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Evidence-Based Teaching Strategiesand the Research Behind Them
Marie Norman, PhD
MERMAID Sept 2017
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• Describe 5 evidence-based teaching strategies.
• Explain the research that supports them.
• Discuss applications and adaptations.
Objectives
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Why successful strategies work
When they work
How to adapt them to new contexts
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Exam Wrappers
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Think of a challenging task
• How did you prepare?
• What mistakes did you make?
• How would you change your strategy?
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Strategy: Exam Wrappers
Ask students to reflect (in writing) on their study strategies immediately after an exam and when they get the exam back.
Lovett, 2013
Ambrose et al, 2010
Achacoso, 2004
• How do you think you did
on this exam?
• How did you study for it?
• Do you think your study
strategies were effective?
• Compare how you thought
you performed with how
you actually performed.
• How effective do you think
your study strategy was?
• Is there anything you’d do
differently next time?
Wrapper BWrapper A
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Metacognition
Assess the task
Assess yourself
Plan strategyMonitor strategy
Reflect and adjust1
5 2
4 3 Carey et al, 1989
Dunning, 2007
Chi et al, 1989
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Dunning-Kruger Effect
• Individuals with low ability overestimate competence.
• Individuals with high ability underestimate competence.
Kruger & Dunning, 1999
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Why do exam wrappers work?
• More accurate self-
assessment
• Opportunity to reflect
and adjust
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We don’t learn from experience. We learn
from reflecting on experience.
John Dewey
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Reappraisal
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I’m nervous about
this
exam/presentation
I’m excited about this
exam/presentation.
Reappraisal
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When a high-arousal emotion such as anxiety is redefined
as another high-arousal emotion such as excitement, it
reduces stress and improves performance better than
simply trying to calm down (emotional suppression.)
Cutuli, 2014
Brooks, 2013
Cognitive Reappraisal
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• Cognitive consistency
(unlike suppression)
• Threat mindset
opportunity mindset
Why does reappraisal work?
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Collaborative
Testing
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Use exams as a learning opportunity and put students in
groups to take them collaboratively.
Strategy: Collaborative Testing
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Research on Collaborative Testing
Students who take tests collaboratively learn more and
develop better critical thinking skills than students who take
tests individually.
Eastridge, 2014
Rivaz et al, 2015
Rao et al, 2015
Gilley & Clarkston, 2014
Meseke et al, 2010
Pandey & Kapatinoff, 2011
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• Reduces test anxiety
• Builds communication skills
• Builds listening skills
• Leverages “Protégé Effect”
Why does collaborative testing work?
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Tip #1: Include an individual component.
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Tip #2:Use for complex content.
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Desirable
Difficulties
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Slides that (A) articulate compete ideas or (B) provide an
outline but require students to fill in missing pieces?
Which is better…
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Use slides that compliment lecture but don’t stand alone to
make students engage in deeper cognitive processing.
Strategy: Use Skeletal Slides
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Students learn more deeply and retain what they learn
longer when learning is (reasonably) difficult.
Bjork, 1994
Roediger & Karpicke, 2006
Rohrer & Taylor, 2007
Yue et al, 2013
Bjork & Kroll, 2015
McDaniel et al, 1994
Research on Desirable Difficulties
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• Testing > restudying
• Generating answers > identifying answers
• Mixed (“interleaved”) practice > blocked practice
• Spaced practice > “massed” practice
• Slides that don’t match speech exactly > slides that do
• Imperfect outlines > perfect outlines
Commonality: require deeper cognitive processing.
Examples of desirable difficulties
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Caveat #1:Too much difficulty is not desirable
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Caveat #2:Distraction is not a desirable difficulty.
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Caveat #3:Desirable difficulties are not always desired.
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• Deeper cognitive processing
• More elaborated encoding
• Better learning and retention
Why is difficulty desirable?
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Growth
Mindset
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Avoid talking about intelligