hunting often went unchecked; in one trip, a Lake Okeechobee hunter killed250 alligators and 172 otters.[112] Wading birds were a particular target. Their feathers were used in women's hats inthe late 19th century up to the 1920s. In 1886, 5 million birds were estimated to be killed for their feathers.[113] Theywere shot usually in the spring, when their feathers were colored for mating and nesting. The plumes, or aigrettes, asthey were called in the millinery business, sold for $32 an ounce in 1915—also the price of gold.[112] Millinery was a$17 million a year industry[114] that motivated plume harvesters to lay in watch of nests of egrets and many coloredbirds during the nesting season, shoot the parents with small-bore rifles, and leave the chicks to starve.[112] Plumesfrom Everglades wading birds could be found in Havana, New York City, London, and Paris. Hunters could collectplumes from a hundred birds on a good day.[115]

Rum-runners used the Everglades as a hiding spot during Prohibition; it was so vast there were never enough lawenforcement officers to patrol it.[116] The arrival of the railroad, and the discovery that adding trace elements likecopper was the remedy for crops sprouting and dying quickly, soon created a population boom and new towns likeMoore Haven, Clewiston, and Belle Glade.[5] Sugarcane became the primary crop grown in South Florida. Miamiexperienced a second real estate boom that earned a developer in Coral Gables $150 million, and saw undevelopedland north of Miami sell for $30,600 an acre.[117] In 1925, Miami newspapers published editions weighing over 7pounds (3.2 kg), most of it in real estate advertising.[118] Waterfront property was the most highly valued. Mangrovetrees were cut down and replaced with palm trees to improve the view. Acres of South Florida slash pine werecleared. Some of the pine was for lumber, but most of the pine forests in Dade County were cleared fordevelopment.[56]

Flood control

A sign advertising the completion of the HerbertHoover Dike

Two catastrophic hurricanes in 1926 and 1928 caused LakeOkeechobee to breach its levees, killing thousands of people. Thegovernment began to focus on the control of floods rather thandrainage. The Okeechobee Flood Control District was created in 1929,financed by both state and federal funds. President Herbert Hoovertoured the towns affected by the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane andordered the Army Corps of Engineers to assist the communitiessurrounding the lake.[119] Between 1930 and 1937 a dike 66 miles(106 km) long was built around the southern edge of the lake. Control

The Everglades 16

of the Hoover Dike and the waters of Lake Okeechobee were delegated to federal powers: the United States declaredlegal limits of the lake to between 14 and 17 feet (4.3 and 5.2 m).[98] A massive canal was also constructed 80 feet(24 m) wide and 6 feet (1.8 m) deep through the Caloosahatchee River; whenever the lake rose too high, the excesswater left through the canal.[98] More than $20 million was spent on the entire project. Sugarcane production soaredafter the dike and canal were built. The populations of the small towns surrounding the lake jumped from 3,000 to9,000 after World War II.[120]

Immediately the effects of the Hoover Dike were seen. An extended drought occurred in the 1930s; with the wallpreventing water from leaving Lake Okeechobee and canals and ditches removing other water, the Evergladesbecame parched. Peat turned to dust. Salt ocean water intruded into Miami's wells; when the city brought in anexpert to explain why, he discovered that the water in the Everglades was the area's groundwater—here, it appearedon the surface.[121] In 1939, a million acres (4,000 km²) of Everglades burned, and the black clouds of peat andsawgrass fires hung over Miami.[122] Scientists who took soil samples before draining did not take into account thatthe organic composition of peat and muck in the Everglades make it prone to soil subsidence when it becomes dry.Naturally occurring bacteria in Everglades peat and muck assist with the process of decomposition under water,which is generally very slow, partially due to the low levels of dissolved oxygen. When water levels became so lowthat peat and muck were at the surface, the bacteria interacted with much higher levels of oxygen in the air, rapidlybreaking down the soil. In some places, homes had to be moved to stilts and 8 feet (2.4 m) of soil was lost.[37]

Everglades National Park

President Harry Truman dedicating EvergladesNational Park on December 6, 1947.

The idea of a national park for the Everglades was pitched in 1928when a Miami land developer named Ernest F. Coe established theEverglades Tropical National Park Association. It had enough supportto be declared a national park by Congress in 1934. It took another13 years to be dedicated on December 6, 1947.[123] One month beforethe dedication of the park, a former editor from The Miami Herald andfreelance writer named Marjory Stoneman Douglas released her firstbook titled The Everglades: River of Grass. After researching theregion for five years, she described the history and ecology of theSouth Florida in great detail. She characterized the Everglades as ariver instead of a stagnant swamp.[101] The last chapter was titled, "TheEleventh Hour" and warned that the Everglades were dying, although itcould be reversed.[124]

Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project

The same year the park was dedicated, two hurricanes and the wet season caused 100 inches (250 cm) to fall onSouth Florida. Though there were no human casualties, agricultural interests lost approximately $59 million.[125] In1948 Congress approved the Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other Purposes (C&SF),who divided the Everglades into basins. In the northern Everglades were Water Conservation Areas (WCAs), and theEverglades Agricultural Area (EAA) bordering to the south of Lake Okeechobee. In the southern Everglades wasEverglades National Park. Levees and pumping stations bordered each WCA, and released water in dryer times orremoved it and pumped it to the ocean in times of flood. The WCAs took up approximately 37 percent of the originalEverglades.[126] The C&SF constructed over 1000 miles (1600 km) of canals, and hundreds of pumping stations andlevees within three decades. During the 1950s and 1960s the South Florida metropolitan area grew four times as fastas the rest of the nation. Between 1940 and 1965, 6 million people moved to South Florida: 1,000 people moved toMiami every week.[127] Developed areas between the mid 1950s and the late 1960s quadrupled. Much of the waterreclaimed from the Everglades was sent to newly developed areas.[128]

The Everglades 17

Everglades Agricultural Area

A 2003 U.S. Geological Survey photo showingthe border between Water Conservation Area 3(bottom) with water, and Everglades National

Park, dry (top)

The C&SF established 470000 acres (1900 km2) for the EvergladesAgricultural Area—27 percent of the Everglades prior todevelopment.[129] In the late 1920s, agricultural experiments indicatedthat adding large amounts of manganese sulfate to Everglades muckproduced a profitable harvest for vegetables.[130] The primary cashcrop in the EAA is sugarcane, though sod, beans, lettuce, celery, andrice are also grown. Fields in the EAA are typically 40 acres ( m2),bordered by canals on two sides, that are connected to larger canalswhere water is pumped in or out depending on the needs of thecrops.[131] The fertilizers used on vegetables, along with highconcentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus that are the byproduct ofdecayed soil necessary for sugarcane production, were pumped into

WCAs south of the EAA. The introduction of large amounts of these chemicals provided opportunities for exoticplants to take hold in the Everglades.[132] One of the defining characteristics of natural Everglades ecology is itsability to support itself in a nutrient-poor environment, and the introduction of fertilizers began to alter the plant lifein the region.[133]

Jetport proposition

A turning point came for development in the Everglades at the proposition of an expanded airport after MiamiInternational Airport outgrew its capacities. The new jetport was planned to be larger than O'Hare, Dulles, JFK, andLAX airports combined, and the chosen location was 6 miles (9.7 km) north of Everglades National Park. The firstsentence of the U.S. Department of Interior study of the environmental impact of the jetport read, "Development ofthe proposed jetport and its attendant facilities ... will inexorably destroy the south Florida ecosystem and thus theEverglades National Park".[134] When studies indicated the proposed jetport would create 4000000 US gallons ( L)of raw sewage a day and 10000 short tons (9100 t) of jet engine pollutants a year, the project met staunch opposition.The New York Times called it a "blueprint for disaster",[135] and Wisconsin senator Gaylord Nelson wrote toPresident Richard Nixon voicing his opposition: "It is a test of whether or not we are really committed in this countryto protecting our environment."[136] Governor Claude Kirk withdrew his support for the project, and MarjoryStoneman Douglas was persuaded at 79 years old to go on tour to give hundreds of speeches against it. Nixon insteadestablished Big Cypress National Preserve, announcing it in the Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972Environmental Program .[137]

Restoration

Kissimmee RiverThe Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project's final construction project was straightening the KissimmeeRiver, a meandering 90-mile (140 km)-long river that was drained to make way for grazing land and agriculture. TheC&SF started building the C-38 canal in 1962 and the effects were seen almost immediately. Waterfowl, wadingbirds, and fish disappeared, prompting conservationists and sport fishers to demand the region be restored before thecanal was finished in 1971.[138] In general, C&SF projects had been criticized for being temporary fixes that ignoredfuture consequences, costing billions of dollars with no end in sight.[139] After Governor Bob Graham initiated theSave Our Everglades campaign in 1983, the first section of the canal was backfilled in 1986. Graham announced thatby 2000 the Everglades would be restored as closely as possible to its pre-drainage state.[140] The Kissimmee RiverRestoration project was approved by Congress in 1992. It is estimated that it will cost $578 million to convert only22 miles (35 km) of the canal. The entire project will be complete by 2011.[141]

The Everglades 18

Water quality

Warnings are placed in EvergladesNational Park to dissuade people

from eating fish due to high mercurycontent.

Further problems with the environment arose when a vast algal bloom appearedin one-fifth of Lake Okeechobee in 1986. The same year cattails were discoveredovertaking sawgrass marshes in Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge.Scientists discovered that phosphorus, used as a fertilizer in the EAA, wasflushed into canals and pumped back into the lake.[142] When the lake drained,the phosphorus entered the water in the marshes, changing the nutrient levels. Itkept periphyton from forming marl, one of two soils in the Everglades. Thearrival of phosphorus allowed cattails to spread quickly. The cattails grew indense mats—too thick for birds or alligators to nest in. It also dissolved oxygenin the peat, promoted algae, and prohibited growth of native invertebrates on thebottom of the food chain.[143]

At the same time mercury was found in local fish at such high levels thatconsumption warnings were posted for fishermen. A Florida panther was founddead with levels of mercury high enough to kill a human.[144] Scientists foundthat power plants and incinerators using fossil fuels were expelling mercury into

the atmosphere, and it fell as rain or dust during droughts. The naturally occurring bacteria that reduce sulfur in theEverglades ecosystem were transforming the mercury into methylmercury, and it was bioaccumulating through thefood chain.[144] Stricter emissions standards helped lower mercury coming from power plants and incinerators,which in turn lowered mercury levels found in animals, though they continue to be a concern.[144]

The Everglades Forever Act, introduced by Governor Lawton Chiles in 1994, was an attempt to legislate thelowering of phosphorus in Everglades waterways. The act put the South Florida Water Management District(SFWMD) and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) in charge of testing and enforcing lowphosphorus levels: 10 parts per billion (ppb) (down from 500 ppb in the 1980s).[145] The SFWMD built StormwaterTreatment Areas (STAs) near sugarcane fields where water leaving the EAA flows into ponds lined with lime rockand layers of peat and calcareous periphyton. Testing has shown this method to be more effective than previouslyanticipated, bringing levels from 80 ppb to 10 ppb.[146]

The Everglades 19

Invasive species

Climbing ferns overtake cypresstrees in the Everglades. The ferns act

as "fire ladders" that can destroytrees that would otherwise survive

fires.

The Everglades also face an ongoing threat from the melaleuca tree (Melaleucaquinquenervia), because they take water in greater amounts than other trees.Melaleucas grow taller and more densely in the Everglades than in their nativeAustralia, making them unsuitable as nesting areas for birds with widewingspans.[147] They also choke out native vegetation. More than $2 million hasbeen spent on keeping them out of Everglades National Park.[148]

Brazilian pepper, or Florida holly (Schinus terebinthifolius), has also wreakedhavoc on the Everglades, exhibiting a tendency to spread rapidly and to crowdout native species of plants as well as to create inhospitable environments fornative animals. It is especially difficult to eradicate and is readily propagated bybirds, which eat its small red berries.[149] The Brazilian Pepper problem is notexclusive to the Everglades; neither is the water hyacinth, which is a widespreadproblem in Florida's waterways, a major threat to endemic species, and isdifficult and costly to eradicate. The Old World climbing fern (Lygodiummicrophyllum) may be causing the most harm to restoration as it blankets areasthickly, making it impossible for animals to pass through. It also climbs up treesand creates "fire ladders", allowing parts of the trees to burn that wouldotherwise remain unharmed.[150]

Many pets have escaped or been released into the Everglades from the surrounding urban areas. Some find theconditions quite favorable and have established self-sustaining populations, competing for food and space withnative animals. Many tropical fish have been released, but blue tilapias (Oreochromis aureus) cause damage toshallow waterways by creating large nests and consuming aquatic plants that protect native young fish.[151]

Native to southern Asia, the Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus) is a relatively new invasive species in theEverglades. The species can grow up to 20 feet (6.1 m) long and they compete with alligators for the top of the foodchain. Florida wildlife officials speculate that escaped pythons have begun reproducing in an environment for whichthey are well-suited.[152] [153] In Everglades National Park alone, agents removed more than 1,200 Burmese pythonfrom the park as of 2009.[154]

The invasive species that causes the most damage is the cat, both domestic and feral. Cats that are let outside liveclose to suburban populations and have been estimated to number 640 per square mile. In such close numbers inhistoric migratory areas, they have devastating effects on migratory bird populations.[155]

Comprehensive Everglades Restoration PlanThough scientists made headway in decreasing mercury and phosphorus levels in water, the natural environment ofSouth Florida continued to decline in the 1990s, and life in nearby cities reflected this downturn. To address thedeterioration of the South Florida metropolitan area, Governor Lawton Chiles commissioned a report on thesustainability of the area. In 1995, Chiles published the commission's findings in a report that related the degradationof the Everglades ecosystems to the lower quality of life in urban areas. The report noted past environmental abusesthat brought the state to a position to make a decision. Not acting to improve the South Florida ecosystem, the reportpredicted, would inevitably cause further and intolerable deterioration that would harm local tourism by 12,000 jobsand $200 million annually, and commercial fishing by 3,300 jobs and $52 million annually.[156] Urban areas hadgrown beyond their capacities to sustain themselves. Crowded cities were facing problems such as high crime rates,traffic jams, severely overcrowded schools, and overtaxed public services; the report noted that water shortages wereironic, given the 53 inches (130 cm) of rain the region received annually.[156]

The Everglades 20

In 1999, an evaluation of the C&SF was submitted to Congress as part of the Water Development Act of 1992. Theseven-year report, called the "Restudy", cited indicators of harm to the ecosystem: a 50 percent reduction in theoriginal Everglades, diminished water storage, harmful timing of water releases from canals and pumping stations,an 85 to 90 percent decrease in wading bird populations over the past 50 years, and the decline of output fromcommercial fisheries. Bodies of water including Lake Okeechobee, the Caloosahatchee River, St. Lucie estuary,Lake Worth Lagoon, Biscayne Bay, Florida Bay and the Everglades reflected drastic water level changes,hypersalinity, and dramatic changes in marine and freshwater ecosystems. The Restudy noted the overall decline inwater quality over the past 50 years was due to loss of wetlands that act as filters for polluted water.[157] It predictedthat without intervention the entire South Florida ecosystem would deteriorate. Water shortages would becomecommon and some cities would have annual water restrictions.[158]

Planned water recovery and storage implementation using CERP strategies

The Restudy came with a plan to stop thedeclining environmental quality, and thisproposal was to be the most expensive andcomprehensive ecological repair project inhistory.[159] The Comprehensive EvergladesRestoration Plan (CERP) proposed morethan 60 construction projects over 30 yearsto store water that was being flushed into theocean, in reservoirs, underground aquifers,and abandoned quarries; add moreStormwater Treatment Areas to filter waterthat flowed into the lower Everglades;regulate water released from pumpingstations into local waterways and improvewater released to Everglades National Parkand Water Conservation Areas; removebarriers to sheetflow by raising the Tamiami Trail and destroying the Miami Canal, and reuse wastewater for urbanareas.[160] The cost estimate for the entire plan was $7.8 billion, and in a bipartisan show of cooperation, CERP wasvoted through Congress with an overwhelming margin. It was signed by President Bill Clinton on December 11,2000.[161]

Since its signing, the State of Florida reports that it has spent more than $2 billion on the various projects. More than36000 acres (150 km2) of Stormwater Treatment Areas have been constructed to filter 2500 short tons (2300 t) ofphosphorus from Everglades waters. An STA spanning 17000 acres (69 km2) was constructed in 2004, making it thelargest manmade wetland in the world. Fifty-five percent of the land necessary to acquire for restoration has beenpurchased by the State of Florida, totaling 210167 acres (850.52 km2). A plan to hasten the construction and fundingof projects was put into place, named "Acceler8", spurring the start of six of eight large construction projects,including that of three large reservoirs.[162] However, federal funds have not been forthcoming; CERP was signedwhen the U.S. government had a budget surplus, but since then the War in Iraq began, and two of CERP's majorsupporters in Congress retired. According to a story in The New York Times, state officials say the restoration is lostin a maze of "federal bureaucracy, a victim of 'analysis paralysis'".[163] CERP still remains controversial as theprojects slated for Acceler8, environmental activists note, are those that benefit urban areas, and regions in theEverglades in desperate need of water are still being neglected, suggesting that water is being diverted to make roomfor more people in an already overtaxed environment.[164]

The Everglades 21

Future of the EvergladesIn 2008, the State of Florida agreed to buy U.S. Sugar and all of its manufacturing and production facilities for anestimated $1.7 billion.[165] Florida officials indicated they intended to allow U.S. Sugar to process for six more yearsbefore dismissing its employees and dismantling the plant. The area, which includes 187000 acres (760 km2) of land,would then be rehabilitated and water flow from Lake Okeechobee would be restored.[165] In November 2008, theagreement was revised to offer $1.34 billion, allowing sugar mills in Clewiston to remain in production.[166] Criticsof the revised plan say that it ensures sugarcane will be grown in the Everglades for at least another decade.[167]

Further research is being done to address the continuing production of sugarcane in the Everglades to minimizephosphorus runoff.[168]

Everglades restoration received $96 million of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009.[169] As aresult of the stimulus package, a mile-long (1.6 km) bridge to replace the Tamiami Trail, a road that bordersEverglades National Park to the north and has blocked water from reaching the southern Everglades, was begun bythe Army Corps of Engineers in December 2009. The next month work began to reconstruct the C-111 canal, east ofthe park that historically diverted water into Florida Bay.[170] [171] Governor Charlie Crist announced the samemonth that $50 million of state funds would be earmarked for Everglades restoration.[172] In May 2010, 5.5 miles(8.9 km) of bridges were proposed to be added to the Tamiami Trail.[173]

Notes and references[1] U.S. Geological Survey (1999). "Florida Everglades" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1182/ ). Circular 1182. U.S. Geological

Survey. . Retrieved 2008-03-14.[2] "Old Florida Maps" (http:/ / scholar. library. miami. edu/ floridamaps/ view_image. php?image_name=dlp00020000580001001&

group=english). scholar.library.miami.edu. . Retrieved 2008-08-22.[3] McMullen, Wallace (February 1953). "The Origin of the Term Everglades", American Speech, 28 (1), pp. 26–34.[4] Douglas, pp. 7–8.[5] Dovell, J.E. (July 1947). "The Everglades Before Reclamation", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 26 (1), pp. 1–44.[6] South Florida Water Management District (2002). "Everglades Information: Geology" (http:/ / glades. sfwmd. gov/ empact/ home/

02_everglades/ 03_geology. shtml). "The Living Everglades". South Florida Water Management District. . Retrieved 2008-03-15.[7] Lodge. p. 3.[8] Lodge, p. 4[9] Gleason, Patrick, Peter Stone, "Age, Origins, and Landscape Evolution of the Everglades Peatland" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its

Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8[10] Lodge, pp. 6–7.[11] "Florida Geological Survey: Tamiami Formation" (http:/ / www. dep. state. fl. us/ geology/ geologictopics/ rocks/ tamiami_fm. htm). Florida

Department of Environmental Protection. January 24, 2006. . Retrieved 2008-04-29.[12] UF & USDA (1948), p. 26–30.[13] UF & USDA (1948), p. 30–33.[14] Lodge, p. 10[15] Florida Geological Survey (2006). "Miami Limestone" (http:/ / www. dep. state. fl. us/ geology/ geologictopics/ rocks/ miami_limestone.

htm). Florida Department of Environmental Protection. . Retrieved 2008-03-15.[16] Ginsburg, Robert (March 1953). "Surface Rock in the Lower Everglades" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050503130449/ http:/ /

everglades. fiu. edu/ fiu/ enhj/ enh1105. html). Everglades Natural History (Everglades Natural History Association) 1 (1): 21–24. Archivedfrom the original (http:/ / everglades. fiu. edu/ fiu/ enhj/ enh1105. html) on 2005-05-03. . Retrieved 2008-03-17.

[17] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Watersheds and Coastal Waters (Big Cypress Watershed)"(http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1134/ esns/ bcw. html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region UnderStress. U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved 2008-03-17.

[18] Duke University Wetland Center. "Historic Everglades Basin Topography" (http:/ / www. env. duke. edu/ wetland/ geology. htm).Everglades Field Trip. Duke University. . Retrieved 2008-03-15.

[19] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Geology" (http:/ / sflwww. er. usgs. gov/ publications/circular/ 1134/ esns/ geo. html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region Under Stress. U.S. Department of the Interior. .Retrieved 2008-03-15.

[20] South Florida Water Management District (2008). [South Florida Water Management District "Lake Okeechobee & Region"]. U.S.Department of the Interior. South Florida Water Management District. Retrieved 2008-07-21.

The Everglades 22

[21] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Hydrology" (http:/ / sflwww. er. usgs. gov/ publications/circular/ 1134/ esns/ hydro. html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region Under Stress. U.S. Department of the Interior. .Retrieved 2008-03-15.

[22] Fling, H.; N. Aumen, T. Armentano, F. Mazzotti (December 2004). "The Role of Flow in the Everglades Landscape" (http:/ / edis. ifas. ufl.edu/ UW199). Circular 1452. University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS). . Retrieved 2008-03-15.

[23] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Watersheds and Coastal Waters" (http:/ / sflwww. er. usgs.gov/ publications/ circular/ 1134/ esns/ koew. html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region Under Stress. U.S.Department of the Interior. . Retrieved 2008-03-15.

[24] Morgan, Curtis (February 6, 2010). "Cold took heavy toll on Florida wildlife", The Miami Herald, South Florida News.[25] Obeysekera, Jayantha; Browder, J., Hornrung, L., Harwell, M. (October 1999). "The natural South Florida system I: Climate, geology, and

hydrology". Urban Ecosystems (Kluwer Academic Publishers) 3 (3/4): 223–244. doi:10.1023/A:1009552500448.[26] Lodge, p. 17.[27] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Climate" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/

1134/ esns/ clim. html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region Under Stress. U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved2008-03-17.

[28] Lodge, p.14.[29] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Regional Evaluation of Evapotranspiration in the Everglades" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ fs/

168-96/ ). FS-168-96. U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved 2008-03-17.[30] Lodge, p. 14.[31] McCally, pp. 9–10.[32] UF & USDA (1948), p. 35.[33] Lodge, p. 38–39.[34] McCally, pp. 12–14.[35] McCally, pp. 15–17[36] UF & USDA (1948), p. 79.[37] Lodge, p. 38.[38] Lodge, pp. 39–41.[39] McCally, pp. 18–21.[40] George, p. 13.[41] Douglas, p. 11.[42] Whitney, p. 168.[43] Jewell, p. 46.[44] Whitney, p.168.[45] George, p. 42.[46] Lodge, p. 31.[47] George, p. 14.[48] Lodge, p. 29.[49] Whitney, p. 164.[50] Whitney, p. 163.[51] George, pp. 45–46.[52] Lodge, p. 35.[53] George, p. 30.[54] Douglas, pp. 48–49.[55] George, p. 31.[56] U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. " South Florida Multi-Species Recovery Plan: Pine rockland (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ southeast/ vbpdfs/

commun/ pr. pdf)", Retrieved May 3, 2008.[57] George, pp. 7–8.[58] "Land and Resource Management Projects" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ reports/ doi-science-plan/ managefire. html). DOI science

plan in support of ecosystem restoration, preservation, and protection in South Florida. U.S. Geological Survey. April 26, 2007. . Retrieved2008-05-02.

[59] Lodge, p. 66.[60] Lodge, p. 63.[61] George, p. 26.[62] Lodge, p. 67.[63] Ripple, p. 16.[64] Jewell, p. 43.[65] Ripple, p. 26.[66] Ripple, pp. 31–32.

The Everglades 23

[67] Katherisen, K. (2001). "Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems", Advances in Marine Biology, Alan J. Southward (ed.) 40,pp. 18–251. ISBN 978-0-12-026140-6.

[68] Ripple, p. 80.[69] George, p. 19.[70] Jewell, p. 41.[71] Whitney, p. 286.[72] "About Florida Bay" (http:/ / www. floridabay. org/ intro. shtml). Sea Grant Florida. July 16, 2001. . Retrieved 2008-06-08.[73] Humphreys, Jay; Franz, Shelley, and Seaman, Bill (March 1993). "Florida's Estuaries: A Citizen's Guide to Coastal Living and

Conservation" (http:/ / nsgl. gso. uri. edu/ flsgp/ flsgph93001. pdf) (PDF). National Atmosphere and Oceanic Administration and the FloridaDepartment of Community Affairs. . Retrieved 2008-06-08.

[74] "Ecosystems: Marine & Estuarine" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ naturescience/ marineestuarine. htm). National Park Service. July 30,2007. . Retrieved 2008-05-04.

[75] George, p. 21.[76] Whitney, pp. 313–316.[77] McCally, p. 34.[78] McCally, p. 35.[79] McCally, pp. 37–39.[80] Tebeau (1968), pp. 38–41.[81] McCally, p. 39.[82] Griffin, p. 171.[83] Griffin, p. 170.[84] Griffin, p. 173.[85] Goggin, John (April 1940). "The Tekesta Indians of Southern Florida", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 18 (4), pp. 274–285.[86] Tebeau, p. 43.[87] Tebeau, p. 45.[88] Tebeau, p. 50.[89] Tebeau, pp. 50–51[90] Skinner, Alanson (January–March 1913). "Notes on the Florida Seminole", American Anthropologist, 15 (1), pp. 63–77.[91] Griffin, p. 180.[92] Tebeau, pp. 55–56.[93] "Images of Florida Seminoles in the Sunshine State" (http:/ / www. floridamemory. com/ PhotographicCollection/ photo_exhibits/

seminoles/ seminoles4. cfm). Florida Memory Project: Tourism. 1880s—1981. . Retrieved 2008-06-20.[94] "Tourism/Enterprises" (http:/ / www. seminoletribe. com/ enterprises/ casinos. shtml). Seminole Tribe of Florida. 2007. . Retrieved

2008-04-30.[95] Tebeau, pp. 66–67.[96] Grunwald, p. 42.[97] McCally, pp. 65–69.[98] Stephan, L. Lamar (December, 1942). "Geographic Role of the Everglades in the Early History of Florida", The Scientific Monthly, 55, (6)

pp. 515–526.[99] Meindl, Christopher, et al. (December, 2002). "On the Importance of Claims-Making: The Role of James O. Wright in Promoting the

Drainage of Florida's Everglades in the Early Twentieth Century", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 92 (4), pp. 682–701.[100] Dovell, Junius (July 1948). "The Everglades: A Florida Frontier", Agricultural History, 22 (3), pp. 187–197.[101] Davis, T. Frederick (January, 1939). "The Disston Land Purchase ", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 17 (3), pp. 201–211.[102] Grunwald, pp. 92–93.[103] Douglas p. 286.[104] "Henry Flagler." Encyclopedia of World Biography Supplement, Vol. 21. Gale Group, 2001.[105] "Henry Morrison Flagler." Dictionary of American Biography Base Set. American Council of Learned Societies, 1928-1936.[106] Bramson, Seth (1998). "A Tale of Three Henrys", The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts, 23, Florida Theme Issue, pp. 113–143.[107] Bush, Gregory (May, 1999). "Playground of the USA", The Pacific Historical Review, 62 (2), pp. 153–172.[108] Carter, p. 78.[109] Grunwald, pp. 148–149.[110] McCally, pp. 124–126.[111] Douglas, p. 318.[112] McCally, p. 117.[113] Grunwald, p. 120.[114] Douglas, p. 310.[115] McCally, pp. 117–118.[116] Douglas, p. 330.[117] Douglas, p. 334.

The Everglades 24

[118] Grunwald, p. 179.[119] Grunwald, pp. 198–199.[120] Grunwald, pp. 199–200.[121] McCally, p. 9.[122] McCally, p. 142.[123] "Conservation efforts" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ historyculture/ consefforts. htm). Everglades National Park. National Park Service.

September 17, 2007. . Retrieved 2008-05-10.[124] Douglas, p. 349.[125] Grunwald, p. 219.[126] Lodge, p. 224.[127] Grunwald, p. 229.[128] Caulfield, p. 55.[129] Lodge, p. 223.[130] McCally, pp. 159–160.[131] Lodge, pp. 225–226.[132] McCally, pp. 172–173.[133] Grunwald, pp. 283–284.[134] Grunwald, p. 257.[135] Brooks, Paul (July 12, 1969). "Topics: Everglades Jetport — A Blueprint for Disaster". The New York Times. p. 26.[136] "Jets v. Everglades" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,898538-2,00. html). Time Magazine. August 22, 1969. .

Retrieved 2008-05-10.[137] Nixon, Richard (February 8, 1972). "51 - Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program" (http:/ / www.

presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=3731). The American Presidency Project. . Retrieved 2008-05-10.[138] "Environmental Setting: The Altered System" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1134/ esas/ index. html). Circular 1134. U.S.

Geological Survey. November 2, 2004. . Retrieved 2008-05-19.[139] Davis, Jack (January 2003). "'Conservation is now a dead word': Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the transformation of American

environmentalism." Environmental History, 8 (1) pp. 53–76.[140] Angier, Natalie (August 6, 1984). "Now You See It, Now You Don't" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,921744,00.

html). Time. . Retrieved 2008-05-20.[141] "Kissimee River History" (http:/ / www. dep. state. fl. us/ evergladesforever/ about/ history. htm). Florida Department of Environmental

Protection. 2006. . Retrieved 2008-05-19.[142] Lodge, p. 230.[143] Davis, Steven. "Phosphorus Inputs and Vegetation Sensitivity in the Everglades" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven

Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8[144] Lodge, pp. 231–233.[145] "Florida Statutes (Supplement 1994) [Everglades Forever Act (http:/ / exchange. law. miami. edu/ everglades/ statutes/ state/ florida/

E_forever. htm)"]. Chapter 373: Water Resources, Part IV. Management and Storage of Surface Waters, 373.4592 Everglades improvementand management. University of Miami School of Law. 1997. . Retrieved 2008-05-21.

[146] "Periphyton-based Stormwater Treatment Area (PSTA) Technology" (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ docs/ fs_psta_hires. pdf) (PDF).The Journey to Restore America's Everglades. December 2003. . Retrieved 2008-05-22.

[147] Lodge, pp. 237–240.[148] Tasker, Georgia (August 22, 1998). "Federal Experts Warn of Alien Plant Invasion", The Miami Herald.[149] Lodge, p. 241.[150] Lodge, p. 242.[151] Lodge, pp. 243–244.[152] Lodge, p. 244.[153] "Snake bursts after gobbling gator" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ americas/ 4313978. stm). BBC News. October 5, 2005. . Retrieved

2008-03-14.[154] Everglades National Park Burmese Python: Species Profile (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ naturescience/ burmesepython. htm) Everglades

National Park website. Retrieved on November 5, 2009.[155] Lodge, pp. 244–245.[156] "Chapter 1: Background and understanding" (http:/ / dlis. dos. state. fl. us/ fgils/ agencies/ sust/ tocs. html). The Governor's Commission for

a Sustainable South Florida. State of Florida. October 1, 1995. . Retrieved 2008-05-23.[157] US Army COE and SFWMD, p. iii.[158] US Army COE and SFWMD, pp. iv–v.[159] Schmitt, Eric (October 20, 2000). "Everglades Restoration Plan Passes House, With Final Approval Seen", The New York Times, p. 1.[160] US Army COE and SFWMD, pp. vii–ix.[161] "Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) of 2000" (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ wrda2000/ wrda. aspx). The Journey to Restore

America's Everglades. November 4, 2002. . Retrieved 2008-05-23.

The Everglades 25

[162] "Restoring the River of Grass" (http:/ / www. dep. state. fl. us/ evergladesforever/ ). Florida Department of Environmental Protection.2006. . Retrieved 2008-05-24.

[163] Goodnough, Abby (November 2, 2007). "Vast Effort to Save Everglades Falters as U.S. Funds Dwindle", The New York Times, Section A,p. 1.

[164] Grunwald, Michael (October 14, 2004). "Fla. Steps In to Speed Up State-Federal Everglades Cleanup", The Washington Post, p. A03.[165] Damien Cave; John Holusha (2008-06-24). "Florida to Buy Sugar Maker in Bid to Restore Everglades" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/

06/ 25/ us/ 24cnd-sugar. html?hp). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2008-06-24.[166] Cave, Damien (November 12, 2008). "Everglades Deal Shrinks to Sale of Land, Not Assets", The New York Times, p. 16.[167] Bussey, Jane, Morgan, Curtis (November 16, 2008). "Land deal could lift U.S. Sugar's sagging fortunes: Is it a buyout or a bailout? Either

way, a pending deal to sell land to the state for Everglades restoration could reverse Big Sugar's flagging finances", The Miami Herald(Florida).

[168] Yao, Stephanie (March 24, 2010). Sugarcane Okay in Standing Water, Helps Protect Everglades (http:/ / www. ars. usda. gov/ is/ pr/ 2010/100324. htm), Agricultural Research Service U.S. Department of Agriculture. Retrieved on August 9, 2010.

[169] Morgan, Curtis, Clark, Lesley (April 29, 2009). "River of Cash: Stimulus Aid for Glades", The Miami Herald, p1A.[170] Morgan, Curtis (January 27, 2010). "Canal work begins in Everglades project", The Miami Herald, South Florida news.[171] Jackson, Susan (December 2009). Everglades supporters celebrate Tamiami Trail groundbreaking (http:/ / www. saj. usace. army. mil/

Divisions/ Executive/ Branches/ CCO/ DOCS/ JaxStrong/ v1-4_JaxStrong_Dec2009. pdf), Army Corps of Engineers Bulletin Jaxstrong, 1 (4),p. 3. Retrieved on February 11, 2010.

[172] Skoloff, Brian (January 22, 2010). "Gov. Crist proposes $2.1 billion for environment", The Miami Herald, Florida news.[173] Gibson, William (May 19, 2010). Federal officials plan to add more bridges to let Everglades water flow under U.S. 41 (http:/ / articles.

sun-sentinel. com/ 2010-05-19/ business/fl-everglades-washington-forum-20100519_1_everglades-projects-everglades-water-flow-everglades-foundation), Florida Sun-Sentinel.Retrieved on August 9, 2010.

Bibliography• Barnett, Cynthia (2007). Mirage: Florida and the Vanishing Water of the Eastern U.S., University of Michigan

Press. ISBN 0-472-11563-4• Carter, W. Hodding (2004). Stolen Water: Saving the Everglades from its Friends, Foes, and Florida, Atria

Books. ISBN 0-7434-7407-4• Caulfield, Patricia (1970) Everglades, Sierra Club / Ballantine Books. ISBN 345023536395• Douglas, Marjory S. (1947). The Everglades: River of Grass. R. Bemis Publishing. ISBN 0-912451-44-0• Douglas, Marjory; Rothchild, John (1987). Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Voice of the River. Pineapple Press.

ISBN 0910923941• George, Jean (1972). Everglades Wildguide. National Park Service. Gov. doc #I 29.62:Ev2• Griffin, John (2002). Archeology of the Everglades. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2558-3• Grunwald, Michael (2006). The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise. New York: Simon

& Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-5107-5• Hann, John (ed.) (1991). Missions to the Calusa. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1966-4• Jewell, Susan (1993). Exploring Wild South Florida: A Guide to Finding the Natural Areas and Wildlife of the

Everglades and Florida Keys, Pineapple Press, Inc. ISBN 1-56164-023-9• Lodge, Thomas E. (2005). The Everglades Handbook. Understanding the Ecosystem. CRC Press. ISBN

1-884015-06-9• McCally, David (1999). The Everglades: An Environmental History. University Press of Florida. ISBN

0-8130-2302-5• Ripple, Jeff (1992). Big Cypress Swamp and the Ten Thousand Islands: Eastern America's Last Great

Wilderness, University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 0-87249-842-5• Tebeau, Charlton (1968). Man in the Everglades: 2000 Years of Human History in the Everglades National Park.

University of Miami Press.• Toops, Connie (1998). The Florida Everglades. Voyageur Press. ISBN 0-89658-372-4• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and South Florida Water Management District (April 1999). "Summary", Central

and Southern Florida Project Comprehensive Review Study (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ docs/

The Everglades 26

comp_plan_apr99/ summary. pdf).• University of Florida Agricultural Experiment Station and United States Department of Agriculture Soil

Conservation Service (March 1948). Bulletin 442: Soils, Geology, and Water Control in the Everglades Region.• Whitney, Ellie et al., eds. (2004) Priceless Florida: Natural Ecosystems and Native Species. Pineapple Press, Inc.

ISBN 978-1-56164-309-7

External linksGeography and ecology• Everglades National Park (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ index. htm) and Big Cypress National Preserve (http:/ /

www. nps. gov/ bicy/ index. htm)• Arthur R. Marshall National Wildlife Refuge (US Fish & Wildlife Service) (http:/ / loxahatchee. fws. gov/ )• Everglades Cooperative Invasive Species Management Area (http:/ / www. evergladescisma. org/ )History• A History of the Everglades (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ memorials/ dovell/ #thesis)• World Wide Fund for Nature – A Recent History of Everglades Regulation and Litigation (http:/ / www.

worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ nt/ nt0904_full. html)Restoration• The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ )• The Everglades Foundation (http:/ / www. evergladesfoundation. org/ )• The Everglades Coalition (http:/ / www. evergladescoalition. org/ )• South Florida Information Access (U.S. Geological Survey) (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov)• Environment Florida – Founders of The "Save The Everglades" campaign (http:/ / www. environmentflorida. org)• ACCELER8 (Everglades Restoration) (http:/ / evergladesnow. org/ )• Friends of the Everglades (http:/ / www. everglades. org/ )• South Florida Environmental Report (South Florida Water Management District and Florida DEP) (http:/ / www.

sfwmd. gov/ sfer/ )Media• Everglades Digital Library (http:/ / everglades. fiu. edu/ )• Water's Journey: Everglades – Comprehensive film and web documentary about the Everglades (http:/ / www.

TheEvergladesStory. org/ )• The Everglades in the Time of Marjorie Stoneman Douglas (http:/ / www. floridamemory. com/

PhotographicCollection/ photo_exhibits/ everglades. cfm) (Photo exhibit)• Everglades images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu (http:/ / www. cas. vanderbilt. edu/ bioimages/ ecoregions/

60904frame. htm) ( Slow modem version (http:/ / www. cas. vanderbilt. edu/ bioimages/ ecoregions/ 60904. htm))• The Everglades in Peril (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ slideshow/ 2010/ 10/ 08/ opinion/ 20101008_LR_Florida.

html) - slideshow by The New York Times

27

Ecology

Geography and ecology of the Everglades

A satellite image of the lower Florida peninsula showingdarkened portions south of Lake Okeechobee as the

Everglades and Big Cypress Swamp. The reddish areabordering the large inland lake is the Everglades Agricultural

Area.

The geography and ecology of the Everglades involve thecomplex elements affecting the natural environmentthroughout the southern region of the U.S. state of Florida.Before drainage, the Everglades were an interwoven mesh ofmarshes and prairies covering 4000 square miles(10000 km2). The Everglades is simultaneously a vastwatershed that has historically extended from LakeOkeechobee 100 miles (160 km) south to Florida Bay(around one-third of the southern Florida peninsula), andmany interconnected ecosystems within a geographicboundary. It is such a unique meeting of water, land, andclimate that the use of either singular or plural to refer to theEverglades is appropriate.[1] When Marjory StonemanDouglas wrote her definitive description of the region in1947, she used the metaphor "River of Grass" to explain theblending of water and plant life.

Although sawgrass and sloughs are the enduringgeographical icons of the Everglades, other ecosystems arejust as vital, and the borders marking them are subtle ornonexistent. Pinelands and tropical hardwood hammocks arelocated throughout the sloughs; the trees, rooted in soilinches above the peat, marl, or water, support a variety ofwildlife. The oldest and tallest trees are cypresses, whoseroots are specially adapted to grow underwater for months ata time. The Big Cypress Swamp is well-known for its500-year-old cypresses, though cypress domes can appearthroughout the Everglades. As the fresh

Geography and ecology of the Everglades 28

A sawgrass prairie with a tree island in the distance in the Everglades

water from Lake Okeechobee makes its wayto Florida Bay, it meets salt water from theGulf of Mexico; mangrove forests grow inthis transitional zone, providing nursery andnesting conditions for many species of birds,fish, and invertebrates. The marineenvironment of Florida Bay is alsoconsidered part of the Everglades becauseits sea grasses and aquatic life are attractedto the constant discharge of fresh water.

These ecological systems are alwayschanging due to environmental factors.Geographic features such as the WesternFlatwoods, Eastern Flatwoods, and theAtlantic Coastal Ridge affect drainagepatterns. Geologic elements, climate, and the frequency of storms and fire are formative processes for theEverglades. They help to sustain and transform the ecosystems in the Shark River Valley, Big Cypress Swamp,coastal areas and mangrove forests. Ecosystems have been described as both fragile and resilient. Minor fluctuationsin water levels have far-reaching consequences for many plant and animal species, and the system cycles and pulseswith each change.

Shaping processes of ecosystems

Water

A storm over the Shark River in the Everglades,1966

Photo:Charles Barron / State Library andArchives of Florida

At only 5,000 years of age, the Everglades is a young region ingeological terms. Its ecosystems are in constant flux due to threefactors: the type and amount of water present, the geology of theregion, and the frequency and severity of fires.[2] [3]

Water is the dominant element in the Everglades, and it shapes theland, vegetation, and animal life of South Florida. The South Floridaclimate was once arid and semi-arid, interspersed with wet periods.Between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago, sea levels rose, submergingportions of the Florida peninsula and causing the water table to rise.Fresh water saturated the limestone, eroding some of it and creatingsprings and sinkholes. The abundance of fresh water allowed newvegetation to take root, and through evaporation formed thunderstorms.Limestone was dissolved by the slightly acidic rainwater. Thelimestone wore away, and groundwater came into contact with the surface, creating a massive wetland ecosystem.[4]

Although the region appears flat, the wearing away of the limestone in some areas created slight valleys andplateaus—a difference of inches in elevation—that affected not only the flow of water, but also types of vegetationpresent.

The Everglades are unique; no other wetland system in the world is nourished primarily from the atmosphere.[5]

Before the first attempt at draining the Everglades in 1882, the entire watershed extended from Orlando to Florida Bay comprising the Kissimmee–Lake Okeechobee–Everglades (KLOE) watershed. Kissimmee River outlets flow into Lake Okeechobee, which sits 18 feet (5.5 m) above sea level.[6] Only two seasons exist in the Everglades: wet

Geography and ecology of the Everglades 29

(May to November) and dry (December to April). Average annual rainfall in the Everglades is approximately 62inches (160 cm), though fluctuations of precipitation are normal.[7] Droughts, floods, and tropical storms are normaloccurrences in the area.[8] When Lake Okeechobee exceeds its water storage capacity during the wet season, it poursslowly over the southern rim and flows for 100 miles (160 km) to Florida Bay. The gradient change is so slight thatthe river moves only 2 feet (0.61 m) a minute.[9] Sawgrass thrives in this river, dominates freshwater marshes andsloughs, and is the main characteristic of the region.Severe weather, in the form of tropical storms and hurricanes, also affects the structure of the Everglades. Between1871 and 2003, 40 tropical cyclones struck the Everglades, usually every one to three years.[10] [11] These stormsalter the coastline, flush decaying vegetation from estuaries, strip weakened branches from trees, and disperse seeds,pollen, and plant material.[12] Hurricane Donna in 1960 affected 120 square miles (310 km2) of mangrove forests bydepositing marl over the roots and depriving the trees of oxygen. It also eradicated orchids, bromeliads, and otherepiphytes that once flourished in the mangroves; their reappearance may take a century or more. Donna alsosignificantly spread buttonwood, saltwort, and glasswort, and epiphytes began to grow in new areas.[13] Although thelasting effects remain to be seen, Hurricane Andrew in 1992 also destroyed mangrove forests and snapped slashpines in half. However, regrowth occurred quickly, and sand deposited by the storm surge improved nestingconditions for crocodiles and sea turtles.[14]

GeologyFurther information: Everglades#GeologyA vast marshland could only have been formed due to the underlying rock formations in southern Florida.[15] Thefloor of the Everglades formed between 25 million and 2 million years ago when the Florida peninsula was a shallowsea floor. The peninsula has been covered by sea water at least seven times since the earliest bedrock formation.[15]

The rock that makes up the Everglades floor was created as layers of calcium carbonate were compressed by oceanwater, making limestone. Fossilized bryozoans and tiny shells, or ooids, make the limestone porous. Water is storedin the rock, sometimes from one year to the next.[16] The length of time that a region in the Everglades remainsflooded, called a hydroperiod,[4] determines what particular soils and vegetation are present.Shorter hydroperiods of three or four months promote the growth of periphyton: algae and other microscopicorganisms covered with calcium carbonate crystals.[15] Periphyton is the basic building block of marl, a calcitic mud.In areas with hydroperiods of longer than nine months, peat builds up over hundreds or thousands of years due tomany generations of decaying plant matter. Peat and marl are considered nutrient-poor soils that foster the growth ofspecialized vegetation depending on the length of the regional hydroperiod.Five types of peat appear in the Everglades system; each type supports a specific type of vegetation, such assawgrass, tree islands, or custard apple trees.[17] Peat buildup is possible because water prevents oxygen fromquickly decomposing plant matter. Once peat buildup reaches the surface, oxygen reacts with the microorganisms todecay the peat rapidly in a process called subsidence. Initial attempts at developing agriculture near LakeOkeechobee were successful, but the nutrients in the peat quickly deteriorated by drying, and were broken down bybacteria in the soil. The dried peat burned or was degraded into carbon dioxide and water by microorganisms. Somehomes built near early farms had to restructure their foundations on stilts as the peat deteriorated; other areas lostapproximately 8 feet (2.4 m) of soil depth.[18] Between the 1880s and 2005, an estimated 3.4 billion metric tons ofsoil has been lost in the Everglades due to oxidation. Most of that loss occurs in the Everglades Agricultural Area;the least amount of loss is found in Everglades National Park.[19]

Geography and ecology of the Everglades 30

Fire

Fire near a cypress dome in the Turner River areain the early 1920s

Fire is another important element in the maintenance of the Everglades.The majority are caused by lightning strikes from thunderstorms duringthe wet season. Their effects are largely superficial, and serve to fosterfurther plant growth: sawgrass will burn above water, but the roots arepreserved. Fire in the sawgrass marshes serves to keep out largerbushes and trees, and releases nutrients from decaying plant mattermore efficiently than decomposition.[20] Large burned areas also affectwaterflow, since wind and water are undeterred by the eradicatedsawgrass; water may flow two to three times faster in recently burnedareas.[21] During the wet season only dead plant matter and the tips ofplants are burned; however, the effects of fire are much moresignificant in the dry season, as fire may be fed by organic peat and

burn deeply, destroying root systems. The only impediment to the spread of fire in the Everglades is the presence ofwater. It takes around 225 years for one foot (0.3 m) of peat to develop, but the peat is not as dense as it should befor the 5,000 years of the Everglades' existence. Scientists point to fire as the reason.[3]

Researchers have noted that fires appear in cycles associated with those of the hydroperiods.[3] The first cycle is theannual wet-season fires that occur with rapid frequency during the summer, but are quickly extinguished. Dry-seasonfires are rarer due to the lack of lightning, but their damage may be more pervasive.[20] A longer fire cycle spanningten to fourteen years coincides with similar water cycles affected by global climate conditions. Fires in this cyclemay be numerous and have little effect, or rare and have catastrophic consequences. The third cycle appears in a550-year frequency associated with severe drought. Layers of charcoal have been detected inside peat in parts of theEverglades, indicating the region endured severe fires for years at a time, although this trend seems to have abatedsince the last occurrence around 940 BCE.[3]

Geography and ecology of the Everglades 31

Ecosystem characteristics

Major landscape types in the Everglades beforehuman action. Source: U.S. Geological Survey

The Everglades are dominated by sawgrass in water; this is the titular"River of Grass" popularized by Marjory Stoneman Douglas in 1947.This river contains a wide variety of plant and animal life. An earlyAmerican environmentalist named Gifford Pinchot said of theEverglades, "It is a region so different that it hardly seems to belong tothe United States. It is full of the most vivid and most interesting lifeon land, in the air, and in the water. It is a land of strangeness, separateand apart from the common things we all know so well."[22]

The sawgrass grows in prairies or strands, in between channels ofwater in a shallow river 100 miles (160 km) long and 60 miles (97 km)wide flowing from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay. Some authorsrefer to the sawgrass and water combination as the "true Everglades" orjust "the Glades".[23] [24] Prior to the first drainage attempts in 1905,the sheetflow, or the wide shallow river starting in Lake Okeechobee,occupied nearly a third of the lower Florida peninsula.[4] Thoughsawgrass remains the main feature of the Everglades, other ecosystemsare scattered among the marshes and prairies, and their borders aresometimes imperceptible.

Sawgrass marsh

Most marshes in the Everglades are dominated by the sedge known asCladium, or sawgrass in common terminology. The sedge is athree-dimensional v-shaped stalk with upward-pointing teeth. Sawgrass thrives in the slowly moving water, but maydie if oxygen is unable to reach its roots and is particularly vulnerable to floods immediately after a fire.[25] Some ofthe sawgrass can grow up to 6 feet (1.8 m) tall, and directly south of Lake Okeechobee it has grown to 10 feet(3.0 m). Farther south, where the peat is not as rich, it typically grows 4 feet (1.2 m) tall in patches, as opposed to theprairies of the upper glades.[26] The hydroperiod for the marsh is usually nine months but can last longer. In shorterhydroperiods, marl may form instead of peat.[27]

Where sawgrass grows densely, few animals or other plants thrive, although alligators often choose these locationsfor nesting. Where there is more room, periphyton grows, appearing as mats or brown sausage-shaped chunks.Periphyton is predominantly algae, although over 100 different microorganisms help create it.[28] Larval insects andamphibians are supported by periphyton; these in turn provide food for birds, fish, and reptiles. Periphyton alsoabsorbs calcium from the water, which creates marl where sawgrass takes root.[29]

Freshwater sloughsSloughs are channels of free-flowing water in between the sawgrass marshes. Sloughs are deeper than sawgrassmarshes, about 3 feet (0.91 m), and may stay flooded for at least 11 months out of the year if not multiple years in arow.[30] The peat beds that support sawgrass are slightly elevated and may begin abruptly creating ridges of grass.The borders between these systems are called "ridge-and-slough" landscapes. Aquatic animals such as turtles, youngalligators, snakes, and fish live in sloughs and they usually feed on aquatic invertebrates, such as the Florida applesnail.[31] Plants grow here, usually submerged or floating like bladderwort (Utricularia), waterlily (Nymphaeaceae),or spatterdock (Nuphar lutea). Major sloughs in the Everglades system include the Shark River Slough draining toFlorida Bay, Lostmans Slough bordering The Big Cypress, and Taylor Slough in the eastern Everglades.

Geography and ecology of the Everglades 32

A cross section of fresh water ecosystems in the Everglades, with relative average water depths

Wet prairie

An alligator amid strands ofperiphyton in the Everglades

Two kinds of wet prairies thrive in the Everglades: marl and water-marshcommunity. Wet prairies are slightly elevated like sawgrass marshes, but containabundant plant diversity. Marl prairies are located where marl covers limestonethat may protrude as pinnacles or erode into solution holes: depressions formedby the same processes that create sinkholes. Solution holes, however, do notmeet the water table; they are filled with rain water.[32] The surface is coveredonly three to seven months of the year, but the water is usually just 4 inches(10 cm) deep.[33] Marl is created by layers of periphyton loosely attached to thelimestone, and forms a grey or white crumbly mud when it dries. When flooded,the marl can support a variety of water plants, and dwarf cypresses may grow forhundreds of years though not exceed 10 feet (3.0 m) in height.[34] Solution holesmay remain flooded even when the prairies are dry, and they support aquaticinvertebrates such as crayfish and snails, as well as larval amphibians which feedyoung wading birds.[35] Where the predominant soil is peat, a water-marsh

community exists. Its hydroperiod is longer than the marl prairie, although its plants are less diverse. These regionstend to be on the border between sloughs and sawgrass marshes.

Alligators have created an ecological niche in wet prairies; they dig at low spots with their claws and snouts andcreate ponds free of vegetation that remain submerged throughout the dry season. Alligator holes are integral to thesurvival of aquatic invertebrates, turtles, fish, small mammals, and birds during extended drought periods. Alligatorsfeed upon animals that visit the hole.[36] [37]

Geography and ecology of the Everglades 33

Tropical hardwood hammock

In a tropical hardwood hammock,plants are very dense and diverse.

Islands of trees featuring dense temperate or tropical trees are called tropicalhardwood hammocks.[38] They may rise between 1 and 3 feet (0.30 and 0.91 m)above water level in freshwater sloughs, sawgrass prairies, or pineland. Theseislands illustrate the difficulty of characterizing the climate of the Everglades astropical or subtropical. Hammocks in the northern portion of the Evergladesconsist of more temperate plant species, but closer to Florida Bay the trees aretropical and smaller shrubs are more prevalent. Tropical trees like the WestIndian mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni) were probably spread by birds carryingseeds from the West Indies.[39]

These hammocks form on slightly elevated areas unharmed by deep peat fires orlimestone plateaus rising several inches above the surrounding peat. Hardwoodhammocks exhibit a mixture of subtropical and hardwood trees that grow in verydense clumps, such as Southern live oak (Quercus virginiana), gumbo limbo(Bursera simaruba), royal palm (Roystonea), and willow bustic (Dipholissalicifolia).[40] Near the bases of hammocks sharp saw palmettos (Serenoa repens) flourish, making the hammocksvery difficult to penetrate. Water in sloughs flow around the islands creating moats. Though some ecosystems aremaintained and promoted by fire, hammocks may take decades or centuries to recover; the moats are thereforeessential for protection.[41] Islands vary in size, but most range between 1 and 10 acres (0.40 and 4.0 ha); the waterslowly flowing around them limits their size and gives them a teardrop appearance from above.[42] The height of thetrees is limited by factors such as frost, lightning, and wind: the majority of trees in hammocks grow no higher than55 feet (17 m).

Florida strangler figs (Ficus aurea) are common in hammocks, and find particular ease in rooting at the heads ofcabbage palms (Sabal palmetto). After taking root into the ground, they build complex frameworks around the hosttree, eventually squeezing out light and nutrients, and essentially taking its place.[43] A variety of invertebratesincluding beetles, ants, spiders, and tree snails support a food chain that includes frogs, owls and other birds of prey,snakes, rodents, bobcats, and raccoons. There are more than 50 varieties of tree snails in the Everglades; the colorpatterns and designs unique to single islands may be a result of the isolation of certain hammocks.[44]

Tropical hardwood hammocks in the Everglades have been harvested for lumber, particularly by shipbuildersseeking West Indian mahogany and black ironwood (Krugiodendron ferreum). The largest and most mature of thesetrees had been removed by the late 18th century.[39] Seminoles made their villages in hammocks in the late 19th andearly 20th centuries; they lived in groups of chickees numbering half a dozen, with one central chickee for cookingand another for eating. Dugout canoes, cookware, stills, and sewing machines may still be found in remotelocations.[45]

Bayheads and willowheads

Some hammocks are dominated by types of vegetation that grow in relation to the amount of water or type of soilpresent. The majority of hardwood hammocks create a thin poor soil covering the limestone called humus, made ofdecaying plant matter and moisture trapped by the structure of the trees. When peat forms the layer atop thelimestone of a tree island, bayheads develop, dominated by bay trees such as sweetbay magnolia (Magnoliavirginiana) and others like swamp holly (Ilex decidua), wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera), and cocoplum (Chrysobalanusicaco).[46] Willowheads, dominated by willow trees (Salix caroliniana), take hold where the hydroperiod is long,usually around solution or alligator holes, and may surround the holes, giving them a donut appearance fromabove.[47]

Geography and ecology of the Everglades 34

Flatwoods and the Atlantic Coastal Ridge

The Pine rockland ecosystem isdominated by South Florida slash

pines and shrubs like saw palmettos.

The prairies and sloughs of the Everglades system are bordered by two areas ofpoorly drained sandy soil on both sides of Lake Okeechobee: the EasternFlatwoods and the Western Flatwoods just north of Big Cypress Swamp. Thepredominant ecosystem in the Flatwoods is pine forest, but there are also cypressswamps and sloughs in the Eastern Flatwoods.[48] Along the eastern border of theEverglades is the Atlantic Coastal Ridge, rising 20 feet (6.1 m) in elevation, andcurving to the southwest, gradually decreasing in elevation until it meets TaylorSlough. The Coastal Ridge prevents Everglades water from flowing into theAtlantic Ocean to the east, directing it southwesterly into Florida Bay. The SouthFlorida metropolitan area is located on a portion of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge,and much of the landscape has changed drastically within the past 100 years as aresult of urban growth.

Pine rockland

Pine rocklands (also called pinelands) are found on uneven limestone substrates that contain pinnacles and solutionholes. There are three primary locations of pine rocklands: the Miami Ridge, which runs from Miami into Long PineKey near the main entrance of Everglades National Park; the lower Florida Keys; and the Big Cypress Swamp.[49]

The most significant feature of the pine rockland ecosystem is the South Florida slash pine (Pinus elliotti var densa;also called Dade County pine) that reaches a height of 22 feet (6.7 m). Pine rockland communities require fire formaintenance; they have adapted to promote and resist fire at the same time.[50] These communities are located in thehighest part of the Everglades with little to no hydroperiod, although some floors may have flooded solution holes orpuddles for a few months at a time. The sandy floor of the pine rocklands is covered with dry pine needles that arehighly flammable. South Florida slash pines are insulated by their bark to protect them from heat. Fire eliminatescompeting vegetation on the forest floor, and opens pine cones to germinate seeds.[51] A period without significantfire can turn pineland into hardwood hammock as larger trees overtake the slash pines.[52] The understory shrubs inpine rocklands include fire-resistant species like saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto), andWest Indian lilac (Tetrazygia bicolor). The most diverse group of plants in the pine community are herbs, of whichtwo dozen species exist. These plants contain tubers and other mechanisms allowing for quick sprouts aftercharring.[53]

Wildlife in pine rockland communities is diverse. In some forests, 15 species of birds can be found. Common amongthem are the pine warbler (Dendroica pinus), the red-bellied woodpecker (Melanerpes carolinus), and the easternmeadowlark (Sturnella magna). More than 20 species of reptiles and amphibians have been noted, such as the greenanole (Anolis carolinensis), southern leopard frog (Rana sphenocephala), and southern black racer (Coluberconstrictor priapus). Mammals such as the critically endangered Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi), Floridablack bear (Ursus americanus floridanus), and several types of bats also live in the pine rocklands.[50]

Before urban development of the South Florida region, pine rocklands covered around 161660 acres (654.2 km2) inMiami-Dade County. Pine forests were extensively cleared by urban developers and the lumber industry in the 1930sand 1940s.[50] Within Everglades National Park, 19840 acres (80.3 km2) of pine rockland communities are protected,but outside the park, 1780 acres (7.2 km2) of pine forests remain as of 1990, averaging 12.1 acres (0.049 km2) insize.[50] Dade County pine has a remarkable longevity and has proven to be termite-resistant, though dense enoughto make driving nails difficult.[54] In 1984 they were protected by a county ordinance, after many pine areas had beendepleted. A misunderstanding of fire's role also played a part in the disappearance of pine forests, as natural fireswere put out and pine rocklands transitioned into hardwood hammocks.[50] Today prescribed fires occur inEverglades National Park in pine rocklands every three to seven years.

Geography and ecology of the Everglades 35

The Big CypressWest of the sawgrass prairies and sloughs lies the Big Cypress Swamp, commonly called "The Big Cypress",referring to its size rather than the height or diameter of its trees. It takes up the majority of Collier County; at itsmost limited measurement, the swamp measures 1200 square miles (3100 km2), but its hydrological boundary isnearly twice as large.[55] [56] The Big Cypress is slightly elevated at 22 feet (6.7 m) at its highest point and slopesgradually to the coastline for approximately 35 miles (56 km). Because the defining feature of The Big Cypress isthe abundance of trees, it is considered a swamp rather than a marsh, in which grass is the main characteristic.The basin for The Big Cypress receives on average 55 inches (140 cm) of water in the rainy season.[57] Most of TheBig Cypress sits atop a bedrock covered by a thin layer of limestone that contains quartz, creating a sandy soil thathosts a variety of vegetation.[56] The majority of trees are bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) and not true cypresses(Cupressaceae). Cypresses are conifers that are uniquely adapted to thrive in flooded conditions, with buttressedtrunks and root projections that protrude out of the water, called "knees".[58]

Cypress trees in the area can live for hundreds of years; some giants grow to 130 feet (40 m) and are 500 years old.Still, they may be only seventh- or eighth-generation cypresses. Few massive trees survived the logging operationsthat took place in the 1930s and 1940s. As a result, much of The Big Cypress is protected by various federal or stateagencies that include Big Cypress National Preserve, Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary, Fakahatchee Strand StatePreserve and two Indian reservations.[59]

Cypress head

A pond in The Big Cypress

Although The Big Cypress is the largest growth of cypress swamps inSouth Florida, such swamps—as well as portions of sawgrassmarshes—can be found near the Atlantic Coastal Ridge and betweenLake Okeechobee and the Eastern flatwoods. Hardwood hammocksand pineland are often interspersed with the cypress ecosystem. Muchlike tree islands that are colloquially referred to as "heads", cypresstrees grow in formations that resemble domes, with the tallest andthickest trunks in the center, rooted in the deepest peat. As the peatthins out, cypresses continue to grow, but are smaller and thinner,giving the small forest the appearance of a dome.[60] They also grow in

strands, slightly elevated on a plateau of limestone and surrounded on two sides by sloughs.[61] Other hardwood treescan be found in cypress domes, such as red maple (Acer rubrum), swamp bay (Persea palustris), and pop ash(Fraxinus caroliniana). If cypresses are removed, hardwoods take over, and the ecosystem is recategorized as amixed swamp forest.

Because the cypress domes and strands retain moisture and block out much of the sunlight, plants such as orchids,bromeliads, and ferns thrive in cypress domes and strands. Orchids bloom throughout the year in cypress heads, andbromeliads appear in many varieties; on Fakahatchee Strand alone, thirteen species have been documented.[62]

Bromeliads collect moisture from rain and humidity in the bases of their leaves, which also nurture frogs, lizards andvarious insects. Wood storks (Mycteria americana) nest almost exclusively in cypress forests and in the past100 years have seen a dramatic decline, probably due to lack of reproduction tied to controlled water. Wood storks'reproductive cycles coincide with the dry season, when small fish and amphibians are trapped in shallow pools andpuddles. When water from canals or locks is released too soon or not at all, storks are unable to find enough food forthemselves and their offspring. An estimated 20,000 wood storks nested in The Big Cypress in the 1930s, but by the1990s less than 2,000 were counted.[63]

Geography and ecology of the Everglades 36

Mangrove and Coastal prairie

Red mangrove trees bordering a canal in theEverglades near Flamingo

Water from Lake Okeechobee and The Big Cypress eventually flowsto the ocean. At a transitional zone where fresh water meets salt water,mangrove trees thrive, adapted as they are to both kinds of water. Thisbrackish mixture of water and mangrove systems, crisscrossed byhundreds of tidal creeks, harbors a very productive ecosystem. Thedepth of these zones is dependent on how much water flows from theEverglades. In the wet season, fresh water pours into Florida Bay andsawgrass appears near the coastline. In dryer years, salt water creepsinland to the coastal prairie, an ecosystem that buffers the freshwatermarshes by absorbing sea water. Mangrove trees grow in fresh waterecosystems when the salt water flows far enough inland.[64] TheEverglades have the most extensive contiguous system of mangrovesin the world.[65] The mangrove forests of the Ten Thousand Islands cover almost 200000 acres (810 km2).[66]

MangroveThree species of mangrove trees exist in the region: red (Rhizophora mangle), black (Avicennia germinans), andwhite (Laguncularia racemosa), although all are from different families.[67] All have the same characteristics: theyare tolerant of salt, brackish, and fresh water; they grow in oxygen-poor soil; and they can survive drastic water-levelchanges.[68] Black and white mangroves excrete salt from under their leaves, and red mangroves filter the salinity ofsea water. All species are integral to coastline protection during severe storms. Red mangroves, for example, havefar-reaching roots that trap sediments. The trees not only stabilize coastlines, but add land as more sand and decayingvegetation is trapped in the root systems. All three mangroves also absorb the energy of waves and storm surges.The estuaries act as fisheries for fry and nurseries for crustaceans. Shrimp, oysters, crabs, whelks, cockles, and snailsthrive in these waters, as do primordial horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus). The region supports a$59 million-a-year Tortugas pink shrimp (Farfantepenaeus duorarum) industry, and a $22 million-a-year stone crab(Menippe mercenaria) industry.[69] Between 80 and 90 percent of species that are harvested commercially in Floridaare born or spend time in the shallow waters near the Everglades.[66] [70] Oysters and mangroves work in tandem tobuild up the coastline. The sand around the coastline has minute white particles of quartz and fine shells. Whencurrents are right, oysters grow in colonies or beds, and deposit their shells, reinforcing the bed. Mangrove seeds,called propagules, are full embryos and float in water until they reach a favorable location and take root, often onoyster beds. They shed skin and litter, ensuring other trees will not compete for space and nutrients.[71]

Mangroves also serve as excellent rookeries for birds. Wading birds, such as roseate spoonbills (Platalea ajaja),egrets, and tricolored herons (Egretta tricolor) use the mangroves as a nursery, due to the proximity of food sourcesand the protection offered from most prey. Thousands of birds can nest in the mangroves at once, making a noisyand messy colony, but their droppings fertilize the mangrove trees.[72] Shorebirds like rails, terns and gulls; divingbirds such as pelicans and grebes; and birds of prey such as ospreys, hawks and vultures are among the more than100 species of birds that use Everglades mangrove trees to raise their young.

Geography and ecology of the Everglades 37

Florida Bay

A clump of mangroves in the distance, FloridaBay at Flamingo

Because much of the coast and inner estuaries are built bymangroves—and there is no border between the coastal marshes andthe bay—the ecosystems in Florida Bay are considered part of theEverglades. More than 800 square miles (2100 km2) of Florida Bay isprotected by Everglades National Park, representing the largest body ofwater in the park boundaries.[73] There are approximately one hundredkeys in Florida Bay, many of which are mangrove forests.[74] Largerislands may be taken over by hardwood hammocks. The outer rims ofthe Ten Thousand Islands and Cape Sable share characteristics of theintertwining saltwater bays and fresh water marshes.

The fresh water entering Florida Bay from the Everglades creates idealconditions for vast beds of turtle grass and algae formations that foster animal life in the bay. Sea turtles andmanatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris) eat the grass, while invertebrates such as worms, clams, and othermollusks consume algae formations and microscopic plankton.[75] Female sea turtles return annually to nest on theshore, and manatees spend the winter months in the warmer water of the bay. The Calusa Indians had various usesfor shells of marine invertebrates, due to the lack of dense rock with which to make tools. They used the horse conch(Pleuroploca gigantea), left-handed whelk (Busycon contrarium), and the Florida crown conch (Melongena corona)as drinking vessels, picks, hammers, knives and awls.[76]

Sea grasses stabilize sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves. Shrimp, spinylobsters, and sea urchins live in and among the grasses and feed on phytoplankton; they in turn feed larger predatorssuch as sharks, rays, barracuda, and king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla).[77] Due to shallow water and abundantsunlight, Florida Bay hosts communities of coral reefs and sponges, although the majority of the state's reefs arecloser to the Florida Keys.[78] Everglades keys that foster mangroves also support nurseries for wading birds such asthe Great white heron (Ardea herodias), which was almost wiped out in the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 (only 146were counted afterward).[79] After recovering to number more than 2,000, they were further endangered byHurricane Donna in 1960, which decreased their numbers by 35 to 40 percent.[80]

Sea floor patterns of Florida Bay are formed by currents and winds. However, since 1932, sea levels have been risingat a rate of 1 foot (0.30 m) per 100 years.[81] Though mangroves serve to build and stabilize the coastline, seas maybe rising more rapidly than the trees are able to build.[82]

BiodiversityEcosystems in the Everglades have been described as both fragile and resilient.[83] Author Michael Grunwald wroteabout the observations of the Everglades' first American visitors: "If the Grand Canyon was a breathtaking painting,the Everglades was a complex drama, and everything in it had a role."[84] An estimated 11,000 species ofseed-bearing plants and 400 species of land or water vertebrates live in the Everglades, but slight variations in waterlevels affect many organisms and reshape land formations. The health and productivity of any ecosystem relies onthe number of species present: the loss of one species weakens the entire ecosystem.[85]

For example, Florida apple snails (Pomacea paludosa) are an amphibious fresh water mollusk.[86] They have a single gill and lung, and live on stalks of sawgrass in water depths no more than 20 inches (51 cm). They are the primary food of the endangered Everglades snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis) and limpkin (Aramus guarauna) as well as the raccoon, otter, and young alligator. Apple snails lay their eggs on sawgrass stalks about 6 inches (15 cm) above the water line, and they are intolerant of being submerged for long periods of time. When the eggs hatch, young snails must enter the water quickly or face death. When water levels are too low or rise too quickly while snail eggs are developing, apple snails do not flourish, affecting the many reptiles, mammals, and birds that feed on

Geography and ecology of the Everglades 38

them.[87] With regard to the ecology of trophic dynamics, or food chains, the 174 species of invertebrates play a vitalrole in the Everglades.[88] Crayfish, insects, scorpions, and other invertebrates also support a web of animals.The group of animals most integral to the overall success of Everglades wildlife is freshwater fish. Few places in theEverglades stay submerged from one year to the next, so alligator holes and deep clefts in the limestone are vital tothe survival of fish, and the animal community as a whole. Freshwater fish are the main diet of most wading birds,alligators, and otters, and require large areas of open water in order to repopulate. Young amphibians also play animportant role in the food chain. Tadpoles spread quickly in isolated areas where fish do not have the time or accessto reproduce in numbers necessary to support larger animals. Hundreds of species of amphibians are found in theEverglades, and their availability helps support wildlife during short hydroperiods or in remote locations.[89]

These smaller animals support communities of larger animals, including 70 species of land birds that breed withinthe Everglades, and 120 water birds, of which 43 breed in the area. Many of these birds go on to migrate through theWest Indies and North America.[90] Several dozen species of mammals also thrive in the region, from tiny bats andshrews to midsize raccoons (Procyon lotor), otters (Lontra canadensis), opossums (Didelphis virginiana), and foxes.The largest include white tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), the Florida black bear, and the Florida panther.[91]

Although slight changes in water level affect many species, the system as a whole also cycles and pulses with eachchange. Some transformations to the diversity of plant and animal life are natural, caused by fire or storms, and someare induced by humans, such as urban encroachment, the introduction of exotic species, and rapid global warming.Environmental conditions in the Everglades favor no particular species. Some species, such as snail kites and applesnails, do well in wet conditions, but wood storks and Cape Sable seaside sparrows (Ammodramus maritimusmirabilis) do well in dryer circumstances.[83]

Human impactPeople have lived in the Everglades region for thousands of years. Within the past 100 years however, they havechanged the natural landscape dramatically. Settlement of urban areas in South Florida was facilitated by largedrainage projects intended to create more land. The drainage was often implemented without a full understanding ofthe intricacies of ecosystems and shaping processes of the Everglades.[92] Though the South Florida metropolitanarea grew exponentially, the result caused chaos in ecosystems throughout the Everglades. By the 1990s, thediminishing quality of life in many of these urban areas was linked to the degraded local environment.[93] The Stateof Florida and the U.S. government devised and passed a plan in 2000 to restore as much of the Everglades topre-drainage conditions as possible. It is the costliest and most comprehensive environmental restoration project inhistory.[94]

Notes and references[1] Lodge, p. 13.[2] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Watersheds and Coastal Waters (Big Cypress Watershed)"

(http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1134/ esns/ bcw. html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region UnderStress. U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved 2008-03-17.

[3] McCally, p. 18–21.[4] McCally, pp. 9–10.[5] Lodge, p.14.[6] Lodge, pp. 18–19.[7] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Climate" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1134/

esns/ clim. html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region Under Stress. U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved2008-03-17.

[8] Obeysekera, Jayantha; Browder, J., Hornrung, L., Harwell, M. (October 1999). "The natural South Florida system I: Climate, geology, andhydrology". Urban Ecosystems (Kluwer Academic Publishers) 3 (3/4): 223–244. doi:10.1023/A:1009552500448.

[9] Lodge, p. 21.[10] Hurricane Research Division (2008). "Atlantic hurricane best track" (http:/ / www. aoml. noaa. gov/ hrd/ hurdat/ tracks1851to2007-apr08.

txt). NOAA. . Retrieved 2008-05-03.

Geography and ecology of the Everglades 39

[11] Lodge, p. 89.[12] Jewell, p. 35.[13] Lodge, pp. 89–93.[14] Toops, p. 95.[15] Gleason, Patrick, Peter Stone, "Age, Origins, and Landscape Evolution of the Everglades Peatland" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its

Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8[16] McCally, pp. 12–14.[17] McCally, pp. 15–17[18] Lodge, p. 38.[19] SFWMD (2010), p. 6-3.[20] Lodge, pp. 39–41.[21] Schaffraneck, Raymond; Ami L. Riscassi, Nancy B. Rybicki, Alfonso V. Lombana (September 3, 2003). "Fire Effects on Flow in Vegetated

Wetlands of the Everglades" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ projects/ dynamics/ fireeffects_03geerab. html). U.S. Geological Survey. . Retrieved2008-05-02.

[22] Grunwald, p. 12.[23] George, p. 13.[24] Douglas, p. 11.[25] Whitney, p. 168.[26] Lodge, pp. 25–27.[27] Jewell, p. 46.[28] Whitney, p.168.[29] George, p. 42.[30] Lodge, p. 31.[31] George, p. 14.[32] Whitney, p. 114–115.[33] Lodge, p. 29.[34] Whitney, p. 164.[35] Whitney, p. 163.[36] George, pp. 45–46.[37] Lodge, p. 35.[38] George, p. 30.[39] Lodge, p. 55.[40] Douglas, pp. 48–49.[41] George, p. 31.[42] Toops, p. 53.[43] Lodge, p. 58.[44] Toops, p. 57.[45] Toops, p. 61.[46] George, p. 39.[47] Lodge, pp. 45–46.[48] McCally, p. 9.[49] Jewell, p. 45.[50] U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. " South Florida Multi-Species Recovery Plan: Pine rockland (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ southeast/ vbpdfs/

commun/ pr. pdf)" (PDF), Retrieved May 3, 2008.[51] George, pp. 7–8.[52] "Land and Resource Management Projects" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ reports/ doi-science-plan/ managefire. html). DOI science

plan in support of ecosystem restoration, preservation, and protection in South Florida. U.S. Geological Survey. April 26, 2007. . Retrieved2008-05-02.

[53] Lodge, p. 66.[54] Lodge, p. 63.[55] Lodge, p. 67.[56] George, p. 26.[57] Ripple, p. 16.[58] Jewell, p. 43.[59] Ripple, pp. 19–20.[60] Ripple, p. 26.[61] Ripple, pp. 31–32.[62] Ripple, p. 28.[63] Ripple, pp. 30–38.

Geography and ecology of the Everglades 40

[64] George, p. 19.[65] Katherisen, K. (2001). "Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems", Advances in Marine Biology, Alan J. Southward (ed.) 40,

pp. 18–251. ISBN 978-0-12-026140-6.[66] Ripple, p. 80.[67] Jewell, p. 41.[68] Whitney, p. 286.[69] "About Florida Bay" (http:/ / www. floridabay. org/ intro. shtml). Sea Grant Florida. July 16, 2001. . Retrieved 2008-06-08.[70] Humphreys, Jay; Franz, Shelley, and Seaman, Bill (March 1993). "Florida's Estuaries: A Citizen's Guide to Coastal Living and

Conservation" (http:/ / nsgl. gso. uri. edu/ flsgp/ flsgph93001. pdf) (PDF). National Atmosphere and Oceanic Administration and the FloridaDepartment of Community Affairs. . Retrieved 2008-06-08.

[71] Whitney, pp. 288–289.[72] Whitney, pp. 295–296.[73] "Ecosystems: Marine & Estuarine" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ naturescience/ marineestuarine. htm). National Park Service. July 30,

2007. . Retrieved 2008-05-04.[74] George, p. 21.[75] Whitney, pp. 313–316.[76] Griffin, pp. 93—103.[77] Whitney, pp. 328–330.[78] Jewell, p. 40.[79] Toops, p. 88.[80] Williams, p. 26.[81] Lodge, p. 100.[82] Lodge, p. 104.[83] Toops, p. 92.[84] Grunwald, p. 14.[85] Whitney, p. 383.[86] Whitney, p. 241.[87] Lodge, p. 136.[88] Lodge, p. 140.[89] Lodge, p. 160.[90] Lodge, pp. 183–185.[91] Lodge, pp. 175–180.[92] Light, Stephen, Dineed, J. Walter, "Water Control in the Everglades: A Historical Perspective", in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its

Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), Delray Beach, Fla.: St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8[93] "Chapter 1: Background and understanding" (http:/ / dlis. dos. state. fl. us/ fgils/ agencies/ sust/ tocs. html). The Governor's Commission for

a Sustainable South Florida. State of Florida. October 1, 1995. . Retrieved 2008-05-23.[94] Schmitt, Eric (October 20, 2000). " Everglades Restoration Plan Passes House, With Final Approval Seen (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/

fullpage. html?res=9D02E3DF103EF933A15753C1A9669C8B63& scp=1& st=nyt)", The New York Times, p. 1.

Bibliography• Douglas, Marjory (1947). The Everglades: River of Grass. R. Bemis Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-912451-44-0• George, Jean (1972). Everglades Wildguide. National Park Service. Gov. doc #I 29.62:Ev2• Griffin, John (2002). Archeology of the Everglades. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2558-3• Grunwald, Michael (2006). The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise, Simon &

Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-5107-5• Jewell, Susan (1993). Exploring Wild South Florida: A Guide to Finding the Natural Areas and Wildlife of the

Everglades and Florida Keys, Pineapple Press, Inc. ISBN 1-56164-023-9• Lodge, Thomas E. (1994). The Everglades Handbook: Understanding the Ecosystem. CRC Press. ISBN

1-56670-614-9• McCally, David (1999). The Everglades: An Environmental History. University Press of Florida. ISBN

0-8130-2302-5• Ripple, Jeff (1992). Big Cypress Swamp and the Ten Thousand Islands: Eastern America's Last Great

Wilderness, University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 0-87249-842-5

Geography and ecology of the Everglades 41

• South Florida Water Management District (2010). Chapter 6: Ecology of the Everglades Protection Area (https:/ /my. sfwmd. gov/ portal/ page/ portal/ pg_grp_sfwmd_sfer/ portlet_sfer/ tab2236037/ 2010 report/ v1/ chapters/v1_ch6. pdf). 2010 South Florida Environmental Report: Volume I—The South Florida Environment. Retrievedon May 26, 2010.

• Toops, Connie (1998). The Florida Everglades. Voyageur Press. ISBN 0-89658-372-4• Whitney, Ellie et al., eds. (2004) Priceless Florida: Natural Ecosystems and Native Species. Pineapple Press, Inc.

ISBN 978-1-56164-309-7• Williams, John (2002). Florida hurricanes and tropical storms, 1871-2001. University of Florida Press. ISBN

0-8130-2494-3

Draining and development of the Everglades

Satellite image of the northern Everglades with developed areas in2001, including the Everglades Agricultural Area (in red), Water

Conservation Areas 1, 2, and 3, and the South Florida metropolitanarea

Source: U.S. Geological Survey

The history of draining and development of theEverglades dates back to the 19th century. During theSecond Seminole War beginning in 1836, the UnitedStates military's mission was to seek out Seminolepeople in the Everglades and capture or kill them.Those missions gave the military the opportunity tomap land that seemed to frustrate and confound them atevery turn. A national push for expansion and progresstoward the latter part of the 19th century stimulatedinterest in draining the Everglades for agricultural use.According to historians, "From the middle of thenineteenth century to the middle of the twentiethcentury, the United States went through a period inwhich wetland removal was not questioned. Indeed, itwas considered the proper thing to do."[1]

A pattern of political and financial motivation, and alack of understanding of the geography and ecology ofthe Everglades have plagued the history of drainage projects. The Everglades are a part of a massive watershed thatoriginates near Orlando and drains into Lake Okeechobee, a vast and shallow lake. As the lake exceeds its capacityin the wet season, the water forms a flat and very wide river, about 100 miles (160 km) long and 60 miles (97 km)wide. As the land from Lake Okeechobee slopes gradually to Florida Bay, water flows at a rate of half a mile(0.8 km) a day. Before human activity in the Everglades, the system comprised the lower third of the Floridapeninsula. The first attempt to drain the region was made by real estate developer Hamilton Disston in 1881.Disston's sponsored canals were unsuccessful, but the land he purchased for them stimulated economic and

Draining and development of the Everglades 42

Satellite image of the southern Everglades with developed areas in2001, including Everglades National Park, the Big Cypress Swamp,Florida Bay and the southern tip of the South Florida metropolitan

areaSource: U.S. Geological Survey

population growth that attracted railway developerHenry Flagler. Flagler built a railroad along the eastcoast of Florida and eventually to Key West; townsgrew and farmland was cultivated along the rail line.

During his 1904 campaign to be elected governor,Napoleon Bonaparte Broward promised to drain theEverglades, and his later projects were more effectivethan Disston's. Broward's promises sparked a landboom facilitated by blatant errors in an engineer'sreport, pressure from real estate developers, and theburgeoning tourist industry throughout south Florida.The increased population brought hunters who wentunchecked and had a devastating impact on thenumbers of wading birds (hunted for their plumes),alligators, and other Everglades animals.

Severe hurricanes in 1926 and 1928 caused catastrophicdamage and flooding from Lake Okeechobee that prompted the Army Corps of Engineers to build a dike around thelake. Further floods in 1947 prompted an unprecedented construction of canals throughout southern Florida.Following another population boom after World War II, and the creation of the Central and Southern Florida FloodControl Project, the Everglades was divided into sections separated by canals and water control devices thatdelivered water to agricultural and newly developed urban areas. However, in the late 1960s, following a proposal toconstruct a massive airport next to Everglades National Park, national attention turned from developing the land torestoring the Everglades.

Exploration

Marines search for Seminoles among themangroves during the Second Seminole War

American involvement in the Everglades began during the SecondSeminole War (1836–42), a costly and very unpopular conflict. TheUnited States spent between $30 million and $40 million and lostbetween 1,500 and 3,000 lives. The U.S. military drove the Seminolesinto the Everglades and were charged with the task of finding them,defeating them, and moving them to Oklahoma Indian territory.Almost 4,000 Seminoles were killed in the war or were removed.[2] [3]

The U.S. military was completely unprepared for the conditions theyfound in the Everglades. They tore their clothes on sawgrass, ruinedtheir boots on the uneven limestone floor, and were plagued bymosquitoes. Soldiers' legs, feet, and arms were cut open on thesawgrass and gangrene infection set in, taking many lives and limbs. Many died of mosquito-borne illness. Afterslogging through mud, one private died in his tracks of exhaustion in 1842.[3] General Thomas Jesup admitted themilitary was overwhelmed by the terrain when he wrote to the Secretary of War in 1838, trying to dissuade him fromprolonging the war.[3]

Opinion about the value of Florida to the Union was mixed: some thought it a useless land of swamps and horribleanimals, while others thought it a gift from God for national prosperity.[4] In 1838 comments in The Army and NavyChronicle supported future development of southern Florida:

[The] climate [is] most delightful; but, from want of actual observation, [it] could not speak so confidently of the soil, although, from the appearance of the surrounding vegetation, a portion of it, at

Draining and development of the Everglades 43

least, must be rich. Whenever the aborigines shall be forced from their fastnesses, as eventually theymust be, the enterprising spirit of our countrymen will very soon discover the sections best adapted tocultivation, and the now barren or unproductive everglades will be made to blossom like a garden. It isthe general impression that these everglades are uninhabitable during the summer months, by reason oftheir being overflowed by the abundant rains of the season; but if it should prove that these inundationsare caused or increased by obstructions to the natural courses of the rivers, as outlets to the numerouslakes, American industry will remove these obstructions.[5]

Map of the Everglades by the U.S.War Department in 1856: Militaryaction during the Seminole Warsimproved understanding of the

features of the Everglades.

The military penetration of southern Florida offered the opportunity to map apoorly understood part of the country. As late as 1823, official reports doubtedthe existence of a large inland lake, until the military met the Seminoles at theBattle of Lake Okeechobee in 1837.[6] To avenge repeated surprise attacks onhimself and ammunition stores, Colonel William Harney led an expedition intothe Everglades in 1840, to hunt for a chief named Chekika. With Harney were90 soldiers in 16 canoes. One soldier's account of the trip in the St. AugustineNews was the first printed description of the Everglades available to the generalpublic. The anonymous writer described the hunt for Chekika and the terrain theywere crossing: "No country that I have ever heard of bears any resemblance to it;it seems like a vast sea filled with grass and green trees, and expressly intendedas a retreat for the rascally Indian, from which the white man would never seekto drive them".[7]

The final blame for the military stalemate was determined to lie not in militarypreparation, supplies, leadership, or superior tactics by the Seminoles, but inFlorida's impenetrable terrain. An army surgeon wrote: "It is in fact a most

hideous region to live in, a perfect paradise for Indians, alligators, serpents, frogs, and every other kind of loathsomereptile."[8] The land seemed to inspire extreme reactions of wonder or hatred. In 1870, an author described themangrove forests as a "waste of nature's grandest exhibition to have these carnivals of splendid vegetation occurringin isolated places where it is but seldom they are seen."[9] A band of hunters, naturalists, and collectors venturedthrough in 1885, taking along with them the 17-year-old grandson of an early resident of Miami. The landscapeunnerved the young man shortly after he entered the Shark River: "The place looked wild and lonely. About threeo'clock it seemed to get on Henry's nerves and we saw him crying, he would not tell us why, he was just plainscared."[10]

In 1897, an explorer named Hugh Willoughby spent eight days canoeing with a party from the mouth of the HarneyRiver to the Miami River. He wrote about his observations and sent them back to the New Orleans Times-Democrat.Willoughby described the water as healthy and wholesome, with numerous springs, and 10,000 alligators "more orless" in Lake Okeechobee. The party encountered thousands of birds near the Shark River, "killing hundreds, butthey continued to return".[11] Willoughby pointed out that much of the rest of the country had been mapped andexplored except for this part of Florida, writing, "(w)e have a tract of land one hundred and thirty miles long andseventy miles wide that is as much unknown to the white man as the heart of Africa."[12]

Draining and development of the Everglades 44

DrainageAs early as 1837, a visitor to the Everglades suggested the value of the land without the water:

Could it be drained by deepening the natural outlets? Would it not open to cultivation immense tracts ofrich vegetable soil? Could the waterpower, obtained by draining, be improved to any useful purpose?Would such draining render the country unhealthy? ... Many queries like these passed through ourminds. They can only be solved by a thorough examination of the whole country. Could the waters belowered ten feet, it would probably drain six hundred thousand acres; should this prove to be a rich soil,as would seem probable, what a field it would open for tropical productions! What facilities forcommerce![3]

Territorial representative David Levy proposed a resolution that was passed in Congress in 1842: "that the Secretaryof War be directed to place before this House such information as can be obtained in relation to the practicability andprobable expense of draining the everglades of Florida."[3] From this directive Secretary of the Treasury Robert J.Walker requested Thomas Buckingham Smith from St. Augustine to consult those with experience in the Evergladeson the feasibility of draining them, saying that he had been told two or three canals to the Gulf of Mexico would besufficient. Smith asked officers who had served in the Seminole Wars to respond, and many favored the idea,promoting the land as a future agricultural asset to the South. A few disagreed, such as Captain John Sprague, whowrote he "never supposed the country would excite an inquiry, other than as a hiding place for Indians, and had itoccurred to me that so great an undertaking, one so utterly impracticable, as draining the Ever Glades was to bediscussed, I should not have destroyed the scratch of pen upon a subject so fruitful, and which cannot be understoodbut by those who have waded the water belly deep and examined carefully the western coast by land and bywater."[3]

Nevertheless, Smith returned a report to the Secretary of the Treasury asking for $500,000 to do the job.[13] Thereport is the first published study on the topic of the Everglades, and concluded with the statement:

The Ever Glades are now suitable only for the haunt of noxious vermin or the resort of pestilent reptiles.The statesman whose exertions shall cause the millions of acres they contain, now worse than worthless,to teem with the products of agricultural industry; that man who thus adds to the resources of hiscountry ... will merit a high place in public favor, not only with his own generation, but with posterity.He will have created a State![3]

Smith suggested cutting through the rim of the Everglades (known today as the Atlantic Coastal Ridge), connectingthe heads of rivers to the coastline so that 4 feet (1.2 m) of water would be drained from the area. The result, Smithhoped, would yield farmland suitable for corn, sugar, rice, cotton, and tobacco.[14]

In 1850 Congress passed a law that gave several states wetlands within their state boundaries. The Swamp andOverflowed Lands Act ensured that the state would be responsible for funding the attempts at developing wetlandsinto farmlands.[14] Florida quickly formed a committee to consolidate grants to pay for such attempts, thoughattention and funds were diverted owing to the Civil War and Reconstruction. Not until after 1877 did attentionreturn to the Everglades.

Draining and development of the Everglades 45

Hamilton Disston's canals

Hamilton Disston's land sale notice

After the Civil War, a state agency named the Internal Improvement Fund (IIF)was formed in Florida to use grant money to improve Florida through canals, raillines, and roads. Trustees in the IIF, eager to be rid of the debt incurred by theCivil War, found a Pennsylvania real estate developer named Hamilton Disstonwho was interested in implementing plans to drain the land for agriculture.Disston was persuaded to buy 4000000 acres (16000 km2) of land for $1 millionin 1881.[15] The New York Times declared it the largest purchase of land ever byany individual.[16] Disston began building canals near St. Cloud to lower thebasin of the Caloosahatchee and Kissimmee Rivers. His workers and engineersfaced conditions similar to those of the soldiers during the Seminole Wars; it washarrowing, backbreaking labor in dangerous conditions. The canals seemed atfirst to work in lowering the water levels in the wetlands surrounding the rivers.Another dredged waterway between the Gulf of Mexico and Lake Okeechobeewas built, opening the region to steamboat traffic.[17]

Disston's engineers focused on Lake Okeechobee as well. As one colleague putit, "Okeechobee is the point to attack"; the canals were to be "equal or greaterthan the inflow from the Kissimmee valley, which is the source of all the evil."[18] Disston sponsored the digging ofa canal 11 miles (18 km) long from Lake Okeechobee towards Miami, but it was abandoned when the rock proveddenser than the engineers had expected. Though the canals lowered the groundwater, their capacity was inadequatefor the wet season. A report that evaluated the failure of the project concluded: "The reduction of the waters issimply a question of sufficient capacity in the canals which may be dug for their relief".[19]

Though Disston's canals did not drain, his purchase primed the economy of Florida. It made news and attractedtourists and land buyers alike. Within four years property values doubled, and the population increasedsignificantly.[15] One newcomer was the inventor Thomas Edison, who bought a home in Fort Myers.[20] Disstonopened real estate offices throughout the United States and Europe, and sold tracts of land for $5 an acre,establishing towns on the west coast and in central Florida. English tourists in particular were targeted and respondedin large numbers.[21] Florida passed its first water laws to "build drains, ditches, or water courses upon petition oftwo or more landowners" in 1893.[22]

Henry Flagler's railroadsDue to Disston's purchase, the IIF was able to sponsor railroad projects, and the opportunity presented itself when oiltycoon Henry Flagler became enchanted with St. Augustine during a vacation. He built the opulent Ponce de LeónHotel in St. Augustine in 1888, and began buying land and building rail lines along the east coast of Florida, firstfrom Jacksonville to Daytona, then as far south as Palm Beach in 1893. Flagler's establishment of "the Styx", asettlement for hotel and rail line workers across the river from the barrier island containing Palm Beach, becameWest Palm Beach.[23] Along the way he built resort hotels, transforming territorial outposts into tourist destinationsand the land bordering the rail lines into citrus farms.[24]

The winter of 1894–1895 produced a bitter frost that killed citrus trees as far south as Palm Beach. Miami residentJulia Tuttle sent Flagler a pristine orange blossom and an invitation to visit Miami, to persuade him to build therailroad farther south. Although he had earlier turned her down several times, Flagler finally agreed, and by 1896 therail line had been extended to Biscayne Bay.[25] Three months after the first train arrived, the residents of Miami,512 in all, voted to incorporate the town. Flagler publicized Miami as a "Magic City" throughout the United Statesand it became a prime destination for the extremely wealthy after the Royal Palm Hotel was opened.[26]

Draining and development of the Everglades 46

Broward's "Empire of the Everglades"

A canal lock in the Everglades Drainage Districtaround 1915

Further information: Geography and ecology of the EvergladesDespite the sale of 4000000 acres (16000 km2) to Disston and theskyrocketing price of land, by the turn of the 20th century the IIF wasbankrupt due to mismanagement.[27] Legal battles ensued between theState of Florida and the railroad owners about who owned the rights tosell reclaimed land in the Everglades. In 1904 gubernatorialcampaigning, the strongest candidate, Napoleon Bonaparte Broward,made draining the Everglades a major plank. He called the future ofsouth Florida the "Empire of the Everglades" and compared itspotential to that of Holland and Egypt: "It would indeed be acommentary on the intelligence and energy of the State of Florida toconfess that so simple an engineering feat as the drainage of a body ofland above the sea was above their power", he wrote to voters.[28] Soon after his election, he fulfilled his promise to"drain that abominable pestilence-ridden swamp"[29] and pushed the Florida legislature to form a group ofcommissioners to oversee reclamation of flooded lands. They began by taxing counties that would be affected by thedrainage attempts, at 5 cents an acre, and formed the Everglades Drainage District in 1907.[3]

Broward asked James O. Wright—an engineer on loan to the State of Florida from the USDA's Bureau of DrainageInvestigations—to draw up plans for drainage in 1906. Two dredges were built by 1908, but had cut only 6 miles(9.7 km) of canals. The project quickly ran out of money, so Broward sold real estate developer Richard J. Bolles amillion dollars worth of land in the Everglades, unknown operator: u',' acres (unknown operator:u'strong'unknown operator: u','km2), before the engineer's report had been submitted.[30] Abstracts from Wright'sreport were given to the IIF stating that eight canals would be enough to drain 1850000 acres (7500 km2) at a cost ofa dollar an acre.[31] The abstracts were released to real estate developers who used them in their advertisements, andWright and the USDA were pressed by the real estate industry to publicize the report as quickly as possible.[31]

Wright's supervisor noted errors in the report, as well as undue enthusiasm for draining, and delayed its release in1910. Different unofficial versions of the report circulated—some that had been altered by real estate interests—anda version hastily put together by Senator Duncan U. Fletcher called U.S. Senate Document 89 included earlyunrevised statements, causing a frenzy of speculation.[1]

Blueprint for drainage canals in theEverglades in 1921

Wright's initial report concluded that drainage would not be difficult. Buildingcanals would be more cost effective than constructing a dike around LakeOkeechobee. The soil would be fertile after drainage, the climate would not beadversely affected, and the enormous lake would be able to irrigate farmland inthe dry season.[1] Wright based his conclusions on 15 years of weather data sincethe recording of precipitation began in the 1890s. His calculations concentratedon the towns of Jupiter and Kissimmee. Since weather data had not beenrecorded for any area within the Everglades, none was included in the report.Furthermore, the heaviest year of rain on record, Wright assumed, was atypical,and he urged that canals should not be constructed to bear that amount of waterdue to the expense. Wright's calculations for what canals should be able to holdwere off by 55 percent.[32] His most fundamental mistake, however, wasdesigning the canals for a maximum rainfall of 4 inches (10 cm) of water a day,based on flawed data for July and August rainfall, despite available data that

indicated torrential downpours of 10 inches (25 cm) and 12 inches (30 cm) had occurred in 24-hour periods.[1]

Draining and development of the Everglades 47

Though a few voices expressed skepticism of the report's conclusions—notably Frank Stoneman, the editor of theMiami News-Record (the forerunner of The Miami Herald)—the report was hailed as impeccable, coming from abranch of the U.S. government.[33] In 1912 Florida appointed Wright to oversee the drainage, and the real estateindustry energetically misrepresented this mid-level engineer as the world's foremost authority on wetlands drainage,in charge of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.[1] However, the U.S. House of Representatives investigated Wrightsince no report had officially been published despite the money paid for it. Wright eventually retired when it wasdiscovered that his colleagues disagreed with his conclusions and refused to approve the report's publication. Onetestified at the hearings: "I regard Mr. Wright as absolutely and completely incompetent for any engineeringwork".[34]

Governor Broward ran for the U.S. Senate in 1908 but lost. Broward and his predecessor, William Jennings, werepaid by Richard Bolles to tour the state to promote drainage. Broward was elected to the Senate in 1910, but diedbefore he could take office. He was eulogized across Florida for his leadership and progressive inspiration. Rapidlygrowing Fort Lauderdale paid him tribute by naming Broward County after him (the town's original plan had been toname it Everglades County). Land in the Everglades was being sold for $15 an acre a month after Broward died.[35]

Meanwhile, Henry Flagler continued to build railway stations at towns as soon as the populations warranted them.News of the Panama Canal inspired him to connect his rail line to the closest deep water port. Biscayne Bay was tooshallow, so Flagler sent railway scouts to explore the possibility of building the line through to the tip of mainlandFlorida. The scouts reported that not enough land was present to build through the Everglades, so Flagler insteadchanged the plan to build to Key West in 1912.[25]

Boom and plume harvestingFurther information: Florida land boom of the 1920s

A group of tour buses leads prospective buyers tonewly drained lots in Hialeah in 1921

Real estate companies continued to advertise and sell land along newlydug canals. In April 1912—the end of the dry season—reporters fromall over the U.S. were given a tour of what had recently been drained,and they returned to their papers and raved about the progress.[36] Landdevelopers sold 20,000 lots in a few months. But as news about theWright report continued to be negative, land values plummeted, andsales decreased. Developers were sued and arrested for mail fraudwhen people who had spent their life savings to buy land arrived insouth Florida expecting to find a dry parcel of land to build upon andinstead found it completely underwater.[37] Advertisements promisedland that would yield crops in eight weeks, but for many it took at leastas long just to clear. Some burned off the sawgrass or other vegetationonly to discover that the underlying peat continued to burn. Animals and tractors used for plowing got mired in themuck and were useless. When the muck dried, it turned to a fine black powder and created dust storms.[38] Settlersencountered rodents, skinks, and biting insects, and faced dangers from mosquitoes, poisonous snakes and alligators.Though at first crops sprouted quickly and lushly, they just as quickly wilted and died, seemingly without reason.[39]

It was discovered later that the peat and muck lacked copper and other trace elements. The USDA released apamphlet in 1915 that declared land along the New River Canal would be too costly to keep drained and fertilized;people in Ft. Lauderdale responded by collecting all of the pamphlets and burning them.[40]

With the increasing population in towns near the Everglades came hunting opportunities. Even decades earlier, Harriet Beecher Stowe had been horrified at the hunting by visitors, and she wrote the first conservation publication for Florida in 1877: "[t]he decks of boats are crowded with men, whose only feeling amid our magnificent forests, seems to be a wild desire to shoot something and who fire at every living thing on shore."[41] Otters and raccoons were the most widely hunted for their skins. Otter pelts could fetch between $8 and $15 each. Raccoons, more

Draining and development of the Everglades 48

plentiful, only warranted 75 cents each in 1915. Hunting often went unchecked; on one trip, a Lake Okeechobeehunter killed 250 alligators and 172 otters.[42]

A 1904 magazine cutout showing theplumes for women's hats that wereharvested from wading birds in the

Everglades

Wading birds were a particular target. Their feathers were used in women's hatsfrom the late 19th century until the 1920s. In 1886, five million birds wereestimated to have been killed for their feathers.[43] They were usually shot in thespring, when their feathers were colored for mating and nesting. Aigrettes, as theplumes were called in the millinery business, sold in 1915 for $32 an ounce, alsothe price of gold.[42] Millinery was a $17-million-a-year industry[44] thatmotivated plume harvesters to lay in wait at nests of egrets and other large birdsduring the nesting season, shoot the parents with small-bore rifles, and leave thechicks to starve.[42] Many hunters refused to participate after watching thegruesome results of a plume hunt.[42] [45] Still, plumes from Everglades wadingbirds could be found in Havana, New York City, London, and Paris. A dealer inNew York paid at least 60 hunters to provide him with "almost anything thatwore feathers, but particularly the Herons, Spoonbills, and showy birds". Hunterscould collect plumes from a hundred birds on a good day.[46]

Plume harvesting became a dangerous business. The Audubon Society becameconcerned with the amount of hunting being done in rookeries in the mangrove

forests. In 1902, they hired a warden, Guy Bradley, to watch the rookeries around Cuthbert Lake. Bradley had livedin Flamingo within the Everglades, and was murdered in 1905 by one of his neighbors after he tried to prevent himfrom hunting.[47] Protection of birds was the reason for establishing the first wildlife refuge when PresidentTheodore Roosevelt set Pelican Island as a sanctuary in 1903.

In the 1920s, after birds were protected and alligators hunted nearly to extinction, Prohibition created a living forthose willing to smuggle alcohol into the U.S. from Cuba. Rum-runners used the vast Everglades as a hiding spot:there were never enough law enforcement officers to patrol it.[48] The advent of the fishing industry, the arrival ofthe railroad, and the discovery of the benefits of adding copper to Okeechobee muck soon created unprecedentednumbers of residents in new towns like Moore Haven, Clewiston, and Belle Glade. By 1921, 2,000 people lived in16 new towns around Lake Okeechobee.[3] Sugarcane became the primary crop grown in south Florida and it beganto be mass-produced. Miami experienced a second real estate boom that earned a developer in Coral Gables$150 million and saw undeveloped land north of Miami sell for $30,600 an acre.[49] Miami became cosmopolitanand experienced a renaissance of architecture and culture. Hollywood movie stars vacationed in the area andindustrialists built lavish homes. Miami's population multiplied fivefold, and Ft. Lauderdale and Palm Beach grewmany times over as well. In 1925, Miami newspapers published editions weighing over 7 pounds (3.2 kg), most of itreal estate advertising.[50] Waterfront property was the most highly valued. Mangrove trees were cut down andreplaced with palm trees to improve the view. Acres of south Florida slash pine were taken down, some for lumber,but the wood was found to be dense and it split apart when nails were driven into it. It was also termite-resistant, buthomes were needed quickly. Most of the pine forests in Dade County were cleared for development.[51]

HurricanesThe canals proposed by Wright were unsuccessful in making the lands south of Lake Okeechobee fulfill thepromises made by real estate developers to local farmers. The winter of 1922 was unseasonably wet and the regionwas underwater. The town of Moore Haven received 46 inches (1200 mm) of rain in six weeks in 1924.[52]

Engineers were pressured to regulate the water flow, not only for farmers but also for commercial fishers, who oftenrequested conflicting water levels in the lake. Fred Elliot, who was in charge of building the canals after JamesWright retired, commented: "A man on one side of the canal wants it raised for his particular use and a man on theother side wants it lowered for his particular use".[53]

Draining and development of the Everglades 49

1926 Miami Hurricane

Remains of a bridge damaged during the 1926Miami Hurricane.

The 1920s brought several favorable conditions that helped the landand population boom, one of which was an absence of any severestorms. The last severe hurricane, in 1906, had struck the Florida Keys.Many homes were constructed hastily and poorly as a result of this lullin storms.[54] However, on September 18, 1926, a storm that becameknown as the 1926 Miami Hurricane struck with winds over 140 milesper hour (230 km/h), and caused massive devastation. The storm surgewas as high as 15 feet (4.6 m) in some places. Henry Flagler's opulentRoyal Palm Hotel was destroyed along with many other hotels andbuildings. Most people who died did so when they ran out into thestreet in disbelief while the eye of the hurricane passed over, not knowing the wind was coming in from the otherdirection. "The lull lasted 35 minutes, and during that time the streets of the city became crowded with people",wrote Richard Gray, the local weather chief. "As a result, many lives were lost during the second phase of thestorm."[55] In Miami alone, 115 people were counted dead—although the true figure may have been as high as 175,because death totals were racially segregated.[54] More than 25,000 people were homeless in the city. The town ofMoore Haven, bordering Lake Okeechobee, was hardest hit. A levee built of muck collapsed, drowning almost 400of the town's entire 1,200 residents.[56] The tops of Lake Okeechobee levees were only 18 to 24 inches (46 to 61 cm)above the lake itself and the engineers were aware of the danger. Two days before the hurricane, an engineerpredicted, "[i]f we have a blow, even a gale, Moore Haven is going under water". The engineer lost his wife anddaughter in the flood.[57]

Pictures of the destruction in thetown of Okeechobee in 1928

The City of Miami responded to the hurricane by downplaying its effects andturning down aid. The Miami Herald declared two weeks after the storm thatalmost everything in the city had returned to normal. The governor supported theefforts to minimize the appearance of the destruction by refusing to call a speciallegislative session to appropriate emergency funds for relief. As a result, theAmerican Red Cross was able to collect only $3 million of $5 million needed.[54]

The 1926 hurricane effectively ended the land boom in Miami, despite theattempts at hiding the effects. It also forced drainage commissioners tore-evaluate the effectiveness of the canals. A $20 million plan to build a dikearound Lake Okeechobee, to be paid by property taxes, was turned down after askeptical constituency sued to stop it;[58] more than $14 million had been spenton canals and they were ineffective in taking away excess water or delivering itwhen needed.[59]

1928 Okeechobee Hurricane

The weather was unremarkable for two years. In 1928, construction was completed on the Tamiami Trail, namedbecause it was the only road spanning between Tampa and Miami. The builders attempted to construct the roadseveral times before they blasted the muck down to the limestone, filled it with rock and paved over it.[60] Hard rainsin the summer caused Lake Okeechobee to rise several feet; this was noticed by a local newspaper editor whodemanded it be lowered. However, on September 16, 1928 came a massive storm, now known as the 1928Okeechobee Hurricane. Thousands drowned when Lake Okeechobee breached its levees; the range of estimates ofthe dead spanned from 1,770 (according to the Red Cross) to 3,000 or more.[61] Many were swept away and never

recovered.[54] [62] The majority of the dead were black migrant workers who had recently settled in or near Belle Glade. The catastrophe made national news, and although the governor again refused aid, after he toured the area and

Draining and development of the Everglades 50

counted 126 bodies still unburied or uncollected a week after the storm, he activated the National Guard to assist inthe cleanup,[54] and declared in a telegram: "Without exaggeration, the situation in the storm area beggarsdescription".[63]

Herbert Hoover Dike

A sign advertising the completion of the HerbertHoover Dike

The focus of government agencies quickly shifted to the control offloods rather than drainage. The Okeechobee Flood Control District,financed by both state and federal funds, was created in 1929.President Herbert Hoover toured the towns affected by the 1928Okeechobee Hurricane and, an engineer himself, ordered the ArmyCorps of Engineers to assist the communities surrounding the lake.[64]

Between 1930 and 1937, a dike 66 miles (106 km) long was builtaround the southern edge of the lake, and a shorter one around thenorthern edge. It was 34 feet (10 m) tall and 3.5 feet (1.1 m) thick onthe lake side, 3 feet (0.91 m) thick on the top, and 2 feet (0.61 m) thick

toward land. Control of the Hoover Dike and the waters of Lake Okeechobee were delegated to federal powers: theUnited States declared legal limits of the lake to be 14 feet (4.3 m) and 17 feet (5.2 m).[12]

A massive canal 80 feet (24 m) wide and 6 feet (1.8 m) deep was also dug through the Caloosahatchee River; whenthe lake rose too high, the excess water left through the canal to the Gulf of Mexico. Exotic trees were planted alongthe north shore levee: Australian pines, Australian oaks, willows, and bamboo.[12] More than $20 million was spenton the entire project. Sugarcane production soared after the dike and canal were built. The populations of the smalltowns surrounding the lake jumped from 3,000 to 9,000 after World War II.[65]

DroughtThe effects of the Hoover Dike were seen immediately. An extended drought occurred in the 1930s, and with thewall preventing water leaving Lake Okeechobee and canals and ditches removing other water, the Evergladesbecame parched. Peat turned to dust, and salty ocean water entered Miami's wells. When the city brought in anexpert to investigate, he discovered that the water in the Everglades was the area's groundwater—here, it appeared onthe surface. Draining the Everglades removed this groundwater, which was replaced by ocean water seeping into thearea's wells.[66] In 1939, 1 million acres (4000 km2) of Everglades burned, and the black clouds of peat and sawgrassfires hung over Miami. Underground peat fires burned roots of trees and plants without burning the plants in someplaces.[67] Scientists who took soil samples before draining had not taken into account that the organic compositionof peat and muck in the Everglades was mixed with bacteria that added little to the process of decompositionunderwater because they were not mixed with oxygen. As soon as the water was drained and oxygen mixed with thesoil, the bacteria began to break down the soil. In some places, homes had to be moved on to stilts and 8 feet (2.4 m)of topsoil was lost.[68]

Draining and development of the Everglades 51

Conservation attempts

President Harry Truman dedicating EvergladesNational Park on December 6, 1947

Conservationists concerned about the Everglades have been a vocalminority ever since Miami was a young city. South Florida's first andperhaps most enthusiastic naturalist was Charles Torrey Simpson, whoretired from the Smithsonian Institution to Miami in 1905 when he was53. Nicknamed "the Sage of Biscayne Bay", Simpson wrote severalbooks about tropical plant life around Miami. His backyard contained atropical hardwood hammock, which he estimated he showed to about50,000 people. Though he tended to avoid controversy regardingdevelopment, in Ornamental Gardening in Florida he wrote,"Mankind everywhere has an insane desire to waste and destroy thegood and beautiful things this nature has lavished upon him".[69]

Although the idea of protecting a portion of the Everglades arose in1905, a crystallized effort was formed in 1928 when Miami landscape designer Ernest F. Coe established theEverglades Tropical National Park Association. It had enough support to be declared a national park by Congress in1934, but there was not enough money during the Great Depression to buy the proposed 2000000 acres (8100 km2)for the park. It took another 13 years for it to be dedicated on December 6, 1947. [70] One month before thededication of the park, the former editor of The Miami Herald and freelance writer Marjory Stoneman Douglaspublished her first book, The Everglades: River of Grass. After researching the region for five years, she describedthe history and ecology of the south of Florida in great detail, characterizing the Everglades as a river instead of astagnant swamp.[15] Douglas later wrote, "My colleague Art Marshall said that with [the words "River of Grass"] Ichanged everybody's knowledge and educated the world as to what the Everglades meant".[71] The last chapter wastitled "The Eleventh Hour" and warned that the Everglades were approaching death, although the course could bereversed.[72] Its first printing sold out a month after its release.[15]

Flood controlCoinciding with the dedication of Everglades National Park, 1947 in south Florida saw two hurricanes and a wetseason responsible for 100 inches (250 cm) of rain, ending the decade-long drought. Although there were no humancasualties, cattle and deer were drowned and standing water was left in suburban areas for months. Agriculturalinterests lost about $59 million. The embattled head of the Everglades Drainage District carried a gun for protectionafter being threatened.[73]

Central and Southern Florida Flood Control ProjectIn 1948 Congress approved the Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other Purposes (C&SF)and consolidated the Everglades Drainage District and the Okeechobee Flood Control District under this.[74] TheC&SF used four methods in flood management: levees, water storage areas, canal improvements, and large pumps toassist gravity. Between 1952 and 1954 it built a levee 100 miles (160 km) long between the eastern Everglades andsuburbs from Palm Beach to Homestead, and blocked the flow of water into populated areas. Between 1954 and1963 it divided the Everglades into basins. In the northern Everglades were Water Conservation Areas (WCAs), andthe Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA) bordering to the south of Lake Okeechobee. In the southern Everglades wasEverglades National Park. Levees and pumping stations bordered each WCA, which released water in drier timesand removed it and pumped it to the ocean or Gulf of Mexico in times of flood. The WCAs took up about 37 percentof the original Everglades.[75]

During the 1950s and 1960s the South Florida metropolitan area grew four times as fast as the rest of the nation. Between 1940 and 1965, 6 million people moved to south Florida: 1,000 people moved to Miami every week.[76]

Draining and development of the Everglades 52

Urban development between the mid-1950s and the late 1960s quadrupled. Much of the water reclaimed from theEverglades was sent to newly developed areas.[77] With metropolitan growth came urban problems associated withrapid expansion: traffic jams; school overcrowding; crime; overloaded sewage treatment plants; and, for the firsttime in south Florida's urban history, water shortages in times of drought.[78]

The C&SF constructed over 1000 miles (1600 km) of canals, and hundreds of pumping stations and levees withinthree decades. It produced a film, Waters of Destiny, characterized by author Michael Grunwald as propaganda, thatlikened nature to a villainous, shrieking force of rage and declared the C&SF's mission was to tame nature and makethe Everglades useful.[79] Everglades National Park management and Marjory Stoneman Douglas initially supportedthe C&SF, as it promised to maintain the Everglades and manage the water responsibly. However, an early report bythe project reflected local attitudes about the Everglades as a priority to people in nearby developed areas: "Theaesthetic appeal of the Park can never be as strong as the demands of home and livelihood. The manatee and theorchid mean something to people in an abstract way, but the former cannot line their purse, nor the latter fill theirempty bellies."[80]

Establishment of the C&SF made Everglades National Park completely dependent upon another political entity forits survival.[81] One of the C&SF's projects was Levee 29, laid along the Tamiami Trail on the northern border of thepark. Levee 29 featured four flood control gates that controlled all the water entering Everglades National Park;before construction, water flowed in through open drain pipes. The period from 1962 to 1965 was one of drought forthe Everglades, and Levee 29 remained closed to allow the Biscayne Aquifer—the fresh water source for SouthFlorida—to stay filled.[82] Animals began to cross Tamiami Trail for the water held in WCA 3, and many were killedby cars. Biologists estimate the population of alligators in Everglades National Park was halved; otters nearlybecame extinct.[77] The populations of wading birds had been reduced by 90 percent from the 1940s.[83] When parkmanagement and the U.S. Department of the Interior asked the C&SF for assistance, the C&SF offered to build alevee along the southern border of Everglades National Park to retain waters that historically flowed through themangroves and into Florida Bay. Though the C&SF refused to send the park more water, they constructed Canal 67,bordering the east side of the park and carrying excess water from Lake Okeechobee to the Atlantic.[77]

Everglades Agricultural Area

A 2003 U.S. Geological Survey photo showingthe border between Water Conservation Area 3(bottom) with water, and Everglades National

Park, dry (top)

The C&SF established 470000 acres (1900 km2) for the EvergladesAgricultural Area—27 percent of the Everglades beforedevelopment.[84] In the late 1920s, agricultural experiments indicatedthat adding large amounts of manganese sulfate to Everglades muckproduced profitable vegetable harvests. Adding 100 pounds (45 kg) ofthe compound was more cost effective than adding 1 short ton (0.91 t)of manure.[85] The primary cash crop in the EAA is sugarcane, thoughsod, beans, lettuce, celery, and rice are also grown. Sugarcane becamemore consolidated an industry than did any other crop; in 1940 thecoalition of farms was renamed U.S. Sugar and this produced86 percent of Everglades sugar.[86] During the 1930s the sugarcanefarmers' coalition came under investigation for labor practices thatbordered on slavery. Potential employees—primarily young black men—were lured from all over the U.S. by thepromise of jobs, but they were held financially responsible for training, transportation, room and board and othercosts. Quitting while debts were owed was punishable with jail time. By 1942, U.S. Sugar was indicted for peonagein federal court, though the charges were eventually dismissed on a technicality. U.S. Sugar benefited significantlyfrom the U.S. embargo on Cuban goods beginning in the early 1960s.[87] In 1958, before the Castro regime, 47000

acres (190 km2) of sugarcane were harvested in Florida; by the 1964–1965 season, 228000 acres (920 km2) were harvested. From 1959 to 1962 the region went from two sugar mills to six, one of which in Belle Glade set several

Draining and development of the Everglades 53

world records for sugar production.[88]

Fields in the EAA are typically 40 acres (16 ha), on two sides bordered by canals that are connected to larger ones bywhich water is pumped in or out depending on the needs of the crops. The water level for sugarcane is ideallymaintained at 20 inches (51 cm) below the surface soil, and after the cane is harvested, the stalks are burned.[89]

Vegetables require more fertilizer than sugarcane, though the fields may resemble the historic hydrology of theEverglades by being flooded in the wet season. Sugarcane, however, requires water in the dry season. The fertilizersused on vegetables, along with high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus that are the by-product of decayedsoil necessary for sugarcane production, were pumped into WCAs south of the EAA, predominantly to EvergladesNational Park. The introduction of large amounts of these let exotic plants take hold in the Everglades.[90] One of thedefining characteristics of natural Everglades ecology is its ability to support itself in a nutrient-poor environment,and the introduction of fertilizers began to change this ecology.[91]

Turning pointA turning point for development in the Everglades came in 1969 when a replacement airport was proposed as MiamiInternational Airport outgrew its capacities. Developers began acquiring land, paying $180 an acre in 1968, and theDade County Port Authority (DCPA) bought 39 square miles (100 km2) in the Big Cypress Swamp withoutconsulting the C&SF, management of Everglades National Park or the Department of the Interior. Park managementlearned of the official purchase and agreement to build the jetport from The Miami Herald the day it wasannounced.[81] The DCPA bulldozed the land it had bought, and laid a single runway it declared was for trainingpilots. The new jetport was planned to be larger than O'Hare, Dulles, JFK, and LAX airports combined; the locationchosen was 6 miles (9.7 km) north of the Everglades National Park, within WCA 3. The deputy director of theDCPA declared: "This is going to be one of the great population centers of America. We will do our best to meet ourresponsibilities and the responsibilities of all men to exercise dominion over the land, sea, and air above us as thehigher order of man intends."[92]

The C&SF brought the jetport proposal to national attention by mailing letters about it to 100 conservation groups inthe U.S.[81] Initial local press reaction condemned conservation groups who immediately opposed the project.Business Week reported real estate prices jumped from $200 to $800 an acre surrounding the planned location, andLife wrote of the expectations of the commercial interests in the area.[81] The U.S. Geological Survey's study of theenvironmental impact of the jetport started, "Development of the proposed jetport and its attendant facilities ... willinexorably destroy the south Florida ecosystem and thus the Everglades National Park".[93] The jetport was intendedto support a community of a million people and employ 60,000. The DCPA director was reported in Time saying,"I'm more interested in people than alligators. This is the ideal place as far as aviation is concerned."[94]

When studies indicated the proposed jetport would create 4000000 US gallons ( L) of raw sewage a day and 10000 short tons (9100 t) of jet engine pollutants a year, the national media snapped to attention. Science magazine wrote, in a series on environmental protection highlighting the jetport project, "Environmental scientists have become increasingly aware that, without careful planning, development of a region and the conservation of its natural resources do not go hand in hand".[95] The New York Times called it a "blueprint for disaster",[96] and Wisconsin senator Gaylord Nelson wrote to President Richard Nixon voicing his opposition: "It is a test of whether or not we are really committed in this country to protecting our environment."[94] Governor Claude Kirk withdrew his support for the project, and the 78-year-old Marjory Stoneman Douglas was persuaded to go on tour to give hundreds of speeches against it. She established Friends of the Everglades and encouraged more than 3,000 members to join. Initially the U.S. Department of Transportation pledged funds to support the jetport, but after pressure, Nixon overruled the department. He instead established Big Cypress National Preserve, announcing it in the Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program.[97] Following the jetport proposition, restoration of the Everglades became not only a statewide priority, but an international one as well. In the 1970s the Everglades were declared an International Biosphere Reserve and a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, and a

Draining and development of the Everglades 54

Wetland of International Importance by the Ramsar Convention,[98] [99] making it one of only three locations onearth that have appeared on all three lists.[100]

Notes and references[1] Meindl, Christopher, et al. (December, 2002). "On the Importance of Claims-Making: The Role of James O. Wright in Promoting the

Drainage of Florida's Everglades in the Early Twentieth Century", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 92 (4), p. 682–701.[2] Douglas, p. 245.[3] Dovell, J. E. (July 1947). "The Everglades Before Reclamation", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 26 (1), p. 1–44.[4] Grunwald, p. 31–32.[5] White, Frank (October, 1959). "The Journals of Lieutenant John Pickell, 1836–1837", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 38 (2), p. 143–172.[6] Lodge, p. 110[7] Tebeau, p. 66–67.[8] Grunwald, p. 42.[9] Tebeau, p. 71.[10] Tebeau, p. 75–76.[11] McCally, p. 65–69.[12] Stephan, L. Lamar (December, 1942). "Geographic Role of the Everglades in the Early History of Florida", The Scientific Monthly, 55, (6)

p. 515–526.[13] Douglas, p. 253.[14] Dovell, Junius (July 1948). "The Everglades: A Florida Frontier", Agricultural History, 22 (3), p. 187–197.[15] Davis, T. Frederick (January, 1939). "The Disston Land Purchase ", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 17 (3), p. 201–211.[16] Barnett, p. 17.[17] Grunwald, p. 92–93.[18] Grunwald, p. 90.[19] Douglas, p. 286.[20] Douglas, p. 284.[21] Patterson, Gordon (Summer, 1997). "Ditches and Dreams: Nelson Fell and the Rise of Fellsmere", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 76 (1),

p. 1–20.[22] Barnett, p. 18.[23] "Henry Flagler." Encyclopedia of World Biography Supplement, Vol. 21. Gale Group, 2001.[24] "Henry Morrison Flagler." Dictionary of American Biography Base Set. American Council of Learned Societies, 1928–1936.[25] Bramson, Seth (1998). "A Tale of Three Henrys", The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts, 23, Florida Theme Issue, p. 113–143.[26] Bush, Gregory (May, 1999). "Playground of the USA", The Pacific Historical Review, 62 (2), p. 153–172.[27] Douglas, p. 309.[28] Douglas, p. 312.[29] Carter, p. 78.[30] McCally, p. 93–94.[31] McCally, p. 96.[32] McCally, p. 101.[33] Grunwald, p. 144.[34] McCally, p. 101–12.[35] Grunwald, p. 148–149.[36] Grunwald, p. 153.[37] McCally, p. 107–108.[38] McCally, p. 124–126.[39] Douglas, p. 318.[40] Douglas, p. 325.[41] Grunwald, p. 119–120.[42] McCally, p. 117.[43] Grunwald, p. 120.[44] Douglas, p. 310.[45] Grunwald, p. 126.[46] McCally, p.117–118.[47] Douglas, p. 310–311.[48] Douglas, p. 330.[49] Douglas, p. 334.[50] Grunwald, p. 179.

Draining and development of the Everglades 55

[51] U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. " South Florida Multi-Species Recovery Plan: Pine rockland (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ southeast/ vbpdfs/commun/ pr. pdf)", Retrieved May 3, 2008.

[52] Grunwald, p. 183.[53] Grunwald, p. 186.[54] Steinberg, Theodore (October, 1997). "Do-It-Yourself Deathscape: The Unnatural History of Natural Disaster in South Florida",

Environmental History, 2 (4), p. 414–438.[55] Melzer, Martin (September 17, 2006). "On the 80th Anniversary of Disastrous 1926 Hurricane, Forecasters Sound the Alarm: It Will

Happen Again", The Miami Herald.[56] Grunwald, p. 188.[57] McCally, p. 134.[58] McCally, p. 140.[59] Douglas, p. 342.[60] Douglas, p. 344.[61] Brochu, Nicole Sterghos (2003). "Florida's Forgotten Storm: the Hurricane of 1928" (http:/ / www. sun-sentinel. com/ news/ weather/

hurricane/ sfl-ahurricane14sep14,0,574121. story?page=2). South Florida Sun-Sentinel. . Retrieved 2008-04-06.[62] Douglas, p. 346.[63] Grunwald, p. 194.[64] Grunwald, p. 198–199.[65] Grunwald, p. 199–200.[66] McCally, p. 9.[67] McCally, p. 142.[68] Lodge, p. 38.[69] La Plante, Leah (1995), "The Sage of Biscayne Bay: Charles Torrey Simpson's Love Affair with South Florida", Tequesta, no. 55, p. 61–82.[70] "Conservation efforts" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ historyculture/ consefforts. htm). Everglades National Park. National Park Service.

September 17, 2007. . Retrieved 2008-05-10.[71] Douglas (1987), p. 191.[72] Douglas, p. 349.[73] Grunwald, p. 219.[74] Light, Stephen, J. Walter Dineen, "Water Control in the Everglades: A Historical Perspective" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its

Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), Delray Beach, Fla.: St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8[75] Lodge, p. 224.[76] Grunwald, p. 229.[77] Caulfield, p. 55.[78] Carter, Luther (June 4, 1976). "Dade County: The Politics of Managing Urban Growth", Science, 192 (4243), p. 982–985.[79] Grunwald, p. 220–221.[80] Grunwald, p. 226.[81] Gimour, Robert, et al. (Winter 1975–1976). "Environmental Preservation and Politics: The Significance of 'Everglades Jetport'", Political

Science Quarterly, 90 (4), p. 719–738.[82] Caulfield, p. 53–54.[83] Sklar, Fred, et al. (April, 2005). "The Ecological-Societal Underpinnings of Everglades Restoration", Frontiers in Ecology and the

Environment, 3 (2), p. 161–169.[84] Lodge, p. 223.[85] McCally, p. 159–160.[86] McCally, p. 161.[87] Carter, p. 161.[88] Snyder G.H., J. Davidson, "Everglades Agriculture: Past, Present and Future" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven

Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), Delray Beach, Fla.: St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8[89] Lodge, p. 225–226.[90] McCally, p. 172–173.[91] Grunwald, p. 283–284.[92] Caulfield, p. 61.[93] Grunwald, p.257.[94] "Jets v. Everglades" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,898538-2,00. html). Time. August 22, 1969. . Retrieved

2008-05-10.[95] Mueller, Marti (October 10, 1969). "Everglades Jetport: Academy Prepares a Model", Science, New Series, 166 (3902), p. 202–203.[96] Brooks, Paul (July 12, 1969). "Topics: Everglades Jetport — A Blueprint for Disaster". The New York Times. p. 26.[97] Nixon, Richard (February 8, 1972). "51 - Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program" (http:/ / www.

presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=3731). The American Presidency Project. . Retrieved 2008-05-10.

Draining and development of the Everglades 56

[98] "Everglades National Park, Florida, United States of America" (http:/ / www. unep-wcmc. org/ sites/ wh/ pdf/ Everglades. pdf). UnitedNations Environment Program. March 2003. . Retrieved 2009-08-15.

[99] "Park Statistics" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ parknews/ parkstatistics. htm). Everglades National Park. National Park Service. July 24,2006. . Retrieved 2008-05-21.

[100] Maltby, E., P.J. Dugan, "Wetland Ecosystem Management, and Restoration: An International Perspective" in Everglades: The Ecosystemand its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), Delray Beach, Fla.: St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8

Bibliography• Barnett, Cynthia (2007). Mirage: Florida and the Vanishing Water of the Eastern U.S.. Ann Arbor: University of

Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11563-4• Carter, W. Hodding (2004). Stolen Water: Saving the Everglades from its Friends, Foes, and Florida. Atria

Books. ISBN 0-7434-7407-4• Caulfield, Patricia (1970) Everglades. New York: Sierra Club / Ballantine Books.• Douglas, Marjory (1947). The Everglades: River of Grass. R. Bemis Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-912451-44-0• Douglas, Marjory; Rothchild, John (1987). Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Voice of the River. Pineapple Press.

ISBN 0910923941• Grunwald, Michael (2006). The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise. New York: Simon

& Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-5107-5• Lodge, Thomas E. (1994). The Everglades Handbook: Understanding the Ecosystem. CRC Press. ISBN

1-56670-614-9• McCally, David (1999). The Everglades: An Environmental History. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.

Available as an etext (http:/ / www. netlibrary. com/ urlapi. asp?action=summary& v=1& bookid=54796);Boulder, Colo.: NetLibrary, 2001. ISBN 0-8130-2302-5

• Tebeau, Charlton (1968). Man in the Everglades: 2000 Years of Human History in the Everglades National Park.Coral Gables: University of Miami Press.

External links• U.S. Geological Survey information on the Everglades Agricultural Area (http:/ / sflwww. er. usgs. gov/

virtual_tour/ controlling/ index. html)

Restoration of the Everglades 57

Restoration of the Everglades

A portion of the C-38 canal, finished in 1971, now backfilled to restore theKissimmee River floodplain to a more natural state

The restoration of the Everglades is anongoing effort to remedy damage inflictedon the environment of southern Floridaduring the 20th century. It is the mostexpensive and comprehensiveenvironmental repair attempt in history.[1] [2]

The degradation of the Everglades becamean issue in the United States in the early1970s after a proposal to construct a jetportin the Big Cypress Swamp. Studiesindicated the airport would have destroyedthe ecosystem in South Florida andEverglades National Park.[3] After decadesof destructive practices, both state andfederal agencies are looking for ways tobalance the needs of the natural environmentin South Florida with urban and agriculturalcenters that have recently and rapidly grown in and near the Everglades.

In response to floods caused by hurricanes in 1947, the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project (C&SF)was established to construct flood control devices in the Everglades. The C&SF built 1400 miles (2300 km) of canalsand levees between the 1950s and 1971 throughout South Florida. Their last venture was the C-38 canal, whichstraightened the Kissimmee River and caused catastrophic damage to animal habitats, adversely affecting waterquality in the region. The canal became the first C&SF project to be reverted when the 22-mile (35 km) canal beganto be backfilled, or refilled with the material excavated from it, in the 1980s. The restoration of the Kissimmee Riveris projected to continue until 2011.

When high levels of phosphorus and mercury were discovered in the waterways in 1986, water quality became afocus for water management agencies. Costly and lengthy court battles were waged between various governmententities to determine who was responsible for monitoring and enforcing water quality standards. Governor LawtonChiles proposed a bill that determined which agencies would have that responsibility, and set deadlines for pollutantlevels to decrease in water. Initially the bill was criticized by conservation groups for not being strict enough onpolluters, but the Everglades Forever Act was passed in 1994. Since then, the South Florida Water ManagementDistrict (SFWMD) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers have surpassed expectations for achieving lowerphosphorus levels.A commission appointed by Governor Chiles published a report in 1995 stating that South Florida was unable tosustain its growth, and the deterioration of the environment was negatively affecting daily life for residents in SouthFlorida. The environmental decline was predicted to harm tourism and commercial interests if no actions were takento halt current trends. Results of an eight-year study that evaluated the C&SF were submitted to the United StatesCongress in 1999. The report warned that if no action was taken the region would rapidly deteriorate. A strategycalled the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) was enacted to restore portions of the Everglades,Lake Okeechobee, the Caloosahatchee River, and Florida Bay to undo the damage of the past 50 years. It would take30 years and cost $7.8 billion to complete. Though the plan was passed into law in 2000, it has been compromisedby politics and funding problems.

Restoration of the Everglades 58

Background

Compartments established by C&SF projects that separated thehistoric Everglades into Water Conservation Areas and the

Everglades Agricultural Area. Twenty-five percent of the originalEverglades are preserved in Everglades National Park.

The Everglades are part of a very large watershed thatbegins in the vicinity of Orlando. The Kissimmee Riverdrains into Lake Okeechobee, a 730-square-mile(1900 km2) lake with an average depth of 9 feet(2.7 m). During the wet season when the lake exceedsits capacity, the water leaves the lake in a very wideand shallow river, approximately 100 miles (160 km)long and 60 miles (97 km) wide.[4] This wide andshallow flow is known as sheetflow. The land graduallyslopes toward Florida Bay, the historical destination ofmost of the water leaving the Everglades. Beforedrainage attempts, the Everglades comprised 4000square miles (10000 km2), taking up a third of theFlorida peninsula.[5]

Since the early 19th century the Everglades have been asubject of interest for agricultural development. Thefirst attempt to drain the Everglades occurred in 1882when a Pennsylvania land developer named HamiltonDisston constructed the first canals. Though theseattempts were largely unsuccessful, Disston's purchaseof land spurred tourism and real estate development ofthe state. The political motivations of GovernorNapoleon Bonaparte Broward resulted in more successful attempts at canal construction between 1906 and 1920.Recently reclaimed wetlands were used for cultivating sugarcane and vegetables, while urban development began inthe Everglades.[6]

The 1926 Miami Hurricane and the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane caused widespread devastation and flooding whichprompted the Army Corps of Engineers to construct a dike around Lake Okeechobee. The four-story wall cut offwater from the Everglades. Floods from hurricanes in 1947 motivated the U.S. Congress to establish the Central andSouthern Florida Flood Control Project (C&SF), responsible for constructing 1400 miles (2300 km) of canals andlevees, hundreds of pumping stations and other water control devices. The C&SF established Water ConservationAreas (WCAs) in 37% of the original Everglades, which acted as reservoirs providing excess water to the SouthFlorida metropolitan area, or flushing it into the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico.[7] The C&SF also establishedthe Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA), which grows the majority of sugarcane crops in the United States. Whenthe EAA was first established, it encompassed approximately 27% of the original Everglades.

By the 1960s, urban development and agricultural use had decreased the size of the Everglades considerably. Theremaining 25% of the Everglades in its original state is protected in Everglades National Park, but the park wasestablished before the C&SF, and it depended upon the actions of the C&SF to release water. As Miami and othermetropolitan areas began to intrude on the Everglades in the 1960s, political battles took place between parkmanagement and the C&SF when insufficient water in the park threw ecosystems into chaos. Fertilizers used in theEAA began to alter soil and hydrology in Everglades National Park, causing the proliferation of exotic plantspecies.[8] However, a proposition to build a massive jetport in the Big Cypress Swamp in 1969 focused attention onthe degraded natural systems in the Everglades. For the first time, the Everglades became a subject of environmentalconservation.[9]

Restoration of the Everglades 59

Everglades as a priorityEnvironmental protection became a national priority in the 1970s. Time magazine declared it the Issue of the Year inJanuary 1971, reporting that it was rated as Americans' "most serious problem confronting their community—wellahead of crime, drugs and poor schools".[10] When South Florida experienced a severe drought from 1970 to 1975,with Miami receiving only 33 inches (840 mm) of rain in 1971—22 inches (560 mm) less than average.[11] mediaattention focused on the Everglades. With the assistance of governor's aide Nathaniel Reed and U.S. Fish andWildlife Service biologist Arthur R. Marshall, politicians began to take action. Governor Reubin Askewimplemented the Land Conservation Act in 1972, allowing the state to use voter-approved bonds of $240 million topurchase land considered to be environmentally unique and irreplaceable.[12] Since then, Florida has purchased moreland for public use than any other state.[13] In 1972 President Richard Nixon declared the Big Cypress Swamp—theintended location for the Miami jetport in 1969—to be federally protected.[14] Big Cypress National Preserve wasestablished in 1974,[15] and Fakahatchee Strand State Preserve was created the same year.[12]

In 1976, Everglades National Park was declared an International Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO,[16] which alsolisted the park as a World Heritage Site in 1979. The Ramsar Convention designated the Everglades a Wetland ofInternational Importance in 1987.[17] Only three locations on earth which have appeared on all three lists: EvergladesNational Park, Lake Ichkeul in Tunisia, and Srebarna Lake in Bulgaria.[18]

Kissimmee RiverIn the 1960s, the C&SF came under increased scrutiny from government overseers and conservation groups. Criticsmaintained its size was comparable to the Tennessee Valley Authority's dam-building projects during the GreatDepression, and that the construction had run into the billions of dollars without any apparent resolution or plan.[19]

The projects of the C&SF have been characterized as part of "crisis and response" cycles that "ignored theconsequence for the full system, assumed certainty of the future, and succeeded in solving the momentary crisis, butset in motion conditions that exaggerate future crises".[20] The last project, to build a canal to straighten the windingfloodplain of the Kissimmee River that had historically fed Lake Okeechobee which in turn fed the Everglades,began in 1962. Marjory Stoneman Douglas later wrote that the C&SF projects were "interrelated stupidity", crownedby the C-38 canal.[21] Designed to replace a meandering 90-mile (140 km) river with a 52-mile (84 km) channel, thecanal was completed in 1971 and cost $29 million. It supplanted approximately 45000 acres (180 km2) of marshlandwith retention ponds, dams, and vegetation.[22] Loss of habitat has caused the region to experience a drastic decreaseof waterfowl, wading birds, and game fish.[23] The reclaimed floodplains were taken over by agriculture, bringingfertilizers and insecticides that washed into Lake Okeechobee. Even before the canal was finished, conservationorganizations and sport fishing and hunting groups were calling for the restoration of the Kissimmee River.[22]

Structure 65B on the Kissimmee River isdestroyed by the Army Corps of Engineers in2000 to restore the natural flow of the river.

Arthur R. Marshall led the efforts to undo the damage. According toDouglas, Marshall was successful in portraying the Everglades fromthe Kissimmee Chain of Lakes to Florida Bay—including theatmosphere, climate, and limestone—as a single organism. Rather thanremaining the preserve of conservation organizations, the cause ofrestoring the Everglades became a priority for politicians. Douglasobserved, "Marshall accomplished the extraordinary magic of takingthe Everglades out of the bleeding-hearts category forever".[24] At theinsistent urging of Marshall, newly elected Governor Bob Grahamannounced the formation of the "Save Our Everglades" campaign in1983, and in 1985 Graham lifted the first shovel of backfill for aportion of the C-38 canal.[25] Within a year the area was covered with

Restoration of the Everglades 60

water returning to its original state.[26] Graham declared that by the year 2000, the Everglades would resemble itspredrainage state as much as possible.[25] In 1992, the Kissimmee River Restoration Project was approved byCongress in the Water Resources Development Act. The project was estimated to cost $578 million to convert only22 miles (35 km) of the canal; the cost was designed to be divided between the state of Florida and the U.S.government, with the state being responsible for purchasing land to be restored.[27] A project manager for the ArmyCorps of Engineers explained in 2002, "What we're doing on this scale is going to be taken to a larger scale when wedo the restoration of the Everglades".[28] The entire project is estimated to be completed by 2011.[27]

Water quality

Cattails indicate the presence ofphosphorus in the water. Cattails arean invasive species; they crowd out

sawgrass and grow too thick for birdsor alligators to nest in.

Attention to water quality was focused in South Florida in 1986 when awidespread algal bloom occurred in one-fifth of Lake Okeechobee. The bloomwas discovered to be the result of fertilizers from the Everglades AgriculturalArea.[29] Although laws stated in 1979 that the chemicals used in the EAAshould not be deposited into the lake, they were flushed into the canals that fedthe Everglades Water Conservation Areas, and eventually pumped into thelake.[11] Microbiologists discovered that, although phosphorus assists plantgrowth, it destroys periphyton, one of the basic building blocks of marl in theEverglades. Marl is one of two types of Everglades soil, along with peat; it isfound where parts of the Everglades are flooded for shorter periods of time aslayers of periphyton dry.[30] Most of the phosphorus compounds also rid peat ofdissolved oxygen and promote algae growth, causing native invertebrates to die,and sawgrass to be replaced with invasive cattails that grow too tall and thick forbirds and alligators to nest in.[31] Tested water showed 500 parts per billion (ppb)of phosphorus near sugarcane fields. State legislation in 1987 mandated a 40%reduction of phosphorus by 1992.

Attempts to correct phosphorus levels in the Everglades met with resistance. The sugarcane industry, dominated bytwo companies named U.S. Sugar and Flo-Sun, was responsible for more than half of the crop in the EAA. Theywere well-represented in state and federal governments by lobbyists who enthusiastically protected their interests.According to the Audubon Society, the sugar industry, nicknamed "Big Sugar", donated more money to politicalparties and candidates than General Motors.[32] The sugar industry attempted to block government-funded studies ofpolluted water, and when the federal prosecutor in Miami faulted the sugar industry in legal action to protectEverglades National Park, Big Sugar tried to get the lawsuit withdrawn and the prosecutor fired.[33] A costly legalbattle ensued from 1988 to 1992 between the State of Florida, the U.S. government, and the sugar industry to resolvewho was responsible for water quality standards, the maintenance of Everglades National Park and the Arthur R.Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge.[11]

A different concern about water quality arose when mercury was discovered in fish during the 1980s. Because mercury is damaging to humans, warnings were posted for fishermen that cautioned against eating fish caught in South Florida, and scientists became alarmed when a Florida panther was found dead near Shark River Slough with mercury levels high enough to be fatal to humans.[34] When mercury is ingested it adversely affects the central nervous system, and can cause brain damage and birth defects.[35] Studies of mercury levels found that it is bioaccumulated through the food chain: animals that are lower on the chain have decreased amounts, but as larger animals eat them, the amount of mercury is multiplied. The dead panther's diet consisted of small animals, including raccoons and young alligators. The source of the mercury was found to be waste incinerators and fossil fuel power plants that expelled the element in the atmosphere, which precipitated with rain, or in the dry season, dust.[34]

Naturally occurring bacteria in the Everglades that function to reduce sulfur also transform mercury deposits into

Restoration of the Everglades 61

methylmercury. This process was more dramatic in areas where flooding was not as prevalent. Because ofrequirements that reduced power plant and incinerator emissions, the levels of mercury found in larger animalsdecreased as well: approximately a 60% decrease in fish and a 70% decrease in birds, though some levels stillremain a health concern for people.[34]

Everglades Forever Act

Aerial view of stormwater treatment areas in thenorthern Everglades bordered by sugarcane fields

on the right

In an attempt to resolve the political quagmire over water quality,Governor Lawton Chiles introduced a bill in 1994 to clean up waterwithin the EAA that was being released to the lower Everglades. Thebill stated that the "Everglades ecosystem must be restored both interms of water quality and water quantity and must be preserved andprotected in a manner that is long term and comprehensive".[36] Itensured the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP)and the South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) would beresponsible for researching water quality, enforcing water supplyimprovement, controlling exotic species, and collecting taxes, with theaim of decreasing the levels of phosphorus in the region. It allowed forpurchase of land where pollutants would be sent to "treat and improvethe quality of waters coming from the EAA".[37]

Critics of the bill argued that the deadline for meeting the standards was unnecessarily delayed until 2006—a periodof 12 years—to enforce better water quality. They also maintained that it did not force sugarcane farmers, who werethe primary polluters, to pay enough of the costs, and increased the threshold of what was an acceptable amount ofphosphorus in water from 10 ppb to 50 ppb.[38] Governor Chiles initially named it the Marjory Stoneman DouglasAct, but Douglas was so unimpressed with the action it took against polluters that she wrote to Chiles and demandedher name be stricken from it.[38] Despite criticism, the Florida legislature passed the Act in 1994. The SFWMDstated that its actions have exceeded expectations earlier than anticipated,[39] by creating Stormwater TreatmentAreas (STA) within the EAA that contain a calcium-based substance such as lime rock layered between peat, andfilled with calcareous periphyton. Early tests by the Army Corps of Engineers revealed this method reducedphosphorus levels from 80 ppb to 10 ppb.[40] The STAs are intended to treat water until the phosphorus levels arelow enough to be released into the Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge or other WCAs.

Wildlife concernsThe intrusion of urban areas into wilderness has had a substantial impact on wildlife, and several species of animalsare considered endangered in the Everglades region. One animal that has benefited from endangered speciesprotection is the American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), whose holes give refuge to other animals, oftenallowing many species to survive during times of drought. Once abundant in the Everglades, the alligator was listedas an endangered species in 1967, but a combined effort by federal and state organizations and the banning ofalligator hunting allowed it to rebound; it was pronounced fully recovered in 1987 and is no longer an endangeredspecies.[41] However, alligators' territories and average body masses have been found to be generally smaller than inthe past, and because populations have been reduced, their role during droughts has become limited.[42]

The American Crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) is also native to the region and has been designated as endangeredsince 1975. Unlike their relatives the alligators, crocodiles tend to thrive in brackish or salt-water habitats such asestuarine or marine coasts. Their most significant threat is disturbance by people. Too much contact with humanscauses females to abandon their nests, and males in particular are often victims of vehicle collisions while roamingover large territories and attempting to cross U.S. 1 and Card Sound Road in the Florida Keys. There are anestimated 500 to 1,000 crocodiles in southern Florida.[43]

Restoration of the Everglades 62

Roseate spoonbills, along with other wadingbirds, have decreased by 90% since the 1930s and

1940s.

The most critically endangered of any animal in the Everglades regionis the Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi), a species that once livedthroughout the southeastern United States: there were only 25–30 inthe wild in 1995. The panther is most threatened by urbanencroachment, because males require approximately 200 square miles(520 km2) for breeding territory. A male and two to five females maylive within that range. When habitat is lost, panthers will fight overterritory. After vehicle collisions, the second most frequent cause ofdeath for panthers is intra-species aggression.[44] In the 1990s urbanexpansion crowded panthers from southwestern Florida as Naples andFt. Myers began to expand into the western Everglades and BigCypress Swamp. Agencies such as the Army Corps of Engineers andthe U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service were responsible for maintainingthe Clean Water Act and the Endangered Species Act, yet still approved 99% of all permits to build in wetlands andpanther territory.[45] A limited genetic pool is also a danger. Biologists introduced eight female Texas cougars (Pumaconcolor) to diversify genes, and there are between 80 and 100 panthers in the wild as of 2008.[44]

Perhaps the most dramatic loss of any group of animals has been to wading birds. Their numbers were estimated byeyewitness accounts to be approximately 2.5 million in the late 19th century. However, snowy egrets (Egretta thula),roseate spoonbills (Platalea ajaja), and reddish egrets (Egretta rufescens) were hunted to the brink of extinction forthe colorful feathers used in women's hats. After about 1920 when the fashion passed, their numbers returned in the1930s, but over the next 50 years actions by the C&SF further disturbed populations. When the canals wereconstructed, natural water flow was restricted from the mangrove forests near the coast of Florida Bay. From one wetseason to the next, fish were unable to reach traditional locations to repopulate when water was withheld by theC&SF. Birds were forced to fly farther from their nests to forage for food. By the 1970s, bird numbers had decreased90%. Many of the birds moved to smaller colonies in the WCAs to be closer to a food source, making them moredifficult to count. Yet they remain significantly fewer in number than before the canals were constructed.[46] [47]

Invasive speciesAround 6 million people moved to South Florida between 1940 and 1965. With a thousand people moving to Miamieach week, urban development quadrupled.[48] As the human population grew rapidly, the problem of exotic plantand animal species also grew. Many species of plants were brought in to South Florida from Asia, Central America,or Australia as decorative landscaping. Exotic animals imported by the pet trade have escaped or been released.Biological controls that keep invasive species smaller in size and fewer in number in their native lands often do notexist in the Everglades, and they compete with the embattled native species for food and space. Of imported plantspecies, melaleuca trees (Melaleuca quinquenervia) have caused the most problems. Melaleucas grow on average100 feet (30 m) in the Everglades, as opposed to 25 to 60 feet (7.6 to 18 m) in their native Australia. They werebrought to southern Florida as windbreaks and deliberately seeded in marsh areas because they absorb vast amountsof water. In a region that is regularly shaped by fire, melaleucas are fire-resistant and their seeds are more efficientlyspread by fire. They are too dense for wading birds with large wingspans to nest in, and they choke out nativevegetation.[49] Costs of controlling melaleucas topped $2 million in 1998 for Everglades National Park. In BigCypress National Preserve, melaleucas covered 186 square miles (480 km2) at their most pervasive in the 1990s.[50]

Restoration of the Everglades 63

Climbing ferns overtake cypresstrees in the Everglades. The ferns act

as "fire ladders" that can destroytrees that would otherwise survive

fires.

Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius) was brought to Southern Florida as anornamental shrub and was dispersed by the droppings of birds and other animalsthat ate its bright red berries. It thrives on abandoned agricultural land growing inforests too dense for wading birds to nest in, similar to melaleucas. It growsrapidly especially after hurricanes and has invaded pineland forests. FollowingHurricane Andrew, scientists and volunteers cleared damaged pinelands ofBrazilian pepper so the native trees would be able to return to their naturalstate.[51]

The species that is causing the most impediment to restoration is the Old Worldclimbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum), introduced in 1965. The fern growsrapidly and thickly on the ground, making passage for land animals such as blackbears and panthers problematic. The ferns also grow as vines into taller portionsof trees, and fires climb the ferns in "fire ladders" to scorch portions of the treesthat are not naturally resistant to fire.[52]

Several animal species have been introduced to Everglades waterways. Manytropical fish are released, the most detrimental being the blue tilapia(Oreochromis aureus), which builds large nests in shallow waters. Tilapia alsoconsume vegetation which would normally be used by young native fishes for

cover and protection.[53]

Reptiles have a particular affinity for the South Florida ecosystem. Virtually all lizards appearing in the Evergladeshave been introduced, such as the brown anole (Anolis sagrei) and the tropical house gecko (Hemidactylusmabouia). The herbivorous green iguana (Iguana iguana) can reproduce rapidly in wilderness habitats. However, thereptile that has earned media attention for its size and potential to harm children and domestic pets is the Burmesepython (Python molurus bivittatus), which has spread quickly throughout the area. The python can grow up to 20 feet(6.1 m) long and competes with alligators for the top of the food chain.[54]

Though exotic birds such as parrots and parakeets are also found in the Everglades, their impact is negligible.Conversely, perhaps the animal that causes the most damage to native wildlife is the domestic or feral cat. Across theU.S., cats are responsible for approximately a billion bird deaths annually. They are estimated to number 640 persquare mile; cats living in suburban areas have devastating effects on migratory birds and marsh rabbits.[55]

Homestead Air Force BaseHurricane Andrew struck Miami in 1992, with catastrophic damage to Homestead Air Force Base in Homestead. A plan to rejuvenate the property in 1993 and convert it into a commercial airport was met with enthusiasm from local municipal and commercial entities hoping to recoup $480 million and 11,000 jobs lost in the local community by the destruction and subsequent closing of the base.[56] On March 31, 1994, the base was designated as an Air Reserve Base, functioning only part-time.[57] A cursory environmental study performed by the Air Force was deemed insufficient by local conservation groups, who threatened to sue in order to halt the acquisition when estimates of 650 flights a day were projected. Groups had previously been alarmed in 1990 by the inclusion of Homestead Air Force Base on a list of the U.S. Government's most polluted properties.[58] Their concerns also included noise, and the inevitable collisions with birds using the mangrove forests as rookeries. The air force base is located between Everglades National Park and Biscayne National Park, giving it the potential to cause harm to both. In 2000, Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt and the director of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency expressed their opposition to the project, despite other Clinton Administration agencies previously working to ensure the base would be turned over to local agencies quickly and smoothly as "a model of base disposal".[59] [60] Although attempts were made to make the base more environmentally friendly, in 2001 local commercial interests promoting the airport lost

Restoration of the Everglades 64

federal support.

Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan

Sustainable South FloridaDespite the successes of the Everglades Forever Act and the decreases in mercury levels, the focus intensified on theEverglades in the 1990s as quality of life in the South Florida metropolitan areas diminished. It was becoming clearthat urban populations were consuming increasingly unsustainable levels of natural resources. A report entitled "TheGovernor's Commission for a Sustainable South Florida", submitted to Lawton Chiles in 1995, identified theproblems the state and municipal governments were facing. The report remarked that the degradation of the naturalquality of the Everglades, Florida Bay, and other bodies of water in South Florida would cause a significant decreasein tourism (12,000 jobs and $200 million annually) and income from compromised commercial fishing (3,300 jobsand $52 million annually).[61] The report noted that past abuses and neglect of the environment had brought theregion to "a precipitous juncture" where the inhabitants of South Florida faced health hazards in polluted air andwater; furthermore, crowded and unsafe urban conditions hurt the reputation of the state. It noted that though thepopulation had increased by 90% over the previous two decades, registered vehicles had increased by 166%.[61] Onthe quality and availability of water, the report stated, "[The] frequent water shortages ... create the irony of a naturalsystem dying of thirst in a subtropical environment with over 53 inches of rain per year".[61]

Restoration of the Everglades, however, briefly became a bipartisan cause in national politics. A controversialpenny-a-pound (2 cent/kg) tax on sugar was proposed to fund some of the necessary changes to be made to helpdecrease phosphorus and make other improvements to water. State voters were asked to support the tax, andenvironmentalists paid $15 million to encourage the issue. Sugar lobbyists responded with $24 million in advertisingto discourage it and succeeded; it became the most expensive ballot issue in state history.[62] How restoration mightbe funded became a political battleground and seemed to stall without resolution. However, in the 1996 electionyear, Republican senator Bob Dole proposed that Congress give the State of Florida $200 million to acquire land forthe Everglades. Democratic Vice President Al Gore promised the federal government would purchase 100000 acres(400 km2) of land in the EAA to turn it over for restoration. Politicking reduced the number to 50000 acres(200 km2), but both Dole's and Gore's gestures were approved by Congress.[63]

Central and South Florida Project Restudy

Natural water drainage patterns prior to development in South Florida, circa 1900

As part of the Water ResourcesDevelopment Act of 1992, Congressauthorized an evaluation of the effectivenessof the Central and Southern Florida FloodControl Project. A report known as the"Restudy", written by the U.S. Army Corpsof Engineers and the South Florida WaterManagement District, was submitted toCongress in 1999. It cited indicators of harmto the system: a 50% reduction in theoriginal Everglades, diminished waterstorage, harmful timing of water release, an85 to 90% decrease in wading birdpopulations over the past 50 years, and the

Restoration of the Everglades 65

Current water drainage patterns in South Florida in 2005

Planned water recovery and storage implementation using CERP strategies

decline of output from commercial fisheries.Bodies of water including LakeOkeechobee, the Caloosahatchee River, St.Lucie estuary, Lake Worth Lagoon,Biscayne Bay, Florida Bay, and theEverglades reflected drastic water levelchanges, hypersalinity, and dramaticchanges in marine and freshwaterecosystems. The Restudy noted the overalldecline in water quality over the past50 years was caused by loss of wetlands thatact as filters for polluted water.[64] Itpredicted that without intervention the entireSouth Florida ecosystem would deteriorate.Canals took roughly 170 billion US gallons(640 Gl) of water to the Atlantic Ocean orGulf of Mexico daily, so there was noopportunity for water storage, yet floodingwas still a problem.[65] Without changes tothe current system, the Restudy predictedwater restrictions would be necessary everyother year, and annually in some locations.It also warned that revising some portions ofthe project without dedicating efforts to anoverall comprehensive plan would beinsufficient and probably detrimental.[66]

After evaluating ten plans, the Restudyrecommended a comprehensive strategy thatwould cost $7.8 billion over 20 years. Theplan advised taking the following actions:• Create surface water storage

reservoirs to capture 1500000 acre feet (1.9 km3) of water in several locations taking up 181300 acres(734 km2).[67]

• Create water preserve areas between Miami-Dade and Palm Beach and the eastern Everglades to treat runoffwater.[67]

• Manage Lake Okeechobee as an ecological resource to avoid the drastic rise and fall of water levels in the lakethat are harmful to aquatic plant and animal life and disturb the lake sediments.[67]

• Improve water deliveries to estuaries to reduce the rapid discharge of excess water to the Caloosahatchee andSt. Lucie estuaries that upset nutrient balances and cause lesions on fish. Stormwater discharge would be sentinstead to reservoirs.[68]

• Increase underground water storage to hold 16 billion US gallons (61 Gl) a day in wells, or reservoirs in theFloridan Aquifer, to be used later in dry periods, in a method called Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR).[68]

• Construct treatment wetlands as Stormwater Treatment Areas throughout 35600 acres (144 km2), that woulddecrease the amount of pollutants in the environment.[68]

• Improve water deliveries to the Everglades by increasing them at a rate of approximately 26% into Shark RiverSlough.[68]

Restoration of the Everglades 66

• Remove barriers to sheetflow by destroying or removing 240 miles (390 km) of canals and levees, specificallyremoving the Miami Canal and reconstructing the Tamiami Trail from a highway to culverts and bridges to allowsheetflow to return to a more natural rate of water flow into Everglades National Park.[69]

• Store water in quarries and reuse wastewater by employing existing quarries to supply the South Floridametropolitan area as well as Florida Bay and the Everglades. Construct two wastewater treatment plants capableof discharging 22 billion US gallons (83 Gl) a day to recharge the Biscayne Aquifer.[69]

The implementation of all of the advised actions, the report stated, would "result in the recovery of healthy,sustainable ecosystems throughout south Florida".[70] The report admitted that it did not have all the answers, thoughno plan could.[71] However, it predicted that it would restore the "essential defining features of the pre-drainagewetlands over large portions of the remaining system", that populations of all animals would increase, and animaldistribution patterns would return to their natural states.[71] Critics expressed concern over some unused technology;scientists were unsure if the quarries would hold as much water as was being suggested, and whether the waterwould harbor harmful bacteria from the quarries. Overtaxing the aquifers was another concern—it was not atechnique that had been previously attempted.[72]

Though it was optimistic, the Restudy noted,It is important to understand that the 'restored' Everglades of the future will be different from anyversion of the Everglades that has existed in the past. While it certainly will be vastly superior to thecurrent ecosystem, it will not completely match the pre-drainage system. This is not possible, in light ofthe irreversible physical changes that have made (sic) to the ecosystem. It will be an Everglades that issmaller and somewhat differently arranged than the historic ecosystem. But it will be a successfullyrestored Everglades, because it will have recovered those hydrological and biological patterns whichdefined the original Everglades, and which made it unique among the world’s wetland systems. It willbecome a place that kindles the wildness and richness of the former Everglades.[73]

The report was the result of many cooperating agencies that often had conflicting goals. An initial draft wassubmitted to Everglades National Park management who asserted not enough water would be released to the parkquickly enough—that the priority went to delivering water to urban areas. When they threatened to refuse to supportit, the plan was rewritten to provide more water to the park. However, the Miccosukee Indians have a reservation inbetween the park and water control devices, and they threatened to sue to ensure their tribal lands and a $50 millioncasino would not be flooded.[74] Other special interests were also concerned that businesses and residents would takesecond priority after nature. The Everglades, however, proved to be a bipartisan cause. The ComprehensiveEverglades Restoration Plan (CERP) was authorized by the Water Development Act of 2000 and signed into law byPresident Bill Clinton on December 11, 2000. It approved the immediate use of $1.3 billion for implementation to besplit by the federal government and other sources.[75]

ImplementationThe State of Florida reports that it has spent more than $2 billion on the various projects since CERP was signed.More than 36000 acres (150 km2) of Stormwater Treatment Areas (STA) have been constructed to filter 2500 shorttons (2300 t) of phosphorus from Everglades waters. An STA covering 17000 acres (69 km2) was constructed in2004, making it the largest manmade wetland in the world. Fifty-five percent of the land necessary for restoration,totaling 210167 acres (850.5 km2), has been purchased by the State of Florida. A plan named "Acceler8", to hastenthe construction and funding of the project, was put into place, spurring the start of six of eight construction projects,including that of three large reservoirs.[76]

A changing economy, too, hurt the plan. It passed in a year with a record budget surplus, but the climate changed sharply after the

terrorist attacks of 2001. Some state officials say the plan, which involves dozens of complex engineering projects, also got bogged

down in federal bureaucracy, a victim of “analysis paralysis.”

The New York Times, November 2007

Restoration of the Everglades 67

Despite the bipartisan goodwill and declarations of the importance of the Everglades, the region still remains indanger. Political maneuvering continues to impede CERP: sugar lobbyists promoted a bill in the Florida legislaturein 2003 that increased the acceptable amount of phosphorus in Everglades waterways from 10 ppb to 15 ppb andextended the deadline for the mandated decrease by 20 years.[77] A compromise of 2016 was eventually reached.Environmental organizations express concern that attempts to speed up some of the construction through Acceler8are politically motivated; the six projects Acceler8 focuses on do not provide more water to natural areas indesperate need of it, but rather to projects in populated areas bordering the Everglades, suggesting that water is beingdiverted to make room for more people in an already overtaxed environment.[78] Though Congress promised half thefunds for restoration, after the War in Iraq began and two of CERP's major supporters in Congress retired, the federalrole in CERP was left unfulfilled. According to a story in The New York Times, state officials say the restoration islost in a maze of "federal bureaucracy, a victim of 'analysis paralysis' ".[79] In 2007, the release of $2 billion forEverglades restoration was approved by Congress, overriding President George W. Bush's veto of the entire WaterDevelopment Project the money was a part of. Bush's rare veto went against the wishes of Florida Republicans,including his brother, Governor Jeb Bush. A lack of subsequent action by the Congress prompted Governor CharlieCrist to travel to Washington D.C. in February 2008 and inquire about the promised funds.[80] As of June 2008, thefederal government has spent only $400 million of the $7.8 billion legislated.[81] Carl Hiassen characterized GeorgeW. Bush's attitude toward the environment as "long-standing indifference" in June 2008, exemplified when Bushstated he would not intervene to change the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) policy allowing the release ofwater polluted with fertilizers and phosphorus into the Everglades.[82]

Reassessment of CERPFlorida still receives a thousand new residents daily and lands slated for restoration and wetland recovery are oftenbought and sold before the state has a chance to bid on them. The competitive pricing of real estate also drives itbeyond the purchasing ability of the state.[83]   Because the State of Florida is assisting with purchasing lands andfunding construction, some of the programs under CERP are vulnerable to state budget cuts.[84] [85] In June 2008Governor Crist announced that the State of Florida will buy U.S. Sugar for $1.7 billion. The idea came when sugarlobbyists were trying to persuade Crist to relax restriction of U.S. Sugar's practice of pumping phosphorus-ladenwater into the Everglades. According to one of the lobbyists who characterized it as a "duh moment", Crist said, "Ifsugar is polluting the Everglades, and we're paying to clean the Everglades, why don't we just get rid of sugar?"[62]

The largest producer of cane sugar in the U.S. will continue operations for six years, and when ownership transfersto Florida, 187000 acres (760 km2) of the Everglades will remain undeveloped to allow it to be restored to itspre-drainage state.[86]

In September 2008 the National Research Council (NRC), a nonprofit agency providing science and policy advice tothe federal government,[87] submitted a report on the progress of CERP. The report noted "scant progress" inrestoration because of problems in budgeting, planning, and bureaucracy.[88] The NRC report called the Evergladesone of the "world's treasured ecosystems" that is being further endangered by lack of progress: "Ongoing delay inEverglades restoration has not only postponed improvements—it has allowed ecological decline to continue". It citedthe shrinking tree islands, and the negative population growth of the endangered Rostrhamus sociabilis orEverglades snail kite, and Ammodramus maritimus mirabilis, the Cape Sable seaside sparrow. The lack of waterreaching Everglades National Park was characterized as "one of the most discouraging stories" in implementation ofthe plan.[88] The NRC recommended improving planning on the state and federal levels, evaluating each CERPproject annually, and further acquisition of land for restoration. Everglades restoration was earmarked $96 million infederal funds as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 with the intention of providing civilservice and construction jobs while simultaneously implementing the legislated repair projects.[89]

In January 2010, work began on the C-111 canal, built in the 1960s to drain irrigated farmland, to reconstruct it to keep from diverting water from Everglades National Park. Two other projects focusing on restoration are also scheduled to start in 2010.[90] Governor Crist announced the same month that $50 million would be earmarked for

Restoration of the Everglades 68

Everglades restoration.[91] In April of the same year, a federal district court judge sharply criticized both state andfederal failures to meet deadlines, describing the cleanup efforts as being slowed by "glacial delay" and governmentneglect of environmental law enforcement "incomprehensible".[92]

Notes and references[1] Grunwald, p. 2.[2] Schmitt, Eric (October 20, 2000). " Everglades Restoration Plan Passes House, With Final Approval Seen (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/

fullpage. html?res=9D02E3DF103EF933A15753C1A9669C8B63& scp=1& st=nyt)", The New York Times, p. 1.[3] J. V. F. (October, 1969). "Special Feature: Recent Developments in Everglades Controversy", BioScience, 19 (10), pp. 926–927.[4] Lodge, p. 20.[5] Lodge, p. 14.[6] Dovell, Junius (July 1948). "The Everglades: A Florida Frontier", Agricultural History 22 (3), pp. 187–197.[7] Light, Stephen, J. Walter Dineen "Water Control in the Everglades: A Historical Perspective" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its

Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8[8] Snyder G.H., J. Davidson, "Everglades Agriculture: Past, Present and Future" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven

Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8[9] Mueller, Marti (October 10, 1969). "Everglades Jetport: Academy Prepares a Model", Science, New Series, 166 (3902), pp. 202–203.[10] "Issue of the Year: The Environment" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,942377,00. html). Time. 1971-01-04. .

Retrieved 2008-05-20.[11] Gunderson, Lance, et al. (1995). "Lessons from the Everglades", BioScience, 45, Supplement: Science and Biodiversity Policy,

pp. S66–S73.[12] "History" (http:/ / friendsoffakahatchee. org/ history. php). Fakahatchee State Preserve. Friends of Fakahatchee State Preserve. 2005. .

Retrieved 2008-05-20.[13] Grunwald, p. 262[14] Nixon, Richard (February 8, 1972). "51 - Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program" (http:/ / www.

presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=3731). The American Presidency Project. . Retrieved 2008-05-10.[15] "Laws & Policies" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ bicy/ parkmgmt/ lawsandpolicies. htm). Big Cypress National Preserve. National Park Service.

April 20, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-05-20.[16] "Everglades National Park, Florida, United States of America" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080510070315/ http:/ / www. unep-wcmc.

org/ sites/ wh/ everglad. html). United Nations Environment Program. March 2003. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. unep-wcmc.org/ sites/ wh/ everglad. html) on May 10, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-05-19.

[17] "Park Statistics" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ parknews/ parkstatistics. htm). Everglades National Park. National Park Service. July 24,2006. . Retrieved 2008-05-21.

[18] Maltby, E., P.J. Dugan, "Wetland Ecosystem Management, and Restoration: An International Perspective" in Everglades: The Ecosystemand its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8

[19] Davis, Jack (January 2003). "'Conservation is now a dead word': Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the transformation of Americanenvironmentalism." Environmental History, 8 (1) pp. 53–76.

[20] Holling, C.S. "The Structure and Dynamics of the Everglades System: Guidelines for Ecosystem Restoration" in Everglades : TheEcosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8

[21] Douglas (1987), p. 229.[22] "Environmental Setting: The Altered System" (http:/ / sofia. usgs. gov/ publications/ circular/ 1134/ esas/ index. html). Circular 1134. U.S.

Geological Survey. November 2, 2004. . Retrieved 2008-05-19.[23] "Kissimmee River Restoration" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080413000104/ http:/ / www. saj. usace. army. mil/ dp/ krr/ index. htm).

Army Corps of Engineers Jacksonville District. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. saj. usace. army. mil/ dp/ krr/ index. htm) on April13, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-05-19.

[24] Douglas (1987), p. 227.[25] Angier, Natalie (1984-08-06). "Now You See It, Now You Don't" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,921744,00.

html). Time. . Retrieved 2008-05-20.[26] Douglas (1987), p. 232.[27] "Kissimee River History" (http:/ / www. dep. state. fl. us/ evergladesforever/ about/ history. htm). Florida Department of Environmental

Protection. 2006. . Retrieved 2008-05-19.[28] Morgan, Curtis (December 15, 2002). "Florida's Kissimmee River Begins to Recover from Man-Made Damage", The Miami Herald[29] Lodge, p. 230.[30] Lodge, p. 37.[31] Davis, Steven. "Phosphorus Inputs and Vegetation Sensitivity in the Everglades" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven

Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8[32] Grunwald, p. 282.

Restoration of the Everglades 69

[33] Grunwald, pp. 286–287.[34] Lodge, pp. 231–233.[35] "Mercury Studies in the Florida Everglades" (http:/ / sflwww. er. usgs. gov/ publications/ fs/ 166-96/ ). FS-166-96. U.S. Geological Survey.

November 9, 2004. . Retrieved 2008-06-01.[36] "Florida Statutes (Supplement 1994) [Everglades Forever Act (http:/ / exchange. law. miami. edu/ everglades/ statutes/ state/ florida/

E_forever. htm)"]. Chapter 373: Water Resources, Part IV. Management and Storage of Surface Waters, 373.4592 Everglades improvementand management. University of Miami School of Law. 1997. . Retrieved 2008-05-21.

[37] Alexa, Micheal; D'Isernia, Luke; Minton, Laura; Miller, Dulcy; Corbett, Sarah. "Handbook of Florida Water Regulation: Florida EvergladesForever Act" (http:/ / edis. ifas. ufl. edu/ FE609). Chapter 373: Water Resources, Part IV. Management and Storage of Surface Waters,373.4592 Everglades improvement and management. University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Science. . Retrieved 2008-05-21.

[38] Grunwald, p. 301.[39] "Long Term Plan Overview" (https:/ / my. sfwmd. gov/ portal/ page?_pageid=2294,4946718,2294_4946541:2294_4946386& _dad=portal&

_schema=PORTAL). South Florida Water Management District. 2008. . Retrieved 2008-05-21.[40] "Periphyton-based Stormwater Treatment Area (PSTA) Technology" (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ docs/ fs_psta_hires. pdf) (pdf). The

Journey to Restore America's Everglades. December 2003. . Retrieved 2008-05-22.[41] "American Alligator, Wildlife Species Information" (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ species/ species_accounts/ bio_alli. html). www.fws.gov. United

States Fish and Wildlife Service. February 2008. . Retrieved 2008-07-12.[42] Lodge, p. 236.[43] "American Crocodile" (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ verobeach/ images/ pdfLibrary/ amcr. pdf) (pdf). Multi-Species Recovery Plan for South

Florida. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. . Retrieved 2008-05-24.[44] "Florida Panther Frequently Asked Questions" (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ floridapanther/ panther_faq. html). Florida Panther National

Wildlife Refuge. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. . Retrieved 2008-05-24.[45] Grunwald, p. 293.[46] Bancroft, G. Thomas, et al. "Relationships among Wading Bird Foraging Patterns, Colony Locations, and Hydrology in the Everglades", in

Everglades: The Ecosystem and its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8[47] Lodge, pp. 233–234.[48] Grunwald, p. 229.[49] Lodge, pp. 237–240.[50] Tasker, Georgia (August 22, 1998). "Federal Experts Warn of Alien Plant Invasion", The Miami Herald.[51] Lodge, p. 241.[52] Lodge, p. 242.[53] Lodge, pp. 243–244.[54] Lodge, p. 244.[55] Lodge, pp. 244–245.[56] "Call for Environmental Study Delays Plan for a Florida Airport" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.

html?res=9E04E0DD113EF936A15751C1A961958260). The New York Times. December 25, 1997. . Retrieved 2008-06-03.[57] "History of Homestead Air Force Base" (http:/ / www. homestead. afrc. af. mil/ library/ factsheets/ factsheet. asp?id=3401). United States

Air Force. 2008. . Retrieved 2008-05-23..[58] Zaneski, Cyril (August 24, 1998). "New Environmental Study Begins on Homestead, Fla., Airport Project", The Miami Herald.[59] Zaneski, Cyril (January 8, 2000). "Plans for Airport at Former Homestead, Fla., Air Force Base Grounded", The Miami Herald.[60] Morgan, Curtis (January 6, 2001). "Miami-Area Officials' Plans for Air Force Base May Be Disrupted", The Miami Herald.[61] "Chapter 1: Background and understanding" (http:/ / dlis. dos. state. fl. us/ fgils/ agencies/ sust/ tocs. html). The Governor's Commission for

a Sustainable South Florida. State of Florida. October 1, 1995. . Retrieved 2008-05-23.[62] Kennedy, John; Deslatte, Aaron (2008-06-29). "Big sugar took its lumps, then dealt" (http:/ / www. orlandosentinel. com/ news/ local/ state/

orl-glades2908jun29,0,1040699. story?track=rss). The Orlando Sentinel. . Retrieved 2008-06-29.[63] Grunwald, pp. 311–313.[64] US Army COE and SFWMD, p. iii.[65] Tibbetts, John (August, 2000). "Making Amends: Ecological Restoration in the United States", Environmental Health Perspectives, 108 (8),

pp. A356–A361.[66] US Army COE and SFWMD, pp. iv–v.[67] US Army COE and SFWMD, p. vii.[68] US Army COE and SFWMD, p. viii.[69] US Army COE and SFWMD, p. ix.[70] US Army COE and SFWMD, p. x.[71] US Army COE and SFWMD, p. xi.[72] Grunwald, p. 319.[73] US Army COE and SFWMD, p. xii.[74] Kloor, Keith (May 19, 2000). "Everglades Restoration Plan Hits Rough Waters", Science, 288 (5469), pp. 1166–1167.

Restoration of the Everglades 70

[75] "Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) of 2000" (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ wrda2000/ wrda. aspx). The Journey to RestoreAmerica's Everglades. November 4, 2002. . Retrieved 2008-05-23.

[76] "Restoring the River of Grass" (http:/ / www. dep. state. fl. us/ evergladesforever/ ). Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2006.. Retrieved 2008-05-24.

[77] (April 21, 2003). " Everglades in Peril (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9F04E3D8133AF932A15757C0A9659C8B63&scp=1& st=cse)", The New York Times, Section A, p. 22.

[78] Grunwald, Michael (October 14, 2004). " Fla. Steps In to Speed Up State-Federal Everglades Cleanup (http:/ / pqasb. pqarchiver. com/washingtonpost/ access/ 711984541. html?dids=711984541:711984541& FMT=ABS& FMTS=ABS:FT)", The Washington Post, p. A03.

[79] Goodnough, Abby (November 2, 2007). " Vast Effort to Save Everglades Falters as U.S. Funds Dwindle (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/11/ 02/ us/ 02everglades. html?scp=1& st=nyt)", The New York Times, Section A, p. 1.

[80] Clark, Lesley (February 13, 2008). " Crist presses lawmakers for Glades funds (http:/ / www. miamiherald. com/ 516/ story/ 416463. html)",The Miami Herald, State and Regional News.

[81] June 9, 2008. "Picayune Strand a model for what Everglades restoration will mean" (http:/ / www. sun-sentinel. com/ news/ opinion/sfl-editafpicayunesbjun09,0,2043626. story) South Florida Sun-Sentinel|Sun-Sentinel (Ft. Lauderdale, Florida).

[82] Hiassen, Carl (June 15, 2008). "EPA ducks duty to keep water clean" (http:/ / www. miamiherald. com/ 418/ story/ 569567. html), TheMiami Herald, State and Regional News.

[83] Barnett, p. 185.[84] Fineout, Gary (April 4, 2008). "Deep budget cuts in store for S. Florida", The Miami Herald, State and Regional News.[85] Klas, Mary Ellen (June 12, 2008). " Crist OK's $66B budget with little fanfare (http:/ / www. miamiherald. com/ 548/ story/ 567131. html)"

The Miami Herald, State and Regional News. Retrieved on June 12, 2008.[86] Cave, Damien and John Holusha (June 25, 2008). "Florida to Buy Sugar Maker in Bid to Restore Everglades", The New York Times, p. 1.[87] Welcome to the National Research Council (http:/ / sites. nationalacademies. org/ nrc/ index. htm), National Research Council website

(2008). Retrieved on October 6, 2008.[88] "Progress Toward Restoring the Everglades: Second Biennial Review (Brief)" (http:/ / dels. nas. edu/ dels/ rpt_briefs/

everglades_brief_final. pdf), National Research Council (September 2008).[89] Morgan, Curtis, Clark, Lesley (April 29, 2009). "River of Cash: Stimulus Aid for Glades", The Miami Herald, p1A.[90] Morgan, Curtis (January 27, 2010). "Canal work begins in Everglades project", The Miami Herald, South Florida news.[91] Skoloff, Brian (January 22, 2010). "Gov. Crist proposes $2.1 billion for environment", The Miami Herald, Florida news.[92] Morgan, Curtis (April 25, 2010). "Everglades cleanup said to be mired in 'glacial delay'", The Miami Herald, South Florida news.

Bibliography• Barnett, Cynthia (2007). Mirage: Florida and the Vanishing Water of the Eastern U.S., University of Michigan

Press. ISBN 0472115634• Douglas, Marjory; Rothchild, John (1987). Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Voice of the River. Pineapple Press.

ISBN 0910923941• Grunwald, Michael (2006). The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise, Simon &

Schuster. ISBN 0743251075• Lodge, Thomas E. (1994). The Everglades Handbook: Understanding the Ecosystem. CRC Press. ISBN

1-56670-614-9• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and South Florida Water Management District (April 1999). "Summary", Central

and Southern Florida Project Comprehensive Review Study (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ docs/comp_plan_apr99/ summary. pdf).

Further reading• Alderson, Doug. 2009. New Dawn for the Kissimmee River. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. ISBN

978-0-8130-3396-2• The Everglades in the Time of Marjorie Stoneman Douglas (http:/ / www. floridamemory. com/

PhotographicCollection/ photo_exhibits/ everglades. cfm) Photo exhibit created by the State Archives of Florida

Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan 71

Comprehensive Everglades Restoration PlanThe Central and Southern Florida (C&SF) Project,[1] which was first authorized by Congress in 1948, is amulti-purpose project that provides flood control, water supply for municipal, industrial, and agricultural uses,prevention of saltwater intrusion, water supply for Everglades National Park, and protection of fish and wildliferesources. The primary system includes about 1000 miles (1600 km) of levees, 720 miles (1160 km) of canals, andalmost 200 water control structures. The C&SF Project has performed its authorized functions well, however, theproject has had unintended adverse effects on the unique and diverse environment that constitutes south Floridaecosystems, including the Everglades and Florida Bay.The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP)[2] provides a framework and guide to restore, protectand preserve the water resources of central and southern Florida, including the Everglades. It covers 16 counties overan 18000-square-mile (47000 km2) area and centers on an update of the Central & Southern Florida (C&SF) Projectalso known as the Restudy. The State of Florida (via the South Florida Water Management District) and the U.S.Army Corps of Engineers are undertaking various projects under CERP to help ensure the proper quantity, quality,timing, and distribution of waters to the Everglades and all of South Florida.The Plan was approved in the Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) of 2000. It includes more than 60elements, will take more than 30 years to construct, and was originally estimated to cost $7.8 billion.The goal of CERP is to capture fresh water that now flows unused to the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico andredirect it to areas that need it most. The majority of the water will be devoted to environmental restoration, revivinga dying ecosystem. The remaining water will benefit cities and farmers by enhancing water supplies for the southFlorida economy.Numerous lawsuits affecting Everglades restoration are pending before the courts.

References[1] Development of the Central & South Florida (C&SF) Project (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ about/ restudy_csf_devel. aspx)[2] About CERP: a Brief Overview (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ about/ about_cerp_brief. aspx)

External links• Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ index. aspx)• ACCELER8 (https:/ / my. sfwmd. gov/ portal/ page?_pageid=1855,2830547,1855_2831083& _dad=portal&

_schema=PORTAL& navpage=home)• South Florida Ecosystem Restoration Task Force (http:/ / www. sfrestore. org/ )

List of invasive species in the Everglades 72

List of invasive species in the Everglades

A tree island in the Everglades covered by Old World climbing fern

Everglades National Park staff took this image of an alligator and Burmese python locked in a struggle.

Invasive species in the Everglades are exotic plants and animals that have aggressively adapted to conditions inwilderness areas in southern Florida. The Everglades are a massive watershed in the southern portion of the U.S.state of Florida that drains overflow from the vast shallow Lake Okeechobee, that is in turn fed by the KissimmeeRiver. The overflow forms a very shallow river about 60 miles (97 km) wide and 100 miles (160 km) long thattravels about half a mile per day. The network of ecosystems created by the Everglades are surrounded by urbanareas to the east in the South Florida metropolitan area, to the west by Naples and Fort Myers, and to the south byFlorida Bay, a marine environment that receives fresh water from and is maintained by the Everglades. As it issurrounded on three sides and close to a major transportation and shipping center, it is particularly vulnerable to theimportation of exotic species.In the 20th century, Florida experienced a population surge unparalleled in the U.S., accompanied by rapid urbanexpansion made possible by draining portions of the Everglades. Flood control became a priority and the Central &South Florida Flood Control Project, from 1947 to 1971, constructed over 1400 miles (2300 km) of canals and floodcontrol structures in South Florida. The widespread building created new habitats and disturbed established plant andanimal communities. Many of the new residents or tourists in Florida were responsible for introducing plant speciesto the area by accident, or deliberately to improve landscaping. Many animals have been introduced similarly, andhave either escaped or been released to proliferate on their own. Several terms are used to identify non-nativespecies: exotic, invader, immigrant, colonist, introduced, nonindigenous, and naturalized. "Naturalized" usuallyrefers to species that have adapted to a region over a long period of time,[1] while "invasive" refers to particularlydestructive or aggressive species.[2]

Approximately 26% of all fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals in South Florida are exotic—more than in any other part of the United States—and the region hosts one of the highest numbers of exotic plant species in the world.[3]

Many of the biological controls like weather, disease, and consumers that naturally limit plants in their native environments do not exist in the Everglades, causing many to grow larger and multiply far beyond their average numbers in their native habitats. Similarly, animals often do not find the predators or natural barriers to reproduction

List of invasive species in the Everglades 73

in the Everglades as they do where they originated, thus they often reproduce more quickly and efficiently. Concernsover the quality of the Everglades were raised in the beginning of the 20th century, and by 2000 a federally fundedinitiative was enacted that gave Everglades restoration the distinction of being the largest planned environmentalrehabilitation in history. Exotic species control falls under the management of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,which has been compiling and disseminating information about invasive species since 1994. Control of invasivespecies costs $500 million a year, but 1700000 acres (6900 km2) of land in South Florida remains infested.[4]

Plant speciesAs the fields of ecology and environmental studies develop, exotic species attract more attention and their effectsbecome more apparent. Mid-20th century biology texts about invading species reflected more complacency thanalarm, as contemporary wisdom about them assumed the host environment would be largely immune.[5] Evergladesbiologist Thomas Lodge writes that in the 1960s, evidence of non-native plant and animal life in South Florida waspresent but not particularly worthy of notice. Over the past decades, however, the number of exotic species and theirspread has increased dramatically.[2]

The Everglades hosts 1,301 species of native flora that are tropical or subtropical in nature, which arrived on theFlorida peninsula about 5,000 years ago. Winds, water, and birds carried most of the tropical flora. The subtropicalspecies spread from more northern locations.[6] As of 2010 1,392 additional non-native plant species have beenidentified and established themselves in South Florida.[7] A variety of avenues are available for species to be broughtby humans deliberately or by accident: agricultural experiments, in shipping containers, or attached to vehicles.South Florida is a transportation hub for shipping and traffic between the U.S. and the Caribbean and Central andSouth America. In 1990, 333 million plants were brought into Miami International Airport.[8] Both the United StatesDepartment of Agriculture (USDA) and the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences (IFAS)experiment with plants in laboratories throughout Florida.State, local, and federal government agencies spend millions of dollars to rid South Florida of invasive species andprevent more from entering the region. Plants that are imported to Florida are subject to classification as "Restricted"or "Prohibited", but a new designation is being considered "Not Authorized Pending Plant Risk Analysis", to allowscientists to assess what damage exotic plants may cause to the South Florida environment.[9] A nonproftorganization named The Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council lists exotic species as belonging in Category I: "alteringnative plant communities by displacing native species, changing community structures or ecological functions, orhybridizing with natives"; and Category II: "increased in abundance or frequency but have not yet altered Floridaplant communities to the extent shown by Category I".[10] More than 100 species have been placed in Category I, buta few have been singled out for the potential to cause the most destruction based on how rapidly they reproduce,their displacement of native flora by crowding, shading, or fire, excellent adaptations to conditions in the Everglades,and the potential to spread (or evidence that they have spread) into remote areas of the Everglades.[11]

Scientific name Common name(s) Origin / Year(s) introduced Purpose of introduction

List of invasive species in the Everglades 74

Melaleucaquinquenervia

Melaleuca, paper-bark, cajeput,punk tree, white bottlebrush tree

Australia, New Guinea, theSolomon Islands / 1906

Landscaping, drainage

Melaleuca tree seeds were scattered by aircraft in order to drain flooded portions of the Everglades.They were considered excellent landscaping trees as late as 1970 and planted along canals to stabilizesoil or act as windbreaks. They grow significantly taller than where they originate, very densely—notallowing wading birds with large wingspans to fly between—and very rapidly. They are very tolerantof fire and flooded conditions. One tree is capable of producing 20 million seeds year-round.Authorities are attempting to limit the spread of Melaleuca by quarantining stands of trees, fellingestablished ones, and applying herbicide. They are also releasing the melaleuca psyllid(Boreioglycaspis melaleucae), and melaleuca snout weevil (Oxyops vitiosa) that can kill seedlings,that has resulted in the reduction of 85% of melaleuca growth in some places over the past ten years,allowing four times the plant diversity in these locations. Melaleuca control is considered a majoraccomplishment by the South Florida Water Management District: between 1993 and 2008, theestimated acreage of melaleuca has decreased from 500000 acres (2000 km2) to 273000 acres(1100 km2)[12] [13] [14]

Lygodiummicrophyllum

Old World climbing fern Tropical Asia, Africa, andAustralia / Observed alreadyestablished in 1958

Unknown purpose

The Old World climbing fern has taken over tree islands in the Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refugein the northern Everglades, completely blanketing some of them, and crowding smaller vegetation byshading native seedlings and overwhelming trees. There is also evidence that it fatally traps medium-and large-sized animals such as deer and turtles. While fire may burn some of the Old World climbingfern, portions of burning fern may break loose and spread fires more quickly. "Fire ladders" arecreated when ferns grow into the forest canopy, above the line that cypress and other trees naturallytolerate fire damage. The thick rachis fern mats may also trap animals attempting to flee fires. There isno definitive plan to rid ecologically sensitive areas in South Florida of this exotic plant, althoughherbicides and controlled fires are being explored. Biological agents such as brown lygodium moth(Neomusotima conspurcatalis) and leaf-gall mite (Floracarus perrepae), that feed on and destroyparts of the climbing ferns, were released in 2008, and their overall effects are under evaluation.[15][16] [17]

Schinusterebinthifolius

Brazilian pepper, Florida holly,Christmas berry, pepper tree

Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay /1840s

Landscaping

Brazilian pepper was marketed as a southern alternative to holly. Birds and small mammals havespread its seeds by eating the red berries and expelling them from their digestive tracts, allowing theplants to establish in very remote areas that are difficult to reach and hamper control efforts. The shrubis very successful in highly disturbed areas such as farmland, canals, under powerlines, and naturalareas following hurricanes. Its dense structure allows it to form concentrated thickets that displacenative vegetation, including some endangered plants, and at its densest keeps wading birds from theirmigratory feeding locations. It is a particular danger to pine rockland ecosystems, which are very rareoutside of Everglades National Park. Brazilian pepper is physically removed with large landmovingequipment and the largest plants treated with herbicides.[18] [19] [20] [21]

List of invasive species in the Everglades 75

Casuarinaequisetifolia,

Casuarina glauca,Casuarina

cunninghamiana

Australian pine, beefwood,ironwood, she-oak, horsetail tree

Australia, South PacificIslands, Southeast Asia / Late19th century

Landscaping

Three species of tree are considered collectively to be Australian pines. They were planted aswindbreaks along canals and agricultural fields, and as shade trees in the middle of the 20th century.They are salt tolerant and grow well in beach areas, displacing native vegetation that prevents coastalerosion, particularly following disturbances like tropical storms. The native habitat of the endangeredCape Sable seaside sparrow (Ammodramus maritimus mirabilis) is directly threatened by theAustralian pine. Native seedlings are discouraged by the shade given by Australian pines andfurthermore smothered by the dense litter shed by the trees. The Australian pine's shallow roots candisrupt beach nesting animals such as sea turtles and American crocodiles (Crocodylus acutus).Herbicides are effective in removing Australian pines. Fire has also proven effective but is not easilycontrolled.[22] [23] [24] [25]

Colubrina asiatica Latherleaf, Asiatic or commoncolubrina, hoop with, Asiansnakeroot

Brought to Jamaica from Asiantraders in 1850s / Naturalizedin South Florida by 1933

Medicinal supplies

Latherleaf grows in dense mats that crowd and shade native vegetation, threatening severalendangered plants. It has successfully spread to every protected area in the Florida Keys, and is wellentrenched in remote areas of Everglades National Park where it threatens coastal hardwood forestsand mangrove islands. Although it grows easily, it does not spread prolifically. Latherleaf is controlledby removing the established plants physically and checking periodically for young shoots.[23] [26]

Eichhorniacrassipes

Water hyacinth, water orchid Amazon basin / 1884–1890 Waterscaping

Water hyacinths are free floating and have been a particular problem in northern Florida waterways,but since they began to grow in the Everglades, their rapid reproduction (they can double theirpopulation every 6 to 18 days and will increase the coverage of surface water by 25% a month if goneunchecked) has impeded the controlled release of water by blocking canals and water control devices.They negatively affect water quality and can crowd other types of natural aquatic vegetation. They aremostly limited to man-made structures like canals, and herbicides have proven to be the most efficientmethod of controlling water hyacinths.[23] [27]

Pistia stratiotes Water lettuce, water cabbage Africa or South America / InFlorida by 1774

Possibly accidental

Water lettuce is similar to water hyacinths in that it is also free-floating, reproduces rapidly, blockscanals and water control devices, and can form mats that block sunlight and oxygen to plants ananimals under water. Authorities use the same methods to eradicate water lettuce as they do waterhyacinths.[28]

Neyraudiareynaudiana

Burma reed, silk reed, canegrass, false reed

Southern Asia / 1916 Escaped from USDA testgardens

Burma reed is a grass with large, dry plume-like flowerets that invades the pine rocklandecosystem—one of the most endangered habitats in the state—feeding fires. While pine rocklands aremaintained by fire, Burma reed can reach 12 feet (3.7 m) tall and burns so hot and high—flames canreach 30 feet (9.1 m)—that it can eradicate the native Pinus elliottii var. densa or slash pine. It spreadsprolifically; one plant can produce 120,000 seeds.[20] [23] [29] [30]

List of invasive species in the Everglades 76

Hydrilla verticillata Hydrilla, water thyme, Floridaelodea, waterweed

Sri Lanka / 1950s Possibly spread from aquariums,found on every continent exceptAntarctica

Like the other water plants, hydrilla reproduces rapidly. Although it is not free floating, it growsquickly to the water surface, and if it breaks apart it can form new plants from fragments. It clogs openwaterways, blocks sunlight, lowers dissolved oxygen, and otherwise changes water chemistry.Hydrilla also harms fisheries and zooplankton populations. The Kissimmee Chain of Lakes, includingKissimmee, Hatchineha, and Tohopekaliga, have been severely infested with hydrilla. It is managedby being physically removed, and taking all pieces of plants from waterways is integral to avoidingfuture infestations. The efficacy of herbicides is dependent upon a variety of factors, but theirapplication is credited with, if not eliminating hydrilla in the Kissimmee Chain of Lakes, at leastkeeping it to a manageable and acceptable presence. Sometimes hydrilla is treated by the release ofgrass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) that eat it. Carp, however, may also eat native vegetation, sothey are released only where their impact would not be detrimental.[23] [31] [32] [33] [34]

Dioscorea bulbifera Air potato, potato yam, air yam Asia: introduced during slavetrade / In Florida by 1905

Escaped from USDA testgardens, landscaping

The air potato is an aggressively growing vine that exhibits tubers on the outside rather thanunderground, which can promote its rapid growth when they fall to the ground. It successfully growsin dryer conditions in South Florida, such as hardwood hammocks and pine rocklands, oftencompletely covering native vegetation well into the canopy region, and is particularly successful afterdisturbances such as hurricanes, overtaking regions before native plants have an opportunity to growback.[23] [35] [36]

Cupaniopsisanacardioides

Carrotwood, Beach Tamarind,Green-leaved Tamarind,tuckeroo tree

Australia / 1960s Landscaping

Carrotwood grows easily in many South Florida habitats, including coastal dunes, beaches, marshes,pine rocklands, hammocks, mangrove forests, and cypress swamps. It is spread by birds eating theseeds and dropping them throughout the region. Little is known about carrotwood trees, but for theirability to adapt to multiple types of habitats and conditions pervasive in South Florida, they are listedas an invasive plant with potential for destruction.[23] [37] [38]

Rhodomyrtustomentosa

Downy rose myrtle, downymyrtle, hill gooseberry, hillguava

Asia / Established by 1924 Landscaping

Downy rose myrtle was recently added to priority invasive species lists for its tendency to overtakepine rockland ecosystems. Typically pine rocklands consist of slash pines towering over saw palmetto(Serenoa repens) understory shrubs and small herbs. It is a system that is maintained by regular fires.Rose myrtle, however, has been noted throughout South Florida, for taking over the role of sawpalmetto, and its spread is exacerbated by fire. They are furthermore showing resistance to previouslyeffective herbicides.[39] [40] [41]

List of invasive species in the Everglades 77

Animal speciesAlthough the general effects of invasive animals is not as profound as plants, they are more noticeable in manyinstances and a constant reminder of the many exotic species in the region. A wildlife biologist and severalconstruction workers near Homestead Air Force Base witnessed a scene where several iguanas sunning themselvesin a canal were attacked by a spectacled caiman, to the surprise of all.[42]

About 12,500 species of insects are native to Florida, most of which naturally flew into the region from theCaribbean or Southeastern United States. An additional 1,000 have been identified as exotic.[43] Insects create about$1 billion of damage to structures and agriculture in Florida each year. The tide of arriving insects is nearlyimpossible to control with the volume of goods and shipments coming into South Florida. Imported citrus is a majoravenue for damaging insects. Twenty-one species have been imported and released to act as biological controlagents: to impede the growth of invasive plants or counter the effects of other insects. Others, such as theMadagascan hissing cockroach (Gromphadorhina portentosa) and European cricket (Acheta domesticus) are sold aspets or fishing bait, and are then released into backyards.[44] Similarly, aquatic invertebrates such as mussels, clams,snails, and melania find their ways into local waters from the bottoms of ships or in bilge holds. The aquarium tradealso supplies enthusiasts with exotic species which are dumped or escape into waterways.[45]

Excluding insects and other arthropods, 192 exotic animal species have established themselves in Florida as of2009.[46] More than 50 species of fish have been introduced. Early recorded species were the pike killifish(Belonesox belizanus) and oscar (Astronotus ocellatus). The extensive network of canals throughout South Floridaallows many species to disperse more readily than they would under natural conditions as many regions in theEverglades go dry each year or experience extended drought periods. The overall impact of exotic fishes on thenative populations and habitats is largely unknown.[47]

The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) initiated a task force to concentrate on identifyingthe most invasive animals. The agency created a list of "Reptiles of Concern" for the Burmese python, African rockpython (Python sebae), amethystine python (Morelia amethystinus), reticulated python (Python reticulatus), greenanaconda (Eunectes murinus), and the Nile monitor. Florida also began requiring owners to pay a permit fee of $100a year and place microchips on the animals. These predators are included on the list for their formidable size andaggressive natures; animals that were in the Everglades before the list was created, however, are breeding in thewild.[48] Exotic birds do not attract the same amount of attention. They too have been brought to Florida as part ofthe pet trade and escape, get released by dealers attempting to avoid quarantine restrictions, or escape from damagedcages and artificial habitats during tropical storms.[49] Typically, however, most nonindigenous birds live closer topopulated areas; some populations of birds establish themselves but decline for unapparent reasons.[50]

More than 50 species of exotic mammals have been recorded in South Florida, at least 19 of which areself-sustaining.[51] Colonies of feral mammals are established in or around the Everglades, including dogs, pigs, andcats. Wild animals native to other parts of the U.S. have also been established including nine-banded armadillos(Dasypus novemcinctus Linnaeus), coyotes (Canis latrans), and jaguarundi (Herpailurus yaguarondi).[52]

Florida has enacted laws to prohibit the release of exotic animals into the wild. To dissuade people from dumpinganimals, local authorities have begun holding "Nonnative Amnesty Days" in several Florida locations where petowners who are no longer willing or able to take care of non-traditional pets such as snakes, lizards, amphibians,birds, and mammals—excluding dogs, cats, and ferrets—can deposit animals without being prosecuted for illegaldumping of exotic species.[53] The FWC has furthermore allowed hunters permits to capture Reptiles of Concern in aspecific hunting season in wildlife management areas,[54] euthenize the animals immediately and sell the meat andhides.[55]

List of invasive species in the Everglades 78

Invertebrates

Scientific name Common name(s) Origin / Year(s) introduced Method of introduction

Paratachardinalobata lobata

Paratachardinapseudolobata

Lobate lac scale India, Sri Lanka / 1999 Unknown

Lobate lac scale insects infest at least 94 species of native trees in Florida, particularly the wax myrtle(Myrica cerifera), cocoplum (Chrysobalanus icaco), and buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus). Severeinfestations can kill trees and shrubs, and dense infestations have been found in hardwood hammockswhich are defined by the diversity of trees. The infestations are recent and long term effects in protectedand threatened areas are under study as of 2005.[56] [57] [58]

Metamasiuscallizona

Bromeliad beetle, Evil weevil,Mexican weevil

Mexico and Central America /1989

Possibly imported with Tillandsiabromeliads

This member of the Dryophthoridae family causes specific damage to bromeliads, which areecosystems unto themselves as the water they hold feeds a host of smaller amphibians and insects.Fifteen species of bromeliads grow naturally throughout the Everglades, and they are also used asornamental landscaping in residential areas. The bromeliad beetle moved from its initial point ofinfestation to 12 counties within a decade by being transported by people and subsequently dispersingthemselves. They have become established in Big Cypress National Preserve, Florida Panther NationalWildlife Refuge, and Fakahatchee Strand Preserve State Park. Adults lay eggs in bromeliad stems andlarvae pupate in the stems, possibly causing the plants to detach from their host trees. Adults also feedon the leaves of bromeliads. Not all species of bromeliads are affected by the beetle, but ten are,particularly Tillandsia utriculata and Tillandsia fasciculata, that have been devastated and listed asendangered species because of the infestation. Insecticides are not preferred because they may killnative insects that are natural components of the microsystems associated with bromeliads. Authoritieshave released Lixadmontia franki, a fly that may control the bromeliad beetle.[59] [60] [61] [62]

Pomaceainsularum

Island apple snail South America / 2000s Dumped from aquariums

Island apple snails are very similar in habit and appearance to the indigenous Florida apple snail(Pomacea paludosa), but it has few predators in the Everglades. It eats macrophytes on such a greatscale that it can alter water ecology and cause algal blooms. It grows larger than Pomaceapaludosa—some have reported measuring the size of tennis balls—and uses the same regions for eatingand laying eggs. Their eggs have been found on the same plant stalks as the Florida apple snails' causingEverglades biologists concern: Pomacea paludosa is the primary food the endangered Everglades snailkite (Rostrhamus sociabilis plumbeus), that has a beak specifically used for the size of the indigenousPomacea paludosa and may not be able to eat island apple snails. Adult island apple snails and eggcolonies are physically removed, but they are a recent infestation and studies are ongoing to determinehow far they have spread and the best ways to eradicate them.[63] [64]

Corbiculafluminea

Asiatic clam China / In Florida by 1960 Possible importation of food forAsian laborers in British Columbia

Asiatic clams have been in North America for decades, but only recently in South Florida—specificallyin Lake Okeechobee. They can reproduce very rapidly and live successfully in low-quality water. Largebeds of clams can displace food and nesting sources for native aquatic animals, and their leftover shellscan accumulate on lake and river floors. Black crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus) feed on Chironomidaethat are unable to burrow and establish their own populations due to overabundance of Asiatic clams.The clams furthermore proliferate around water control devices, canal locks, pipes, mesh dividers, andother man-made structures that release water through South Florida. They have, however, proven to besufficient food sources for ducks and efficiently clean water in eutrophic lakes.[65] [66]

List of invasive species in the Everglades 79

Fish

Scientific name Common name(s) Origin / Year(s) introduced Method of introduction

Pterygoplichthysmultiradiatus

Pterygoplichthysdisjunctivus

Sailfin, suckermouth catfish,plecostomus

South America / 1950s Dumped from aquariums

Suckermouth catfishes are efficient aquarium cleaners that eat benthic algae and weeds. They preferslow-moving water, canals, lakes, and ponds. In the wild, they can grow considerably larger than theiraquarium counterparts and create large burrows into canal and lake beds, which compromise theintegrity of shorelines. Their browsing on algae and weeds competes with much smaller native fishes,and birds that attempt to eat them can be harmed by the spiny dorsal fins; 20 strangled brown pelicanswere found to have attempted to swallow suckermouth catfishes whole.[67] [68] [69]

Clarias batrachus Walking catfish Thailand / 1960s Escaped or released from stocks

Walking catfish can survive out of water for days as long as they remain moist, and can survive inhypoxic water, or water with low dissolved oxygen levels, by breathing air. They are aggressivefeeders that browse on smaller native fishes, and fish and crustacean eggs when food is plentiful.When parts of the Everglades go dry seasonally, walking catfish will eat anything they find. Theyhave been recorded migrating to and depleting fish stocks, prompting aquaculture farmers to fencefish pools to keep them out. They furthermore carry enteric septicemia and can pass it to native andstocked fishes.[70] [71]

Cichlasomaurophthalmus

Mayan cichlid Mexico, Central America /1983

Dumped from aquariums

Mayan cichlids are one of 17 species of Cichlidae that are found in the waters in and around theEverglades. They rapidly expanded from two sites near mangrove islands in Florida Bay to beingpresent across the Everglades south of the Tamiami Trail, in marine and brackish water, includingfreshwater habitats thought to be devoid of exotic species. Their successful establishment led to theirbeing a sport fishing attraction as they can grow quite large in Florida and respond well to fishinglures and nets. They eat a variety of grasses and smaller fishes, invertebrates, and eggs, includingthose of the Florida apple snail, the primary food of the endangered Everglades snail kite. They are inturn food for wading birds such as snowy egrets (Egretta thula).[72] [73] [74]

Oreochromisaureus

Blue tilapia, Israeli tilapia Africa, Middle East / 1961 Escaped from stocks for aquaticplant control

Blue tilapia have spread throughout Florida, in both freshwater and brackish environments, and haveestablished a presence in Big Cypress National Preserve and Everglades National Park. They createlarge nest craters in shallow waters about 2 feet (0.61 m) wide, visibly altering native plantcommunities and impeding the spawning of native fishes.[42] [75] [76]

Reptiles

List of invasive species in the Everglades 80

Scientific name Common name(s) Origin / Year(s) introduced Method of introduction

Python molurusbivittatus

Burmese python, Indian python Southeast Asia / 1979 Imported by/through pet trade

Perhaps no other invasive species has attracted as much media attention at the Burmese python,particularly after spectacular photographs and eyewitness accounts of struggles between native alligatorsand these snakes were released. Burmese pythons have voracious appetites and have been found to eatanimals ranging in size from wrens to white-tailed deer. They share the top of the food chain in theEverglades with alligators and prey on 39 endangered species and 41 additional rare species. Theycontinue to be sold as pets; around 6,000 pythons were imported into Miami from 2003 to 2005. They areremoved immediately from Everglades National Park; as of 2007, national park staff report extracting atotal of 600 pythons. Another 300 were captured in 2008 alone. A park biologist estimated that between5,000 and 180,000 Burmese pythons live in wilderness areas in South Florida.[4] [77] [78]

Iguana iguana Green iguana Central America / 1960s Imported by/through pet trade

Iguanas have expanded rapidly in the Everglades by eating native vegetation and reproducing veryefficiently in urban areas following disturbances accompanied by new plant growth. Following HurricaneAndrew in 1992, there was a significant increase in sightings of iguanas near residential areas. They aredrawn to areas near water and build burrows by digging horizontally into inclines. They often live incolonies and their digging worsens erosion near canals, levees, and other man-made structures, leading tocanal and levee instability. Although they are primarily herbivores, they have also preyed upon tree snails,which can be native only to single tree islands or have very limited ranges, including Orthalicus reses andLiguus fasciatus which are threatened and rare species.[79] [80]

Varanusniloticus

Nile monitor Africa / 1990 Imported by/through pet trade

Nile monitors have established themselves in a region surrounding Cape Coral—including a birdsanctuary at J. N. "Ding" Darling National Wildlife Refuge on Sanibel Island—as pets that have beenreleased or escaped. Between 2000 and 2004, 60,000 monitors were imported in South Florida. They areexcellent swimmers and can run quickly and climb. They have an affinity for eating eggs and pose aspecific danger to ground burrowing animals such as owls (Athene cunicularia), sea turtles, gophertortoises (Gopherus polyphemus), and gopher frogs (Rana capito). They are opportunistic eaters that preyon a variety of crustaceans, fish, lizards, small mammals, and human garbage. Several native egg-layingspecies such as brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis), American crocodiles, and diamondbackterrapins (Malaclemys terrapin) are particularly at risk for predation by Nile monitors.[81] [82]

Birds

Scientific name Common name(s) Origin / Year(s) introduced Method of introduction

Myiopsittamonachus

Monk Parakeet South America / Established by1969

Imported by/through pet trade

Between 1968 and 1972, more than 64,000 Monk Parakeets were brought to the U.S. They are consideredagricultural pests in South America and killed by the thousands. They are included in invasive specieslists in Florida for their abilities to rapidly populate and area for an apparent consistent amount of time.They live in large colonies numbering in the hundreds. They are urban pests because their largecommunals nests form balls of twigs on power lines.[83] [84]

List of invasive species in the Everglades 81

Acridotherestristis

Common Myna Southeast Asia / 1983 Imported by/through the pet trade

Common Mynas are prohibited from being imported into the U.S. Like Monk Parakeets, they also live inlarge communal nests, and are frequently seen near shopping malls where their nests are made in parkinglot light poles. They have been reported to attack native purple martins (Progne subis) and in wildernessareas they inhabit next boxes intended for native birds to use or tree cavities, competing with native birdsfor space. Common Mynas can harbor diseases such as avian malaria that can be spread to native birdpopulations.[85] [86]

Porphyrioporphyrio

Purple Swamphen Australia, Europe, Africa, Asia /1992

Escaped Miami MetroZoo duringHurricane Andrew or released bycollectors

The Purple Swamphen resembles the smaller native Purple Gallinule (Porphyrio martinica) and theCommon Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus). Six to eight individuals escaped from the Miami MetroZoo andseveral others escaped private pens following Hurricane Andrew. They are now established in stormwatertreatment areas north of the Everglades, Lake Okeechobee, Everglades National Park, and Big CypressNational Preserve. They are omnivorous, and can live in colonies numbering 50 or more. They areterritorial and aggressive, even among themselves. They favor eating spikerush plants, which createsuitable habitats for fish populations in Lake Okeechobee.[87] [88]

Mammals

Scientific name Common name(s) Origin / Year(s) introduced Method of introduction

Sus scrofa Wild boar, feral pig Europe / Introduced withEuropean settlers in 16th century

Food for people

Wild pigs are voracious opportunistic eaters, consuming significant amounts of native vegetation, and theyprey on smaller animals. They carry 45 infectious diseases or parasites, such as pseudorabies, easternequine encephalitis, and brucellosis, which can be spread to other mammals. They have spread trichinosisto the critically endangered Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi). They in turn serve as food forpanthers, alligators, and Florida black bears (Ursus americanus floridanus).[89] [90]

Felis silvestriscatus

Domestic / feral cat Europe / Introduced withEuropean settlers in 16th century

Companions for people

Domesticated free-ranging and feral cats are the primary cause of bird deaths in the U.S. Although catsmay be regularly fed, they have an instinct to hunt and are responsible for decreasing numbers of beachmice (Peromyscus polionotus), cotton mice (Peromyscus gossypinus), the endangered Lower Keys marshrabbit (Sylvilagus palustris hefneri), scrub jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens), ground-nesting birds and seaturtle hatchlings. They carry diseases that can be spread to bobcats (Lynx rufus) and the Florida panther,including feline leukemia, feline panleukopenia, and rabies. Cats reproduce prodigiously; there are anestimated 5.3 million free-ranging cats in Florida. Most live in feral colonies or are closely associated withresidential areas. They furthermore compete with bobcats and other carnivorous mammals in much moreprolific numbers than they would naturally. In similar sized territories cats potentially outnumber bobcats640:1. Authorities address feral cats by urging pet owners to keep cats indoors, trapping and euthanizingthe cats, or trapping-neutering-and returning (TNR) them to their territories to live out their lives and dienaturally.[91] [92]

Rattus rattus Black rat, house rat, roof rat Europe / Introduced withEuropean settlers in 16th century

Inhabitants of settlers' ships

Black rats were possibly the first introduced mammals to Florida, followed by pigs. There are a few feralrat species in South Florida, including Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus), but black rats are considerablymore populous than any other species of rat. All exotic rats compete with native mice and rodents for foodand shelter, but the black rat is noted for significantly affecting the endangered Key Largo woodrat(Neotoma floridana smalli).[90] [93]

List of invasive species in the Everglades 82

Footnotes[1] Simberloff, et al, p. 5, 22.[2] Lodge, p. 237.[3] Ferriter, et al (2004), p. 1.[4] Florida Invaders (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ naturescience/ upload/ 2008 Florida Invaders For Web. pdf), National Park Service and

Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. Retrieved on February 3, 2010.[5] Simberloff, et al, p. 3.[6] Lodge, pp. 128–129.[7] Rodgers, et al, p. 9-2.[8] Ugarte, Cristina (1998). South Florida Weeds and Mexican Plants: Friends or Foes? (http:/ / www. fleppc. org/ proceedings/ ugarte. pdf) in

Florida's Garden of Good and Evil: Proceedings of a Joint Conference of the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council and the Florida Native PlantSociety, South Florida Water Management District. Retrieved on February 3, 2010.

[9] Rodgers, et al, p. 9-14.[10] Plant Lists (http:/ / www. fleppc. org/ list/ list. htm), Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council Invasive (2009). Retrieved on February 2, 2010.[11] Ferriter, et al (2004), p. 11.[12] Ferriter, et al (2004), p. 11, 13.[13] Lodge, pp. 240–241.[14] Rodgers, p. 9-20.[15] Ferriter, et al (2004), pp. 14–16.[16] Hutchinson, Jeffrey. Additional Report of Lygodium microphyllum Mats as a Potential Problem for Wildlife (http:/ / www. se-eppc. org/

wildlandweeds/ pdf/ Winter2006-Hutchinson-p7. pdf), University of Florida / IFAS, Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants. Retrieved onFebruary 3, 2010.

[17] Rodgers, p. 9-21.[18] Ferriter, et al (2004), pp. 17–18.[19] Lodge, p. 241.[20] U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Pine Rocklands: Multi-Species Recovery Plan for South Florida (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ southeast/ vbpdfs/

commun/ pr. pdf). Retrieved on February 2, 2010.[21] Simberloff, et al, pp. 43–44.[22] Ferriter, et al (2004), pp. 18–19.[23] Lodge, p. 238.[24] Simberloff, et al, p. 42.[25] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-13.[26] Ferriter, et al (2004), pp. 20–21.[27] Ferriter, et al (2004), pp. 22–23.[28] Ferriter, et al (2004), p. 23.[29] Hammer, Rodger Postcards from Paradise: The Cane Grasses (http:/ / www. se-eppc. org/ wildlandweeds/ pdf/ SU98-HAMMER-P9-11.

pdf), Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council. Retrieved on February 2, 2010.[30] Simberloff, et al, p. 44.[31] Hydrilla verticilata (http:/ / www. fleppc. org/ ID_book/ Hydrilla verticillata. pdf), Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council. Retrieved on February

3, 2010.[32] Common Name: Hydrilla (http:/ / www. se-eppc. org/ manual/ HYVE. html), Southeast Exotic Pest Plant Council Invasive Plant Manual.

Retrieved on February 3, 2010.[33] Simberloff, et al, p. 46.[34] Rodgers, p. 25.[35] Dioscorea bulbifera (http:/ / www. fleppc. org/ ID_book/ Dioscorea_bulbifera. pdf), Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council. Retrieved on

February 3, 2010.[36] Simberloff, et al, pp. 41–42.[37] Cupaniopsis anacardioides (http:/ / www. fleppc. org/ ID_book/ cupaniopsis anacardioides. pdf), Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council.

Retrieved on February 3, 2010.[38] Cupaniopsis anacardioides (http:/ / www. invasive. org/ species/ subject. cfm?sub=5401), Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health

(February 2, 2010). Retrieved on February 3, 2010.[39] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-17.[40] Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (http:/ / plants. ifas. ufl. edu/ misc/ pdfs/ rhotom. pdf), UF IFAS. Retrieved on February 5, 2010.[41] Rodgers, p. 9-31.[42] Lodge, p. 244.[43] Simberloff, et al, p. 75.

List of invasive species in the Everglades 83

[44] Simberloff, et al, p. 97–99.[45] Simberloff, et al, pp. 101–103.[46] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-2.[47] Trexler, Joel;, Loftus, William F.; Jordan, Frank; Lorenz, Jerome J.; Chick, John H. (2000). "Empirical assessment of fish introductions in a

subtropical wetland: an evaluation of contrasting views", Biological Invasions 2, p. 265–277.[48] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-3.[49] Simberloff, et al, p. 143.[50] Butler, Christopher (2005). Feral Parrots in the Continental United States and United Kingdom: Past, Present, and Future (http:/ / www.

biology. uco. edu/ PersonalPages/ CButler/ jams_butler. pdf), Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery, 19 (2), pp. 142–149.[51] Simberloff, et al, p. 158.[52] Brown, Mark T.; Cohen, Matthew J.; Bardi, Eliana; and Ingwersen, Wesley W. (2006). Species diversity in the Florida Everglades, USA: A

systems approach to calculating biodiversity (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ ur65434v3124m41u/ fulltext. pdf), Aquatic Sciences,68 pp. 254–277.

[53] Nonnative Amnesty Day Events (http:/ / www. myfwc. com/ WILDLIFEHABITATS/ Nonnative_AmnestyDayEvents. htm), Florida Fishand Wildlife Conservation Commission. Retrieved on February 4, 2010.

[54] FWC creates special season for capture and removal of reptiles of concern (http:/ / myfwc. com/ NEWSROOM/ 10/ south/News_10_S_ROC_SpecialSeason. htm), Florida Wildlife Conservation Commission (News release: February 22, 2010). Retrieved onFebruary 22, 2010.

[55] Rodgers, p. 9-15.[56] Lodge, p. 242–243.[57] Lobate Lac Scale – Paratachardina lobata subsp. lobata Chamberlin (http:/ / www. invasive. org/ gist/ products/ gallery/ parlo1. html), The

Nature Conservancy (2005). Retrieved on February 3, 2010.[58] Howard, F.W.; Pemberton, Robert; Hamon, Avas; Hodges, Greg; Steinberg, Bryan; Mannion, Catherine; McLean, David; Wofford,

Jeannette (November 2002). Lobate Lac Scale, Paratachardina lobata lobata (Chamberlin) (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea: Kerriidae)(http:/ / edis. ifas. ufl. edu/ pdffiles/ IN/ IN47100. pdf), University of Florida IFAS. Retrieved on February 3, 2010.

[59] common name: Mexican bromeliad weevil (http:/ / www. entnemdept. ufl. edu/ creatures/ orn/ m_callizona. htm), University of FloridaIFAS Entomology Nematology (June 2009). Retrieved on February 4, 2010.

[60] Simberloff, et al, p. 84.[61] Frank, J. H.; Fish, D. H. Potential Biodiversity Loss in Florida Bromeliad Phytotelmata due to Metamasius Callizona (Coleoptera:

Dryphthoridae), an Invasive Species (http:/ / www. fcla. edu/ FlaEnt/ fe91p001. pdf), Florida Entomologist, 91 (1), pp. 1–8.[62] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-31.[63] Natural Resources Management: Island Apple Snail (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ naturescience/ upload/

SecureFinalIslandAppleSnailFactSheetlores . pdf), National Park Service. Retrieved on February 3, 2010.[64] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-27.[65] Simberloff, et al, pp. 104–105.[66] Havens, Karl; Rosen, Barry Lake Okeechobee Conceptual Model (http:/ / www. sfrestore. org/ crogee/ ra13/ modelpt2. pdf), South Florida

Water Management District. Retrieved on February 4, 2010.[67] Nonnative: Suckermouth Catfishes (http:/ / myfwc. com/ WILDLIFEHABITATS/ Nonnative_FW_SuckermouthCatfishes. htm), Florida

Wildlife Conservation Commission. Retrieved on February 5, 2010.[68] Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus (Hancock 1828) (http:/ / nas. er. usgs. gov/ queries/ FactSheet. asp?speciesID=768), U.S. Geological Survey

(March 21, 2006). Retrieved on February 5, 2010.[69] Hoover, Jan Jeffrey; Killgore, K. Jack; Cofrancesco, Alfred F. (February 2004). Suckermouth Catfishes: Threats to Aquatic Ecosystems of

the United States? (http:/ / el. erdc. usace. army. mil/ elpubs/ pdf/ ansrp-v04-1. pdf), Aquatic Nuisance Species Research Program Bulletin, 4(1), p. 1–13.

[70] Robins, Robert H. Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department: Walking Catfish (http:/ / 128. 227. 186. 212/ fish/ Gallery/Descript/ WalkingCatfish/ WalkingCatfish. html), Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department. Retrieved on July 24, 2008.

[71] Brogan, Christine (September 30, 2003). Walking Catfish (Clarius batrachus) (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ itc/ cerc/ danoff-burg/invasion_bio/ inv_spp_summ/ Clarius_batrachus. html), Columbia University Introduced Species Summary Project. Retrieved on February17, 2010.

[72] Simberloff, et al, p. 114–115.[73] Faunce,Craig H.; Lorenz, Jerome J. (2000). "Reproductive biology of the introduced Mayan cichlid, Cichlasoma urophthalmus, within an

estuarine mangrove habitat of southern Florida", Environmental Biology of Fishes 58, p. 215–225.[74] Robins, Robert. Mayan Cichlid (http:/ / www. flmnh. ufl. edu/ fish/ Gallery/ Descript/ MayanCichlid/ MayanCichlid. html), Florida Museum

of Natural History. Retrieved on February 6, 2010.[75] Simberloff, et al. p. 343.[76] Oreochromis aureus (http:/ / nas. er. usgs. gov/ queries/ FactSheet. asp?speciesID=463), U.S. Geological Survey (March 25, 2009).

Retrieved on February 6, 2010.[77] Rodda, Gordon H.; Jarnevich, Catherine S.; Reed, Robert N. (October 29, 2007). What Parts of the US Mainland are Climatically Suitable

for Invasive Alien Pythons Spreading from Everglades National Park? (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ n3311274l052777t/ fulltext.

List of invasive species in the Everglades 84

pdf), Biological Invasions 11 pp. 241–252.[78] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-21.[79] Meshaka, Walter; Bartlett, Richard; Smith, Henry (September 2004). "Colonization Success by Green Iguanas in Florida", Iguana, 11 (3),

pp. 155–161.[80] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-33.[81] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-29.[82] Enge, Kevin M.; Krysko, Kenneth L.; Hankins, Kraig R.; Campbell, Todd S.; King, F. Wayne (2004). "Status of the Nile Monitor (Varanus

niloticus) in Southwestern Florida", Southeastern Naturalist, 3 (4), pp. 571–582.[83] Simberloff, et al, pp. 145–146.[84] Monk Parakeet – Myiopsitta monachus (http:/ / www. myfwc. com/ WILDLIFEHABITATS/ Nonnative_MonkParakeet. htm), Florida Fish

and Wildlife Conservation Commission. Retrieved on February 5, 2010.[85] Common Myna – Acridotheres tristis (http:/ / www. myfwc. com/ WILDLIFEHABITATS/ Nonnative_CommonMyna. htm), Florida Fish

and Wildlife Conservation Commission. Retrieved on February 6, 2010.[86] Simberloff, et al, p. 154.[87] Johnson, Steven Albert; McGarrity, Monica E. (2009). Florida's Introduced Birds: Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio) (http:/ / edis.

ifas. ufl. edu/ uw315), UF IFAS Publication #WEC 270. Retrieved on February 6, 2010.[88] Ferriter, et al (2009), p. 9-25.[89] Rollins, Dale (February 10, 1997. Feral Hogs: The Florida Experience (http:/ / texnat. tamu. edu/ symposia/ feral/ feral-14. htm), Texas

A&M University. Retrieved on February 21, 2010.[90] Lodge, p. 179.[91] Lodge, p. 245.[92] Feral Cat Issue Team (March 3, 2003). Issue Assessment: Impacts of Feral and Free-Ranging Domestic Cats on Wildlife in Florida" (http:/ /

www. myfwc. com/ docs/ WildlifeHabitats/ Domestic_Cats_whitepaper. pdf), Florida Wildlife and Conservation Commission. Retrieved onFebruary 5, 2010.

[93] Simberloff, et al, p. 168.

References• Ferriter, Amy; Serbesoff-King, Kristina; Bodle, Mike; Goodyear, Carole; Doren, Bob; Langeland, Ken (2004).

Chapter 8E: Exotic Species in the Everglades Protection Area (https:/ / my. sfwmd. gov/ portal/ page/ portal/pg_grp_sfwmd_sfer/ portlet_prevreport/ final/ chapters/ ch8e. pdf), South Florida Water Management District

• Ferriter, Amy; Thayer, Dan; Bodle, Mike; Doren, Bob (2009). Chapter 9: The Status of Nonindigenous Species inthe South Florida Environment (https:/ / my. sfwmd. gov/ portal/ page/ portal/ pg_grp_sfwmd_sfer/ portlet_sfer/tab2236041/ 2009report/ report/ v1/ chapters/ v1_ch9. pdf), 2009 South Florida Environmental Report (VolumeI), South Florida Water Management District.

• Lodge, Thomas E. (2005). The Everglades Handbook. Understanding the Ecosystem. CRC Press. ISBN1884015069

• Rodgers, LeRoy; Bodle, Mike; Laroche, Francois (2010). Chapter 9: Status of Nonindigenous Species in theSouth Florida Environment (https:/ / my. sfwmd. gov/ portal/ page/ portal/ pg_grp_sfwmd_sfer/ portlet_sfer/tab2236037/ 2010 report/ v1/ chapters/ v1_ch9. pdf), 2010 South Florida Environmental Report (Volume I),South Florida Water Management District.

• Simberloff, Daniel; Achmitz, Don; Brown, Tom (1997). Strangers in Paradise: Impact Management ofNonindigenous Species in Florida, Island Press. ISBN 1559634308

List of invasive species in the Everglades 85

External links• United States Department of Agriculture Resources for Florida (http:/ / www. invasivespeciesinfo. gov/

unitedstates/ fl. shtml)• Florida Rules and Regulations for Nonnative Species and Wildlife Kept as Personal Pets (http:/ / www. myfwc.

com/ WILDLIFEHABITATS/ Nonnative_RuleRegs. htm)• Alien Invaders: Exotic Plants in the Everglades (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ naturescience/ invasiveplants. htm)• Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (http:/ / www. fleppc. org/ index. cfm)• Everglades Cooperative Invasive Species Management Area (http:/ / www. evergladescisma. org/ )• Mapping Exotic Vegetation in the Everglades from Large-Scale Aerial Photographs (http:/ / www. asprs. org/

publications/ pers/ 99journal/ february/ 1999_feb_179-184. pdf)• Exotic Plant Species as Problems and Solutions in Ecological Restoration: A Synthesis (http:/ / planet. botany.

uwc. ac. za/ NISL/ Invasives/ Refs/ DAntonioandMeyerson. pdf)

86

Indigenous peoples

Indigenous people of the Everglades region

The Seminole family of Cypress Tiger in 1916

The indigenous people of the Everglades regionarrived in the Florida peninsula approximately15,000 years ago, probably following large game. ThePaleo-Indians found an arid landscape that supportedplants and animals adapted to desert conditions.Climate changes 6,500 years ago brought a wetterlandscape; large animals became extinct in Florida, andthe Paleo-Indians slowly adapted to the new conditions.Archaeologists call the cultures that resulted from theadaptations Archaic peoples. They were better suitedfor environmental changes than their ancestors, andcreated many tools with the resources they had.Approximately 5,000 years ago, the climate shiftedagain to cause the regular flooding from Lake Okeechobee that became the Everglades ecosystems.

From the Archaic peoples, two major tribes emerged in the area: the Calusa and the Tequesta. The earliest writtendescriptions of these people come from Spanish explorers who sought to convert and conquer them. Although theylived in complex societies, little evidence of their existence remains today. The Calusa were more powerful innumber and political structure. Their territory was centered around modern-day Ft. Myers, and extended as far northas Tampa, as far east as Lake Okeechobee, and as far south as the Keys. The Tequesta lived on the southeastern coastof the Florida peninsula around what is today Biscayne Bay and the Miami River. Both societies were well adaptedto live in the various ecosystems of the Everglades regions. They often traveled through the heart of the Everglades,though they rarely lived within it.After more than 200 years of relations with the Spanish, both indigenous societies lost cohesiveness. Official recordsindicate that survivors of war and disease were transported to Havana in the late 18th century. Isolated groups mayhave been assimilated into the Seminole nation, which formed in northern Florida when a band of Creeksconsolidated surviving members of pre-Columbian societies in Florida into their own to become a distinct tribe.Seminoles were forced into the Everglades by the U.S. military during the Seminole Wars from 1835 to 1842. TheU.S. military pursued the Seminoles into the region, which resulted in some of the first recorded explorations ofmuch of the area. Seminoles continue to live in the Everglades region, and support themselves with casino gamingon six reservations located throughout the state.

Prehistoric peoples

Indigenous people of the Everglades region 87

Cultural Periods in Prehistoric South Florida[1]

Period Dates

Paleo-Indian 10,000–7,000 BCE

Archaic:Early

MiddleLate

7,000–5,000 BCE5,000–3,000 BCE3,000–1,500 BCE

Transitional 1,500–500 BCE

Glades I 500 BCE–800 CE

Glades II 800–1200

Glades III 1200–1566

Historic 1566–1763

Humans first inhabited the peninsula of Florida approximately 15,000 years ago when it looked vastly different. Thewest coast extended about 100 miles (160 km) to the west.[2] The landscape had large dunes and sweeping windscharacteristic of an arid region, and pollen samples show foliage was limited to small stands of oak, and scrubbushes. As earth's glacial ice retreated, winds slowed and vegetation became more prevalent and varied.[3] ThePaleo-Indian diets were dominated by small plants and the wild game available, which included saber-toothed cats,sloths, and spectacled bears. Around 6,500 years ago, the climate of Florida began to change, and the land becamemuch wetter. Paleo-Indians spent more time in camps and less time traveling in between sources of water. The largegame that were adapted for desert conditions became extinct on the peninsula, probably due to a combination ofoverhunting and the change of climate.[4]

The Paleo-Indians then slowly adapted and became the Archaic peoples of the Florida peninsula, most probably dueto the extinction of big game. Archaic people were primarily hunter-gatherers who depended on smaller game andfish, and relied more than their predecessors on plants for food. They were able to adapt to the shifting climate andthe resulting change of animal and plant populations. Florida experienced a prolonged drought at the onset of theEarly Archaic era that lasted until the Middle Archaic period. Although the population decreased overall on thepeninsula, the use of tools increased significantly during this time; artifacts have shown that these people used drills,knives, choppers, atlatls, and awls made from stone, antlers, and bone.[5] During the Late Archaic period, the climatebecame wetter again, and by approximately 3000 BCE, the rise of water tables allowed an increase in population andcultural development. Florida Indians formed into three similar but distinct cultures, Okeechobee, Caloosahatchee,and Glades, named for the bodies of water around which they were centered.[6]

The Glades culture is divided into three periods based on evidence found in middens. In 1947, archaeologist JohnGoggin described the three periods after examining shell mounds. He excavated one on Matecumbe Key, another atGordon Pass near modern-day Naples, and a third south of Lake Okeechobee near modern-day Belle Glade. TheGlades I culture, lasting from 500 BCE to 800 CE, was apparently focused around Gordon Pass and is considered theleast sophisticated due to the lack of artifacts. What has been found—primarily pottery—is gritty and plain.[7] Withthe advent of a well-established culture in 800 CE, the Glades II period is characterized by more ornate pottery, wideuse of tools throughout the South Florida region, and the appearance of religious artifacts at burial sites. By 1200, theGlades III culture exhibited the height of their development. Pottery became ornate enough to be subdivided intotypes of decoration. More importantly, evidence of an expanding culture is revealed through the development ofceremonial ornaments made from shell, and the construction of large earthworks associated with burial rituals.[7]

From the Glades III culture developed two distinct tribes that lived in and near the Everglades: the Calusa and theTequesta.

Indigenous people of the Everglades region 88

Calusa

Archaeological subareas of tribes that lived in and around the Everglades from1513 to 1743[8]

What is known of the inhabitants of Floridaafter 1566 was recorded by Europeanexplorers and settlers. Juan Ponce de León iscredited as the first European to havecontact with Florida's indigenous people in1513. Ponce de León met with hostility fromtribes that may have been the Ais and theTequesta before rounding Cape Sable tomeet the Calusa, the largest and mostpowerful tribe in South Florida. Ponce deLeón found at least one of the Calusa fluentin Spanish.[9] The explorer assumed theSpanish-speaker was from Hispaniola, butanthropologists have suggested thatcommunication and trade between Calusaand native people in Cuba and the FloridaKeys was common, or that Ponce de Leónwas not the first Spaniard to make contactwith the native people of Florida.[10] Duringhis second visit to South Florida, Ponce deLeón was killed by the Calusa, and the tribegained a reputation for violence to causefuture explorers to avoid them.[11] In the more than 200 years the Calusa had relations with the Spanish, they wereable to resist their attempts to missionize them.

The Calusa were referred to as Carlos by the Spanish, which may have sounded like Calos, a variation of theMuskogean word kalo meaning "black" or "powerful".[12] Much of what is known about the Calusa was provided byHernando de Escalante Fontaneda. Fontaneda was a 13-year-old boy who was the only survivor of a shipwreck offthe coast of Florida in 1545. For seventeen years he lived with the Calusa until explorer Pedro Menéndez de Avilésfound him in 1566. Menéndez took Fontaneda to Spain where he wrote about his experiences. Menéndez approachedthe Calusa with the intention of establishing relations with them to ease the settlement of the future Spanish colony.The chief, or cacique, was named Carlos by the Spanish. Positions of importance in Calusa society were given theadopted names Carlos and Philip, transliterated from Spanish royal tradition.[13] However, the cacique Carlosdescribed by Fontaneda was the most powerful chief during Spanish colonization. Menéndez married his sister inorder to facilitate relations between the Spanish and the Calusa.[14] This arrangement was common in societies inSouth Florida people. Polygamy was a method of solving disputes or settling agreements between rival towns.[15]

Menéndez, however, was already married and expressed discomfort with the union. Unable to avoid the marriage, hetook Carlos' sister to Havana where she was educated, and where one account reported that she died years later, themarriage never consummated.[16]

Indigenous people of the Everglades region 89

A Calusa wood carving of an alligator headexcavated in Key Marco in 1895, on display at

the Florida Museum of Natural History

Fontaneda explained in his 1571 memoir that Carlos controlled fiftyvillages located on Florida's west coast, around Lake Okeechobee(which they called Mayaimi) and on the Florida Keys (they calledMartires). Smaller tribes of Ais and Jaega who lived to the east of LakeOkeechobee, paid regular tributes to Carlos. The Spanish suspected theCalusa of harvesting treasures from shipwrecks and distributing thegold and silver between the Ais and Jaega, with Carlos receiving themajority.[17] The main village of the Calusa, and home of Carlos,bordered Estero Bay at present-day Mound Key where theCaloosahatchee River meets the Gulf of Mexico.[18] Fontanedadescribed human sacrifice as a common practice: when the child of acacique died, each resident gave up a child to be sacrificed, and whenthe cacique died, his servants were sacrificed to join him. Each year aChristian was required to be sacrificed to appease a Calusa idol.[19]

The building of shell mounds of varying sizes and shapes was also ofspiritual significance to the Calusa. In 1895 Frank Hamilton Cushingexcavated a massive shell mound on Key Marco that was composed ofseveral constructed terraces hundreds of yards long. Cushing unearthedover a thousand Calusa artifacts. Among them he found tools made of

bone and shell, pottery, human bones, masks, and animal carvings made of wood.[20]

The Calusa, like their predecessors, were hunter-gatherers who existed on small game, fish, turtles, alligators,shellfish, and various plants.[21] Finding little use for the soft limestone of the area, they made most of their toolsfrom bone or teeth, although they also found sharpened reeds effective. Weapons consisted of bows and arrows,atlatls, and spears. Most villages were located at the mouths of rivers or on key islands. They used canoes were usedfor transportation, as evidenced by shell mounds in and around the Everglades that border canoe trails. South Floridatribes often canoed through the Everglades, but rarely lived in them.[22] Canoe trips to Cuba were also common.[23]

Calusa villages often had more than 200 inhabitants, and their society was organized in a hierarchy. Apart from thecacique, other strata included priests and warriors. Family bonds promoted the hierarchy, and marriage betweensiblings was common among the elite. Fontaneda wrote, "These Indians have no gold, no silver, and less clothing.They go naked except for some breech cloths woven of palms, with which the men cover themselves; the women dothe like with certain grass that grows on trees. This grass looks like wool, although it is different from it".[24] Onlyone instance of structures was described: Carlos met Menéndez in a large house with windows and room for over athousand people.[25]

The Spanish found Carlos uncontrollable, as their priests and the Calusa fought almost constantly. Carlos was killedwhen a Spanish soldier shot him with a crossbow.[26] Following the death of cacique Carlos, leadership of thesociety passed to two caciques who were captured and killed by the Spanish.[13] Estimated numbers of Calusa at thebeginning of the occupation of the Spanish ranged from 4,000 to 7,000.[27] The society endured a decline of powerand population after Carlos; by 1697 their number was estimated to be about 1,000.[23] In the early 18th century, theCalusa came under attack from the Yamasee to the north; many asked to be removed to Cuba, where almost 200 diedof illness. Some relocated to Florida,[28] and remnants may have been eventually assimilated into the Seminoleculture, which developed during the 18th century.[29]

Indigenous people of the Everglades region 90

TequestaSecond in power and number to the Calusa in South Florida were the Tequesta (also called Tekesta, Tequeste, andTegesta). They occupied the southeastern portion of the lower peninsula in modern-day Dade and Broward counties.They may have been controlled by the Calusa, but accounts state that they sometimes refused to comply with theCalusa caciques, which resulted in war.[18] Like the Calusa, they rarely lived within the Everglades, but found thecoastal prairies and pine rocklands to the east of the freshwater sloughs habitable. To the north, their territory wasbordered by the Ais and Jaega. Like the Calusa, the Tequesta societies centered around the mouths of rivers. Theirmain village was probably on the Miami River or Little River. A large shell mound on the Little River marks wherea village once stood.[30] Though little remains of the Tequesta society, a site of archeological importance called theMiami Circle was discovered in 1998 in downtown Miami. It may be the remains of a Tequesta structure.[31] Itssignificance has yet to be determined, though archeologists and anthropologists continue to study it.[32]

Pedro Menéndez de Avilés maintained a friendlyrelationship with the Tequesta.

The Spanish described the Tequesta as greatly feared by their sailors,who suspected the natives of torturing and killing survivors ofshipwrecks. Spanish priests wrote that the Tequesta performed childsacrifices to mark the occasion of making peace with a tribe withwhom they had been fighting. Like the Calusa, the Tequesta huntedsmall game, but depended more upon roots and less on shellfish intheir diets. They did not practice cultivated agriculture. They wereskilled canoeists and hunted in the open ocean what Fontanedadescribed as whales, but were probably manatees. They lassoed themanatees and drove a stake through their snouts.[19] [30]

The first contact with Spanish explorers occurred in 1513 when JuanPonce de León stopped at a bay he called Chequescha, or BiscayneBay. Finding the Tequesta unwelcoming, he left to make contact withthe Calusa. Menéndez met the Tequesta in 1565 and maintained afriendly relationship with them, building some houses and setting up amission. He also took the chief's nephew to Havana to be educated, andthe chief's brother to Spain. After Menéndez visited, there are few

records of the Tequesta: a reference to them in 1673, and further Spanish contact to convert them.[33] The lastreference to the Tequesta during their existence was written in 1743 by a Spanish priest named Father Alaña, whodescribed their ongoing assault by another tribe. The survivors numbered only 30, and the Spanish transported themto Havana. In 1770 a British surveyor described multiple deserted villages in the region where the Tequesta hadlived.[34] Archeologist John Goggin suggested that by the time European Americans settled the area in 1820, anyremaining Tequesta were assimilated into the Seminole people.[30] Common descriptions of Native Americans inFlorida by 1820 identified only the "Seminoles".[35]

SeminoleFollowing the demise of the Calusa and Tequesta, Native Americans in southern Florida were referred to as "Spanish Indians" in the 1740s, probably due to their friendlier relations with Spain. Between the Spanish defeat in the Seven Years' War in 1763 and the end of the American War of Independence in 1783, the United Kingdom ruled Florida. The term "Seminolie" was first used by a British Indian agent in a document dated 1771.[36] The beginnings of the tribe are vague, but records show that Creeks invaded the Florida peninsula, conquering and assimilating what was left of pre-Columbian societies into the Creek Confederacy. The mixing of cultures is evident in the language influences present among the Seminoles: various Muskogean languages, notably Hitchiti, and Creek, as well as Timucuan. In the early 19th century, a US Indian agent explained the Seminoles this way: "The word Seminole

Indigenous people of the Everglades region 91

means runaway or broken off. Hence ... applicable to all the Indians in the Territory of Florida as all of them ranaway ... from the Creek ... Nation".[37] Linguistically, the term "Seminole" comes from the Creek words Sua (SunGod), ma (mother, although in this connotation it is pejorative), and ol (people) to mean "people whom the Sun Goddoes not love", or "accursed".[38]

Seminoles such as Charlie Cypress, shown in1900, have made their home in the Everglades.

Creeks, who were centered in modern-day Alabama and Georgia, wereknown to incorporate conquered tribes into their own. Some Africansescaping slavery from South Carolina and Georgia fled to Florida,lured by Spanish promises of freedom should they convert toCatholicism, and found their way into the tribe.[39] Seminolesoriginally settled in the northern portion of the territory, but the 1823Treaty of Moultrie Creek forced them to live on a 5-million-acre(20000 km2) reservation north of Lake Okeechobee. They soon rangedfarther south, where they numbered approximately 300 in theEverglades region,[40] including bands of Miccosukees—a similar tribewho spoke a different language—who lived in The Big Cypress.[41]

Unlike the Calusa and Tequesta, the Seminole depended more onagriculture and raised domesticated animals. They hunted for whatthey ate, and traded with European-American settlers. They lived instructures called chickees, open-sided palm-thatched huts, probablyadapted from the Calusa.[42]

In 1817, Andrew Jackson invaded Florida to hasten its annexation tothe United States in what became the First Seminole War. After Florida became a U.S. territory and settlementincreased, conflicts between colonists and Seminoles became more frequent. The Second Seminole War(1835–1842) resulted in almost 4,000 Seminoles in Florida being displaced or killed. The Seminole Wars pushed theIndians farther south and into the Everglades. Those who did not find refuge in the Everglades were relocated toOklahoma Indian territory under Indian Removal.

The Third Seminole War lasted from 1855 to 1859. Over its course, 20 Seminoles were killed and 240 wereremoved.[41] By 1913, Seminoles in the Everglades numbered no more than 325.[43] They made their villages inhardwood hammocks, islands of hardwood trees that formed in rivers or pine rockland forests. Seminole dietsconsisted of hominy and coontie roots, fish, turtles, venison, and small game.[43] Villages were not large, due to thelimited size of hammocks, which on average measured between one and 10 acres (40000 m2). In the center of thevillage was a cook-house, and the largest structure was reserved for eating. When the Seminoles lived in northernFlorida, they wore animal-skin clothing similar to their Creek predecessors. The heat and humidity of the Evergladesinfluenced their adapting a different style of dress. Seminoles replaced their heavier buckskins with clothing ofunique calico patchwork designs made of lighter cotton, or silk for more formal occasions.[44]

The Seminole Wars increased the U.S. military presence in the Everglades, which resulted in the exploration andmapping of many regions that had not previously been recorded.[45] The military officers who had done the mappingand charting of the Everglades were approached by Thomas Buckingham Smith in 1848 to consult on the feasibilityof draining the region for agricultural use.[46] Between the end of the Third Seminole War and 1930, the tribe livedin relative isolation.The construction of the Tamiami Trail, from 1928 to 1930, a road connecting Tampa to Miami and bisecting the Everglades, brought a steady stream of white people into Seminole territory that altered traditional ways of life. The Seminole began to work in local farms, ranches, and souvenir stands. They cleared land for the town of Everglades, and were "the best fire fighters [the National Park Service] could recruit" when Everglades National Park caught fire in times of drought.[47] As metropolitan areas in South Florida began to grow, the Seminoles became closely associated with the Everglades, simultaneously seeking privacy and serving as a tourist attraction, wrestling

Indigenous people of the Everglades region 92

alligators and selling craftwork. As of 2008, there were six Seminole reservations throughout Florida; they featurecasino gaming that support the tribe.[48]

Bibliography• Douglas, Marjory [1947] (2002). The Everglades: River of Grass. R. Bemis Publishing. ISBN 0-912451-44-0• Gannon, Michael, ed. (1996). The New History of Florida. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1415-8• Griffin, John (2002). Archeology of the Everglades. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2558-3• Hann, John (ed.) (1991). Missions to the Calusa. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1966-4• McCally, David (1999). The Everglades: An Environmental History. University Press of Florida. ISBN

0-8130-2302-5• Milanich, Jerald (1998). Florida's Indians from Ancient Times to the Present. University Press of Florida. ISBN

978-0-8130-1599-6• Tebeau, Charlton (1968). Man in the Everglades: 2000 Years of Human History in the Everglades National Park.

University of Miami Press.

Notes and references[1] McCally, p. 32.[2] Gannon, p. 2.[3] McCally, p. 34.[4] McCally, p. 35.[5] McCally, p. 36.[6] McCally, p. 37–39.[7] Goggin, John (October 1947). "A Preliminary Definition of Archaeological Areas and Periods in Florida", American Antiquity, 13 (2),

p. 114–127.[8] Griffin, p. 163.[9] Griffin, p. 161.[10] Hann, p. 4–5.[11] Griffin, p. 161–162.[12] Douglas, p. 68.[13] Hann, John (October 1992). "Political Leadership Among the Natives of Spanish Florida", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 71 (2),

p. 188–208.[14] Griffin, p. 162.[15] Griffin, p. 316.[16] Hann, p. 289–290.[17] McCally, p. 40.[18] Griffin, p. 164.[19] Worth, John (January 1995). "Fontaneda Revisited: Five Descriptions of Sixteenth-Century Florida", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 73

(3), p. 339–352.[20] Cushing, Frank (December 1896). "Exploration of Ancient Key Dwellers' Remains on the Gulf Coast of Florida", Proceedings of the

American Philosophical Society, 35 (153) , p. 329–448.[21] Tebeau, p. 38–41.[22] McCally, p. 39.[23] Griffin, p. 171.[24] Tebeau, p. 42.[25] Griffin, p. 165.[26] Douglas, p. 171.[27] Griffin, p. 170.[28] Griffin, p. 173.[29] Milanich, p. 177[30] Goggin, John (April 1940). "The Tekesta Indians of Southern Florida", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 18 (4), p. 274–285.[31] United States Congress Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources (2003). "Miami Circle/Biscayne National Park: report (to

accompany S. 111)", United States Congress Senate Report 108-4.[32] Merzer, Martin (January 29, 2008). "Access to ancient site may come in near future", The Miami Herald (Florida), State and Regional News.[33] Griffin, p. 174.

Indigenous people of the Everglades region 93

[34] Tebeau, p. 43.[35] Tebeau, p. 45.[36] Griffin, p. 176.[37] McReynolds, p. 12.[38] Drew, Frank (July 1927). "Notes on the origins of the Seminole Indians of Florida", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 6 (1), p. 21–24.[39] Bateman, Rebecca (Winter, 1990). "Africans and Indians: A Comparative Study of the Black Carib and Black Seminole", Ethnohistory, 37

(1), p. 1–24.[40] Tebeau, p. 50.[41] Griffin, p. 180.[42] Tebeau, p. 50–51[43] Skinner, Alanson (January–March 1913). "Notes on the Florida Seminole", American Anthropologist, 15 (1), p. 63–77.[44] Blackard, David (2004). "Seminole Clothing: Colorful Patchwork" (http:/ / www. seminoletribe. com/ culture/ clothing. shtml). Seminole

Tribe of Florida. . Retrieved 2008-04-30.[45] Tebeau, p. 63–64.[46] Tebeau, p. 70–71.[47] Tebeau, p. 55–56.[48] "Tourism/Enterprises" (http:/ / www. seminoletribe. com/ enterprises/ casinos. shtml). Seminole Tribe of Florida. 2007. . Retrieved

2008-04-30.

External links• State of Florida timeline of indigenous people in the Miami area (http:/ / www. flheritage. com/ archaeology/

projects/ miamicircle/ Tour/ historicTL. cfm)

Calusa 94

Calusa

Calusa

Approximate Calusa core area (red) and politicaldomain (blue)

Total population

Extinct as a tribe

Regions with significant populations

United States (Florida)

Languages

Calusa

Religion

Native

The Calusa (English pronunciation: /kəˈluːsə/ kə-loo-sə) were a Native American people who lived on the coast andalong the inner waterways of Florida's southwest coast. Calusa society developed from that of archaic peoples of theEverglades region; at the time of European contact, the Calusa were the people of the Caloosahatchee culture. Theywere notable for having developed a complex culture based on estuarine fisheries rather than agriculture. Calusaterritory reached from Charlotte Harbor to Cape Sable, all of present-day Charlotte and Lee counties, and may haveincluded the Florida Keys at times. They had the highest population density of south Florida; estimates of totalpopulation at the time of European contact range from 10,000 to several times that, but these are still speculative.Calusa political influence and control also extended over other tribes in southern Florida, including the Mayaimiaround Lake Mayaimi (now Lake Okeechobee), and the Tequesta and Jaega on the southeast coast of the peninsula.Calusa influence may have also extended to the Ais tribe on the central east coast of Florida.[1]

Calusa 95

NameEarly Spanish and French sources referred to the tribe, its chief town and its chief as Calos, Calus, Caalus, andCarlos. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, a Spaniard held captive by the Calusa in the 16th century, recorded thatCarlos meant fierce people in their language. The Anglo-Americans used the term Calusa for the people by the early19th century. It is based on the Creek and Mikasuki (languages of the present-day Seminole and Miccosukeenations) ethnonym for the people who had lived around the Caloosahatchee River (also from the Creek language).[2]

Juan Rogel, a Jesuit missionary to the Calusa in the late 1560s, noted the chief's name as Carlos, but wrote that thename of the "kingdom" was Escampaba, with an alternate spelling of Escampaha. Rogel also stated that the chief'sname was Caalus, and that the Spanish had changed it to Carlos. Marquardt quotes a statement from the 1570s that"the Bay of Carlos ... in the Indian language is called Escampaba, for the cacique of this town, who afterward calledhimself Carlos in devotion to the Emperor" (Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor). Escampaba may be related to aplace named Stapaba, which was identified in the area on an early 16th-century map.[3]

OriginsPaleo-Indians entered what is now Florida at least 12,000 years ago. By around 5000 BC, people started living invillages near wetlands. Favored sites were likely occupied for multiple generations. Florida's climate had reachedcurrent conditions and the sea had risen close to its present level by about 3000 BC. People commonly occupied bothfresh and saltwater wetlands. Because of their reliance on shellfish, they accumulated large shell middens during thisperiod. Many people lived in large villages with purpose-built earthwork mounds, such as at the Horr's Island.People began creating fired pottery in Florida by 2000 BC. By about 500 BC, the Archaic culture, which had beenfairly uniform across Florida, began to devolve into more distinct regional cultures.[4]

Some Archaic artifacts have been found in the region later occupied by the Calusa, including one site classified asearly Archaic, prior to 5000 BC. There is evidence that the people intensively exploited Charlotte Harbor aquaticresources before 3500 BC. Undecorated pottery belonging to the early Glades culture appeared in the region around500 BC. Pottery distinct from the Glades tradition developed in the region around AD 500, marking the beginning ofthe Caloosahatchee culture. This lasted until about 1750, and included the historic Calusa people. A complex society,with high population densities, developed by 800. Later periods in the Caloosahatchee culture are defined in thearchaeological record by the appearance of pottery from other traditions.The Caloosahatchee culture consisted of the Florida west coast from Estero Bay to Charlotte Harbor and inlandabout halfway to Lake Okeechobee, approximately covering what are now Charlotte and Lee counties. At the time offirst European contact, the Caloosahatchee culture region formed the core of the Calusa domain. Artifacts related tofishing changed slowly over this period, with no obvious breaks in tradition that might indicate a replacement of thepopulation.[5]

Between 500 and 1000, the undecorated, sand-tempered pottery that had been common in the area was replaced by"Belle Glade Plain" pottery. This was made with clay containing spicules from freshwater sponges (Spongilla), and itfirst appeared inland in sites around Lake Okeechobee. This change may have resulted from the people's migrationfrom the interior to the coastal region, or may reflect trade and cultural influences. There was little change in thepottery tradition after this. The Calusa were descended from people who had lived in the area for at least 1000 yearsprior to European contact, and possibly for much longer than that.[6]

Calusa 96

Society

Diorama of a Calusa chief at the FMNH

The Calusa had a stratified society, consisting of"commoners" and "nobles" in Spanish terms. A fewleaders governed the tribe. They were supported by thelabor of the majority of the Calusa. The leadersincluded the tribal chief, or "king"; a military leader(capitán general in Spanish), and a chief priest. In1564, according to a Spanish source, the priest was thechief's father, and the military leader was his cousin. Infour cases in which succession to the position ofparamount chief is known, Senequne succeeded hisbrother (name unknown), and was in turn succeeded byhis son Carlos. Carlos was succeeded by his cousin(and brother-in-law) Felipe, who was in turn succeededby Carlos' cousin, Pedro. The Spanish reported that thechief was expected to marry his sister. The contemporary archeologists MacMahon and Marquardt suggest thisstatement may have been a misunderstanding of a requirement to marry a "clan-sister". The chief also marriedwomen from subject towns and allied tribes. This use of marriages to secure alliances was demonstrated when Carlosoffered his sister Antonia in marriage to the Spanish explorer Pedro Menéndez de Avilés in 1566.[7]

Material culture

DietThe Calusa diet at settlements along the coast and estuaries consisted primarily of fish, in particular pinfish(Lagodon rhomboides), pigfish (redmouth grunt), (Orthopristis chrysoptera) and hardhead catfish (Ariopsis Felis).These small fish were supplemented by larger bony fish, sharks and rays, mollusks, crustaceans, ducks, sea and landturtles and land animals. When Pedro Menéndez de Avilés visited in 1566, the Calusa served only fish and oysters tothe Spanish. An analysis of faunal remains at one coastal habitation site, the Wightman site (on Sanibel Island),showed that more than 93 percent of the energy (kilocalories) from animals in the diet came from fish and shellfish,less than 6 percent of the energy came from mammals, and less than 1 percent came from birds and reptiles. At aninland site, Platt Island, mammals (primarily deer) accounted for more than 60 percent of the energy from animalmeat, while fish provided just under 20 percent.[8]

Some authors have argued that the Calusa cultivated maize and Zamia integrifolia (coontie) for food. But, Widmerargues that the evidence for maize cultivation by the Calusa depends on the proposition that the Narváez and de Sotoexpeditions landed in Charlotte Harbor rather than Tampa Bay, which is now generally discounted. No Zamia pollenhas been found at any site associated with the Calusas, nor does Zamia grow in the wetlands that made up most ofthe Calusa environment. Marquardt notes that the Calusa turned down the offer of agricultural tools from theSpanish, saying that they had no need for them. The Calusa gathered a variety of wild berries, fruits, nuts, roots andother plant parts. Widmer cites George Murdock's estimate that only some 20 percent of the Calusa diet consisted ofwild plants that they gathered. However, no evidence of plant food was found at the Wightman site. There isevidence that as early as 2000 years ago the Calusa cultivated papaya (Catrica papaya), a gourd of the speciesCucurbita pepo and the bottle gourd, the last two of which were used for net floats and dippers.[9]

Calusa 97

Tools

Calusa carving of an alligator's head

The Calusa caught most of their fish with nets. Nets werewoven with a standard mesh size; nets with different meshsizes were used seasonally to catch the most abundant anduseful fish available. The Calusa made bone and shell gaugesused in net weaving. Cultivated gourds were used as netfloats, and sinkers and net weights were made from molluskshells. The Calusa also used spears, hooks, and throat gorges[10] to catch fish. Well-preserved nets, net floats and hookswere found at Key Marco, in the territory of the neighboringMuspa tribe.[11]

Mollusk shells and wood were used to make hammering andpounding tools. Mollusks shells and shark teeth were used forgrating, cutting, carving and engraving. The Calusa wove netsfrom palm-fiber cord. Cord was also made from CabbagePalm leaves, saw palmetto trunks, Spanish moss, false sisal(Agave decipiens) and the bark of cypress and willow trees.The Calusa also made fish traps, weirs and fish corrals fromwood and cord. Artifacts of wood that have been foundinclude dugout canoes, paddles, bowls, ear ornaments, masks,plaques, "ornamental standards," and a finely carved deerhead. The plaques and other objects were often painted.[12]

HousingThe Calusa lived in large, communal houses. When Pedro Menéndez de Avilés visited the capital in 1566, hedescribed the chief's house, which apparently also served as a council house, as large enough to hold 2,000 withoutcrowding. When the chief formally received Menéndez in his house, the chief sat on a raised seat surrounded by 500of his principal men, while his sister-wife sat on another raised seat surround by 500 women. The chief's house wasdescribed as having two big windows, suggesting that it had walls. Five friars who stayed in the chief's house in1697 complained that the roof let in the rain, sun and dew. The chief's house, and possibly the other houses at Calos,were built on top of earthwork mounds. In a report from 1697, the Spanish noted 16 houses in the Calusa capital ofCalos, which had 1,000 residents.[13]

Clothing and personal decorationThe Calusa wore little clothing. The men wore a deerskin breechcloth. The Spanish left less description on what theCalusa women wore. Among most tribes in Florida for which there is documentation, the women wore skirts madeof what was later called Spanish moss. The Calusa painted their bodies on a regular basis, but there was no report oftattooing among the Calusa. The men wore their hair long. The missionaries recognized that having a Calusa man cuthis hair upon converting to Christianity (and European style) would be a great sacrifice. Little was recorded ofjewelry or other ornamentation among the Calusa. During Menéndez de Avilés's visit in 1566, the chief's wife wasdescribed as wearing pearls, precious stones and gold beads around her neck. The heir of the chief wore gold in anornament on his forehead and beads on his legs.[14]

Calusa 98

BeliefsThe Calusa believed that three supernatural people ruled the world, that people had three souls, and that soulsmigrated to animals after death. The most powerful ruler governed the physical world, the second most powerfulruled human governments, and the last helped in wars, choosing which side would win. The Calusa believed that thethree souls were the pupil of a person's eye, his shadow, and his reflection. The soul in the eye's pupil stayed with thebody after death, and the Calusa would consult with that soul at the graveside. The other two souls left the body afterdeath and entered into an animal. If a Calusa killed such an animal, the soul would then migrate to a lesser animal,and eventually be reduced to nothing.[15]

Calusa ceremonies included processions of priests and singing women. The priests wore carved masks, which wereat other times hung on the walls inside a temple. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, an early chronicler of theCalusa, described "sorcerers in the shape of the devil, with some horns on their heads," who ran through the townyelling like animals for four months at a time.The Calusa remained committed to their belief system despite Spanish attempts to convert them to Catholicism. The"nobles" resisted conversion in part because their power and position were intimately tied into the belief system; theywere intermediaries between the gods and the people. Conversion would have destroyed the source of their authorityand legitimacy. The Calusa resisted physical encroachment and spiritual conversion by the Spanish and theirmissionaries for almost 200 years. After suffering decimation by disease, the tribe was destroyed by Creek andYamasee raiders early in the 18th century.[16]

European contact

At the time of First Contact

The first recorded contact between the Calusa andEuropeans was in 1513, when Juan Ponce de Leónlanded on the west coast of Florida in May, probably atthe mouth of the Caloosahatchee River, after his earlierdiscovery of Florida in April. The Calusa knew of theSpanish before this landing, however, as they had takenin refugees from the Spanish subjugation of Cuba. TheSpanish careened one of their ships, and Calusasoffered to trade with them. After ten days a man whospoke Spanish approached Ponce de León's ships with arequest to wait for the arrival of the Calusa chief.Shortly thereafter twenty war canoes attacked theSpanish, who drove off the Calusa, killing or capturingseveral of them. The next day 80 "shielded" canoesattacked the Spanish ships, but the battle wasinconclusive. The Spanish departed and returned toPuerto Rico. In 1517 Francisco Hernández de Córdobalanded in southwest Florida on his return voyage from discovering the Yucatán. He was attacked by the Calusa. In1521 Ponce de León returned to southwest Florida to plant a colony, but the Calusas drove the Spanish out, mortallywounding Ponce de León.[17]

Calusa 99

De Soto route and indigenous groups at time

The Pánfilo de Narváez expedition of 1528 and theHernando de Soto expedition of 1539 both landed inthe vicinity of Tampa Bay, north of the Calusa domain.Dominican missionaries reached the Calusa domain in1549, but withdrew due to the hostility of the tribe.Salvaged goods and survivors from wrecked Spanishships reached the Calusa during the 1540s and 1550s.The best information about the Calusa comes from theMemoir of Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, one ofthese survivors. Fontaneda was shipwrecked on the eastcoast of Florida, likely in the Keys, about 1550, whenhe was thirteen years old. Although many otherssurvived the shipwreck, only Fontaneda was spared bythe tribe in whose territory they landed. Warriors killedall the adult men. Fonaneda lived with various tribes in southern Florida for the next seventeen years before beingfound by the Menendez de Avilés expedition.[18]

In 1566 Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, founder of St. Augustine, made contact with the Calusa and struck an uneasypeace with their leader, Caluus, or Carlos. Menéndez married Carlos' sister, who took the baptismal name DoñaAntonia at conversion. Menéndez left a garrison of soldiers and a Jesuit mission, San Antón de Carlos, at the Calusacapital. Hostilities erupted, and the Spanish soldiers killed Carlos, his successor Felipe, and several of the "nobles"before they abandoned their fort and mission in 1569.[19]

For more than a century after the Avilés adventure, there was little contact between the Spanish and Calusa.Re-entering the area in 1614, Spanish forces attacked the Calusa as part of a war between the Calusa andSpanish-allied tribes around Tampa Bay. A Spanish expedition to ransom some captives held by the Calusa in 1680was forced to turn back; neighboring tribes refused to guide the Spanish, for fear of retaliation by the Calusa. In 1697Franciscan missionaries established a mission to the Calusa, but left after a few months.[20]

After the outbreak of open war between Spain and England in 1702, slaving raids by Uchise Creek and YamaseeIndians allied with the English Province of Carolina began reaching far down the Florida peninsula. The Englishsupplied firearms to the Creek and Yemasee, but the Calusa, who had isolated themselves from Europeans, had none.Ravaged by new infectious diseases introduced to the Americas by European contact and by the slaving raids, thesurviving Calusa retreated south and east.In 1711, the Spanish helped evacuate 270 Indians, including many Calusa, from the Florida Keys to Cuba (wherealmost 200 soon died). They left 1700 behind. The Spanish founded a mission on Biscayne Bay in 1743 to servesurvivors from several tribes, including the Calusa, who had gathered there and in the Florida Keys. The mission wasclosed after only a few months. When Spain ceded Florida to the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1763, they evacuatedthe last remnants of the tribes of south Florida to Cuba. While a few Calusa individuals may have stayed behind andbeen absorbed into the Seminole, no documentation supports that.[21] Cuban fishing camps (ranchos) operated alongthe southwest Florida coast from the 18th century into the middle of the 19th century. Some of the "Spanish Indians"(often of mixed Spanish-Indian heritage) who worked at the fishing camps likely were descended from Calusa.[22]

Calusa 100

Notes[1] MacMahon and Marquardt:1-2[2] Marquadt 2004:211–2

Hann 2003:14–5[3] Marquadt 2004:211–2

Hann 2003:14–5[4] Milanich 1994:32–5

Milanich 1998:3–37[5] Milanich 1993.

Milanich 1995.[6] Milanich 1993.

Milanich 1995.[7] MacMahon and Marquardt.:78-9, 86

Widmer:5-6[8] Widmer:224–31

Marquardt 2004:206Hann 2003:31–2

[9] Widmer:224–31Marquardt 2004:206Hann 2003:31–2

[10] http:/ / thesaurus. english-heritage. org. uk/ thesaurus_term. asp?thes_no=144& term_no=101289[11] MacMahon and Marquardt:69–70

Marquardt 2004:206–7[12] MacMahon and Marquardt:69–71

Marquardt 2004:206–7[13] Hann 2003:35–6[14] Hann 2003:33–5[15] Winn:16–17[16] MacMahon and Marquardt:82–85, 87[17] MacMahon and Marquardt:115–6[18] Bullen.

MacMahon and Marquardt:116–7[19] MacMahon and Marquardt:86, 117[20] MacMahon and Marquardt:117–8[21] MacMahon and Marquardt:118-21[22] Marquardt 2004:211

Calusa

References

• Bullen, Adelaide K. (1965). "Florida Indians of Past and Present",in Carson, Ruby Leach and Tebeau, Charlton. Florida from Indiantrail to space age: a history. (Vol. I, pp. 317–350). SouthernPublishing Company.

• Goggin, John M., and William C. Sturtevant. (1964). "The Calusa:A Stratified, Nonagricultural Society (With Notes on SiblingMarriage)." In Explorations in Cultural Anthropology: EssaysPresented to George Peter Murdock. Ed. Ward H. Goodenough.New York: McGraw-Hill, 179–219.

• Hann, John, ed. & trans. (1991). Missions to the Calusa. University of Florida Press.• Hann, John H. (2003). Indians of Central and South Florida: 1513–1763. University Press of Florida. ISBN

0-8130-2645-8• MacMahon, Darcie A. and William H. Marquardt. (2004). The Calusa and Their Legacy: South Florida People

and Their Environments. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2773-X

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• Mahon, John K. (1985). History of the Second Seminole War 1835–1842 (Revised Edition). University Presses ofFlorida.

• Marquardt, William H. (1992). ed. Culture and Environment in the Domain of the Calusa. Institute ofArchaeology and Paleoenvironmental Studies Monograph #1. University of Florida.

• Marquardt, William H. (2004). "Calusa". In R. D. Fogelson (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians:Southeast (Vol. 14, pp. 204–212). Smithsonian Institution.

• Milanich, Jerald. (1993). ed. "Chapter 10. The Caloosahatchee Region". Florida Historical Contexts. State ofFlorida Division of Historical Resources. in (http:/ / dhr. dos. state. fl. us/ facts/ reports/ contexts/ wwwcalch. pdf)– retrieved March 29, 2006

• Milanich, Jerald T. (1994). Archaeology of Precolumbian Florida. University Press of Florida. ISBN0-8130-1273-2

• Milanich, Jerald T. (1995). Florida Indians and the Invasion from Europe. University Press of Florida. ISBN0-8130-1360-7

• Milanich, Jerald T. (1998). Florida's Indians From Ancient Time to the Present. University Press of Florida.• Widmer, Randolph J. (1998). The Evolution of the Calusa: A Nonagricultural Chiefdom on the Southwest Florida

Coast. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-0358-8• Winn, Ed (2003). Florida's great king: King Carlos of the Calusa Indians (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=s1AszUYDaGMC& pg=PA17& lpg=PA17& dq=soul+ pupil+ eye+ calusa#v=onepage& q=soul pupileye calusa& f=false). Buster's Books. ISBN 0-9658489-3-0.

Miccosukee 102

Miccosukee

Miccosukee

Regions with significant populations

United States Florida

Languages

Mikasuki, English

Religion

Traditional tribal religion, Christianity

Related ethnic groups

Seminole (Seminole Nation of Oklahoma and Seminole Tribe of Florida), Creek

The Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida are a federally recognized Native American tribe in the U.S. state ofFlorida. They were part of the Seminole nation until the mid-20th century, when they organized as an independenttribe, receiving federal recognition in 1962. The Miccosukee speak the Mikasuki language, a close relative to theHitchiti language also spoken by many Florida Seminole.Historically, the Miccosukee trace their origins to the Lower Chiaha, one of the tribes of the Creek Confederacy inpresent-day Georgia. Under pressure from European encroachment in their territory, they migrated to northernFlorida in the early 18th century, where they became part of the developing Seminole nation.[1] By the late 18thcentury, the British recorded the name Miccosukee or Mikasuki as designating a Hitchiti-speaking group centeredaround the village of Miccosukee in the Florida Panhandle.[2] Like other Seminole groups, they were displacedduring the Seminole Wars (1817–1858), and many migrated or were forced to relocate west of the Mississippi Riverto Indian Territory in 1842, after the Seminole Wars.[3] The Miccosukee chief Ar-pi-uck-i, also known as Sam Jones,proved an effective leader during the Second Seminole War.[4]

In the 1920s and 1930s, many Seminole established communities along the recently constructed Tamiami Trail, aroadway that ran through the Everglades and connected the cities of Tampa and Miami. The Trail Indians, as theywere called, generally kept more traditional practices. They were less interested in establishing formal relations withthe federal government than those Seminole who started moving to reservations around the same time. Whenreservation Seminole organized a tribal government, which was recognized as the Seminole Tribe of Florida, theTrail Indians felt disfranchised. They established an independent tribal government, the Miccosukee Tribe of Florida,which received state recognition in 1957 and federal recognition in 1962.[5]

Miccosukee 103

HistoryThe Miccosukee historically inhabited the upper Tennessee Valley in present-day Georgia, where they wereoriginally part of the Upper Chiaha. Later they split: the Miccosukee (Lower Chiaha) migrated northeast to theCarolinas and the Upper Chiaha, also known as Muscogee, migrated west to northern Alabama. Under continuingencroachment pressure from European-American settlers, many migrated to northern Florida during the 18th and19th centuries.The Chiaha or Creek formed a major part of the Seminole tribe, which formed in the eighteenth century in Floridathrough a process of ethnogenesis. More Upper Creek joined them after defeat in the Creek War of 1813-1814. TheUnited States (US) government forced most of the Seminole/Creek from Florida under Indian Removal. Those whoremained in Florida fought against US forces during the second and third Seminole Wars. Afterward, they movedinto the Everglades to try to evade European-American settlement pressure. During this period, the Miccosukeemixed with the Creek-speaking Seminole, but many maintained their Mikasuki language and identity.The tribe separated from the Seminole in the 1950s to become the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida; theywere recognized by the state of Florida in 1957, and gained federal recognition in 1962. The tribe today occupiesseveral reservations in southern Florida, principally the Miccosukee Indian Reservation.The etymological roots of the Miccosukee tribal name have been debated for many years. While the origins have notbeen fully traced or documented, modern scholarship holds that the name originated among the first Spanishcolonizers to reach the North Carolina Basin. In one of the few surviving journals of Juan Ponce de León, he recordsthat his men called the natives they encountered there micos sucios. This is likely the earliest recorded version of thename that became "Miccosukee."[6] He describes how the name originated:

When we arrived on the shores of the Northern islands we encountered an odd group of natives. They lead usto their village where they lived in hollow'd mounds and were fully covered in mud and refuse. My lieutenant,[Diaz de la Torre y Gonzaga-Palacios] exclaimed 'Son como micos sucios' (they are like dirty monkeys). Fromthence forth, until we departed those cold shores, Mico Sucio was the means by which we referred to thesehappy natives.[7]

MembershipEach tribe sets its own membership requirements. The Miccosukee accept as members those persons who haveMiccosukee mothers and are not enrolled in any other Tribe. Children are born into their mother's clan, from whichthey gain their status in the tribe, as it is matrilineal.[8]

Business interests

Miccosukee Indian Village in 1972

The tribe operates a resort and casino in Miami. The resort isa primary sponsor of the Miccosukee Championship, aNationwide Tour golf event held in October.

Sports sponsorship also extends to multiple NASCAR teams.These include the 2009 Aaron's 499 winning Sprint CupSeries car driven by Brad Keselowski, a Camping Worldtruck driven by Kyle Busch, and a Nationwide car driven byMike Bliss. The Miccosukee relationship with NASCARdates to 2002.[9]

Miccosukee 104

Notes[1] Pritzker, p. 390.[2] Mahon, p. 189.[3] Mahon, pp. 190–191.[4] Mahon, p. 199.[5] Mahon, pp. 202–204.[6] Journal Of Etymological Studies Issue 15.12, pp. 34-56[7] Translation by R. J. Evans-Fitzgerald[8] Miccosukee Tribe (http:/ / www. miccosukeetribe. com), Official Website, accessed 29 Apr 2010[9] Dave Rodman, "Bodine gets boosts in sponsorship, schedule" (http:/ / www. nascar. com/ 2002/ news/ headlines/ wc/ 03/ 04/ gbodine_sched/

index. html), Turner Sports Interactive, NASCAR, 6 Mar 2002, accessed 29 Apr 2010

References• Mahon, John K.; Brent R. Weisman (1996). "Florida's Seminole and Miccosukee Peoples". In Gannon, Michael

(Ed.). The New History of Florida, pp. 183–206. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0813014158.• Pritzker, Barry (2000). A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples (http:/ / books. google.

com/ books?id=ZxWJVc4ST0AC& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_ge_summary_r& cad=0#v=onepage& q&f=false). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195138775. Retrieved September 10, 2010.

External links• Miccosukee Tribe (http:/ / www. miccosukeetribe. com), Official Website• Miccosukee Resort (http:/ / www. miccosukeeresort. com/ ), Reservations• Miccosukee Land Co-op (http:/ / directory. ic. org/ records/ ?action=view& page=view& record_id=768)

Tequesta

Approximate territory of the Tequesta in the 16th century

The Tequesta (also Tekesta, Tegesta,Chequesta, Vizcaynos) Native American tribe,at the time of first European contact, occupied anarea along the southeastern Atlantic coast ofFlorida. They had infrequent contact withEuropeans and had largely disappeared by themiddle of the 18th century.

Location and extent

The Tequesta tribe lived on Biscayne Bay [1] inwhat are now Miami-Dade County and at leastthe southern half of Broward County. Theirterritory may have also included the northernhalf of Broward County. They also occupied theFlorida Keys at times, and may have had avillage on Cape Sable, at the southern end of theFlorida peninsula, in the 16th Century. Thecentral town (also called Tequesta) was probably

Tequesta 105

Bronze statue of a Tequesta warrior and his family on the Brickell AvenueBridge

at the mouth of the Miami River. A village hadbeen at that site at least since 1200. The tribalchief was also called Tequesta. The Tequestasarrived in the Biscayne Bay area before thebeginning of the Current Era. The Tequestasplaced their towns and camps at the mouths ofrivers and streams, on inlets from the AtlanticOcean to inland waters, and on barrier islands andkeys.[2] The Tequestas were more or lessdominated by the more numerous Calusa of thesouthwest coast of Florida. The Tequestas wereclosely allied to their immediate neighbors to thenorth, the Jaega.[3] Estimates of the number ofTequestas at the time of initial European contactrange from 800 to 10,000, while estimates of thenumber of Calusas on the southwest coast ofFlorida range from 2,000 to 20,000. Occupationof the Florida Keys may have swung back andforth between the two tribes. Although there is aSpanish record of a Tequesta village on CapeSable, Calusa artifacts outnumber Tequestaartifacts by four to one at archaeological sitesthere.

On a map [4] the Dutch cartographer HesselGerritsz published in 1630 in Joannes de Laet'sHistory of the New World, the Florida peninsula is labeled "Tegesta" after the tribe.[5] A map from the 18th centurylabeled the area around Biscayne Bay "Tekesta".[6] A 1794 map[7] by cartographer Bernard Romans labeled this area"Tegesta".

Origins and languageThe archaeological record of the Glades culture, which included the area occupied by the Tequestas, indicates acontinuous development of an indigenous ceramics tradition from about 700 BCE until after European contact.[8]

The Tequesta language may have been closely related to the language of the Calusas of the southwest Florida coastand the Mayaimis who lived around Lake Okeechobee in the middle of the lower Florida peninsula. There are onlyten words from the languages of those tribes for which meanings were recorded.[9] The Tequesta were once thoughtto be related to the Taino, the Arawakan people of the Antilles, but most anthropologists now doubt this, based onarchaeological information and the length of their establishment in Florida. Carl O. Sauer called the Florida Straits"one of the most strongly marked cultural boundaries in the New World", noting that the Straits were also aboundary between agricultural systems, with Florida Indians growing seed crops that originated in Mexico, while theLucayans of the Bahamas grew root crops that originated in South America.[10]

Tequesta 106

DietThe Tequestas did practice any form of agriculture. They fished, hunted, and gathered the fruit and roots of localplants. Most of their food came from the sea. Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, who lived among the tribes ofsouthern Florida for seventeen years in the 16th Century, described their "common" diet as "fish, turtle and snails,and tunny and whale..."; the "sea-wolf" (Caribbean monk seal) was reserved for the upper classes. According toFontaneda, a lesser part of the diet consisted of trunkfish and lobster. The "fish" caught included manatees, sharks,sailfish, porpoises, stingrays, and small fish. Despite their local abundance, clams, oysters and conchs were only aminor part of the Tequesta diet (their shells are much less common at Tequesta archeological sites than they are atCalusa or Jaega sites). Venison was also popular; deer bones are frequently found in archeological sites, as areterrapin shells and bones. Sea turtles and their eggs were consumed during the turtles' nesting season.[9]

The Tequesta gathered many plant foods, including saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) berries, cocoplums(Chrysobalanus icaco), sea grapes (Coccoloba uvifera), prickly pear fruits (Opuntia spp.), gopher apples (Licaniamicbauxii), pigeon plums (Cocoloba diversifolia), palm nuts, false mastic (Mastichodedron) seeds, cabbage palm(Sabal palmetto) and hog plum (Ximenia americana). The roots of certain plants, such as Smilax spp. and coontie(Zamia integrifolia), were edible when ground into flour, processed to remove toxins (in the case of coontie), andmade into a type of unleavened bread. (Archaeologists have commented, however, on the lack of evidence forcoontie use in excavated sites.) Briton Hammond, the sole survivor of an English sloop that was attacked byTequestas after grounding off Key Biscayne in 1748, reported that the Tequestas fed him boil'd corn.[11]

The Tequestas changed their habitation during the year. In particular, most of the inhabitants of the main villagerelocated to barrier islands or to the Florida Keys during the worst of the mosquito season, which lasted about threemonths. While the resources of the Biscayne Bay area and the Florida Keys allowed for a somewhat settlednon-agricultural existence, they were not as rich as those of the southwest Florida coast, home of the more numerousCalusa.[12]

Housing, clothing and toolsBriton Hammond reported that the Tequesta lived in hutts. No other description is not available of Tequesta housing.Other tribes in southern Florida lived in houses with wooden posts, raised floors, and roofs thatched with palmettoleaves, something like the chickees of the Seminoles. These houses may have had temporary walls of plaitedpalmetto-leaf mats to break the wind or block the sun.Clothing was minimal. The men wore a sort of loincloth made from deer hide, while the women wore skirts ofSpanish moss or plant fibers hanging from a belt.The Tequesta had ocean-going canoes [that were carved with shark teeth], nets, spears, atlatls, bows and arrows(although they may have acquired those after European contact) and utilitarian pottery with little or no decoration.

CustomsBy one account, when the Tequestas buried their chiefs, they buried the small bones with the body, and put the largebones in a box for the village people to adore and hold as their gods. Another account says that the Tequestasstripped the flesh from the bones, burning the flesh, and then distributed the cleaned bones to the dead chief'srelatives, with the larger bones going to the closest relations.The Tequesta men consumed cassina, the black drink, in ceremonies similar to those common throughout thesoutheastern United States.The Spanish missionaries also reported that the Tequesta worshipped a stuffed deer as the representative of the sun, and as late as 1743 worshipped a picture of a badly deformed barracuda crossed by a harpoon, and surrounded by small tongue-like figures painted on a small board. There was also a god of the graveyard, a bird's head carved in pine. The painted board and bird's head were stored in a temple in the cemetery, along with carved masks used in

Tequesta 107

festivals. By this time the tribe's shaman was calling himself a bishop.The Tequestas may have practiced human sacrifice. While enroute from Havana to Biscayne Bay in 1743, Spanishmissionaries heard that the Indians of the Keys (including, apparently, the Tequestas) had gone to Santaluz (thevillage of Santa Lucea was at the St. Lucie Inlet) for a celebration of a recent peace treaty, and that the chief ofSantaluz was going to sacrifice a young girl as part of the celebration. The missionaries sent a message to the chiefbegging him not to sacrifice the girl, and the chief relented.

Miami CircleThe Miami Circle [13] is located on the site of a known Tequesta village south of the mouth of the Miami River(probably the town of Tequesta). It consists of 24 large holes or basins, and many smaller holes, which have been cutinto bedrock. Together these holes form a circle approximately 38 feet in diameter. Other arrangements of holes areapparent as well. The Circle was discovered during an archeological survey of a site being cleared for construction ofa high-rise building. Charcoal samples collected in the circle have been radiocarbon-dated to approximately 1,900years ago.

Post-European-contact HistoryIn 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon stopped at a bay on the Florida coast that he called Chequesta, which apparently waswhat is now called Biscayne Bay. In 1565 one of the ships in Pedro Menéndez de Avilés' fleet took refuge from astorm in Biscayne Bay. The main Tequesta village was located there, and Menéndez was well received by theTequestas. The Jesuits with him took the Tequesta chief's nephew with them back to Havana, Cuba, to be educated,while the chief's brother went to Spain with Menéndez, where he converted to Christianity. In March of 1567,Menéndez returned to the Tequesta[1] and established a mission within a stockade, situated near the south bank of theMiami River below the native village. Menendez left a contingent of thirty soldiers and the Jesuit brother FranciscoVillareal to convert the Tequestas to Christianity. Villareal had learned something of the Tequesta language from thechief's nephew in Havana. He felt he had been winning converts until the soldiers executed an uncle of the chief.Brother Francisco was forced to abandon the mission for a while, but when the chief's brother returned from Spain,Brother Francisco was able to return. However, the mission was abandoned shortly thereafter, in 1570.Starting in 1704, it was the policy of the Spanish government to resettle Florida Indians in Cuba so that they could beindoctrinated into the Catholic faith. The first group of Indians, including the cacique of Cayo de Guesos (KeyWest), arrived in Cuba in 1704, and most, if not all of them, soon died. In 1710, 280 Florida Indians were taken toCuba, where almost 200 soon died. The survivors were returned to the Keys in 1716 or 1718. In 1732 some Indiansfled from the Keys to Cuba.In early 1743 the Governor of Cuba received a petition from three Calusa chiefs who were visiting in Havana. Thepetition, which was written in good Spanish and showed a good understanding of how the government and churchbureaucracies worked, asked that missionaries be sent to the Cayos (Florida Keys) to provide religious instruction.The Governor and his advisors finally decided it would be cheaper to send missionaries to the Keys rather thanbringing the Indians to Cuba, and that keeping the Indians in the Keys would mean they would be available to helpshipwrecked Spanish sailors and keep the English out of the area.The governor sent two Jesuit missionaries from Havana, Fathers Mónaco and Alaña, with an escort of soldiers. Onreaching Biscayne Bay, they established a chapel and fort at the mouth of a river feeding into Biscayne Bay that theycalled the Rio Ratones. This may have been the Little River, in the northern part of Biscayne Bay, or the MiamiRiver.The Spanish missionaries were not well received. The Keys Indians, as the Spanish called them, denied that they had requested missionaries. They did permit a mission to be established because the Spanish had brought gifts for them, but the cacique denied that the King of Spain had dominion over his land, and insisted on tribute for allowing the

Tequesta 108

Spanish to build a church or bring in settlers. The Indians demanded food, rum and clothing, but refused to work forthe Spanish. Father Morano reported attacks on the mission by bands of Uchizas (the Creeks who later becameknown as Seminoles).Fathers Mónaco and Alaña developed a plan to have a stockade manned by twenty-five soldiers, and to bring inSpanish settlers to grow food for the soldiers and the Indians. They felt that the new settlement would soon supplantthe need for St. Augustine. Father Alaña returned to Havana,leaving twelve soldiers and a corporal to protect FatherMónaco.The governor in Havana was not pleased. He ordered that Father Mónaco and the soldiers be withdrawn, and thestockade burned to deny it to the Uchizas. He also forwarded the missionaries' plan to Spain, where the Council ofthe Indies decided that the proposed mission on Biscayne Bay would be costly and impractical. The second attemptto establish a mission on Biscayne Bay had lasted less than three months.When Spain surrendered Florida to Britain in 1763, the remaining Tequestas, along with other Indians that had takenrefuge in the Florida Keys, were evacuated to Cuba.[14] In the 1770s, Bernard Romans reported seeing abandonedvillages in the area, but no inhabitants.

Footnotes[1] "The Caloosa Village Tequesta A Miami of the Sixteenth Century by Robert E. McNicoll" (http:/ / digitalcollections. fiu. edu/ tequesta/ files/

1941/ 41_1_02. pdf), Florida International University[2] Hann 2003:140-1[3] Hann 2003:139[4] http:/ / www. georgeglazer. com/ maps/ florida/ delaetflorida. html[5] Ehrenberg, Ralph E. "Marvellous countries and lands" Notable Maps of Florida, 1507-1846 (http:/ / www. broward. org/ library/ bienes/

lii14003. htm)[6] "Old Florida Maps" (http:/ / scholar. library. miami. edu/ floridamaps/ view_image. php?image_name=dlp00020000730001001&

group=cartographer), University of Miami Libraries[7] "Old Florida Maps" (http:/ / scholar. library. miami. edu/ floridamaps/ view_image. php?image_name=dlp00020000810001001&

group=second_spanish), University of Miami Libraries[8] Florida Office of Cultural and Historical Programs. P. 89[9] Austin[10] Sauer, p. 51.[11] Austin

Hann 2003:147[12] Hann 2003:146[13] "Miami Circle" (http:/ / www. flheritage. com/ archaeology/ projects/ miamicircle/ More/ tequesta. cfm), Florida Division of Historical

Resources[14] "Native Peoples" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ historyculture/ nativepeoples. htm), National Park System, United States Department of the

Interior

References• State of Florida Office of Cultural and Historical Programs. "Chapter 12. South and Southeast Florida: The

Everglades Region, 2500 B.P.-Contact". Historic Contexts. Version of 9-27-93. Downloaded from (http:/ / dhr.dos. state. fl. us/ facts/ reports/ contexts/ comp_plan. doc) on March 27, 2006

• Austin, Daniel W. (1997). "The Glades Indians and the Plants they Used. Ethnobotany of an Extinct Culture." ThePalmetto, 17(2):7 -11. (http:/ / www. fnps. org/ palmetto/ v17i2p7austin. pdf) - accessed December 4, 2005

• Brickell Point - Home of the Miami Circle (State of Florida site) (http:/ / dhr. dos. state. fl. us/ archaeology/projects/ brickellpoint/ ) - accessed December 4, 2005

• Bullen, Adelaide K. (1965). "Florida Indians of Past and Present". In Ruby L. Carson & Charlton Tebeau (Eds.),Florida from Indian trail to space age: a history (Vol. I, pp. 317–350). Southern Publishing Company.

• Escalente Fontaneda, Hernando de. (1944). Memoir of Do. d'Escalente Fontaneda respecting Florida. Smith, B.(Trans.); True, D. O. (Ed.). Miami: University of Miami & Historical Association of Southern Florida.

Tequesta 109

• Goddard, Ives. (2005). The indigenous languages of the Southeast. Anthropological Linguistics, 47 (1), 1-60.• Hann, John H. (1991). Missions to the Calusa. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.• Hann, John H. (2003). Indians of Central and South Florida: 1513-1763. University Press of Florida. ISBN

0-8130-2645-8• Sauer, Carl Otwin. 1966. (Fourth printing, 1992.) The Early Spanish Main. The University of California Press.

ISBN 0-520-01415-4• Sturtevant, William C. (1978). "The Last of the South Florida Aborigines". In Jeral Milanich & Samuel Proctor

(Eds.). Tacachale: Essays on the Indians of Florida and Southeastern Georgia during the Historic Period.Gainesville, Florida: The University Presses of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-0535-3

• Tebeau, Charlton W. (1968). Man in the Everglades (pp. 37–45). Coral Gables, Florida: University of MiamiPress. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 68-17768

• The Tequesta of Biscayne Bay (http:/ / fcit. usf. edu/ florida/ lessons/ tequest/ tequest1. htm) - accessed December4, 2005

• Wenhold, Lucy L. (Ed., Trans.). (1936). A 17th century letter of Gabriel Diaz Vara Calderón, Bishop of Cuba,describing the Indians and Indian missions of Florida. Smithsonian miscellaneous collections 95 (16).Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.

Seminole 110

Seminole

Seminole

Seminole portraits

Total population

est. 18,600Seminole Nation of Oklahoma

15,572 enrolledSeminole Tribe of Florida

Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida

Regions with significant populations

United States (Oklahoma, Florida)

Languages

English, Mikasuki, Creek

Religion

Protestantism, Catholicism, Green Corn Ceremony

Related ethnic groups

Miccosukee, Choctaw, Muscogee (Creek)

The Seminole are a Native American people originally of Florida, who now reside primarily in that state andOklahoma. The Seminole nation emerged in a process of ethnogenesis out of groups of Native Americans, mostsignificantly Creeks from what is now Georgia and Alabama, who settled in Florida in the early 18th century.[1] Theword Seminole is a corruption of cimarrón, a Spanish term for "runaway" or "wild one", historically used for certainNative American groups in Florida.[2] The Seminole are closely related to the Miccosukee, who were recognized as aseparate tribe in 1962.[3]

After an initial period of colonization in Florida, during which they distanced themselves increasingly from other Creek groups, the Seminole established a thriving trade network during the British and second Spanish periods (roughly 1767–1821).[4] The tribe expanded considerably during this time, and was further supplemented from the late 18th century with the appearance of the Black Seminoles – free blacks and escaped slaves who settled in communities near Seminole towns, where they paid tribute to the Native Americans in exchange for protection.[5]

Seminole 111

However, tensions grew between the Seminole and the United States to the north, leading to a series of conflictsknown as the Seminole Wars (1818–1858).[5] Over the course of the wars most Seminoles were forced to relocatewest of the Mississippi River in a process of Indian removal. Perhaps fewer than 200 Seminoles remained in Florida,but those who did fostered a resurgence in traditional customs and a culture of staunch independence.[6]

Seminole culture is largely derived from Creek culture. Most Seminoles speak the Mikasuki language, with some(such as those living on the Brighton Seminole Reservation) speaking Creek; English is also prevalent today. Themost important ceremony is the Green Corn Dance, which is celebrated largely as it is among the Creeks; othernotable Creek-derived traditions include use of the black drink and ritual smoking of tobacco. As the Seminoleadapted to the Florida environment, they developed their own local traditions, such as the construction of open airthatched-roof houses known as chickees.[7]

The Seminoles who moved west of the Mississippi largely settled in what is now Oklahoma. Today most areenrolled with the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, while others belong to unorganized groups. The Florida Seminolesreestablished limited relations with the U.S. government in the late 19th century, and eventually received 5000 acres(20 km2) of reservation land in Florida. However, few Seminole had interest in moving to reservations until the1940s, when many Seminole Christians relocated to them in order to establish their own churches. Reservationgovernments were founded, and the Seminole Tribe of Florida received federal recognition in 1957. However, therecognition caused conflict with a group living along the Tamiami Trail, who did not feel appropriately represented;they sought federal recognition as the Miccosukee Tribe, which they received in 1962.[8]

HistoryIn the late 18th century, the Lower Creeks, a tribe of Muscogee people, began to migrate into Florida to evade thedominance of the Upper Creeks, effectively displacing the Calusa and Mayaimi tribes with the aid of the Spanishwho moved many of them to Cuba, where the tribes' populations were soon decimated by disease. The Seminoleintermingled with the Choctaw and other few remaining indigenous people there, some recently arrived as refugeesafter the Yamasee War, such as the Yuchi, Yamasee and others. In a process of ethnogenesis, they formed a newculture which they called "Seminole", a derivative of the Mvskoke' (a Creek language) word simano-li, an adaptationof the Spanish cimarrón which means "wild" (in their case, "wild men"), or "runaway" [men].[9] The Seminole werea heterogeneous tribe made up of mostly Lower Creeks from Georgia, Mikasuki-speaking Muscogees, escapedAfrican-American slaves, and to a lesser extent, Native Americans from other tribes and even white Americans. Theunified Seminole spoke two languages: Creek and Mikasuki (a modern dialect similar to Hitchiti), two differentmembers of the Muscogean Native American languages family, a language group that includes Choctaw andChickasaw.During the colonial years, the Seminole were on good terms with both the Spanish and the British. In 1784, the treatyending the American Revolutionary War transferred British rule of Florida to Spain. The Spanish Empire's declineenabled the Seminole to settle more deeply into Florida. They were led by a dynasty of chiefs founded in the 18thcentury by Cowkeeper. This dynasty lasted until 1842, when the US forced the majority of Seminoles to move fromFlorida to the Indian Territory (modern Oklahoma) after the Second Seminole War.There is also a village of Black Seminoles who have lived at Red Bays on Andros Island in the Bahamas since the1820s.[10]

Seminole 112

ReligionSeminole tribes generally follow Christianity, both Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, and their traditionalNative religion, which is expressed through the stomp dance and the Green Corn Ceremony. Indigenous peopleshave practiced Green Corn ceremonies for centuries. Contemporary southeastern Native American tribes, such as theSeminole and Muscogee Creek, still practice these ceremonies. A high degree of syncretism exists betweenChristianity and traditional Seminole religion, and Seminole Christian churches often sing hymns in the traditionallanguages.[11]

In the 1950s, federal projects prompted the tribe's reorganization. They created organizations within tribalgovernance to promote modernization. As Christian pastors began preaching on reservations, Green Corn Ceremonyattendance decreased. This created tension between religiously traditional Seminoles and those who began adoptingChristianity. In the 1960s and 1970s, some tribal members on reservations, such as the Brighton Seminole IndianReservation, viewed organized Christianity as a threat to their traditions. Tribal reorganization appeared to be onefactor in facilitating Christian conversion, but that also represented social changes of a new generation.By the 1980s, Seminole communities were concerned about loss of language and tradition. Many tribal membersbegan to revive the observance of traditional Green Corn Dance ceremonies, and some moved away fromChristianity. By 2000 religious tension between Green Corn Dance attendees and Christians (particularly Baptists)decreased. Some Seminole families participate in both religions.[12]

Seminole Wars

Coeehajo, Chief, 1837, Smithsonian American Art Museum

After attacks by Spanish settlers on Native American towns,natives began raiding Georgia settlements, purportedly at thebehest of the Spanish. In the early 19th century, the U.S.Army made increasingly frequent incursions into Spanishterritory to recapture escaped slaves. General AndrewJackson's 1817–1818 campaign against the Seminoles becameknown as the First Seminole War. Following the war, theUnited States effectively controlled East Florida.

In 1819 the United States and Spain signed the Adams-OnísTreaty,[13] which took effect in 1821. According to its terms,the United States acquired Florida and, in exchange,renounced all claims to Texas. Andrew Jackson was namedmilitary governor of Florida. As European-Americansettlement increased after the treaty, settlers pressured theFederal government to remove the Native Americans fromFlorida. Slaveholders resented that tribes harbored runawayblack slaves, and more settlers wanted access to desirablelands held by Native Americans. Georgian slaveholderswanted the "maroons" and fugitive slaves living among the

Seminoles, known today as Black Seminoles, returned to slavery.

In 1832, the United States government signed the Treaty of Paynes Landing with a few of the Seminole chiefs. Theypromised lands west of the Mississippi River if the chiefs agreed to leave Florida voluntarily with their peoples. TheSeminoles who remained prepared for war. White settlers continued to press for removal.In 1835, the U.S. Army arrived to enforce the treaty. Seminole leader Osceola led the vastly outnumbered resistance during the Second Seminole War. Drawing on a population of about 4,000 Seminole Indians and 800 allied Black Seminoles, he mustered at most 1,400 warriors (Andrew Jackson estimated they had only 900). They countered

Seminole 113

combined U.S. Army and militia forces that ranged from 6,000 troops at the outset to 9,000 at the peak ofdeployment in 1837. To survive, the Seminole allies employed guerrilla tactics with devastating effect against U.S.forces. Osceola was arrested when he came under a flag of truce to negotiations in 1837. He died in jail less than ayear later. His body was buried without his head, which was preserved.Other war chiefs, such as Halleck Tustenuggee and Jumper, and Black Seminoles Abraham and John Horse,continued the Seminole resistance against the army. After a full decade of fighting, the war ended in 1842. Scholarsestimate the U.S. government spent about $40,000,000 on the war, at the time a huge sum. Many Native Americanswere forcibly exiled to Creek lands west of the Mississippi; others retreated into the Everglades. In the end, thegovernment gave up trying to subjugate the Seminoles and left the estimated fewer than 500 survivors in peace.[14]

[15]

Contemporary

Seminole woman painted by George Catlin 1834

During the Seminole Wars, the Seminole people began tobreak apart due to the conflict and differences in ideology.The Seminole population had also been growing significantly,though it was diminished by the wars.[16] With the division ofthe Seminole tribe, some traditions such as powwow trails andceremonies were maintained among them. The SeminoleNation of Oklahoma and the Seminole Tribe of Floridadescribed below are fully independent nations that operate intheir own spheres.[17]

Oklahoma Seminole

As a result of the Second Seminole War (1835–1842) about3,800 Seminole and maroons were forcibly removed to IndianTerritory (the modern state of Oklahoma).[18] During theAmerican Civil War, the members and leaders split over theirloyalties, with John Chupco refusing to sign a treaty with theConfederacy. From 1861-1866, he led as chief of theSeminole who supported the Union and fought in the IndianBrigade.

The split lasted until 1872. After the war, the United States government negotiated only with the loyal Seminole,requiring the tribe to make a new peace treaty to cover those who allied with the Confederacy, to emancipate theirslaves, and to extend tribal citizenship to those freedmen who chose to stay in Seminole territory.

The Seminole Nation of Oklahoma now has about 6,000 enrolled members, who are divided into fourteen bands,similar to clans. Two are called "Freedmen Bands" (also "Black Seminoles") because they descended in part fromescaped slaves who were freed after the Civil War. Band membership is matrilineal: children are members of theirmother's band. The group is ruled by an elected council, with two members from each band. The capital is atWewoka, Oklahoma. Recently tribal citizenship disputes have arisen related to the membership status of "SeminoleFreedmen" in Oklahoma.[18]

Seminole 114

Florida Seminoles

A Seminole spearing a garfish from a dugout,Florida, 1930

The remaining few hundred Seminoles survived in the Floridaswamplands avoiding removal. They lived in the Everglades, to isolatethemselves from European-Americans. Seminoles continued theirdistinctive life, such as "clan-based matrilocal residence in scatteredthatched-roof chickee camps."[18] Today, the 21st century descendantsof the Seminole proudly note the Seminole were never officiallyconquered. That is one source of the nation's sovereign rights.[19]

After the Third Seminole War, the Seminoles in Florida divided intotwo groups; those who were more traditional and those willing to adaptto the reservations. Those who accepted reservation lands and madeadaptations were recognized as the Seminole Tribe of Florida. Thosewho preferred the more traditional lifestyle organized themselves asthe Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida. Other Seminoles not affiliated with either of the federally recognizedgroups are known as Traditional or Independent Seminoles.[16]

Seminole Tribe of Florida

Seminole patchwork shawl made by SusieCypress from Big Cypress Indian Reservation, ca.

1980s

The Seminole worked to adapt, but they were highly affected by therapidly changing American environment. Natural disasters magnifiedchanges from the governmental drainage project of the Everglades.Residential, agricultural and business development changed the"natural, social, political, and economic environment" of theSeminole.[17] In the 1930s, the Seminole slowly began to move ontofederally designated reservation lands within the region. The USgovernment had purchased lands and put them in trust for Seminoleuse.[20] Initially, few Seminoles had any interest in moving to thereservation land or in establishing more formal relations with thegovernment. Some feared that if they moved onto reservations, theywould be forced to move to Oklahoma. Others accepted the move inhopes of stability, jobs promised by the Indian New Deal, or as newconverts to Christianity.[21]

Beginning in the 1940s, however, more Seminoles began to move to the reservations. A major catalyst for this wasthe conversion of many Seminole to Christianity, following missionary effort spearheaded by the Creek Baptistevangelist Stanley Smith. For the new converts, relocating to the reservations afforded them the opportunity toestablish their own churches.[22] Reservation Seminoles began forming tribal governments and forming ties with theBureau of Indian Affairs.[22] In 1957 the nation reorganized and established formal relations with the US governmentas the Seminole Tribe of Florida.[17] The Seminole Tribe of Florida is headquartered in Hollywood, Florida. Theycontrol several reservations: Big Cypress, Brighton Seminole Indian Reservation, Dania, Florida State Reservation,and Tampa Reservation.[23]

Seminole 115

Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida

The relocation to reservations and the federal recognition of the Seminole Tribe of Florida – a move largelysupported by residents of the reservations – caused antiphathy between the reservation Seminole and those who hadchosen not to move. In particularly, a group known as the Trail Indians, who lived along the Tamiami Trail, feltdisenfranchised by the situation. This was exacerbated in 1950 when some reservation Seminoles filed a land claimsuit against the federal government that was not supported by the Trail Indians.[8]

Following the recognition of the Seminole Tribe of Florida, the Trail Indians decided to organize their own separatetribal government. They sought recognition as the Miccosukee Tribe, as they spoke the Mikasuki (Miccosukee)language. They received full recognition in 1962, and received their own reservation land, collectively known as theMiccosukee Indian Reservation.[8] The Miccosukee Tribe set up a 333-acre (1.35 km2) reservation on the northernborder of Everglades National Park, about 45 miles (72 km) west of Miami.[24]

CommerceIn the United States 2000 Census, 12,431 people reported themselves as Seminole American Indian. An additional15,000 people identified themselves as Seminoles in combination with some other tribal affiliation or race.[25]

The Seminole Tribe of Florida and the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida entered into agreements with the USgovernment in 1957 and 1962, respectively, confirming their sovereignty over tribal lands and agreeing tocompensation for seized territory. The Seminole have been engaged in stock raising since the mid-1930s, when theyreceived cattle from western Native Americans. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) hoped that the cattle raisingwould teach Seminoles to become citizens using agricultural settlements. The BIA also hoped that this programwould lead to Seminole self-sufficiency. Cattle owners realized that by using their cattle as equity, they could engagein "new capital-intensive pursuits", such as housing.[26] Since then, the tribes have developed economies basedchiefly on sales of duty-free tobacco, heritage and resort tourism, and gambling. On December 7, 2006, theypurchased the Hard Rock Cafe chain of restaurants.[27]

Seminole clipper ship card

Florida experienced a population boom in the early 20th century when theFlagler railroad to Miami was completed. The state became a growingdestination for tourists and many resort towns were established.[18] In the yearsthat followed, many Seminoles worked in the cultural tourism trade. By the1920s, many Seminoles were involved in service jobs. In addition, they wereable to market their culture [28] by selling traditional craft products (made mostlyby women) and by exhibitions of traditional skills, such as wrestling alligators(by men). Some of the crafts included woodcarving, basket weaving,beadworking, patchworking, and palmetto-doll making. These crafts are stillpracticed today.[17]

Fewer Seminole rely on crafts for income because gaming has become solucrative.[17] The Miccosukee Tribe has sustained itself by owning and operatinga casino, resort, a golf club, several museum attractions, and the "Indian Village".At the "Indian Village", Miccosukee demonstrate traditional, pre-contactlifestyles to educate people about their culture.

"In 1979, the Seminoles opened the first casino on Indian land, ushering in what has become a multibillion-dollarindustry operated by numerous tribes nationwide."[29] This casino was the first tribally operated bingo hall in NorthAmerica. Since its establishment, gaming has become an important source of revenue for tribal governments. Tribalgaming has provided secure employment, and the revenues have supported higher education, health insurance,

services for the elderly, and personal income.[30] In more recent years, income from the gaming industry has funded major economic projects such as sugarcane fields, citrus groves, cattle, ecotourism, and commercial agriculture.[31]

Seminole 116

This has culminated in the purchase by the Seminole Tribe of Florida of Hard Rock Cafe, which previously they hadlicensed for several of their casinos.The Seminole are reflected in numerous Florida place names:• Seminole County;• Osceola County;• Seminole, a city in Pinellas County; and• Seminole, a small community in Okaloosa County.

Florida State University connectionThe image and name of the Seminole Osceola serves as a symbol for Florida State University (FSU). Several highschool athletic programs in the state use the nickname "Seminoles".The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) prohibition against use of Native American logos, signs instadiums, cheerleader and band uniforms, and mascots as presumed "hostile and abusive" was attempted against FSUand the Seminoles. It is considered on a case-by-case basis elsewhere. FSU was exempted after the threat oflitigation by the administration at FSU because the university had an agreement with the 3,100-member SeminoleTribe of Florida of the relationship and details of the images used. During the dispute, the Oklahoma Seminole alsoendorsed use of the name and image.The "war chant" cheer made by spectators at FSU football games includes the "tomahawk chop", a gesture inventedby the fans. At first they pointed to the goal line, encouraging the team to score, but over time, the gesture imitated atomahawk swinging down. Traditionally, the Seminole seldom used tomahawks. Before converting to modernweaponry, Seminole ancestors used spears with flint, bone or cane tips, war clubs studded with sharks' teeth, andbows and arrows.[32]

Notes[1] Mahon, pp. 183–187.[2] Mahon, p. 183.[3] Mahon, p. 204.[4] Mahon, pp. 187–189.[5] Mahon, pp. 190–191.[6] Mahon, pp. 201–202.[7] Mahon, pp. 183–184; 201–202.[8] Mahon, pp. 203–204.[9] "Definition of Seminole" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ seminole). Merriam-Webster. . Retrieved 2011-03-02.[10] Howard, Rosalyn. (2006) "The 'Wild Indians' of Andros Island: Black Seminole Legacy in the Bahamas." in Journal of Black Studies. Vol.

37, No. 2, pp. 275–298. Abstract on-line at http:/ / jbs. sagepub. com/ content/ 37/ 2/ 275. abstract .[11] Clark, pp. 750, 752.[12] Cattelino, pp. 64–65.[13] (http:/ / alamo-de-parras. welkin. org/ archives/ documents/ adams_oniz_treaty. html)[14] Covington, James W. 1993. The Seminoles of Florida, Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1196-5. pp. 145–6.[15] Garbarino, Merwyn S. 1989 The Seminole, p. 55.[16] "Seminole History" (http:/ / www. semtribe. com/ History/ ). Seminole Tribe of Florida. . Retrieved 2011-03-02.[17] Cattelino, p. 41.[18] Cattelino, p. 23.[19] Carl Waldman (2009). Atlas of the North American Indian (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pN51SQAACAAJ& dq=Atlas of the

North American Indian& source=gbs_book_other_versions) (3, illustrated ed.). Facts on File. p. 159. ISBN 9780816068586. . Retrieved2011-03-02.

[20] Cattelino, p. 130.[21] Cattelino, p. 142.[22] Mahon, p. 203.[23] Atlas of the North American Indian, 3rd ed. New York: Checkmark Books, 2009. Print.

Seminole 117

[24] "Concerning the Miccosukee Tribe's Ongoing Negotiations with the National Park Service Regarding the Special Use Permit Area" (http:/ /commdocs. house. gov/ committees/ resources/ hii46735. 000/ hii46735_0. HTM). Resources Committee, US House of Representatives.September 25, 1997. . Retrieved 2011-03-02.

[25] US Census (http:/ / www. census. gov/ prod/ 2002pubs/ c2kbr01-15. pdf).[26] Cattelino, pp. 32 and 34.[27] "Seminoles to buy Hard Rock chain" (http:/ / www. marketwatch. com/ story/ florida-tribe-to-buy-hard-rock-chain-for-965-million). Market

Watch. December 7, 2006. . Retrieved 2011-03-02.[28] Cattelino, p. 40.[29] [Robert Andrew Powell (August 24, 2005). "Florida State Can Keep Its Seminoles" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2005/ 08/ 24/ sports/

24mascot. html?_r=1). New York Times. . Retrieved 2011-03-02.[30] Cattelino. Ibid p. 9.[31] Cattelino. Ibid p. 113.[32] "What kinds of weapons did they use to defend themselves against the Spaniards?" (http:/ / www. semtribe. com/ FAQ/ ). Seminole Tribe of

Florida, Frequently Asked Questions. . Retrieved 2011-03-02.

References• Adams, Mikaëla M., “Savage Foes, Noble Warriors, and Frail Remnants: Florida Seminoles in the White

Imagination, 1865–1934,” Florida Historical Quarterly, 87 (Winter 2009), 404–35.• Cattelino, Jessica R. High Stakes: Florida Seminole Gaming and Sovereignty. Durham: Duke University Press,

2008. ISBN 978-0-8223-4227-4• Clark, C. Blue. "Native Christianity Since 1800." Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D.

Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC:Smithsonian Institution, 2004. ISBN 0-16-072300-0.

• Mahon, John K.; Brent R. Weisman (1996). "Florida's Seminole and Miccosukee Peoples". In Gannon, Michael(Ed.). The New History of Florida, pp. 183–206. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0813014158.

External links• Seminole Nation of Oklahoma official website (http:/ / www. seminolenation. com/ )• Seminole Tribe of Florida official site (http:/ / www. seminoletribe. com/ )• Seminole Clothing Patchwork (http:/ / essay. studyarea. com/ Old_Essay/ Art/ seminole_patchwork. htm)• The Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida official site (http:/ / www. miccosukeeresort. com/ tribe. html)• Hitchiti-Mikasuki Creation Story (http:/ / www. indigenouspeople. net/ hitchiti. htm)• Annual Seminole Nation Days Celebration (http:/ / www. seminolenation. com/ nationdays/ )• Aponke Resources for the study of Hitchiti and Mikasuki (http:/ / www. wm. edu/ linguistics/ hitchiti-mikasuki/ )• History of the Seminole People of Florida by Patricia R. Wickman, Ph.D. (http:/ / www. seminoletribe. com/

tribune/ 40anniversary/ history. shtml)• Seminole Portraits (http:/ / www. floridamemory. com/ OnlineClassroom/ seminoles/ photos. cfm) Hand colored

lithographs of some of the major Seminole leaders of the Second Seminole War (1835–1842). From the StateLibrary & Archives of Florida.

• Seminole Doll Making (http:/ / www. floridamemory. com/ OnlineClassroom/ seminole_dolls/ ) Seminole dollmaker Mary B. Billie. Interview in Seminole and English with photos. From the State Library & Archives ofFlorida.

• Alligator Dance (http:/ / www. floridamemory. com/ Collections/ folklife/ folklife_cd. cfm) Audio of Seminoleelder Billy Bowlegs III performing traditional dance and song in 1954. (Track 16 of CD.) From the State Library& Archives of Florida.

• Seminole history (http:/ / dhr. dos. state. fl. us/ facts/ history/ seminole/ ) from the Florida Department of State• John Horse and the Black Seminoles, First Black Rebels to Beat American Slavery (http:/ / www. johnhorse.

com)

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• The Seminole Indians of Florida (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 19155), by Clay MacCauley, 1884,Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology, from Project Gutenberg

119

National Park

Everglades National Park

Everglades National ParkIUCN Category Ib (Wilderness Area)

A white ibis flying over the River of Grass

Location of Everglades National Park

Location Miami-Dade, Monroe, & Collier counties, Florida, USA

Nearest city Florida CityEverglades City

Coordinates 25°19′0″N 80°56′0″W

Area 1508571 acres (6104.97 km2)1494970 acres (6049.9 km2) federal

Established December 6, 1947

Visitors 1,074,764 (in 2007)

Governing body National Park Service

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Everglades National Park 120

Type: Natural

Criteria: viii, ix, x

Designated: 1979 (3rd session)

Reference #: 76 [1]

State Party:  United States

Region: Europe and North America

Endangered: 1993–2007;2010–present

Everglades National Park is a national park in the U.S. state of Florida that protects the southern 25 percent of theoriginal Everglades. It is the largest subtropical wilderness in the United States, and is visited on average byone million people each year.[2] It is the third-largest national park in the lower 48 states after Death Valley andYellowstone. It has been declared an International Biosphere Reserve, a World Heritage Site, and a Wetland ofInternational Importance, only one of three locations in the world to appear on all three lists.[3]

Unlike most U.S. national parks, Everglades National Park was created to protect a fragile ecosystem instead ofsafeguarding a unique geographic feature. The Everglades are wetlands created by a slow-moving river originating inLake Okeechobee, fed by the Kissimmee River, and flowing southwest at about .25 miles (0.40 km) per day intoFlorida Bay. The park protects an interconnected network of marshland and forest ecosystems that are maintained bynatural forces.[4] Thirty-six species designated as threatened or protected live in the park, including the Floridapanther, the American crocodile, and the West Indian manatee. The park protects the largest U.S. wilderness areaeast of the Mississippi River,[5] is the most significant breeding ground for tropical wading birds in North America,and contains the largest mangrove ecosystem in the western hemisphere.[5] More than 350 species of birds,300 species of fresh and saltwater fish, 40 species of mammals, and 50 species of reptiles live within EvergladesNational Park.[6] All of South Florida's fresh water, which is stored in the Biscayne Aquifer, is recharged in thepark.[5]

Although humans have lived in the Everglades for thousands of years, not until 1882 did the region begin to bedrained for agricultural or residential use. In the 20th century the natural water flow from Lake Okeechobee wascontrolled and diverted to the explosive growth of the South Florida metropolitan area. The park was established in1934 to protect the quickly vanishing Everglades and dedicated in 1947, the same year massive canal-buildingprojects across South Florida began to divert water away from the park. The ecosystems in Everglades National Parkhave suffered significantly from human activity, and the repair and restoration of the Everglades is a politicallycharged issue in South Florida.

Everglades National Park 121

Geography

Map of Everglades National Park

Everglades National Park covers 1509000 acres (6110 km2),throughout Dade, Monroe, and Collier counties in Florida.[7] Theelevation typically ranges from 0 to 8 feet (2.4 m) above sea level,but a Calusa-built shell mound on the Gulf Coast rises 20 feet(6.1 m) above sea level.

Geology

The terrain of South Florida is relatively and consistently flat.Although rock formations are not a central draw to EvergladesNational Park, the limestone that underlies the Everglades isintegral to the formation of the diverse ecosystems within the park.Florida was once part of the African portion of the supercontinentGondwana. After it separated, conditions allowed a shallow

marine environment to deposit calcium carbonate in sand, shells, and coral to be converted into limestone.[8] Tinybits of shell, sand, and bryozoans compressed over multiple layers forming unique structures in the limestone calledooids which created porous and permeable conditions to hold water.[9]

The Florida peninsula appeared above sea level between 100,000 and 15,000 years ago. As sea levels at the end ofthe Wisconsin ice age rose, the water table appeared closer to land. Lake Okeechobee began to flood and convectionthunderstorms were created.[10] Vast peat deposits south of Lake Okeechobee indicate that regular flooding hadoccurred about 5,000 years ago. Plants began to migrate, subtropical ones from the northern part of Florida, andtropicals carried as seeds by birds from islands in the Caribbean.[11] Although the limestone shelf appears to be flat,there are slight rises—called pinnacles—and depressions caused by the erosion of limestone by the acidic propertiesof the water. The amount of time throughout the year that water is present in a location in the Everglades determinesthe type of soil, of which there only two in the Everglades: peat, created by many years of decomposing plant matter,and marl, the result of dried periphyton, or chunks of algae and microorganisms that create a grayish mud. Portionsof the Everglades that remain flooded for more than nine months out of the year are usually covered by peat. Areasthat are flooded six months or less are covered by marl. Plant communities are determined by the type of soil andamount of water present.[12] [13]

ClimateUnlike in the northern portion of Florida, no underground springs feed water into the Everglades system. Anunderground reservoir called the Floridan Aquifer lies about 1000 feet (300 m) below the surface of SouthFlorida.[14] However, the Everglades has an immense capacity for water storage, due to the sponge-like permeablelimestone underneath the exposed land. Most of the water arrives in the form of rainfall, and a significant amount isstored in the limestone. Water evaporating from the Everglades becomes rain over metropolitan areas, providing thefresh water supply for the region. Water also flows into the park after falling as rain on Lake Okeechobee and theKissimmee River, to appear in the Everglades days later. Water overflows Lake Okeechobee into a river 40 to 70miles (110 km) wide, which moves almost imperceptibly.[15]

Most of the Everglades see only two seasons: wet and dry. The park's dry season lasts from December to April, whentemperatures vary from 53 °F (12 °C) to 77 °F (25 °C) and humidity is low. Since water levels are low at that time,animals congregate at central water locations, providing popular opportunities for viewing the wildlife.[16] Duringthe wet season, from May to November, temperatures are consistently above 90 °F (33 °C) and humidity over90 percent.[17] Storms can drop 10 to 12 inches (300 mm) of rain at a time, providing half the year's average of60 inches (152 cm) of rainfall in just two months.[18]

Everglades National Park 122

EcosystemsAt the turn of the 20th century common concepts of what should be protected in national parks invariably includedformidable geologic features like mountains, geysers, or canyons. As Florida's population began to growsignificantly and urban areas near the Everglades were developed, proponents of the park's establishment faceddifficulty in persuading the federal government and the people of Florida that the subtle and constantly shiftingecosystems in the Everglades were just as worthy of protection.[19] When the park was established in 1947, itbecame the first area within the U.S. to protect flora and fauna native to a region as opposed to geologic scenery.[7]

The National Park Service currently recognizes nine distinct interdependent ecosystems within the park thatconstantly shift in size due to the amount of water present and other environmental factors.

Freshwater sloughs and marl prairies

Alligators thrive in freshwater sloughs and marlprairies.

Freshwater sloughs are perhaps the most common ecosystemassociated with Everglades National Park. These drainage channels arecharacterized by low-lying areas covered in fresh water, flowing at analmost imperceptible 100 feet (30 m) per day.[20] Shark River Sloughand Taylor Slough are significant features of the park. Sawgrassgrowing to a length of 6 feet (1.8 m) or more, and broad-leafed marshplants, are so prominent in this region that they gave the Everglades itsnickname "River of Grass". Excellent feeding locations for birds,sloughs in the Everglades attract a great variety of waders such asherons, egrets, roseate spoonbills (Platalea ajaja), ibises and brownpelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis), as well as limpkins (Aramusguarauna) and snail kites that eat apple snails, which in turn feed on the sawgrass. The sloughs' availability of fish,amphibians, and young birds attract a variety of freshwater turtles, alligators (Alligator mississippiensis), watermoccasins (Agkistrodon piscivorus conanti), and eastern diamondback rattlesnakes (Crotalus adamanteus).

A Great Blue Heron at Anhinga Trail

Freshwater marl prairies are similar to sloughs, but lack the slowmovement of water; instead, water seeps through a calcitic mud calledmarl. Algae and other microscopic organisms form periphyton, whichattaches to limestone. When it dries it turns into a gray mud.[21]

Sawgrass and other water plants grow shorter in freshwater marl thanthey do in peat, the other type of soil in the Everglades which is foundwhere water remains present longer throughout the year. Marl prairiesare usually under water from three to seven months of the year,whereas sloughs may remain submerged for longer than nine monthsand sometimes remain under water from one year to the next. Sawgrass

may dominate sloughs, creating a monoculture. Other grasses, such as muhly grass (Muhlenbergia filipes) andbroad-leafed water plants can be found in marl prairies.[22] Animals living in the freshwater sloughs also inhabit inmarl prairies. Marl prairies may go dry in some parts of the year; alligators play a vital role in maintaining life inremote parts of the Everglades by burrowing in the mud during the dry season, and creating pools of water wherefish and amphibians survive from one year to the next. Alligator holes also attract other animals who congregate tofeed on smaller prey. When the region floods again during the wet season, the fish and amphibians who weresustained in the alligator holes then repopulate freshwater marl prairies.[23]

Everglades National Park 123

Tropical hardwood hammocksHammocks are often the only dry land within the park. They rise several inches above the grass-covered river, andare dominated by diverse plant life consisting of subtropical and tropical trees, such as large southern live oaks(Quercus virginiana). Trees often form canopies under which animals thrive amongst scrub bushes of wild coffee(Psychotria), white indigoberry (Randia aculeata), poisonwood (Metopium toxiferum) and saw palmetto (Serenoarepens). The park features thousands of these tree islands amid sloughs—which often form the shape of a teardropwhen seen from above (see park map) because of the slowly moving water around them—but they can also be foundin pineland and mangroves. Trees in the Everglades, including wild tamarind (Lysiloma latisiliquum) andgumbo-limbo (Bursera simaruba), rarely grow higher than 50 feet (15 m) due to wind, cold weather, and lightningstrikes.[24] [25]

Fewer than 100 Florida panthers stilllive in the wild, usually in drier partsof the Everglades, such as hammocks

and pinelands.

The plant growth around the hammock base is nearly impenetrable; however,beneath the canopy hammocks are an ideal habitat for animals. Reptiles (such asvarious species of snake and anole) and amphibians (such as the American greentree frog, Hyla cinerea), find their homes in the hardwood hammocks. Birds suchas barred owls (Strix varia), woodpeckers, northern cardinals (Cardinaliscardinalis), and southern bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) nest inhammock trees. Mammal species living in hardwood hammocks includeopossums (Didelphis virginiana), raccoons (Procyon lotor), bobcats (Lynxrufus), Everglades mink (Neovison vison), marsh rabbits (Sylvilagus palustris),white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and the rare, critically endangeredFlorida panther (Puma concolor coryi).[24]

Pineland

Dade County was once covered in 186000 acres (750 km2) of pine rocklandforests, but most of it was harvested by the lumber industry.[26] Pinelandecosystems (or pine rocklands) are characterized by shallow, dry sandy loamover a limestone substrate covered almost exclusively by slash pines (Pinus elliottii var. densa). Trees in thisecosystem grow in solution holes, where the soft limestone has worn away and filled with soil, allowing plants totake hold.[27] Pinelands require regular maintenance by fire to ensure their existence. South Florida slash pines areuniquely adapted to promote fire by dropping a large amount of dried pine needles and shedding dry bark. Pinecones require heat from fires to open, allowing seeds to disperse and take hold. The trunks and roots of slash pines,however, are resistant to fire. Prescribed burns in these areas take place every three to seven years; without regularfires, hardwood trees begin to grow in this region and pinelands become recategorized as mixed swamp forests.[28]

Most plants in the area bloom about 16 weeks after a fire.[29] Nearly all pinelands have an understory of palm shrubs,and a diverse ground covering of wild herbs.[28]

Pine rocklands are considered one of the most threatened habitats in Florida; less than 4000 acres (16 km2) ofpineland exist outside the park.[30] Within the park, 20000 acres (81 km2) of pineland are protected.[31] A variety ofanimal species meet their needs for food, shelter, nesting, and rooking in pine rocklands. Woodpeckers, easternmeadowlarks (Sturnella magna), loggerhead shrikes (Lanius ludovicianus), grackles, and northern mockingbirds(Mimus polyglottos) are commonly found in pinelands. Black bears and Florida panthers also live in this habitat.[28]

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Cypress and mangroveCypress trees are conifers that are adapted to live in standing fresh water. They grow in compact structures calledcypress domes and in long strands over limestone. Water levels may fluctuate dramatically around cypress domesand strands, so cypresses develop "knees" that protrude from the water at high levels to provide oxygen for the rootsystems. Dwarf cypress trees grow in drier areas with poorer soil. Epiphytes, such as bromeliads, Spanish moss(Tillandsia usneoides), orchids and ferns grow on the branches and trunks of cypress trees. Everglades National Parkfeatures twenty-five species of orchids.[32] Tall cypress trees provide excellent nesting areas for birds including wildturkeys (Meleagris gallopavo), ibis, herons, egrets, anhingas (Anhinga anhinga), and belted kingfishers (Megacerylealcyon). Mammals in cypress regions include white-tailed deer, squirrels, raccoons, opossums, skunks, swamprabbits, river otters (Lontra canadensis), and bobcats, as well as small rodents.[33] [34]

Mangrove trees along the coastline protect theshore from erosion.

Mangrove trees cover the coastlines of South Florida, sometimesgrowing inland depending on the amount of salt water present withinthe Everglades ecosystems. During dryer years when less fresh waterflows to the coast, mangroves will appear among fresh water plants.When rain is abundant, sawgrass and other fresh water plants may befound closer to the coast. Three species of mangrove trees—red(Rhizophora mangle), black (Avicennia germinans), and white(Laguncularia racemosa)—can be found in the Everglades. Due totheir high tolerance of salt water, winds, extreme tides, hightemperatures, and muddy soils, mangrove trees are uniquely adapted toextreme conditions. They act as nurseries for many marine and bird

species. They are also Florida's first defense against the destructive forces of hurricanes, absorbing flood waters andpreventing coastal erosion.[35] The mangrove system in Everglades National Park is the largest continuous system ofmangroves in the world.[36]

Within the Florida mangrove systems live 220 species of fish, and a variety of crabs, crayfish, shrimp, mollusks, andother invertebrates, which serve as the main source of food for many birds.[37] Dozens of bird species use mangrovesas nurseries and food stores, including pelicans, grebes, tricolored herons (Egretta tricolor), gulls, terns, hawks andkites, and arboreal birds like mangrove cuckoos (Coccyzus minor), yellow warblers (Dendroica petechia), andwhite-crowned pigeons (Patagioenas leucocephala).[38] The mangroves also support 24 species of amphibians andreptiles, and 18 species of mammals, including the endangered green turtle (Chelonia mydas), Hawksbill turtle(Eretmochelys imbricata), and West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus).[39]

Coastal lowlandsCoastal lowlands, or wet prairies, are salt water marshes that absorb marine water when it gets high or fresh waterwhen rains are heavy. Floods occur during hurricane and tropical storm surges when ocean water can rise severalfeet over the land.[40] Heavy wet seasons also cause floods when rain from the north flows into the Everglades. Fewtrees can survive in the conditions of this region, but plants—succulents like saltwort and glasswort—tolerate salt,brackish water, and desert conditions. Animal life in this zone is dependent upon the amount of water present, butcommonly found animals include Cape Sable seaside sparrows (Ammodramus maritimus mirabilis), Everglades snailkites (Rostrhamus sociabilis), wood storks (Mycteria americana), eastern indigo snakes (Drymarchon coraiscouperi), and small mammals such as rats, mice, and rabbits.[41]

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Marine and estuarineThe largest body of water within the park is Florida Bay, which extends from the mangrove swamps of themainland's southern tip to the Florida Keys. Over 800 square miles (2100 km2) of marine ecosystem lies in thisrange. Coral, sponges, and seagrasses serve as shelter and food for crustaceans and mollusks, which in turn are theprimary food source for larger marine animals. Sharks, stingrays, and barracudas also live in this ecosystem, as dolarger species of fish that attract sport fishing. Pelicans, shorebirds, terns, and black skimmers (Rynchops niger) areamong the birds frequenting park shorelines.[42]

Human history

Native people

The sun sets over Shark River Slough.

Humans likely first inhabited the SouthFlorida region 10,000 to 20,000 yearsago.[43] Two tribes of Native Americansdeveloped on the peninsula's southern tip:the Tequesta lived on the eastern side andthe Calusa, greater in numbers, on thewestern side. The Everglades served as anatural boundary between them. TheTequesta lived in a single large communitynear the mouth of the Miami River, whilethe Calusa lived in 30 villages. Both groupstraveled through the Everglades, but rarelylived within them, remaining mostly alongthe coast.[44]

The diets of both groups consisted mostly of shellfish and fish, small mammals, game, and wild plants. Havingaccess only to soft limestone, most of the tools fashioned by Native Americans in the region were made of shell,bone, wood, and animal teeth; shark teeth were used as cutting blades,[45] and sharpened reeds became arrows andspears.[46] Shell mounds still exist today within the park, giving archaeologists and anthropologists evidence of theraw materials available to the indigenous people for tool construction. Spanish explorers estimated the number ofTequesta at first contact to be around 800, and Calusa at 2,000, although the National Park Service reports there wereprobably about 20,000 natives living in or near the Everglades when the Spanish established contact in the late 16thcentury.[47] The Calusa society was more advanced, as they lived in social strata, and were able to create canals,earthworks, and shellworks. The Calusa were also able to resist Spanish attempts at conquest.[45]

Although the Spanish had contact with these societies, they established missions further north, near LakeOkeechobee. In the 18th century, invading Creeks incorporated the dwindling numbers of the Tequesta into theirown. Neither the Tequesta nor Calusa tribe existed by 1800.[48] Disease, warfare, and capture for slavery were theprobably reasons for the eradication of both groups. The only evidence of their existence within the park boundariesis a series of shell mounds that were built by the Calusa.[49]

In the early 19th century, Creeks, escaped African slaves, and other Indians from northern Florida displaced by the Creek War formed the area's Seminole nation. After the end of the Seminole Wars in 1842, the Seminoles faced relocation to Indian territory near Oklahoma. A few hundred Seminole hunters and scouts settled within what is today Big Cypress National Preserve, to escape the emigration to the west.[50] From 1859 to about 1930, the Seminoles and Miccosukee, a similar but linguistically unique tribe, lived in relative isolation, making their living by trading. In 1928, surveying and construction began on the Tamiami Trail, along the northern border of Everglades

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National Park. The road not only bisected the Everglades but also introduced a steady, if small, traffic of whitesettlers into the Everglades.[51]

Some members of the Miccosukee and Seminole tribes continue to live within park boundaries. Management of thepark includes approval of new policies and procedures by tribal representatives "in such a manner that they do notconflict with the park purpose".[52]

American settlementsFollowing the end of the Seminole Wars, Americans began settling at isolated points along the coast in what is nowthe park, from the Ten Thousand Islands to Cape Sable. Communities developed on the two largest pieces of dryground in the area, on Chokoloskee Island and at Flamingo on Cape Sable, both of which established post offices inthe early 1890s.[53] Chokoloskee Island is a shell mound, a midden built roughly 20 feet (6 m) high over thousandsof years of occupation by the Calusa. The settlements in Chokoloskee and Flamingo served as trading centers forsmall populations of farmers, fishermen and charcoal burners settled in the Ten Thousand Islands. Both settlementsand the more isolated homesteads could only be reached by boat until well into the 20th century. Everglades City, onthe mainland near Chokoloskee, enjoyed a brief period of prosperity when, beginning in 1920, it served as theheadquarters for construction of the Tamiami Trail. A dirt road from Florida City reached Flamingo in 1922, while acauseway finally connected Chokoloskee to the mainland's Everglades City in 1956.[54] [55] After the park wasestablished, residents of Flamingo were bought out, and the site was incorporated into the park as a visitor center.[53]

Land development and conservation

A canal lock being constructed in the Everglades in 1906

Several attempts were made to drain and develop theEverglades in the 1880s. The first canals built in theEverglades did little harm to the ecosystem, as theywere unable to drain much of it.[56] However, NapoleonBonaparte Broward based the majority of his 1904campaign for governor on how drainage would create"The Empire of the Everglades".[57] Broward orderedthe drainage that took place between 1905 and 1910,and it was successful enough that land developers soldtracts for $30 an acre, settling the town of Davie, anddeveloping regions in Lee and Dade counties. Thecanals also cleared water that made way for agriculturalfields growing sugarcane.[58] [59]

The 1920s saw a population boom in South Florida thatcreated a demand for land described by author Michael Grunwald as "insanity".[60] Land was sold before any homesor structures were built on it, and in some cases before any plans for construction were in place. New landowners,eager to make good on their investments, hastily constructed homes and small towns on recently drained land.Mangrove trees on the coasts were taken down for better views and replaced with shallow rooted palm trees. TheU.S. Army Corps of Engineers began construction on larger canals to control the rising waters in the Everglades.Nevertheless, Lake Okeechobee continued to rise and fall, the region was covered with rain, and city plannerscontinued to battle the water. The 1926 Miami Hurricane caused Lake Okeechobee levees to fail; hundreds of peoplewho had just moved in south of the lake drowned. Two years later, the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane claimed2,500 lives when Lake Okeechobee once again surged over its levees. Politicians who declared the Evergladesuninhabitable were silenced when a four-story wall, named the Herbert Hoover Dike, was built around LakeOkeechobee. This wall effectively cut off the water source from the Everglades.[61]

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Following the wall's construction, South Florida endured a drought severe enough to cause massive wildfires in1939. The influx of humans had a detrimental effect on the plants and animals of the region when melaleuca trees(Melaleuca quinquenervia) were introduced to help with drainage, along with Australian pines brought in bydevelopers as windbreaks. The region's timber was devastated for lumber supplies. Alligators, birds, frogs, and fishwere hunted on a massive scale. Entire rookeries of wading birds were shot to collect their plumes, which were usedin women's hats in the early 20th century.[62] However, the largest impact people had on the region was the diversionof water away from the Everglades. Canals were deepened and widened, and water levels fell dramatically, causingchaos in food webs.[63] Salt water replaced fresh water in the canals, and by 1997 scientists noticed that salt waterwas seeping into the Biscayne Aquifer, South Florida's water source.[64]

In the 1940s, a freelance writer and former reporter for The Miami Herald named Marjory Stoneman Douglas beganto research the Everglades for an assignment about the Miami River. She studied the land and water for five years,and published The Everglades: River of Grass in 1947, describing the area in great detail, including a chapter on itsdisappearance. She wrote: "What had been a river of grass and sweet water that had given meaning and life anduniqueness to this enormous geography through centuries in which man had no place here was made, in one chaoticgesture of greed and ignorance and folly, a river of fire."[65] The book has sold 500,000 copies since its publication,and Douglas' continued dedication to ecology conservation earned her the nicknames "Grand Dame of theEverglades", "Grandmother of the Everglades" and "the anti-Christ" for her singular focus at the expense of somepolitical interests.[66] She founded and served as president for an organization called Friends of the Everglades,initially intended to protest the construction of a proposed Big Cypress jetport in 1968. Successful in thatconfrontation, the organization has grown to over 4,000 members, committed to the preservation of theEverglades.[67] She wrote and spoke about the importance of the Everglades until her death at age 108 in 1998.

Park historyFurther information: Ernest F. Coe

Cape Sable seen from Spot Satellite

Floridians hoping to preserve at least part of the Everglades began toexpress their concern over diminishing resources in the early 20thcentury. Royal Palm State Park was created in 1916; it included severaltrails and a visitor's center several miles from Homestead.Miami-based naturalists first proposed that the area become a nationalpark in 1923. Five years later, the Florida state legislature establishedthe Tropical Everglades National Park Commission to study theformation of a protected area.[68] The commission was led by a landdeveloper turned conservationist named Ernest F. Coe, who waseventually nicknamed Father of Everglades National Park.[69] Coe'soriginal plan for the park included more than 2000000 acres(8100 km2) including Key Largo and Big Cypress, and hisunwillingness to compromise almost prevented the park's creation.Various other interests, including land developers and sport hunters, demanded some of the land be trimmed.[68]

The commission was also tasked with proposing a method to raise the money to purchase the land.[70] The search coincided with the arrival of the Great Depression in the United States, and money for land purchase was scarce.[71]

The U.S. House of Representatives authorized the creation of the new national park on May 30, 1934, but it passed only with a rider that ensured no money would be allotted to the project for at least five years.[70] Coe's passion and U.S. Senator Spessard Holland's politicking helped to fully establish the park, after Holland was able to negotiate 1300000 acres (5300 km2) of the park, leaving out Big Cypress, Key Largo, the Turner River area, and a 22000-acre (89 km2) tract of land called "The Hole in the Donut" that was too highly valued for agriculture. Miami Herald editor John Pennekamp was instrumental in pushing the Florida Legislature to raise $2 million to purchase the private land

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inside the park boundaries.[72] It was dedicated by President Harry Truman on December 6, 1947, one month afterDouglas' book was released.[73] In the same year, several tropical storms struck South Florida, prompting theconstruction of 1400 miles (2300 km) of canals, sending water unwanted by farmers and residents to the ocean.[71]

The park protects the last stands of pine rocklandin Florida

The Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project (C&SF) wasauthorized by Congress to construct more than a thousand miles ofcanals and flood control structures across South Florida. The C&SF,run by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, established an agriculturalarea directly south of Lake Okeechobee, and three water conservationareas, all bordered by canals that diverted excess water either to urbanareas or into the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico or Florida Bay. Southof these manmade regions was Everglades National Park, which hadbeen effectively cut off from its water supply. By the 1960s, the parkwas visibly suffering. Although the C&SF was directed to provideenough water to sustain the park, it did not follow through.[74] Aproposed airport that would have dire environment effects on

Everglades National Park became the center of a battle that helped to initiate the environmental movement into localand national politics. The airport proposal was eventually abandoned and in 1972 a bill was introduced to curbdevelopment in South Florida and ensure the national park would receive the amount of water it needed. Effortsturned to repairing the damage wrought by decades of mismanagement: the Army Corps of Engineers changed itsfocus in 1990 from constructing dams and canals to constructing "purely environmental projects".[75]

Regions originally included in Ernest Coe's vision for a national park were slowly added over the years to the park orincorporated into other protected areas: Biscayne National Park, Big Cypress National Preserve, John PennekampCoral Reef State Park on Key Largo, Ten Thousand Islands National Wildlife Refuge, and Florida Keys NationalMarine Sanctuary were all protected after the park's opening in 1947. Everglades National Park was designated anInternational Biosphere Reserve on October 26, 1976. On November 10, 1978, most of the park was declared awilderness area. Wilderness designations covered 1296505 acres (5246.77 km2) in 2003—about 86 percent of thepark. It was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site on October 24, 1979 and as a Wetland of InternationalImportance on June 4, 1987.[76]

Restoration effortsFurther information: Restoration of the Everglades

A little blue heron hunting near water on AnhingaTrail.

President George H. W. Bush signed the Everglades National ParkProtection and Expansion Act on December 13, 1989 that added109506 acres (443.16 km2) to the eastern side of the park, closedthe park to airboats, directed the Department of the Army torestore water to improve the ecosystems within EvergladesNational Park, and "Direct(ed) the Secretary of the Interior tomanage the Park in order to maintain the natural abundance,diversity, and ecological integrity of native plants and animals, aswell as the behavior of native animals, as part of theirecosystem."[77] Bush remarked in his statement when signing theact, "Through this legislation that river of grass may now berestored to its natural flow of water".[78] In 1993, however, thepark was placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger.

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In 2000, Congress approved a federal effort to restore the Everglades, named the Comprehensive EvergladesRestoration Plan (CERP), with the objectives of "restoration, preservation and protection of the south Floridaecosystem while providing for other water-related needs of the region",[79] and claiming to be the largestenvironmental restoration in history. It was a controversial plan; detractors worried that it "relies on uncertaintechnologies, overlooks water quality, subsidizes damaging growth and delays its environmental benefits".[80]

Supporters of the plan included the National Audubon Society, who was accused by Friends of the Everglades andthe Biodiversity Legal Foundation of prioritizing agricultural and business interests.[80]

The namesake of Anhinga Trail dries its feathers

CERP projects are designed to capture 1.7 billion US gallons ( m3)of fresh water every day, store it in underground reservoirs andrelease the water to areas within 16 counties in South Florida.Approximately 35600 acres (144 km2) of man-made wetlands areto be constructed to confine contaminated water before it isreleased to the Everglades, and 240 miles (390 km) of canals thatdivert water away from the Everglades are to be destroyed.[81]

During the first five years of implementation, CERP wasresponsible for the purchase of 207000 acres (840 km2) of land ata cost of $1 billion. The plan aims to spend $10.5 billion over30 years, combining 50 different projects and giving them 5-yeartimelines.[82] The State of Florida has invested more than $2billion into restoring the Everglades, but the funds have not beenmatched by the U.S. government.[83] As of June 2008, the U.S.government has spent only $400 million of the $7.8 billionlegislated.[84] Initiatives that could aid Everglades restorationinclude the U.S. Sugar Land Corp transaction, the C-111 spreadercanal and the Tamiami Trail bridging. These projects are

supported by groups such as the Everglades Foundation, whose mission is to aid in the efforts of saving America’sEverglades for future generations.[85] In spite of this, Everglades National Park was removed in 2007 from the Listof World Heritage in Danger.[86] However, it was listed again on the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2010.[87]

The National Research Council reported in September 2008 that no CERP projects had been completed, and the lackof progress on water deliveries to Everglades National Park "is one of the most discouraging stories in Evergladesrestoration".[88]

Everglades National Park was directly hit by Hurricanes Katrina, Wilma, and Rita in 2005. Such storms are a naturalpart of the park's ecosystem; 1960's Hurricane Donna left nothing in the mangroves but "standing dead snags"several miles wide, but 30 years later the area had completely recovered.[20] Predictably, what suffered the most inthe park from the 2005 hurricanes were manmade structures. The visitors center and lodge at Flamingo weredamaged by 125 mph (201 km/h) winds and an 8 ft (2.4 m) storm surge. The lodge had been functioning for 50 yearswhen it was irreparably damaged and eventually torn down in 2009; nothing is slated to replace it.[89]

Park economicsEverglades National Park reported in 2005 a budget of over $28 million. Of that, $14.8 million is granted from theNational Park Service, and $13.5 million from various sources including CERP, donations, and other grants.[90] Theentry fee for vehicles in 2006 ranged from $10 to $200 for bus tours. Of the nearly one million visitors to EvergladesNational Park in 2006, more than 38,000 were overnight campers, paying $16 a night or $10 a night for backcountrypermits.[91] Visitors spent $2.6 million[90] within the park and $48 million in local economies.[92] More than900 jobs were sustained or created within or by the park, and the park added value of $35 million to localeconomies.[92]

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ActivitiesThe busiest season for visitors is from December to March, when temperatures are lowest and mosquitoes are leastactive. The park features four visitor centers: on the Tamiami Trail (part of U.S. Route 41) directly west of Miami isthe Shark Valley Visitor Center. A fifteen-mile (24 km) round trip path leads from this center to a two-storyobservation tower. Tram tours are available during the busy season. Closest to Homestead on State Road 9336 is theErnest F. Coe Visitor Center, where a 38-mile (61 km) road begins, winding through pine rockland, cypress,freshwater marl prairie, coastal prairie, and mangrove ecosystems. Various hiking trails are accessible from the road,which runs to the Flamingo Visitor Center and marina, open and staffed during the busier time of the year. The GulfCoast Visitor Center is closest to Everglades City on State Road 29 along the west coast. The Gulf Coast VisitorCenter gives canoers access to the Wilderness Waterway, a 99-mile (160 km) canoe trail that extends to theFlamingo Visitor Center.[93] The western coast of the park and the Ten Thousand Islands and the various key islandsin Florida Bay are accessible only by boat.

Trails

A view of vast sawgrass expanse north ofAnhinga Trail gives visitors an opportunity to see

a freshwater slough up close.

Several walking trails in the park vary in hiking difficulty on PineIsland, where visitors can cross hardwood hammocks, pinelands, andfreshwater sloughs. Starting at the Royal Palm Visitor Center, theAnhinga Trail is a half-mile self-guided tour through a sawgrass marshwhere visitors can see alligators, marsh and wading birds, turtles, andbromeliads. Its proximity to Homestead and its accessibility make itone of the most visited sites in the park. The nearby Gumbo LimboTrail is also self-guided, at half a mile long. It loops through a canopyof hardwood hammocks that include gumbo limbo, royal palms(Roystonea), strangler figs (Ficus aurea), and a variety ofepiphytes.[94] Twenty eight miles (45 km) of trails start near the LongPine Key campgrounds and wind through Long Pine Key, well-suited for offroad cycling through the pine rocklandsin the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness Area. Two boardwalks allow visitors to walk through a cypress forestat Pa-Hay-O-Kee, which also features a two-story overlook, and another at Mahogany Hammock (referring toSwietenia mahagoni) that takes hikers through a dense forest in the middle of a freshwater marl prairie.[95] Closer toFlamingo, more rugged trails take visitors through mangrove swamps, along Florida Bay. Christian Point Trail,Snake Bight Trail, Rowdy Bend Trail and Coastal Prairie Trail allow viewing of shorebirds and wading birds amongthe mangroves. Portions of the trails may be impassable depending on the time of year, because of mosquitoes andwater levels. Ranger-led tours take place in the busier season only.[96]

Camping and recreation

The campground at Flamingo

Camping is available year-round in Everglades National Park.Frontcountry camping, with some services, is available at Long PineKey, close to the Ernest F. Coe Visitor Center, where 108 sites areaccessible by car. Near Flamingo, 234 campsites with some servicesare also available. Recreational vehicle camping is available at thesesites, although not with all necessary services. Backcountry permits arerequired for campsites along the Wilderness Waterway, Gulf Coastsites, and sites in the various keys. Several backcountry sites arechickees; others are beach and ground sites.[97]

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Low-powered motorboats are allowed in the park, although the majority of salt water areas are no-wake zones toprotect manatees and other marine animals from harm. Jet skis, airboats, and other motorized personal watercraft areprohibited. However, many trails allow kayaks and canoes. A state license is required for fishing, and although freshwater licenses are not sold in the park, a salt water license may be available. Swimming is not recommended withinthe park boundaries; water moccasins, snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina), alligators and crocodiles thrive infresh water. Sharks, barracuda, and sharp dangerous coral are plentiful in salt water. Visibility is low in bothkinds.[98]

Threats to the park and ecology

Diversion and quality of water

Bromeliads flourish on cypress trees as a greategret passes.

Less than 50 percent of the Everglades which existed prior to drainageattempts remains intact today. Populations of wading birds dwindled90 percent from their original numbers between the 1940s and2000s.[99] The diversion of water to South Florida's still-growingmetropolitan areas is the Everglades National Park's number one threat.In the 1950s and 1960s, 1400 miles (2300 km) of canals and levees,150 gates and spillways, and 16 pumping stations were constructed todirect water toward cities and away from the Everglades. Low levels ofwater leave fish vulnerable to reptiles and birds, and as sawgrass driesit can burn or die off, which in turn kills apple snails and other animalsthat wading birds feed upon.[93] Populations of birds fluctuate; in 2009,the South Florida Water Management District claimed wading birds across South Florida increased by 335%.[100]

However, following three years of higher numbers, The Miami Herald reported the same year that populations ofwading birds within the park decreased by 29%.[101]

The west coast of Florida relies on desalinization for its fresh water; the quantity demanded is too great for the landto provide. Nitrates in the underground water system and high levels of mercury also impact the quality of freshwater the park receives.[93] In 1998 a Florida panther was found dead in Shark Water Slough, with levels of mercuryhigh enough to kill a human.[102] Increased occurrences of algae blooms and red tide in Biscayne Bay and FloridaBay have been traced to the amounts of controlled water released from Lake Okeechobee.[103] The brochure given toall visitors at Everglades National Park includes a statement that reads, "Freshwater flowing into the park isengineered. With the help of pumps, floodgates, and retention ponds along the park's boundary, the Everglades ispresently on life support, alive but diminished."[93]

Urban encroachmentA series of levees on the park's eastern border marks the line between urban and protected areas, but developmentinto these areas threatens the park system. Florida still attracts nearly a thousand new residents every day, andbuilding residential, commercial and industrial zones near Everglades National Park stresses the water balance andecosystems within the park. On the park's western border, Ft. Myers, Naples and Cape Coral are growing, but nosystem of levees exists to mark that border.[104] National Geographic rated both Everglades National Park and BigCypress National Preserve the lowest-scoring parks in North America, at 32 out of 100. Their scoring system rated55 parks in terms of sustainable tourism, destination quality, and park management. The experts who compiled theresults justified the score by stating: "Encroachment by housing and retail development has thrown the preciousecosystem into a tailspin, and if humankind doesn't back off, there will be nothing left of one of this country's mostamazing treasures".[105]

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Endangered and threatened animals

The American crocodile has notable differencesfrom the alligator. Habitat destruction and vehicle

collisions are its biggest threats.

Thirty-six federally protected animals live in the park, some of whichface grave concern for survival. The American crocodile is found onlyin South Florida within the United States. Overhunted for their hides,today they are protected from hunting, but are still threatened due tohabitat destruction, and injury from cars when they cross roads to reachwaterways. Roughly 50 nests exist in Everglades and BiscayneNational Parks, and about 1,000 crocodiles currently live inFlorida.[106] Numbers of crocodiles in South Florida have risenrecently along with the numbers of alligators, and crocodiles werereclassified as "threatened" in the United States in 2007.[107]

The Florida panther is one of the most endangered mammals on earth,and they live primarily in the Everglades and the Big Cypress Swamp. About 50 live in the wild. The biggest threatsto the panther include habitat destruction from human development, vehicle collisions, inbreeding due to a limitedgene pool, parasites, diseases, and mercury poisoning.[108]

Four species of sea turtles including the Atlantic green sea turtle, Atlantic hawksbill, Atlantic loggerhead (Carettacaretta), and the Atlantic ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) are endangered, and the leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelyscoriacea) is threatened. Although numbers are difficult to determine, since males and juveniles do not return to theirbirthplace, females lay eggs in the same location every year. Habitat loss and illegal poaching and destructive fishingpractices are the biggest threats to these animals.[109]

Two species of birds in the park are most in danger of disappearing. The Cape Sable seaside sparrow is restricted toEverglades National Park and the Big Cypress Swamp.[110] In 1981 there were 6,656 Cape Sable seaside sparrowsreported in its boundaries, but surveys over 10 years documented a decline to an estimated 2,624 birds by 2002.[111]

Attempts to return natural levels of water to the park have been controversial; Cape Sable seaside sparrows nestabout a foot off the ground, and rising water levels may harm future populations, as well as threaten the endangeredsnail kite.[112] The Everglades snail kite eats apple snails almost exclusively, and the Everglades is the only locationin the United States where this bird of prey exists. There is some evidence that the population may be increasing, butloss of habitat and food sources keep the estimated number of these birds at several hundred.[113]

The West Indian manatee has recently been upgraded from endangered to threatened. Collisions with boats andhabitat loss are still its biggest threats.[114]

Drought, fire, and rising sea levelsFire naturally occurs after lightning storms, but takes its heaviest toll when water levels are low. Hardwoodhammock and cypress trees are susceptible to heavy damage due to fire, and some may take decades to growback.[93] Peat built up over centuries in the marsh can cause fires to burn deep scars in the soil. In 2007, Fred Sklarof the South Florida Water Management District said: "An extreme drought can be viewed almost as catastrophic asa volcano. It can reshape the entire landscape. It can take 1,000 years to produce two inches of peat, and you can losethose couple of inches in a week."[115]

Rising sea levels caused by global warming are another threat to the future of the park. Since 1932, ocean levels atKey West have steadily risen over 0.7 feet (0.2 m), which could have disastrous consequences for land so close tothe ocean.[116] It is estimated that within 500 years freshwater habitats in the Everglades National Park will beobliterated by salt water, leaving only the northern-most portion of the Everglades. Cost estimates for raising orreplacing the Tamiami Trail and Alligator Alley with bridges are in the hundreds of millions of dollars.[117]

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Non-native speciesFurther information: List of invasive species in the Everglades

An aerial view of the southwestern tip ofEverglades National Park

Another growing threat in recent years is the introduction of non-nativespecies into the park. The melaleuca tree causes the most destruction ofany plant species, taking large amounts of water and leaving marshareas desiccated. Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius) hasinvaded as well, competing with native plants that serve as food foranimals, and is difficult to eradicate.[118] The Burmese python (Pythonmolurus bivittatus) is one of the most formidable animal species. Thesesnakes are capable of growing up to 20 feet (6.1 m) in length, and parkvisitors have seen them struggling with alligators. As Kenneth Kryskofrom the Florida Museum of Natural History puts it, "These [snakes]are now the huge apex predator in the Everglades. There's nothingbigger."[119] The first python was found in 1979, with none seen until1995; between 2001 and 2005, however, more than 230 pythons have been discovered within the parkboundaries,[119] and they have begun reproducing on their own.[120] When found, pythons are immediately capturedand removed. Park biologists say that the exotic pet trade and pet owners who release pythons into the wilderness areresponsible for the existence of the snakes within the Everglades. Skip Snow, wildlife biologist at EvergladesNational Park, said, "All of the Burmese pythons that we see in the park are a product of the international pettrade."[121] Coyotes (Canis latrans) have also been spotted in the park, as well as in Big Cypress National Preserve.Park managers have attributed the lower numbers of wild pigs (Sus scrofa) in both parks to the arrival ofcoyotes.[122] Numerous exotic bird species are often seen in or on the fringes of the park. Some established speciesinclude the common mynah (Acridotheres tristis) and various parrot species, while newcomers such as the sacredibis (Threskiornis aethiopicus) show signs of increasing numbers.

References[1] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 76[2] "Park Statistics" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ parkmgmt/ statistics. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-12-05.[3] Maltby, E., P.J. Dugan, "Wetland Ecosystem Management, and Restoration: An International Perspective" in Everglades: The Ecosystem and

its Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8[4] Whitney, p. 167[5] "Everglades National Park" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ index. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-12-05.[6] Robertson, p. 27, 21, 38[7] Everglades National Park / Dry Tortugas National Park (http:/ / home. nps. gov/ ever/ parkmgmt/ upload/ 2008 DRTO EVER Final Supt

Annual Report. pdf) Superintendent's Report, 2008 Fiscal Year. Retrieved on May 26, 2010.[8] Lodge, p. 3[9] "Everglades Geology" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ naturescience/ evergeology. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-02-08.[10] McCally, pp. 9–10.[11] Whitney, p. 108.[12] McCally, pp. 12–19.[13] Lodge, pp. 37–38.[14] Whitney, p. 166[15] Whitney, p. 167, 169[16] "Dry Season" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ planyourvisit/ dryseason. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-12-05.[17] "Wet Season" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ planyourvisit/ wetseason. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-12-05.[18] Whitney, p. 169[19] Davis, pp. 366–369.[20] Robertson, p. 9[21] Whitney, p. 164[22] Lodge, pp. 29–32.[23] Lodge, p. 35.

Everglades National Park 134

[24] "Hardwood Hammocks" (http:/ / www. flmnh. ufl. edu/ fish/ SouthFlorida/ everglades/ hammocks/ HardwoodHammock. html). FloridaMuseum of Natural History. . Retrieved 2007-11-18.

[25] "Tropical Hardwood Hammock" (http:/ / crocdoc. ifas. ufl. edu/ publications/ msrpmap/ tropicalhardwoodhammock/ ). U.S. Fish andWildlife Service. 1999. . Retrieved 2007-11-18.

[26] National Park Service (2005). "Habitats in the Park" (brochure).[27] Robertson, p. 11[28] U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. " Pine Rocklands: Multispecies recovery plan for South Florida (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ southeast/ vbpdfs/

commun/ pr. pdf)".[29] Whitney, p. 107[30] Whitney, p. 105–107[31] Hammer, p. 8.[32] "International Designations" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ parknews/ internationaldesignations. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved

2007-10-31.[33] Sullivan, Janet (1994). "Kuchler type: Cypress savanna" (http:/ / www. fs. fed. us/ database/ feis/ kuchlers/ k091/ all. html#DESCRIPTION).

USDA Forest Service. . Retrieved 2007-11-20.[34] Hammer, p. 10.[35] McCally, pp. 76–78.[36] Katherisen, K. (2001). "Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems". Advances in Marine Biology. 40. Alan J. Southward (ed.).

pp.  18–251. ISBN 978-0-12-026140-6.[37] Whitney, p. 292–293[38] Whitney, p. 295–296[39] Whitney, p. 297[40] Whitney, p. 163[41] "Wet Prairie" (http:/ / crocdoc. ifas. ufl. edu/ publications/ msrpmap/ wetprairies/ ). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1999. . Retrieved

2007-11-20.[42] "Marine & Estuarine Ecosystems" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ naturescience/ marineestuarine. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved

2007-11-20.[43] Tebeau (1963), p. 17[44] Tebeau (1963), p. 17[45] Tebeau (1963), p. 19[46] Robertson, p. 55[47] "Native Peoples" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ historyculture/ nativepeoples. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-11-18.[48] Tebeau (1963), p. 23[49] "Calusa Indians" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ bicy/ calusa. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2008-01-23.[50] Tebeau (1963), p. 28[51] Tebeau (1963), p. 31[52] "Current issues" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ parknews/ currentissues. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-01-14.[53] "Pioneer Settlements" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ historyculture/ pioneersettlement. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-11-18.[54] Tebeau (1955), p. 6, 15, 21, 59[55] Tebeau (1968), p. 37, 142–65[56] Robertson, p. 82[57] Douglas, p. 312[58] Douglas, p. 318[59] "Swampland for sale" (http:/ / www. evergladesonline. com/ 50years/ swamp. htm). The Everglade Magazine. . Retrieved 2008-01-23.[60] Grunwald, p. 178[61] Grunwald, p. 195[62] Tebeau (1963), p. 131–132[63] Grunwald, p. 201–203[64] Richey, Warren (1997-09-03). "Reviving Florida's Fragile 'River of Grass'". The Christian Science Monitor: p. 4.[65] Douglas, p. 375[66] Davis, Jack (2003). "'Conservation Is Now a Dead Word': Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the Transformation of American

Environmentalism." Environmental History; p. 53[67] Klinkenberg, Jeff (1992-02-09). "Marjory Stoneman Douglas, 101: Grande Dame of the Everglades". St. Petersburg Times (Florida): p. 1F.[68] Grunwald, p. 208–209[69] Clement, Gail. Everglades Biographies: Ernest F. Coe (http:/ / everglades. fiu. edu/ reclaim/ bios/ coe. htm), Everglades Digital Library.

Retrieved on July 6, 2009.[70] Tebeau (1963), p. 137[71] Klinkenberg, Jeff (1997-12-07). "50 Years of Everglades National Park". St. Petersburg Times (Floridapage=1A).[72] Grunwald, p. 212–214

Everglades National Park 135

[73] Grunwald, p. 206–215[74] Grunwald, p. 252[75] Grunwald, p. 275–276[76] "Park Statistics" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ parknews/ parkstatistics. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2007-12-07.[77] "Legislative Direction: Everglades National Park" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ ever/ presskit/ legislat. htm). National Park Service.

2002. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.[78] Bush, George H. W. (1989-12-13). "Statement on Signing the Everglades National Park Protection and Expansion Act of 1989" (http:/ /

www. presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=17941). . Retrieved 2007-11-21.[79] "FAQs: What you should know about the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP)" (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/

facts_info/ faqs_cerp. aspx). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2002. . Retrieved 2007-12-03.[80] Grunwald, Michael (2002-06-26). "Among Environmentalists, the Great Divide". The Washington Post: p. A13.[81] CERP (May 2006). "Fact Sheet: The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP)." The Journey to Restore America's Everglades.[82] CERP (2005). "The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan: The first 5 years." The Journey to Restore America's Everglades.[83] Restoring the River of Grass (http:/ / www. dep. state. fl. us/ evergladesforever/ ), Florida Department of Environmental Protection (2006).

Retrieved May 24, 2008.[84] June 9, 2008. "Picayune Strand a model for what Everglades restoration will mean" (http:/ / www. sun-sentinel. com/ news/ opinion/

sfl-editafpicayunesbjun09,0,2043626. story) South Florida Sun-Sentinel|Sun-Sentinel (Ft. Lauderdale, Florida).[85] South Florida Water Management District. Northern Everglades and Estuaries Protection Program. (http:/ / my. sfwmd. gov/ portal/ page/

portal/ xweb protecting and restoring/ other everglades) Retrieved 2010-07-23.[86] "Everglades National Park" (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 76). UNESCO. . Retrieved 2007-12-03.[87] Jansen, Bart ( August 3, 2010). "Everglades deemed again in danger" (http:/ / www. news-press. com/ article/ 20100803/ GREEN/ 8030340/

1007/ RSS0105) News-Press.com[88] "Progress Toward Restoring the Everglades: Second Biennial Review (Brief)" (http:/ / dels. nas. edu/ dels/ rpt_briefs/

everglades_brief_final. pdf), National Research Council (September 2008).[89] Morgan, Curtis (March 23, 2009). "Landmark Hotel in Everglades Now Pile of Rubble", The Miami Herald, State and Regional News.[90] Everglades National Park/Dry Tortugas National Park: Superintendent's Annual Report (2005)[91] "Fees & Reservations" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ planyourvisit/ feesandreservations. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved

2007-12-06.[92] Stynes, Daniel (November 2007). "National Park Visitor Spending and Payroll Impacts 2006." U.S. Department of Community, Agriculture,

Recreation and Resource Studies; Michigan State University; and National Park Service Social Science Program.[93] National Park Service (2005). "Everglades." (Brochure)[94] Hammer, pp. 28–32.[95] Hammer, pp. 40–53.[96] Hammer, pp. 64–69.[97] Hammer, pp. 33–35, 100–104, 147.[98] Hammer, pp. 22–23, 25–26.[99] Grunwald, p. 202.[100] SFWMD (2010), p. 6-1.[101] Sessa, Whitney (March 1, 2009). "Taking A Dive: The Wading Bird Population at Everglades National Park Dropped by 29 Percent in

2008...", The Miami Herald, State and Regional News.[102] Stephenson, Frank (1998). "Florida's mercury menace" (http:/ / www. p2pays. org/ ref\01/ 00337. htm). Florida State University Research

in Review. . Retrieved 2007-11-20.[103] Morgan, Curtis (2006-09-24). "Mass of green algae is creeping into Biscayne Bay". The Miami Herald (Florida). Domestic News.[104] Grunwald, p. 363–366[105] Hamashige, Hope (2005-07-27). "Surprise finds top list of best national parks" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2005/ 06/

0627_050627_bestparks. html). National Geographic News. National Geographic Society. . Retrieved 2007-11-20.[106] "American crocodile" (http:/ / www. defenders. org/ wildlife_and_habitat/ wildlife/ crocodile. php). Defenders of Wildlife. . Retrieved

2007-11-21.[107] Morgan, Curtis (2007-03-20). "Crocodiles remain rare but are no longer endangered". The Miami Herald (Florida). Domestic News.[108] "Florida panther" (http:/ / www. defenders. org/ wildlife_and_habitat/ wildlife/ panther. php). Defenders of Wildlife. . Retrieved

2007-11-21.[109] "Sea turtles" (http:/ / www. defenders. org/ wildlife_and_habitat/ wildlife/ sea_turtles. php). Defenders of Wildlife. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.[110] So you Want to Know More About...Cape Sable Seaside Sparrow (http:/ / www. evergladesplan. org/ facts_info/ sywtkma_sparrow. aspx) -

Accessed February 12, 2008[111] "Species Spotlight: Cape Sable Seaside Sparrow" (http:/ / myfwc. com/ wildlifehabitats/ profiles/ birds/ songbirds/

cape-sable-seaside-sparrow/ ). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.[112] Morgan, Curtis (2006-11-01). "Officials move to protect Fla. habitat of endangered bird". The Miami Herald (Florida). Domestic News.[113] "Snail Kite Rostrhamus sociabilis" (http:/ / www. enature. com/ fieldguides/ detail. asp?recnum=BD0105). Enature.com. . Retrieved

2007-11-21.

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[114] "Florida manatee" (http:/ / www. defenders. org/ wildlife_and_habitat/ wildlife/ manatee. php). Defenders of Wildlife. . Retrieved2008-01-23.

[115] Morgan, Curtis (2007-04-12). "Drought could cripple Everglades' life". The Miami Herald (Florida). Domestic News.[116] Lodge, p. 100[117] Lodge, p. 254[118] "Brazilian Pepper" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070806022337/ http:/ / www. biol. andrews. edu/ everglades/ organisms/ plants/

exotic_plants/ brazillian_pepper/ brazillian_pepper_index. htm). Andrews University. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. biol. andrews.edu/ everglades/ organisms/ plants/ exotic_plants/ brazillian_pepper/ brazillian_pepper_index. htm) on August 6, 2007. . Retrieved2007-11-20.

[119] Mott, Maryann (2005-10-28). "Invasive pythons squeezing Florida Everglades" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2005/ 10/1028_051028_pythons. html). National Geographic News (National Geographic Society). . Retrieved 2007-12-03.

[120] Cocking, Susan (2007-09-30). "Python infestation on rise in Everglades National Park". The Miami Herald (Florida). Sunday section:Sports.

[121] Lovgren, Stefan (2004-06-03). "Huge, Freed Pet Pythons Invade Florida Everglades" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2004/06/ 0603_040603_invasivespecies_2. html). National Geographic News (National Geographic Society). . Retrieved 2007-12-03.

[122] Cocking, Susan (2007-05-29). "Wily coyotes invade Florida, stalk animals". The Miami Herald (Florida). Sports section.

Bibliography• Davis, Jack (2009), An Everglades Providence: Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the American Environmental

Century, University of Georgia Press (2009). ISBN 0-8203-3071-X• Douglas, Marjory (1947). The Everglades: River of Grass. Florida Classics Library. ISBN 0-912451-44-0• Grunwald, Michael (2006). The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise. Simon &

Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-5105-1• Hammer, Roger (2005). Everglades National Park and the Surrounding Area: A Guide to Exploring the Great

Outdoors, Morris Book Publishing, LLC. ISBN 978-0-7627-3432-0• Lodge, Thomas (2005). The Everglades Handbook: Understanding the Ecosystem. CRC Press. ISBN

1-56670-614-9• McCally, David (1999). The Everglades: An Environmental History. University Press of Florida. ISBN

0-8130-2302-5• Robertson, Jr. William (1989). Everglades: The Park Story. Florida National Parks & Monuments Association,

Inc. ISBN 0-945142-01-3• South Florida Water Management District (2010). Chapter 6: Ecology of the Everglades Protection Area (https:/ /

my. sfwmd. gov/ portal/ page/ portal/ pg_grp_sfwmd_sfer/ portlet_sfer/ tab2236037/ 2010 report/ v1/ chapters/v1_ch6. pdf). 2010 South Florida Environmental Report: Volume I—The South Florida Environment. Retrievedon May 26, 2010.

• Tebeau, Charlton W. (1955). The Story of the Chokoloskee Bay County and the Reminiscences of Pioneer C. S."Ted" Smallwood, University of Miami Press.

• Tebeau, Charlton W. (1963) They Lived in the Park: The Story of Man in the Everglades National Park,University of Miami Press.

• Tebeau, Charlton W. (1968) Man in the Everglades, University of Miami Press. ISBN 978-0-87024-073-7• Whitney, Ellie et al., eds. (2004). Priceless Florida: Natural Ecosystems and Native Species, Pineapple Press, Inc.

ISBN 978-1-56164-309-7

Everglades National Park 137

External links• Official site: Everglades National Park (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ )• The Everglades in the Time of Marjorie Stoneman Douglas (http:/ / www. floridamemory. com/

PhotographicCollection/ photo_exhibits/ everglades. cfm) Photo exhibit created by the State Archives of Florida• Reclaiming the Everglades: South Florida's Natural History (http:/ / everglades. fiu. edu/ reclaim/ index. htm)• Everglades National Park Protection and Expansion Act (http:/ / thomas. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ bdquery/

z?d101:HR01727:@@@L& summ2=m& )• UNESCO World Heritage Centre (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ pg. cfm?cid=31& id_site=76)• Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness (http:/ / www. wilderness. net/ index. cfm?fuse=NWPS&

sec=wildView& wname=Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness)

Marjory Stoneman Douglas 138

Marjory Stoneman Douglas

Marjory Stoneman Douglas

Marjory Stoneman DouglasBorn April 7, 1890

Minneapolis, Minnesota

Died May 14, 1998 (aged 108)Coconut Grove, Miami, Florida

Occupation Writer

Known for Everglades conservation advocacy

Marjory Stoneman Douglas (April 7, 1890 – May 14, 1998) was an American journalist, writer, feminist, andenvironmentalist known for her staunch defense of the Everglades against efforts to drain it and reclaim land fordevelopment. Moving to Miami as a young woman to work for The Miami Herald, Douglas became a freelancewriter, producing over a hundred short stories that were published in popular magazines. Her most influential workwas the book The Everglades: River of Grass (1947), which redefined the popular conception of the Everglades as atreasured river instead of a worthless swamp; its impact has been compared to that of Rachel Carson's influentialbook Silent Spring (1962). Her books, stories, and journalism career brought her influence in Miami, which she usedto advance her causes.Even as a young woman Douglas was outspoken and politically conscious of many issues that included women'ssuffrage and civil rights. She was called upon to take a central role in the protection of the Everglades when she was79 years old. For the remaining 29 years of her life she was "a relentless reporter and fearless crusader" for thenatural preservation and restoration of the nature of South Florida.[1] Her tireless efforts earned her several variationsof the nickname "Grande Dame of the Everglades"[2] as well as the hostility of agricultural and business interestslooking to benefit from land development in Florida. Numerous awards were given to her, including the PresidentialMedal of Freedom, and she was inducted into several halls of fame.Douglas lived until age 108, working until nearly the end of her life for Everglades restoration. Upon her death, anobituary in The Independent in London stated, "In the history of the American environmental movement, there havebeen few more remarkable figures than Marjory Stoneman Douglas."[3]

Marjory Stoneman Douglas 139

Early life

The Stoneman and Trefethen extended family in 1893.Marjory is held by her father on the right.

Marjory Stoneman was born on April 7, 1890, in Minneapolis,Minnesota, the only child of Frank Bryant Stoneman (1857–1941)and Lillian Trefethen (1859–1912), a concert violinist. One of herearliest memories was her father reading to her The Song ofHiawatha, at which she burst into sobs upon hearing that the treehad to give its life in order to provide Hiawatha the wood for acanoe.[4] She was an early and voracious reader. Her first bookwas Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, which she kept well intoadulthood until "some fiend in human form must have borrowed itand not brought it back".[4] She visited Florida when she was fouryears old, and her most vivid memory of the trip was picking anorange from a tree at the Tampa Bay Hotel.[5] From there she andher parents embarked on a cruise from Tampa to Havana.[6]

When she was six years old, Marjory's parents separated. Her father endured a series of failed entrepreneurialventures and the instability caused her mother to move them abruptly to the Trefethen family house in Taunton,Massachusetts. She lived there with her mother, aunt, and grandparents who did not get along well and consistentlyspoke ill of her father, to her dismay.[7] Her mother, whom Marjory characterized as "high strung", was committed toa mental sanitarium in Providence several times. Her parents' separation and the contentious life with her mother'sfamily caused her to suffer from night terrors.[8] She credited her tenuous upbringing with making her "a skeptic anda dissenter" for the rest of her life.[9]

As a youth, Marjory found solace in reading, and eventually she began to write. At sixteen years old she contributedto the most popular children's publication of the day, St. Nicholas Magazine—also the first publisher of 20th centurywriters F. Scott Fitzgerald, Rachel Carson, and William Faulkner—with a puzzle titled "Double Headings andCurtailings". In 1907, she was awarded a prize from the Boston Herald for a story titled "An Early Morning Paddle",about a boy who watches a sunrise from a canoe.[10] However, as her mother's mental health deteriorated, Marjorytook on more responsibilities, eventually managing some of the family finances and gaining a maturity imposedupon her by circumstance.[11]

Education and marriage

Marjory Stoneman in hersenior year at Wellesley

College

Marjory left for college in 1908, despite having grave misgivings about her mother'smental state. Her aunt and grandmother shared her concerns, but recognized that sheneeded to leave in order to begin her own life.[12] She was a good student without havingto study too much.[13] She attended Wellesley College, graduating with a BA in Englishin 1912. She found particular gifts in a class on elocution, and joined the first suffrageclub with six of her classmates.[14] She was elected as "Class Orator" at Wellesley, butwas unable to fulfill the office since she was already involved in other activities. Duringher senior year while visiting home, her mother showed her a lump on her breast.Marjory arranged the surgery to have it removed. After the graduation ceremony, heraunt informed her it had metastasized, and within months her mother was dead. Thefamily left making the funeral arrangements up to Marjory.[15]

After drifting with college friends through a few jobs for which she did not feel she waswell-suited, Marjory Stoneman met Kenneth Douglas in 1914. She was so impressed

Marjory Stoneman Douglas 140

with his manners and surprised at the attention he showed her that she married him within three months. Heportrayed himself as a newspaper editor, and was 30 years her senior, but the marriage quickly failed when it becameapparent he was a con artist. The true extent of his duplicity Marjory did not entirely reveal, despite her honesty inall other manners. Marjory may have unwittingly married Douglas while he was already married to anotherwoman.[16] While he spent six months in jail for passing a bad check, she remained faithful to him. However, hisscheme to scam her absent father out of money worked in Marjory's favor when it attracted Frank Stoneman'sattention.[17] [18] [19] Marjory's uncle persuaded her to move to Miami and for the marriage to end. In the fall of1915, Marjory Stoneman Douglas left New England to be reunited with her father, whom she had not seen since herparents' separation when she was six years old.

Writing career

The Miami Herald

Douglas arrived in South Florida when fewer than 5,000 people were recorded on the census in Miami, the streetswere made of white dust, and it was "no more than a glorified railroad terminal".[20] Her father, Frank Stoneman,was the first publisher of the paper that later became The Miami Herald. Stoneman passionately opposed thegovernor of Florida, Napoleon Bonaparte Broward, and his attempts to drain the Everglades. He infuriated Browardso much that when Stoneman won an election for circuit judge, Governor Broward refused to validate the election,so Stoneman was referred to as "Judge" for the rest of his life without performing the duties of one.[21]

She joined the staff of the newspaper in 1915, originally as a society columnist writing about tea parties and societyevents, but news was so slow she later admitted to making up some of her stories: "Somebody would say, 'Who's thatMrs. T.Y. Washrag you've got in your column?' And I would say, 'Oh, you know, I don't think she's been here verylong'".[22] When her father went on vacation less than a year after her appearance in Miami, he left her theresponsibility of the editorial page. She developed a rivalry with an editor at The Miami Metropolis whose greaterfamiliarity with the history of Miami gave her cause to make fun of Douglas in writing. Her father scolded her tocheck her facts better.[23]

Douglas was given an assignment in 1916 to write a story on the first woman to join the US Naval Reserve fromMiami. When the woman did not show up for the interview, Douglas found herself joining the Navy as a Yeoman(F) first class. It did not suit her; she disliked rising early and her superiors did not appreciate her correcting theirgrammar as a typist, so she requested a discharge and joined the American Red Cross, where she was stationed inParis.[24] She witnessed the tumultuous celebrations on the Rue de Rivoli when the Armistice was signed,[25] and shecared for war refugees; seeing them displaced and in a state of shock, she wrote, "helped me understand the plight ofrefugees in Miami sixty years later".[26]

Following the war, Douglas took on duties as assistant editor at The Miami Herald. She gained some renown throughher daily column entitled "The Galley", and had enough influence through the newspaper that she became somewhatof a local celebrity. She amassed a devoted readership and attempted to begin each column with a poem. "TheGalley" was topical and went in any direction Douglas chose. She promoted responsible urban planning when Miamisaw a population boom of 100,000 people in a decade. She wrote supporting women's suffrage, civil rights, andbetter sanitation while opposing Prohibition and foreign trade tariffs.[27]

Some of the stories she wrote spoke of the wealth of the region being in its "inevitable development", and shesupplemented her income with $100 a week from writing copy advertisements that praised the development of SouthFlorida, something she would reconsider later in her life.[28] She wrote a ballad in the 1920s lamenting the death of a22-year-old vagrant who was beaten to death in a labor camp, titled "Martin Tabert of North Dakota is WalkingFlorida Now". It was printed in The Miami Herald, and read aloud during a session of the Florida Legislature, whichpassed a law banning convict leasing, in large part due to her writing.[22] "I think that's the single most importantthing I was ever able to accomplish as a result of something I've written", she wrote in her autobiography.[29]

Marjory Stoneman Douglas 141

Freelance writerAfter quitting the newspaper in 1923, Douglas worked as a freelance writer. From 1920 to 1990, Douglas published109 fiction articles and stories. Her first story was sold to the pulp fiction magazine Black Mask for $600 ($7724 in2010). Forty of her stories were published in The Saturday Evening Post; one titled "Story of a Homely Woman" wasreprinted in 1937 in the Post's best short stories compilation.[30] Recurring motifs in her fiction were their settings inSouth Florida, the Caribbean, or Europe during World War I. Her protagonists were often independent, quirkywomen or youthful underdogs who encountered social or natural injustices.[31] The people and animals of theEverglades served as subjects for some of her earliest writings. "Plumes", originally published in the SaturdayEvening Post in 1930, was based on the murder of Guy Bradley, an Audubon Society game warden, by poachers."Wings" was a nonfiction story, also first appearing in the Post in 1931, that addressed the slaughter of Evergladeswading birds for their feathers. Her story "Peculiar Treasure of a King" was a second-place finalist in the O. HenryAward competition in 1928.[30]

During the 1930s, Douglas was commissioned to write a pamphlet supporting a botanical garden called "Anargument for the establishment of a tropical botanical garden in South Florida." Its success caused her to be indemand at garden clubs where she delivered speeches throughout the area, then to serve on the board to support theFairchild Garden. She called the garden "one of the greatest achievements for the entire area".[32]

Douglas became involved with the Miami Theater, and wrote some one-act plays that were fashionable in the 1930s.One, entitled "The Gallows Gate", was about an argument between a mother and father regarding the character oftheir son who is sentenced to hang. She got the idea from her father, who had witnessed hangings when he lived inthe West and was unnerved by the creaking sound of the rope bearing the weight of the hanging body. The play wona state competition, and eventually $500 in a national competition after it was written into three acts.[33]

Douglas served as the book review editor of The Miami Herald from 1942 to 1949, and as editor for the Universityof Miami Press from 1960 to 1963. She released her first novel, entitled Road to the Sun, in 1952. She wrote fournovels, and several non-fiction books on regional topics including Florida birdwatching and David Fairchild, theentomologist turned biologist who imagined a botanical park in Miami. Her autobiography entitled MarjoryStoneman Douglas: Voice of the River was written with John Rothchild in 1987. She had been working on a bookabout W. H. Hudson for years, traveling to Argentina and England several times. It was incomplete when she died in1998.[34]

The Everglades: River of Grass

Early in the 1940s Douglas was approached by a publisher to contribute to the Rivers of America Series by writingabout the Miami River. Unimpressed with it, she called the Miami River about "an inch long",[30] but in researchingit became more interested in the Everglades and persuaded the publisher instead to allow her to write about them.She spent five years researching what little scientific knowledge was recorded about the ecology and history of theEverglades and South Florida. Douglas spent time with geologist Garald Parker, who discovered that all of SouthFlorida's fresh water source was the Biscayne Aquifer, and it was filled by the Everglades. Parker confirmed thename of the book that has since become the nickname for the Everglades when Douglas, trying to capture theessence of the Everglades, asked if she could safely call the fresh water flowing from Lake Okeechobee a river ofgrass.[35]

The Everglades: River of Grass was published in 1947 and sold out of its first printing a month after beingreleased.[18] The first line of the book, "There are no other Everglades in the world", has been called the "mostfamous passage ever written about the Everglades",[36] and the statement welcomes visitors to the EvergladesNational Park website.[37] Douglas characterized the Everglades as ecosystems surrounding a river worthy ofprotecting, that was inescapably connected to the people and cultures of South Florida.[38] She outlined its imminentdisappearance in the last chapter titled "The Eleventh Hour":

Marjory Stoneman Douglas 142

Cattlemen's grass fires roared uncontrolled. Cane-field fires spread crackling and hissing in the sawgrass in vast waves and pillars and billowing mountains of heavy, cream-colored, purple-shadowedsmoke. Training planes flying over the Glades dropped bombs or cigarette butts, and the fires explodedin the hearts of the drying hammocks and raced on before every wind leaving only blackness ... Therewas no water in the canals with which to fight [the fires] ... The sweet water the rock had held was goneor had shrunk far down into its strange holes and cleavages.[39]

The Everglades: River of Grass galvanized people to protect the Everglades and is compared to Rachel Carson's1962 exposé of the harmful effects of DDT, Silent Spring, as both books are "groundbreaking calls to action thatmade citizens and politicians take notice".[40] Its impact is still relevant as it is claimed to be a major reason Floridareceives so many tourists,[41] and "remains the definitive reference on the plight of the Florida Everglades".[42] It hasgone through numerous editions, selling 500,000 copies since its original publication. The Christian Science Monitorwrote of it in 1997, "Today her book is not only a classic of environmental literature, it also reads like a blueprint forwhat conservationists are hailing as the most extensive environmental restoration project ever undertaken anywherein the world".[43] The downside to the book's impact, according to one writer addressing restoration of theEverglades, is that her metaphor is so prevailingly dominant that it is inaccurate in describing the complex web ofecosystems within the Everglades: "River of Grass" describes one. David McCally wrote that despite Douglas'"appreciation of the complexity of the environmental system" she described, popular conception of the Evergladesshared by people who have not read the book overshadows her detailed explanations.[44]

ActivismWomen's suffrage was an early interest of Douglas', and although she tended to shy away from polemics in her earlywork at The Miami Herald, on her third day as a society columnist, she chose suffrage and began to focus on writingabout women in leadership positions.[45] In 1917 she traveled with Mary Baird Bryan, William Jennings Bryan'swife, and two other women to Tallahassee to speak in support of women's right to vote. Douglas was not impressedwith the reception the group got from the Florida Legislature. She wrote about her experience later: "All four of usspoke to a joint committee wearing our best hats. Talking to them was like talking to graven images. They never paidattention to us at all."[46] Douglas was able to vote for the first time after she returned from Europe in 1920.Using her influence at The Miami Herald, Douglas wrote columns about poverty: "You can have the most beautifulcity in the world as appearance goes, the streets may be clean and shining, the avenues broad and tree lined, thepublic buildings dignified, adequate and well kept ... but if you have a weak or inadequate health department, or apublic opinion lax on the subject, all the splendors of your city will have not value."[47] In 1948 Douglas served onthe Coconut Grove Slum Clearance Committee, with a friend of hers named Elizabeth Virrick, who was horrified tolearn that no running water or sewers were connected to the racially segregated part of Coconut Grove. They helpedpass a law requiring all homes in Miami to have toilets and bathtubs. In the two years it took them to get thereferendum passed, they worked to set up a loan operation for the black residents of Coconut Grove, who borrowedthe money interest-free to pay for the plumbing work. Douglas noted that all of the money loaned was repaid.[48]

Everglades workDouglas became involved in the Everglades in the 1920s when she joined the board of the Everglades Tropical National Park Committee, a group led by Ernest F. Coe and dedicated to the idea of making a national park in the Everglades. By the 1960s, the Everglades were in imminent danger of disappearing forever due to gross mismanagement in the name of progress, and real estate and agricultural development. Encouraged to get involved by the leaders of environmental groups, in 1969—at the age of 79—Douglas founded Friends of the Everglades to protest the construction of a jetport in the Big Cypress portion of the Everglades. She justified her involvement saying, "It is a woman's business to be interested in the environment. It's an extended form of housekeeping."[22] She toured the state giving "hundreds of ringing denunciations" of the airport project,[49] and increased membership of

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Friends of the Everglades to 3,000 within three years. She ran the public information operation full time from herhome and encountered hostility from the jetport's developers and backers, who called her a "damn butterflychaser".[50] President Richard Nixon, however, scrapped funding for the project due to the efforts of manyEverglades watchdog groups.Douglas continued her activism and focused her efforts on restoring the Everglades after declaring that"Conservation is now a dead word...You can't conserve what you haven't got."[51] Her criticism was directed at twoentities she considered were doing the most damage to the Everglades. A coalition of sugarcane growers, named BigSugar, she accused of polluting Lake Okeechobee by pumping water tainted with chemicals, human waste, andgarbage back into the lake, which served as the fresh water source for the Miami metropolitan area.[52] Shecompared Florida sugarcane agriculture to sugarcane grown in the West Indies, that she claimed was moreenvironmentally sound, had a longer harvest cycle less harmful to soil nutrients, and was less expensive forconsumers due to the higher sugar content.[53]

Besides Big Sugar, Douglas spoke about the damage the Army Corps of Engineers was doing to the Everglades bydiverting the natural flow of water. The Corps was responsible for constructing more than 1400 miles (2300 km) ofcanals to divert water away from the Everglades after 1947. When the Central & South Florida Project (C&SF), runby former members of the Corps of Engineers, was proposed to assist the Everglades, Douglas initially gave it herapproval, as it promised to deliver much-needed water to the shrinking Everglades. But in application, the projectinstead diverted more water away from the Everglades, changed water schedules to meet sugarcane farmers'irrigation needs, and flat-out refused to release water to Everglades National Park, until much of the land wasunrecognizable.[50] [54] "What a liar I turned out to be!" remarked Douglas, then suggested the motivation behind allthe digging and diversion in saying, "Their mommies obviously never let them play with mud pies, so now they takeit out on us by playing with cement".[55] Douglas was giving a speech addressing the harmful practices of the ArmyCorps of Engineers when the colonel in attendance dropped his pen on the floor. As he was stooping to pick it up,Douglas stopped her speech and said to him, "Colonel! You can crawl under that table and hide, but you can't getaway from me!"[56]

In 1973, Douglas attended a meeting addressing conservation of the Everglades in Everglades City, and wasobserved by John Rothchild:

Mrs. Douglas was half the size of her fellow speakers and she wore huge dark glasses, which along withthe huge floppy hat made her look like Scarlett O'Hara as played by Igor Stravinsky. When she spoke,everybody stopped slapping mosquitoes and more or less came to order. She reminded us all of ourresponsibility to nature and I don't remember what else. Her voice had the sobering effect of a one-roomschoolmarm's. The tone itself seemed to tame the rowdiest of the local stone crabbers, plus thedevelopers, and the lawyers on both sides. I wonder if it didn't also intimidate the mosquitoes ... Therequest for a Corps of Engineers permit was eventually turned down. This was no surprise to those of uswho'd heard her speak.[13]

Douglas was not well-received by some audiences. She opposed the drainage of a suburb in Dade County namedEast Everglades. After the county approved building permits in the Everglades, the land flooded as it had forcenturies. When homeowners demanded the Army Corps of Engineers drain their neighborhoods, she was the onlyopposing voice. At the hearing in 1983, she was booed, jeered, and shouted at by the audience of residents. "Can'tyou boo any louder than that?" she chided, eventually making them laugh. "Look. I'm an old lady. I've been heresince eight o'clock. It's now eleven. I've got all night, and I'm used to the heat", she told them.[57] Later, she wrote,"They're all good souls—they just shouldn't be out there."[58] Dade County commissioners eventually decided not todrain.Florida Governor Lawton Chiles explained her impact, saying, "Marjory was the first voice to really wake a lot of usup to what we were doing to our quality of life. She was not just a pioneer of the environmental movement, she wasa prophet, calling out to us to save the environment for our children and our grandchildren."[22]

Marjory Stoneman Douglas 144

Other causesDouglas also served as a charter member of the first American Civil Liberties Union chapter organized in the Southin the 1950s.[50] She lent her support to the Equal Rights Amendment, speaking to the legislature in Tallahasseeurging them to ratify it. In the 1980s Douglas lent her support to the Florida Rural Legal Services, a group thatworked to protect migrant farm workers who were centered around Belle Glade, and who were primarily employedby the sugarcane industry. She wrote to Governor Bob Graham in 1985 to encourage him to assess the conditions themigrant workers endured.[50] The same year, Douglas approached the Dade County School Board and insisted thatthe Biscayne Nature Center, which had been housed in hot dog stands, needed a building of its own. The centerreceived a portable building until 1991 when the Florida Department of Education endowed $1.8 million for theMarjory Stoneman Douglas Biscayne Nature Center in Crandon Park.[59]

Personal life

Religious viewsAlthough Douglas grew up in an Episcopalian household, she described herself as agnostic throughout her life, andforbade any religious ceremony at her memorial.[22] Douglas tied her agnosticism to her unanswered prayers whenher mother was dying.[47] However, she credited the motivation for her support of women's suffrage to her Quakerpaternal grandparents whose dedication to the abolition of slavery she admired, and proudly claimed Levi Coffin, anorganizer of the Underground Railroad, was her great-great-uncle.[50] She wrote that his wife was a friend of HarrietBeecher Stowe, and had provided Stowe with the story of Eliza in Uncle Tom's Cabin fleeing slavery becauseDouglas' great-great-aunt took care of Eliza and her infant after their escape.[60] Frank Stoneman grew up in aQuaker colony, and Douglas maintained he kept touches of his upbringing throughout his life, even after convertingto Episcopalianism. Writer Jack Davis and neighbor Helen Muir suggest this Quaker influence was behind Douglas'use of "Friends" in naming the organizations Friends of the Everglades and Friends of the University of MiamiLibrary.[47]

Mental healthAs a child, Douglas was very close with her mother after her parents' separation. She witnessed her mother'semotional unraveling that caused her to be institutionalized, and even long after her mother returned to live with her,she exhibited bizarre, child-like behaviors.[61] Following her mother's death, her relocation to Miami, and herdispleasure in working as the assistant editor at The Miami Herald, in the 1920s she suffered the first of threenervous breakdowns.[46] Douglas suggested she had had "blank periods" before, starting during her marriage, butthey were brief. She connected these lapses to her mother's insanity.[62] She eventually quit the newspaper, but afterher father's death in 1941 she suffered a third and final breakdown, when her neighbors found her roaming theneighborhood one night screaming. She admitted she had a "father complex", explaining it by saying, "(h)aving beenbrought up without him and then coming back and finding him so sympathetic had a powerful effect".[63]

Marjory Stoneman Douglas 145

Personal habits

Douglas outside her Coconut Grove cottage in theearly 1920s

Regardless of her dedication to the preservation of the Everglades,Douglas admitted the time she spent actually there was sporadic,driving there for occasional picnics. "To be a friend of the Evergladesis not necessarily to spend time wandering around out there ... It's toobuggy, too wet, too generally inhospitable", she wrote. Instead, sheunderstood that the health of the environment indicated the generalwell-being of humanity.[50]

Despite Douglas' demure appearance—she stood at 5 feet 2 inches(1.57 m) and weighed 100 pounds (45 kg), and was alwaysimmaculately dressed in pearls, a floppy straw hat and gloves—she hadan uncanny ability to get her point across. She was known for speakingin perfect, precise paragraphs, and was respected for her dedication and knowledge of her subjects; even her criticsadmitted her authority on the Everglades.[50] Jeff Klinkenberg, a reporter for the St. Petersburg Times whointerviewed and wrote several stories about Douglas, wrote of her, "She had a tongue like a switchblade and themoral authority to embarrass bureaucrats and politicians and make things happen."[64] Douglas was known forhaughtily dismissing reporters who had not read her books and asked uninformed questions.[65]

She enjoyed drinking Scotch and sherry; as one friend remembered her, "She would come up and have a sherry, andthen I would walk her home, and then she'd walk me back, and we would have another sherry. What fun shewas."[22] Douglas never learned to drive and never owned a car. Her house also had no air conditioning, electricstove, or dishwasher.[66]

She was attached to several men after her divorce, counting one of them as the reason she enlisted in the Red Cross,as he had already gone to France as a soldier. However, she said she did not believe in extramarital sex and wouldnot have dishonored her father by being promiscuous. She told Klinkenberg in 1992, frankly, that she had not hadsex since her divorce, saying "I wasn't a wild woman".[64] However, she was fond of saying she used the emotionand energy instead on her work.[1] [67] "People don't seem to realize that the energy that goes into sex, all theemotion that surrounds it, can be well employed in other ways", she wrote in her autobiography.[68]

Marjory Stoneman Douglas 146

Awards, death, and legacy

Marjory Stoneman Douglas Building,Tallahassee, Florida, headquarters of Florida

Department of Environmental Protection

Honors

Douglas began accruing honors since her early days writing for TheMiami Herald. In the 1980s, however, the awards became moreprestigious, and her reactions to them mixed. The Florida Departmentof Natural Resources (now the Florida Department of EnvironmentalProtection) named its headquarters in Tallahassee after her in 1980,which she considered a dubious honor. She told a friend she wouldhave rather seen the Everglades restored than her name on a building.During her polite acceptance speech, she railed against Ronald Reaganand the then-Secretary of the Interior James Watt for their lacklusterapproach to environmental conservation.[69] The National ParksConservation Association established the Marjory Stoneman DouglasAward in 1986, that "honor(s) individuals who often must go to greatlengths to advocate and fight for the protection of the National ParkSystem".[70] Despite blindness and diminished hearing, Douglascontinued to be active into her second century, and was honored with avisit from Queen Elizabeth II, to whom Douglas gave a signed copy ofThe Everglades: River of Grass in 1991.[71] Instead of gifts andcelebrations, Douglas asked that trees be planted on her birthday, resulting in over 100,000 planted trees across thestate and a bald cypress on the lawn of the governor's mansion. The South Florida Water Management District beganremoving exotic plants that had taken hold in the Everglades when Douglas turned 102.[72]

In 1993, President Bill Clinton awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest honor given to a civilian.The citation for the medal read, "Marjory Stoneman Douglas personifies passionate commitment. Her crusade topreserve and restore the Everglades has enhanced our Nation's respect for our precious environment, reminding all ofus of nature's delicate balance. Grateful Americans honor the 'Grandmother of the Glades' by following her splendidexample in safeguarding America's beauty and splendor for generations to come." Douglas donated her medal toWellesley College. Most of the others she received she stored on the floor of her home.[64]

Douglas was inducted into the National Wildlife Federation Hall of Fame in 1999, and the National Women's Hall ofFame in 2000.[73] John Rothchild declared her a feminist before the word existed, but not entirely. Upon hearing thatshe was to be inducted, she questioned, "Why should they have a Women's Hall of Fame, as I heard they wanted toput me in the other day? Why not a Citizen's Hall of Fame?"[74] Douglas was included in a tribute to pioneeringwomen when television character Lisa Simpson made a papier-mâché bust of her with Georgia O'Keeffe and SusanB. Anthony in an early episode of The Simpsons.[75]

Some of Douglas' stories were collected by University of Florida professor Kevin McCarthy in two editedcollections: Nine Florida Stories in 1990 and A River In Flood in 1998. McCarthy wrote that he collected Douglas'short stories because most people in the 1990s were well aware of her fame as an environmentalist, but many did notknow about her career as a freelance writer. "Probably no other person has been as important to the environmentalwell-being of Florida than this little lady from Coconut Grove", McCarthy wrote in the introduction of A River inFlood.[76]

Marjory Stoneman Douglas 147

RemembrancesMarjory Stoneman Douglas died at the age of 108 on May 14, 1998. John Rothchild, who helped write herautobiography, said that her death was the only thing that could "shut her up" but added, "(t)he silence is terrible".[77]

Carl Hiaasen eulogized her in The Miami Herald, writing that The Everglades: River of Grass was "monumental",and praised her passion and her resolve; even when politicians finally found value in the Everglades and visited herfor a photo opportunity, she still provoked them to do more and do it faster.[78]

The National Wildlife Federation described her as "a passionate, articulate, and tireless voice for theenvironment".[79] Chairman of the Florida Audubon Society Ed Davison remembered her, saying, "She kept a clearvision of the way things ought to be, and she didn't give a lot of credibility to excuses about why they're not like that.She would give these wonderful, curmudgeonly speeches to which there was no response. You can't holler back tograndmotherly scolding. All you can do is shuffle your feet and say, 'Yes, Ma'am.'"[80] She was aware of it; she wasreported saying, "People can't be rude to me, this poor little old woman. But I can be rude to them, poor darlings, andnobody can stop me."[22] Her ashes were scattered over the 1300000 acres (5300 km2) of the Marjory StonemanDouglas Wilderness Area in Everglades National Park.[81]

In 2000, a Naples, Florida-based composer named Steve Heitzeg wrote a 15-minute orchestra piece to be performedby the Naples Philharmonic entitled Voice of the Everglades (Epitaph for Marjory Stoneman Douglas). Heitzegexplained his motivation for the piece, saying, "She was outspoken, she was direct, she had the energy and belief tomake the world a better place."[82] Two South Florida public schools are named in her honor: Broward CountyPublic Schools' Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School and Miami-Dade County Public Schools' MarjoryStoneman Douglas Elementary School.

Douglas homeDouglas' cottage, located in Coconut Grove at 3744–3754 Stewart Avenue, was built in 1924. She wrote all of hermajor books and stories in the cottage, and the City of Miami designated it an historic site in 1995, not only for itsfamous owner, but for its unique Masonry Vernacular architecture.[83] After Douglas' death, Friends of theEverglades proposed making the house part of an education center about Douglas and her life, but neighborsprotested, citing issues with parking, traffic, and an influx of visitors to the quiet neighborhood. The house, whichhad an exterior floodwater line from the 1926 Miami Hurricane and some damage from an infestation of bees, hadfallen further into disrepair. For a while, the idea of moving the house to Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in CoralGables, which Douglas helped to develop and where there is a life size bronze statue to commemorate her efforts,was considered.[64] [84] The State of Florida owns Douglas' house and in April 2007 placed it in the care of theFlorida Park Service, a division of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Restoration of the floors andcounters took place in the following months. Water service was reconnected to the house and the electrical systemwas updated for safety purposes. All work was approved by the Department of Historic Resources. A park rangerwas placed as a resident in the Douglas house to help maintain the structure and property.[85]

Marjory Stoneman Douglas 148

Notable works

Books• The Everglades: River of Grass. Rinehart, 1947.• Road to the Sun. Rinehart, 1952.• Freedom River Florida 1845. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1953.• Hurricane. Rinehart, 1958.• Alligator crossing. John Day, 1959.• The Key to Paris. Keys to the Cities Series. Lippincott, 1961.• Florida the Long Frontier. Harper & Row, 1967.• The Joys of Bird Watching in Florida. Hurricane House, 1969.• Adventures in a Green World – the Story of David Fairchild and Barbour Lathrop. Field Research Projects. 1973.• Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Voice of the River. with John Rothchild. Pineapple Press, Inc. 1987.

Short story collections• Nine Florida Stories by Marjory Stoneman Douglas. Ed. Kevin M. McCarthy. University of North Florida, 1990.

• "Pineland"• "A Bird Dog in the Hand"• "He Man"• "Twenty Minutes Late for Dinner"• "Plumes"• "By Violence"• "Bees in the Mango Bloom"• "September-Remember"• "The Road to the Horizon"

• A River in Flood and Other Florida Stories by Marjory Stoneman Douglas. Ed. Kevin M. McCarthy. UniversityPress of Florida, 1998.• "At Home on the Marcel Waves"• "Solid Mahogany"• "Goodness Gracious, Agnes"• "A River in Flood"• "The Mayor of Flamingo"• "Stepmother"• "You Got to Go, But You Don't Have to Come Back"• "High-Goal Man"• "Wind Before Morning"

Marjory Stoneman Douglas 149

Notes[1] Grunwald, p. 204.[2] Basse, Craig (May 14, 1998). "Grande dame of the Everglades." St. Petersburg Times (Florida); p. 1A.[3] Cornwell, Rupert (May 25, 1998). "Obituary: Marjory Stoneman Douglas." The Independent (London); p. 16.[4] Douglas, p. 42.[5] Douglas, p. 31.[6] Duncan, Scott (May 15, 1998). "Marjory, we loved you so." The Miami Herald; Commentary.[7] Davis, p. 95.[8] Douglas, pp. 47, 48.[9] Douglas, p. 50.[10] Davis, p. 100.[11] Douglas, pp. 53–54.[12] Douglas, p. 69.[13] "Marjory Stoneman Douglas" (http:/ / www. everglades. org/ msd. html). . Friends of the Everglades website. Retrieved on December 17,

2007.[14] Douglas, pp. 77–78.[15] Douglas, pp. 78–82.[16] Davis, pp. 158–159.[17] Douglas, pp. 86, 89.[18] "Marjory Stoneman Douglas." Newsmakers 1998, Issue 4. Gale Group, 1998.[19] Davis, pp. 161–162.[20] Douglas, p. 103.[21] Douglas, pp. 98–99.[22] Fichter, Margaria (May 14, 1998). "Pioneering environmentalist Marjory Stoneman Douglas dies at 108". The Miami Herald; Domestic

news.[23] Douglas, p. 109.[24] Davis, pp. 241–245.[25] Douglas, pp. 118–119.[26] Douglas, p. 116.[27] Davis, pp. 276–277.[28] Grunwald, p. 182.[29] Douglas, p. 134.[30] Mason, Kathy. "Marjory Stoneman Douglas." The Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives, Volume 5: 1997–1999. Charles Scribner's

Sons, 2002.[31] Davis, pp. 313–315.[32] Douglas, p. 176.[33] Douglas, p. 183.[34] Leposky, Rosalie (1997). "Marjory Stoneman Douglas: A Bibliography". Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings Journal of Florida Literature 8

pp. 55–73.[35] Davis, pp. 355–358.[36] Grunwald, p. 205.[37] "Everglades National Park" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ ever/ index. htm). Everglades National Park website. National Park Service.. .

Retrieved 2007-12-17.[38] Davis, p. 360.[39] Douglas (1947), pp. 374–375.[40] Hauserman, Julie (October 14, 2007). "Paradise down the drain." St. Petersburg Times (Florida); p. 9L.[41] Buchanan, Edna (March 15, 2003). "Miami advice; If you're wondering why so many people flock to Florida, Edna Buchanan nominates

three books to explain its unique allure." The Globe and Mail (Canada) p. D19.[42] Davis, Pamela (July 16, 2001). "Women who made a difference". St. Petersburg Times (Florida); p. 3D.[43] Richey, Warren (September 3, 1997). "Reviving Florida's Fragile 'River of Grass'." Christian Science Monitor; p. 4.[44] McCally, pp. 179–180.[45] Davis, pp. 229–231.[46] Byers, Stephen (January 3, 1999). "The Lives They Lived: Marjory Stoneman Douglas." (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.

html?res=9E07EEDA143FF930A35752C0A96F958260) The New York Times; p. 46. Retrieved on 2008-05-02.[47] Davis, Jack (Summer 2001). "Green Awakening: Social activism and the evolution of Marjory Stoneman Douglas's Environmental

Consciousness", The Florida Historical Quarterly, 80 (1), pp. 43–77.[48] "Elizabeth Virrick's work in Coconut Grove's black community: Interview with Marjory Stoneman Douglas" (http:/ / everglades. fiu. edu/

two/ transcripts/ SPC95A_10. htm). Florida International University. June 16, 1983. . Retrieved 2008-01-05. Douglas claims in this oral

Marjory Stoneman Douglas 150

history that the Committee served in the early 1920s. However, according to the websites of Coconut Grove Cares (http:/ / www.coconutgrovecares. org/ about. htm)—an updated name for the organization, and the Junior League of Miami (http:/ / www. jlmiami. org/advocacy. php), the Committee did not begin its service until 1948.

[49] Grunwald, pp. 257–258.[50] Davis, Jack (January 2003). "'Conservation is now a dead word': Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the transformation of American

environmentalism." Environmental History 8 (1) pp. 53–76.[51] Davis, p. 513.[52] "Pollution caused by growing sugar in Florida" (http:/ / everglades. fiu. edu/ two/ transcripts/ SPC930_11. htm). Lecture by Marjory

Stoneman Douglas in Fort Lauderdale. Florida International University. May 6, 1983. . Retrieved 2008-01-28.[53] "Damages caused by the Army Corps of Engineers and Big Sugar" (http:/ / everglades. fiu. edu/ two/ transcripts/ SPC930_12. htm). Lecture

by Marjory Stoneman Douglas in Fort Lauderdale. Florida International University. May 6, 1983. . Retrieved 2008-01-26.[54] Grunwald, p. 241.[55] Grunwald, pp. 241, 243.[56] Hauserman, Julie (April 19, 1999). "Leaving an environmental hot seat" St. Petersburg Times (Florida); p. 1B.[57] Davis, p. 533.[58] Douglas, p. 232.[59] Long, Theodora. "Housed in a hot dog stand" (http:/ / www. biscaynenaturecenter. org). Marjory Stoneman Douglas Biscayne Nature

Center. . Retrieved 2007-12-20.[60] Douglas, p. 37.[61] Douglas, pp. 56–57.[62] Douglas, p. 167.[63] Douglas, p. 188.[64] Klinkenberg, Jeff (August 21, 2006). "Conserving the conservationist." St. Petersburg Times (Florida): p. 1E.[65] Klinkenberg, Jeff. "Though expected, the loss of a hero still stings." St. Petersburg Times (Florida); p. 6A.[66] Douglas, pp. 16, 17.[67] Douglas, p. 85.[68] Douglas, p. 128.[69] Davis, pp. 553–554.[70] "Grand Canyon Advocate Receives National Parks Award ([[Press Release (http:/ / www. npca. org/ media_center/ press_releases/ 2005/

page-27601043. html)])"]. National Parks Conservation Association. October 31, 2005. . Retrieved 2007-12-17.[71] Davis, p. 572.[72] Davis, pp. 572–574.[73] "Marjory Stoneman Douglas" (http:/ / www. greatwomen. org/ women. php?action=viewone& id=50). . National Women's Hall of Fame

website. Retrieved on December 17, 2007.[74] Douglas, p. 23.[75] Davis, p. 556.[76] McCarthy, Kevin (1998). "Introduction". A River in Flood; University Press of Florida.[77] Watson, Tracy. (May 15, 1988). "Douglas, Everglades' lifesaver, dies at 108 'River of Grass' spoke for marshes." USA Today; p. 8A.[78] Hiaasen, Carl (May 18, 1998). "A fierce advocate for the Everglades." The Miami Herald; Commentary.[79] National Wildlife Federation (2007). "Marjory Stoneman Douglas" (http:/ / www. nwf. org/ about/ inductees_douglas. cfm). . Conservation

Hall of Fame website. Retrieved on December 17, 2007.[80] Howard, Jennifer (May 16, 1999). "Websighting: Marjory Stoneman Douglas." The Washington Post: p. X05.[81] Severo, Richard (May 15, 1998). "Marjory Douglas, Champion Of Everglades, Dies at 108." (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.

html?res=9500E0D91330F936A25756C0A96E958260) The New York Times; p. 23. Retrieved on 2008-05-02.[82] Fleming, John (November 19, 2000). "The cry of the Everglades." St. Petersburg Times (Florida); South Pinellas Edition, p. 10F.[83] City of Miami (1995). Marjory Stoneman Douglas House Designation Report (http:/ / www. historicpreservationmiami. com/ pdfs/ ms

douglas hse. pdf) (PDF). Retrieved on January 5, 2008.[84] Smiley, David (September 2, 2007). "Douglas' next-door property now at issue." The Miami Herald; State and Regional News.[85] Editorial (June 2, 2007). "Local Perspectives." The Miami Herald; p. 20A.

Marjory Stoneman Douglas 151

References• Davis, Jack (2009), An Everglades Providence: Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the American Environmental

Century, University of Georgia Press (2009). ISBN 0-8203-3071-X• Douglas, Marjory (1947). The Everglades: River of Grass. 60th Anniversary Edition, Pineapple Press (2007).

ISBN 978-1-56164-394-3• Douglas, Marjory; Rothchild, John (1987). Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Voice of the River. Pineapple Press.

ISBN 0910923941• Grunwald, Michael (2006). The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise. Simon &

Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-5105-1• McCally, David (1999). The Everglades: An Environmental History. University Press of Florida. ISBN

0-8130-2302-5.

External links• Series of audio interviews with Marjory Stoneman Douglas (http:/ / everglades. fiu. edu/ two/ contents. htm)

sponsored by Florida International University• Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Writer and Conservationist (http:/ / scholar. library. miami. edu/ msdouglas/ )

Photographs, bibliography, timeline, essays and links to other resources. Prepared by University of Miami SpecialCollections.

• Marjory Stoneman Douglas Papers, University of Miami (http:/ / proust. library. miami. edu/ findingaids/?p=collections/ controlcard& id=141) Finding Aid, University of Miami, Special Collections.

• Marjory Stoneman Douglas – detailed bibliography (http:/ / www. grovebook. com/ GA10. htm)• Everglades in the Time of Marjorie Stoneman Douglas (http:/ / www. floridamemory. com/

PhotographicCollection/ photo_exhibits/ everglades. cfm) A photo exhibit on Douglas, provided by the StateArchives of Florida

• Marjory Stoneman Douglas's River of Progress: Modernism, Feminism, Regionalism, and Environmentalism inHer Early Writings (http:/ / etd. fcla. edu/ UF/ UFE0014206/ sierra_h. pdf) A master's thesis from the Universityof Florida about Douglas' short stories

• Marjory Stoneman Douglas – Bibliography (http:/ / www6. miami. edu/ english/ msdouglas/ ) "Full Bibliography– articles, books, plays, and poetry by Ms. Douglas and articles and books about Ms. Douglas."

• Marjory Stoneman Douglas – Friends and Peers (http:/ / www6. miami. edu/ english/ msdouglas/ MSDpeers.html) Friends and peers who help establish environmental and civic institutions

• Marjory Stoneman Douglas's Home (http:/ / www6. miami. edu/ english/ msdouglas/ MSDhome. html) Recentand historic pictures

• Friends of the Everglades (http:/ / www. everglades. org) The non-profit environmental organization founded byMarjory Stoneman Douglas

• Wellesley Person of the Week, December 11, 2000 (http:/ / www. wellesley. edu/ Anniversary/ douglas. html)

The Everglades: River of Grass 152

The Everglades: River of Grass

The Everglades: River of Grass

First edition cover

Author(s) Marjory Stoneman Douglas

Country United States

Language English

Genre(s) Nonfiction

Publisher Rinehart & Company

Publication date November 6, 1947

Media type Print (Hardcover and Paperback)

Pages 406 pp

The Everglades: River of Grass is a non-fiction book written by Marjory Stoneman Douglas in 1947. Published thesame year as the formal opening of Everglades National Park, the book was a call to attention about the degradingquality of life in the Everglades and continues to remain an influential book on nature conservation as well as areference for information on South Florida. It was used as recently as 2007 by the New York Times.[1]

BackgroundDouglas was a freelance writer who submitted stories to magazines throughout the 1920s, 30s and 40s. Her friendHervey Allen was an editor at Rinehart, responsible for the Rivers of America Series. Allen asked her to write a storyabout the Miami River, but Douglas did not find it very interesting, calling it only "an inch long".[2] She beganlearning more about the Miami River though, and in her research, she instead suggested to her editor to write a storyabout the Everglades. Douglas spent five years researching the Everglades, consulting with Garald Parker of the USGeological Survey, who was studying the Everglades hydrology systems, and eventually wrote nearly 40 papers onthe ecosystems in the Everglades.[3]

ReceptionThe Quarterly Review of Biology reviewed the book and commented on Douglas' "convincing evidence" in herassertion that the Everglades are a river instead of a swamp, and declared that "it is hoped that this excellent accountof the area and its history may provide the needed stimulus for the establishment of an intelligent conservationprogram for the entire Everglades." [4] The Journal of American Folklore praised the book highly, particularly incomparison to other books in the Rivers of America series, and likened Douglas' enthusiastic writing style to that of aprevious writer on rural Florida, William Bartram: "We have a well written, readable book containing a wealth ofscholarly and scientific data which can be enjoyed by both the general and the academically inclined reader."[5] TheMississippi Valley Review also expressed interest in Douglas' idea that the Everglades is not a mere swamp.[6]

The Everglades: River of Grass 153

EditionsThe book has gone through numerous editions, selling over 500,000 copies since its original publication. The lastthree editions, published by a Florida publisher, Pineapple Press, have updated afterwords: in 1998 by Randy LeeLoftis and Marjory Stoneman Douglas; the 50th anniversary edition in 1997 by Cyril Zaneski; and the 60thanniversary edition in 2007 by Michael Grunwald, author of The Swamp.

References[1] Greenfield, Beth (March 0, 2007). "Slipping Slowly Into South Florida's Grassy Water." The New York Times: Escapes; AMERICAN

JOURNEYS Everglades National Park; Pg. 3.[2] Mason, Kathy. "Marjory Stoneman Douglas." The Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives, Volume 5: 1997-1999. Charles Scribner's Sons,

2002.[3] Davis, Jack (January 2003). "'Conservation is now a dead word': Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the transformation of American

environmentalism." Environmental History 8 (1) p. 53-76.[4] Giles, Norman (1948). "The Everglades: River of Grass. Rivers of America." The Quarterly Review of Biology; p. 346[5] Goggin, John (1948). "The Everglades. River of Grass." The Journal of American Folklore; p. 229-231[6] Dovell, J. E. (1948) "Rivers of America Series. The Everglades: River of Grass." The Mississippi Valley Historical Review; p. 110-111

Article Sources and Contributors 154

Article Sources and ContributorsThe Everglades  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=464436114  Contributors: -Midorihana-, 5 albert square, A Softer Answer, ALadinN, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Achowat,Adashiel, Aerobird, AgentCDE, Ahoerstemeier, Airplaneman, Aitias, Alansohn, Aldaron, Alex.muller, Americasroof, Amno z, Amorymeltzer, Anaknight, Androsyn, Andylin, AnonEMouse,Ante Aikio, Anthere, Antonio Prates, Aramgutang, Asenine, Atkinson 291, AuthorDent, Awadewit, Awickert, B1oody8romance7, BHC, Baa, Badagnani, Badgernet, Baskaufs,Basketball1997-12, Belovedfreak, Bender235, Bensin, Bibliomaniac15, Big iron, Bkell, Bkonrad, Blamed, Blanchardb, BlueLotusLK, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bped1985, Brambleshire,BrokenSphere, Bryan Derksen, Bullshark44, Bumhoolery, CPAScott, Cacophony, Caltas, CambridgeBayWeather, CapeVerdeWave, Capricorn42, Casliber, Catgut, Catholic 85, Click23,Climie.ca, Cloud109, Cobi, CodeCarpenter, Coemgenus, CommonsDelinker, Count DeSheep, Courcelles, Cpdogs101, CrazyC83, Cryptic C62, Cumulus Clouds, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DVDR W, DabMachine, Dachannien, Dacxjo, Dank, Dark Ermac, Davewild, Davinspeak, Dccfiu, Dcordero7965, DeadEyeArrow, Decltype, Delldot, DerHexer, Discospinster, Docu, Donald Albury,Dr. Blofeld, Dycedarg, Ekko, Eliz81, Enam Esru, Enviroboy, Equazcion, EscapedGorilla, EyeSerene, Fangjian, Feezo, FieldMarine, Flamarande, Flingnball567, Fluppy, Fox, Frecklefoot,Gamweb, Gary King, Garylhewitt, Giraffedata, Gogo Dodo, Gracenotes, GraemeL, Grobertson, Gtg204y, Hammbeen, Hbent, Hemidemisemiquaver, Hgriggs, Hmains, I dream of horses,IamCanadianEh, Ikluft, Ilikepie69, Immunize, Instinct, Iridescent, J Clear, Jackol, Jagz, Jake Larsen, Japo, Jaranda, Jarry1250, Jason M, Javert, Jaysweet, Jengod, Jimfbleak, Jmundo, Joellama,John, John Reaves, JohnCD, Johnskate17, Johnson2444, Juliancolton, Jusdafax, Jvinnyalaisa, Kakofonous, Kariteh, Katanada, Kbdank71, KeithBeltham, Kjp993, Knotnic, KnowledgeOfSelf,Koavf, Kralizec!, Ktsparkman, Kuru, L Kensington, La Pianista, Lambiam, Lazulilasher, Leonard G., Leotolstoy, Lesgles, Leuko, Lightmouse, Lucarioxdlol, Lzz, MPF, Malcontent, Manatee97,Maniago, Marek69, MarioFanNo1, Marmote, Marshman, Marymargrand, Master Jay, Materialscientist, Matt Gies, Mattisse, Mav, Maximus Rex, Mbc362, Mboverload, McSly, Meaghan,Melchoir, MezzoMezzo, Michael Devore, Mikenorton, Mimichery, Mm40, Moni3, Moni3ontheroad, Mr. Wheely Guy, Mwanner, Mxn, NERIC-Security, Natural Cut, Nautical Pirate,NawlinWiki, NewEnglandYankee, Nick, Nick1615, Nivix, Noles1984, Npgallery, Omegatron, Orangemarlin, Oxymoron83, P. S. Burton, PL290, Paste, Pfly, Phaldo, Phantomsteve, PhilipTrueman, Piano non troppo, Pinethicket, Plasticup, Polly, Possum, Postdlf, Prairie hiker, PrincessofLlyr, Pschemp, Psytron, Pupster21, Pwnera, Quintote, RC-0722, RadioBroadcast, Radiojon,Radon210, Rebuttal, RedWolf, Redthoreau, Rentaferret, Rettetast, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Rich257, Richard001, Richard0612, Ricky540, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Ronaldvd, Rrburke, Rror,Russellfsm, ST47, Sam Korn, Sango123, Sceptre, SchfiftyThree, Schlegel, Seaphoto, Sfahey, Sheogorath, Shirulashem, Shoessss, Sionus, Skizzik, Smalljim, Smartguy18, Soundvisions1,Spartan-James, SpikeTorontoRCP, StAnselm, Stemonitis, Stephenb, Sukadickbukiss, Synchronism, THF, Targo, Template namespace initialisation script, Tennekis, The Thing That Should NotBe, The Wilschon, TheDJ, TheOtherJesse, Thehelpfulone, Thgoiter, Thingg, Tide rolls, Tim Ross, TimVickers, Titoxd, Tjmayerinsf, Tom Radulovich, Tony1, TransUtopian, Ulric1313,Uusitunnus, Vberger, Vegaswikian, Viriditas, Vishnava, Vsmith, Waninge, Wetman, Wikiproject1400, William I of Schenectady, WillowW, Wilson44691, Windchaser, Wingsandsword,Womey, Woohookitty, Xee, Xiahou, Yo momma be a hoe, Yonatan, Zalgo, 852 anonymous edits

Geography and ecology of the Everglades  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=454415261  Contributors: Acroterion, Awadewit, Bender235, Bibliomaniac15, Biruitorul,CapeVerdeWave, Casliber, Climie.ca, Dank, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Eustress, Fairy gal123, Fiftytwo thirty, Glane23, Guettarda, Juliancolton, Kakofonous, Kevmin, LindsayH, Melchoir, MichaelDevore, Miq, Moni3, Neutrality, Noles1984, Persephone's Lot, R'n'B, Rjwilmsi, Robert1947, SandyGeorgia, Scartol, Shyamal, Skizzik, Soundvisions1, StAnselm, TDogg310, Theo F, Tony1,Wavelength, 4 anonymous edits

Draining and development of the Everglades  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=461191244  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Antandrus, Art LaPella, Awadewit, Bellhalla,Bender235, CapeVerdeWave, Capitalistroadster, Casliber, Climie.ca, CommonsDelinker, Cuchullain, DOCTORSTEELFORWORLDEMPEROR, Daniel Case, Dank, Darogue, Diligent Terrier,Docu, Dog on a log, Epbr123, Estabanderter, Fifth Rider, Gary King, Geographilia, GoingBatty, GrahamColm, GroveGuy, Halgin, Iridescent, Itfc+canes=me, Jason Recliner, Esq., Juliancolton,KConWiki, KJS77, Ktr101, Kylu, Lightmouse, Looie496, MMZach, Malleus Fatuorum, Maralia, Markgpx, Martin451, Melchoir, Michael Devore, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Moni3,Morenoodles, Neutrality, Nsaa, NuclearWarfare, Orangemarlin, Ospalh, Piledhigheranddeeper, Prezbo, R'n'B, Raptus Regaliter Cattus Petasatus, Reywas92, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi,RobertsonJeffey, Shimgray, Skizzik, Snowmanradio, Suckajaweia, Sven08, T-rex, Threeafterthree, Tony1, Twjordan, Tyler, Ukexpat, Viriditas, Wavelength, Wbkelley, William I of Schenectady,Woohookitty, Yllosubmarine, Yohan euan o4, 36 anonymous edits

Restoration of the Everglades  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=464381867  Contributors: A. di M., ALoopingIcon, Alan Liefting, Art LaPella, Attilios, Awadewit, Benwing,Bongwarrior, Brambo, Brandmeister (old), Brianboulton, CapeVerdeWave, Casliber, Civil Engineer III, Ckatz, Climie.ca, CommonsDelinker, Cryptic C62, D156156156, Dabomb87, Dank,Dougalderson, Eastlaw, Ebyabe, Epbr123, FieldMarine, Gadget850, Galoubet, Gott Priapos, GrahamColm, Ground Zero, Hmains, Horologium, Iggy pop goes the weasel, Ixfd64, J.delanoy,Javert, Jerem43, John, Juliancolton, Kakofonous, Kan8eDie, Khatru2, Lightmouse, Lmfao, Maralia, Maverick9711, Moni3, Mr. Absurd, Mrand, Muad, NancyHeise, NuclearWarfare, Pedro,Piledhigheranddeeper, Pmj, Raptor Red, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rst20xx, SandyGeorgia, Skizzik, TDogg310, Tide rolls, Tony1, Trafford09, Wmasterj, Yarnalgo, 31 anonymous edits

Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=335954242  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Gius82mont, Jagz, Karanacs, Lightmouse, Moni3,Sagredo, Sgc2002, Skizzik, VMSPROUL, Xenus, 5 anonymous edits

List of invasive species in the Everglades  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=464310866  Contributors: Alan Liefting, AnOddName, Colin, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker,Dabomb87, Donlammers, Guettarda, Juliancolton, Look2See1, Ludwigs2, Mandarax, Moni3, Nyttend, Piledhigheranddeeper, Rock4arolla, Snowmanradio, Speciate, Srnec, The Bushranger,Vrenator, Xherin, 11 anonymous edits

Indigenous people of the Everglades region  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=462713750  Contributors: Adacore, Awasser55, Bender235, Biruitorul, Circeus, Cryptic C62,Cuchullain, Dank, David Newton, Deconstructhis, Demeter, Donald Albury, DuncanHill, Ealdgyth, Epbr123, Eustress, Giraffedata, GrahamColm, Hmains, Horologium, Iridescent, J.delanoy,JMK, Joyson Prabhu, Karanacs, Ketiltrout, Kozuch, Lightmouse, Look2See1, Michael Devore, Moni3, Moxy, Nick Number, OwenBlacker, Parkwells, PopularOutcast, Prezbo, R'n'B, Reywas92,Rjwilmsi, SandyGeorgia, Skizzik, Sloane, TDogg310, TonyTheTiger, Tpbradbury, TwilligToves, Woohookitty, Zeng8r, 7 anonymous edits

Calusa  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=465562381  Contributors: Afs5059, Averette, Avoided, Badagnani, Bender235, Bglh, Boomshadow, Bradeos Graphon, BryanStrome,Calusa1, Charles Matthews, Cuchullain, Curb Chain, Das Baz, Dcfleck, Dmitri Lytov, Donald Albury, Ebyabe, Emb021, Epbr123, Esteedee, GVP Webmaster, Geeklizzard, Gogo Dodo,Heironymous Rowe, Hmains, Homerj2009, Ish ishwar, J.delanoy, James086, Jfpierce, Jfurr1981, Jhinman, Jswfl09, JustAGal, Kbdank71, Kralizec!, Kwamikagami, L Kensington, MPF,Manxruler, Michael Devore, Moni3, Mutinus, Müslimix, NellieBly, Neutrality, Noles1984, Ochib, Origamiemensch, Parkwells, Phantomsteve, Pspiegel, PurseSword, Rahiim03, RedWolf,Remuel, Skarebo, Smokizzy, Stemonitis, TDogg310, Taksim25, Tedelel, TexasAndroid, Thatguy820, The Bushranger, Thethethe123, Tom-, Trondtr, Uyvsdi, Vanished User 8a9b4725f8376,WiccaIrish, Wiki Raja, Woohookitty, Xyzzyva, Yosri, Zeng8r, 126 anonymous edits

Miccosukee  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=453817688  Contributors: Akerbeltz, Cateris Brutus, Civil Engineer III, Cuchullain, Dale Arnett, Djembayz, Dmahon1, DonaldAlbury, DoriWi, Goodgirl, Hutcher, Jz307, Kalel2007, Khatru2, Kintetsubuffalo, MHS, MiamiDolphins3, Michaelpb, Miquonranger03, Mlsquad, Nihiltres, Parkwells, PrestonH, Quidam65,RJFJR, Racepacket, Rjwilmsi, Shenme, Srice13, Stephenb, TexasAndroid, Ulric1313, Uyvsdi, WhisperToMe, Woohookitty, 51 anonymous edits

Tequesta  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=465500189  Contributors: Aeon1006, Afasmit, AndyZ, BD2412, Badagnani, Bobo192, Crouchbk, Cuchullain, Cyb.tachyon, CyborgNinja, D-Rock, DOLLARBILL, DVD R W, Daniel Christensen, Danny, Davewild, Donald Albury, Dreadstar, Emb021, Eoghanacht, Epolk, Esteedee, Excirial, Fan-1967, Gaius Cornelius,Geeklizzard, Geodyde, Gurch, Hmains, Ish ishwar, J.delanoy, Johnpacklambert, Kbdank71, Kwamikagami, MPF, Materialscientist, Mike Rosoft, Mild Bill Hiccup, NPrice, Northumbrian,Nutiketaiel, Parkwells, Piast93, Prolog, RJaguar3, RL0919, Reuben, RexNL, Richbrobee, Rjwilmsi, S, Seba5618, Strid3r-, TexasAndroid, The Alcalde, Vanished User 1004, Vanished user39948282, Versus22, WiccaIrish, Woohookitty, 116 anonymous edits

Seminole  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=464990399  Contributors: 10metreh, 21655, 2D, A More Perfect Onion, ABF, Aaron Walden, Aaronjs0, Acroterion, AdjustShift, Ahoerstemeier, Akamad, Alansohn, Alarob, Alberuni, Ale jrb, Alexandra.mc, AlimanRuna, Anaxial, Andrei G Kustov, Andynicolelovers01, AngelOfSadness, Angr, Antherius, AppleJuggler, AriGold, Armaced, Armoreno10, Atif.t2, Augwp, Austinbirdman, Awhood, Babbage, BanyanTree, Beantwo, Belissarius, Belovedfreak, Bender235, Beth220, Bhadani, Big Adamsky, Bihco, Bkell, Blanchardb, Bobo192, Brucejfrancis, Bryanw03, CJLL Wright, Calor, Calvin 1998, Camembert, Canjth, CardinalDan, Carwil, Cateris Brutus, Chief Red Eagle, Chriswk313, Civil Engineer III, Cocoaguy, CommonsDelinker, Crazyeasy41, Cuchullain, Cybercobra, D-Rock, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DO'Neil, DVD R W, Dan D. Ric, DarkAudit, DarkKunai, Deeceevoice, Demize, DerHexer, DigitalCatalyst, Discospinster, Djembayz, Dnarcomey, Donald Albury, Donnyhoca, Dramagirl134, Droddfinger, Dylan620, Dysepsion, Emb021, Embryomystic, Epbr123, Epolk, Erico Tachizawa, Euryalus, Evb-wiki, Fashoinestioa, Fastman99, Favonian, Fieldday-sunday, Fireice, FrancoGG, FrankCostanza, Frankenpuppy, Frecklefoot, FreplySpang, Fyrael, G716, Gatemansgc, Gilliam, Gjd001, Gjones0316, Gnangarra, Gogo Dodo, Golbez, GreatWhiteNortherner, Green Giant, Grim23, Grrayson, GuitarWeeps, Gurch, Hallorator, Hmains, Hottentot, Hyacinth, Ianblair23, Inge-Lyubov, Inka 888, Iridescent, Ish ishwar, Islaammaged126, J.delanoy, JForget, Jamesm118, Japanese Searobin, Jewelya17, Jfpierce, JodyB, JoeSmack, Jokron, Jonathan Hall, Joseph opala, JoshuaZ, Jossi, Jóna Þórunn, KF, KGasso, Kain Nihil, Kaiwhakahaere, Kaka1713kk, Kbdank71, Kevin Myers, Kevin W., Khoikhoi, KimvdLinde, Kintetsubuffalo, Kitch, KnowledgeOfSelf, Konstable, Korenyuk, Kukini, Kwertii, L Kensington, La Pianista, Lalah1294, LeaveSleaves, Lightmouse, Like You Never Did See, LilHelpa, Lino Mastrodomenico, Little Mountain 5, Look2See1, M7, Magiciandude, Makeswell, Markwiki, Mattheboy, Maxis ftw, Mcelite, Melsaran, Michaeldsuarez, Midgrid, Mimihitam, Misterwaffles, Modernist, Moloch09, Monty845, Morg85213, Mwdinkin, Mxn, Naturespace, NawlinWiki, Nburden, Neonkow, NewEnglandYankee, Nick, North Shoreman, Nyren5, Nyswimmer, OS2Warp, OlEnglish, Omar35880, Optimist on the run, OwenX, Oxymoron83, Papppfaffe, Papyrus688, Parkwells, Peripitus, Persian Poet Gal, Pfly, Pharos, Philip Trueman, Philippe, Phoebe, Pinethicket, PoliticalJunkie, Porsche997SBS, Postmortemjapan, Qqqqqq, Quebec99, Quidam65, R000t, RadioFan, Raeky, Raepetersen, Rahiim03, Random contributor, Raven4x4x, Rawling, Reach Out to the Truth, Reaper Eternal, Rebeccahendrix, RexNL, Rice pud, Richard Keatinge, RichardBond, RickK, Rjensen, Rmhermen, Roadrunner, Robfergusonjr, Rodhullandemu, Roodog2k, Rory096, RossF18, RoyBoy,

Article Sources and Contributors 155

Rrburke, Rror, Samtheboy, Sanrioprincess66, Sassisch, Sbowers3, Sceptre, SchfiftyThree, Scott Mingus, SemDem, Shirulashem, Sirberus, Skidude9950, Smosh77, Some jerk on the Internet,Sovereignty2013, SpaceFlight89, SpikeJones, Steamroller Assault, Steve Dufour, Stickdummy, Swarm, SwissCelt, TUF-KAT, TYelliot, Tagishsimon, Techman224, Tekiclutch, Teles,Tempodivalse, TexasAndroid, The Literate Engineer, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheSlyFox, Thingg, ThrashedParanoid, Tide rolls, Tim1357, Tjdsportsplaya, Tmathew1us,Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tom Radulovich, Tombaxter, Tombomp, Tommy2010, TommyBoy, Tonym88, Toussaint, Tregoweth, Trent, TriniSocialist, Triwbe, TrojanMan, TypoDotOrg, Tzustrategy,Ukexpat, Ulric1313, Urashimataro, Uyvsdi, Vanished user 39948282, Vary, Venu62, Vicki Rosenzweig, WAS 4.250, Walden69, Waterden, Weregerbil, WhisperToMe, WiccaIrish,WikipedianMarlith, Wikiuser100, Willking1979, Wmahan, Woohookitty, Wwagner, Xiahou, Yamaguchi先生, Yaroslav Blanter, Yawar.fiesta, Zachthebutcher, Zoicon5, ZooFari, 830 anonymousedits

Everglades National Park  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=464393925  Contributors: -Midorihana-, 30$gummy, Acroterion, Alansohn, Alberrosidus, Alexf, Alxndr, AndreEngels, Andrwsc, Andylin, Appraiser, Aranel, Arpingstone, Averette, B1oody8romance7, Backspace, Bamse, Bibliomaniac15, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Brighterorange, Cacophony,CambridgeBayWeather, Camplouf, CapeVerdeWave, Catholic 85, Chaohwa, Chingchongchinaman, Chris Light, Chrishmt0423, Clarkbhm, Cmsb705, Coemgenus, Colin Angus Mackay,CommonsDelinker, Courcelles, Coveredinsevindust, D6, Dabomb87, Daniel Case, Danny, Dapsv, David McCalister, Dccfiu, Deror avi, Dmwime, Donald Albury, Doncram, Droll, Drummerboy5513359, Ebyabe, Ecphora, Edward, Enviroboy, Eoghanacht, Epbr123, Eu9zshr9kuyx8\, Evolt, Ex nihil, Fiftytwo thirty, Fl295, Fluffernutter, Footballfan190, Freestar1900, FrickFrack,Funkboy3, Funnyhat, Fæ, Garylhewitt, Geo0910, Goodnightmush, Grace E. Dougle, GroveGuy, Hmains, Hoffmeier, Hoo man, Horologium, Hottentot, Iusethis, JD554, Jagz, Jalen109, Jalo, Janeissfeldt, Japo, Jaraalbe, Javier martin, Jengod, Jh51681, Jimfbleak, Jllm06, Joey80, Johnskate17, JonHarder, Juliancolton, Jwinius, Kalgari, Karanacs, Kdhenrik, Khatru2, KnowledgeOfSelf,Kozuch, Laura Mihaela90, Law, LeaveSleaves, Lightmouse, Lily15, Luna Santin, MDuchek, MER-C, MONGO, Madhero88, Malepheasant, Malleus Fatuorum, Maralia, Matt Gies, Melchoir,Menchi, Metanoid, Michael Devore, Michael Pusch, Michael1115, Mike5904, Mimichery, Mindraker, Moni3, Moni3ontheroad, Monkeymonkeymonkeymonkey, Monstrocity, Mwanner, NE2,NKSCF, NancyHeise, Nathan.tang, Nationalparks, NawlinWiki, Neutrality, Nika 243, Npgallery, Ohiobill, Outriggr, P199, Paul H., Peacelovebikes, Pedro, Peter Karlsen, Piano non troppo,Pinethicket, Plasticup, Porsche997SBS, Possum, Prayerfortheworld, Pschemp, R'n'B, Rettetast, Reywas92, Rjwilmsi, Rkitko, Rmhermen, RobertG, RobyWayne, Rufous-crowned Sparrow, SI31,SPUI, SandyGeorgia, Sasquatch, Sb184br, Scartol, Seaphoto, Sillago, Skillz187, Skizzik, Sonicboi, Southeastern Everglades, Starionwolf, TDogg310, Takahashi J, Tide rolls, Tony1, Treisijs,Una Smith, Vicpeters, VitaleBaby, Vrenator, Vsmith, Wavelength, WesleyDodds, WillC, Wimt, WolfgangFaber, Ww2censor, Yamile and edlyn, Yosemite123, Zalgo, Zarcadia, Zereshk,Zoohouse, Zzyzx11, 249 anonymous edits

Marjory Stoneman Douglas  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=465357928  Contributors: 21655, Acroterion, Alan Liefting, Amandajm, Anjwalker, Ark30inf, Art LaPella,Auric, Bagumba, Bart Versieck, Belovedfreak, Bluap, Bobo192, CapeVerdeWave, Chanceygardner, Chicheley, Clariosophic, Clearviews, Comayagua99, D6, DESiegel, DarthChrist, Dbunde,Dimadick, Dudebenz, Epbr123, Everyguy, Everyking, Extransit, Fabiform, Falcon8765, FeanorStar7, Gamecuber34, GrahamColm, GroveGuy, HOT L Baltimore, Hammbeen, Hekerui,Hephaestos, Horologium, Inter16, J.delanoy, J04n, Jacobisq, Jaha -geer damani, Janet13, Jaranda, Jimfbleak, JohnCD, Jonnyzoo 93, Juankilla, Juliancolton, Kakofonous, Kbdank71, Kiwidough,KnowledgeOfSelf, LOL, Leibniz101, Lightmouse, LizardJr8, Lmaccork, Longevitymonger, Mangostar, Maralia, Meldouglass, Michael Devore, Michaelcar, Mlaffs, Moni3, Naturalpsychology,Noles1984, OxyMoronMinusOxy, PTSE, Philip Cross, Pigman, Piledhigheranddeeper, Qdiderot, RFD, RWeiss, Raul654, Releposky, Reywas92, Rjwilmsi, Rms125a@hotmail.com, RoseMilphens, SandyGeorgia, Scientizzle, Shearonink, Tide rolls, Tim Ross, Tim1357, Tony1, Trubyjapan, Uisfob, Uncle Dick, WarthogDemon, Wavelength, Wencer, William I of Schenectady,WillowW, Wrad, Yllosubmarine, Zsinj, Zzuuzz, 137 anonymous edits

The Everglades: River of Grass  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=414802420  Contributors: Everyking, GrahamHardy, GroveGuy, Maralia, Moni3, Noneforall, RoseMilphens, Skizzik, 2 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 156

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Evergladesareamap.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Evergladesareamap.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: KmusserImage:Everglades Sawgrass Prairie Moni3.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Sawgrass_Prairie_Moni3.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Moni3Image:1857 Everglades map.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1857_Everglades_map.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Moni3Image:Everglades Geology.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Geology.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Moni3, 1 anonymous editsImage:Florida Everglades Hydrology.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Florida_Everglades_Hydrology.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Moni3, MonkeybaitImage:Hurricane Charley 13 aug 2004 1635Z.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hurricane_Charley_13_aug_2004_1635Z.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Image courtesy of the Space Science and Engineering Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison.Image:Storm at Shark River in Everglades.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Storm_at_Shark_River_in_Everglades.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Barron,CharlesNOTE: Attribution must be given when image is used. Suggested: Photo:Charles Barron / State Library and Archives of Florida (See Title XVIII, Chapter 257, section 35.6 (c) :Any use orreproduction of material deposited with the Florida State Photographic Collection shall be allowed pursuant to the provisions of paragraph (1)(b) and subsection (4) provided that appropriatecredit for its use is given.)File:Everglades uneven limestone floor and sawgrass prairie.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_uneven_limestone_floor_and_sawgrass_prairie.JPG License: Public Domain  Contributors: Moni3Image:Historic Everglades Regions.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Historic_Everglades_Regions.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. GeologicalSurveyImage:Everglades Hammock Center.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Hammock_Center.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Moni3File:Everglades vegetation cross section.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_vegetation_cross_section.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S.Geological SurveyFile:Magnify-clip.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnify-clip.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Erasoft24Image:Big cypress.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Big_cypress.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Geological SurveyImage:Mangrove trees in Everglades.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mangrove_trees_in_Everglades.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Moni3Image:Florida Bay at Flamingo.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Florida_Bay_at_Flamingo.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Moni3Image:Charley Cypress Seminole Everglades.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charley_Cypress_Seminole_Everglades.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Unknown.Image:US War Department Everglades Map 1856.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_War_Department_Everglades_Map_1856.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: US War DepartmentImage:Hamilton Disston Land Sale Notice.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hamilton_Disston_Land_Sale_Notice.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jbarta,Kenmayer, Mnmazur, Moni3Image:Canal in the Everglades Drainage District 1915.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canal_in_the_Everglades_Drainage_District_1915.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Moni3Image:Army CoE sign Hoover Dike.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Army_CoE_sign_Hoover_Dike.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Army Corps ofEngineersImage:Harry Truman at Everglades National Park.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Harry_Truman_at_Everglades_National_Park.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Infrogmation, Moni3Image:Everglades canal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_canal.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Geological SurveyFile:Mercury warning sign in Everglades National Park.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mercury_warning_sign_in_Everglades_National_Park.JPG  License:Public Domain  Contributors: Moni3Image:ARS Lygodium microphyllum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ARS_Lygodium_microphyllum.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amada44,Daderot, PDHImage:Future Drainage in South Florida.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Future_Drainage_in_South_Florida.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S.Geological SurveyImage:South Florida Satellite Image Map.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:South_Florida_Satellite_Image_Map.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: USGeological SurveyImage:A tree island in a sawgrass prairie in the Everglades.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_tree_island_in_a_sawgrass_prairie_in_the_Everglades.JPG License: Public Domain  Contributors: Moni3Image:Fire in the Everglades.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fire_in_the_Everglades.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Romer, G. W. (Gleason Waite),1887-1971.Image:Alligator and periphyton.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alligator_and_periphyton.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Moni3Image:Everglades hardwood hammock.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_hardwood_hammock.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Moni3Image:Everglades pine rockland.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_pine_rockland.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Geological SurveyFile:Everglades mangroves Buttonwood Canal.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_mangroves_Buttonwood_Canal.JPG  License: Public Domain Contributors: Moni3Image:USGS Northern Everglades image 2001 .jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USGS_Northern_Everglades_image_2001_.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Geological SurveyImage:USGS Southern Everglades Image 2001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USGS_Southern_Everglades_Image_2001.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: USGSImage:Seminole War in Everglades.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seminole_War_in_Everglades.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: USMCImage:Blueprint for Everglades canals1921.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blueprint_for_Everglades_canals1921.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Model Land Company, Everglades Drainage DistrictImage:Everglades real estate tour buses.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_real_estate_tour_buses.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fishbaugh,W. A. (William A.)Image:Magazine cutout ladies plume hats.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magazine_cutout_ladies_plume_hats.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Catlow,Patty Munroe, 1900-1991Image:Baker's Haulover Inlet 1927.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Baker's_Haulover_Inlet_1927.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: w:John Kunkel Small(January 31, 1869- January 20, 1938)Image:Okeechobee hurricane 1928 noaa pics.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Okeechobee_hurricane_1928_noaa_pics.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Moni3File:Kissimmee River Restoration.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kissimmee_River_Restoration.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Army Corps ofEngineersFile:Designated areas in the Everglades.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Designated_areas_in_the_Everglades.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S.Geological SurveyFile:Kissimmee River S-65B Destruction.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kissimmee_River_S-65B_Destruction.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ArmyCorps of EngineersFile:Cattails in the Everglades.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cattails_in_the_Everglades.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Geological Survey

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 157

Image:Stormwater Treatment Area in Northern Everglades.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stormwater_Treatment_Area_in_Northern_Everglades.jpg  License:Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Geological SurveyImage:Three Roseate spoonbills.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Three_Roseate_spoonbills.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lee Karney, released to theU.S. Fish & Wildlife ServiceImage:ARS_Lygodium_microphyllum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ARS_Lygodium_microphyllum.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amada44,Daderot, PDHImage:South Florida Pre-drainage.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:South_Florida_Pre-drainage.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Geological SurveyImage:South Florida Water Drainage Present Day.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:South_Florida_Water_Drainage_Present_Day.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Geological SurveyFile:Future Drainage in South Florida.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Future_Drainage_in_South_Florida.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S.Geological SurveyImage:Lygodium microphyllum in Loxahatchee.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lygodium_microphyllum_in_Loxahatchee.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Peggy Greb, USDA Agricultural Research Service. Original uploader was Moni3 at en.wikipediaImage:Gator and Python.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gator_and_Python.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lori Oberhofer, National Park ServiceFile:Starr 031108-0008 Melaleuca quinquenervia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Starr_031108-0008_Melaleuca_quinquenervia.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution 3.0  Contributors: Forest & Kim StarrFile:ARS_Lygodium_microphyllum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ARS_Lygodium_microphyllum.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amada44, Daderot,PDHFile:Starr 031108-0096 Schinus terebinthifolius.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Starr_031108-0096_Schinus_terebinthifolius.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution 3.0  Contributors: Forest & Kim StarrFile:Tree I IMG 2819.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tree_I_IMG_2819.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: J.M.GargFile:Starr 050517-1465 Colubrina asiatica.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Starr_050517-1465_Colubrina_asiatica.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Forest & Kim StarrFile:Water hyacinth.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Water_hyacinth.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Photo by Ted Center.File:Pistia stratiotes 1a.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pistia_stratiotes_1a.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:KristjanFile:Burma reed burning.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Burma_reed_burning.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unknown, belongs to National ParkServiceFile:Hydrilla verticillata collection LakeSeminoleFL.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hydrilla_verticillata_collection_LakeSeminoleFL.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Stephen Ausmus, USDAFile:Starr 031108-0224 Dioscorea bulbifera.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Starr_031108-0224_Dioscorea_bulbifera.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution3.0  Contributors: Forest & Kim StarrFile:Starr 031204-0002 Cupaniopsis anacardioides.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Starr_031204-0002_Cupaniopsis_anacardioides.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution 3.0  Contributors: Forest & Kim StarrFile:Rhodomyrtus tomentosa 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rhodomyrtus_tomentosa_2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Franz XaverFile:Lobate lac scale.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lobate_lac_scale.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Jeffrey W. Lotz, FloridaDepartment of Agriculture and Consumer Services, United StatesFile:Pomacea insularum 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pomacea_insularum_2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Jess Van Dyke,Snail Busters, LLC, Bugwood.orgFile:Corbicula fluminea.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Corbicula_fluminea.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: USGSFile:Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus in Florida US ACE.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pterygoplichthys_multiradiatus_in_Florida_US_ACE.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Jan Hoover, US Army Corps of Engineers. Original uploader was Moni3 at en.wikipediaFile:Clarias batrachus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clarias_batrachus.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: "Image by: Pam Fuller, USGS"File:USGS image of Mayan cichlid.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USGS_image_of_Mayan_cichlid.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SreeBotFile:Blue tilapia identification ASACE.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blue_tilapia_identification_ASACE.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:SreeBotFile:Python molurus bivittatus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Python_molurus_bivittatus.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:Karunakar Rayker from IndiaFile:Iguana iguana -Ueno Zoo -Tokyo -Japan-8a.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iguana_iguana_-Ueno_Zoo_-Tokyo_-Japan-8a.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: pelicanFile:Regenwald nilwaran Varanus niloticus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Regenwald_nilwaran_Varanus_niloticus.jpg  License: GNU Free DocumentationLicense  Contributors: Deadstar, Factumquintus, Ianare, Kilom691File:Myiopsitta monachus -Florida -two in tree-8.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Myiopsitta_monachus_-Florida_-two_in_tree-8.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Maureen Leong-KeeFile:Acridotheres tristis444.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Acridotheres_tristis444.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Benjamint444File:Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio) near Hodal W4 IMG 6606.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Purple_Swamphen_(Porphyrio_porphyrio)_near_Hodal_W4_IMG_6606.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: J.M.GargFile:Wild Pig KSC02pd0873.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wild_Pig_KSC02pd0873.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA or National Aeronauticsand Space AdministrationFile:Domestic cat eating bird on lawn-8.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Domestic_cat_eating_bird_on_lawn-8.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: dr_rellingFile:Roofrat Hagenbeck 02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roofrat_Hagenbeck_02.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:KilessanImage:Seminole family Cypress Tiger.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seminole_family_Cypress_Tiger.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: John KunkelSmallImage:Indigenous people of Everglades map.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indigenous_people_of_Everglades_map.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Original uploader was Moni3 at en.wikipediaImage:Calusa carved gator head.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Calusa_carved_gator_head.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Moni3Image:Pedro menendez de Aviles.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pedro_menendez_de_Aviles.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: José Camarón y Boronat(1730-1803), published by Fran(cis)co de Paula Marti in 1791Image:FLMap-Calusa-core&domain.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FLMap-Calusa-core&domain.PNG  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Donald Albury, Gurch, 2 anonymous editsFile:Flmn chiefshut.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flmn_chiefshut.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wtc69789File:Calusa carved gator head.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Calusa_carved_gator_head.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Moni3Image:CalusaTerritory.GIF  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CalusaTerritory.GIF  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bryan StromeFile:DeSoto Map Leg 1 HRoe 2008.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DeSoto_Map_Leg_1_HRoe_2008.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Heironymous Rowe (talk). Original uploader was Heironymous Rowe at en.wikipedia

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 158

Image:Calusa.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Calusa.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Heironymous Rowe, Huhsunqu, Ishwar, Juicedlemon, Origamiemensch, RHorningFile:Miccosukee Tribe.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Miccosukee_Tribe.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Kalel2007File:Flag of the United States.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of Florida.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Florida.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Awg1010, Dbenbenn, Denelson83, DenghiùComm,Dzordzm, Ebyabe, Fry1989, Himasaram, Homo lupus, Hystrix, Madden, Mattes, Nightstallion, Pumbaa80, Reach Out to the Truth, Reuvenk, Rocket000, Vantey, Zscout370, 12 anonymous editsFile:INDIAN VILLAGE - NARA - 544507.tif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:INDIAN_VILLAGE_-_NARA_-_544507.tif  License: Public Domain  Contributors:DjembayzImage:FLMap-Tequesta-tribe2.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FLMap-Tequesta-tribe2.PNG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Originaluploader was Dalbury at en.wikipediaFile:Miami River Brickell Avenue Bridge statue.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Miami_River_Brickell_Avenue_Bridge_statue.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: AveretteImage:Seminole-portraits.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seminole-portraits.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: complied by Robfergusonjr using publicdomain sourcesImage:Coeehajo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coeehajo.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Origamiemensch, Robfergusonjr, 1 anonymous editsImage:Seminole Woman.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seminole_Woman.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: George CatlinFile:A Seminole spearing a garfish from a dugout, Florida, 1930 - NARA - 519169.tif  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_Seminole_spearing_a_garfish_from_a_dugout,_Florida,_1930_-_NARA_-_519169.tif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dominic, Foroa,JoJan, RmhermenFile:Seminole patchwork shawl.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seminole_patchwork_shawl.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:UyvsdiImage:Seminoleclipper.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seminoleclipper.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Djembayzfile: Everglades.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dysmorodrepanis, Huebi, Kersti Nebelsiek, Mehmet Karatay,Snowmanradio, Ultratomio, 1 anonymous editsfile:Usa edcp relief location map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Usa_edcp_relief_location_map.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Uwe DederingFile:Red pog.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_pog.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Everglades National Park map 2005.11.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_National_Park_map_2005.11.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:National Park Service, Harpers Ferry CenterFile:Everglades Natl Park Alligator.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Natl_Park_Alligator.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: National ParkService Photo by Rodney CammaufFile:Everglades - Blue Heron.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_-_Blue_Heron.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:ZoohouseFile:Everglades National Park Florida Panther.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_National_Park_Florida_Panther.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: ALE!, Galpha, Kersti Nebelsiek, Martin H., Moni3, 1 anonymous editsFile:Everglades Nat'l Park Mangrove.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Nat'l_Park_Mangrove.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: National ParkService PhotoFile:Watching Sunset Over Marshes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Watching_Sunset_Over_Marshes.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Wing-Chi PoonFile:Everglades Canal lock.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Canal_lock.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: GalphaFile:Everglades National Park SPOT 1286.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_National_Park_SPOT_1286.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Cnes - Spot ImageFile:Everglades Pinelands.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Pinelands.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: MDuchek (talk)File:Littleblueheronsmall.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Littleblueheronsmall.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mehmet KaratayFile:Anhinga crop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anhinga_crop.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: DanielSchwenFile:Anhingatrail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anhingatrail.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Citypeek, JaloFile:Everglades Campground at Flamingo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_Campground_at_Flamingo.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: MwannerFile:Everglades National Park cypress.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_National_Park_cypress.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: National ParkServiceFile:Everglades American Crocodile.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_American_Crocodile.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: National ParkServiceFile:Everglades FH020005.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Everglades_FH020005.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Deror aviFile:Marjory S Douglas Friends photo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marjory_S_Douglas_Friends_photo.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Friends of the EvergladesImage:Stoneman Family In 1893.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stoneman_Family_In_1893.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Beria, Bohème, Frank C.Müller, InfrogmationImage:Douglas Wellesley.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Douglas_Wellesley.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Moni3 aten.wikipediaImage:Marjory Stoneman Douglas Cottage.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marjory_Stoneman_Douglas_Cottage.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Moni3Image:DglsBldg2TLH-16Sep2007.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DglsBldg2TLH-16Sep2007.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Tim Ross

License 159

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/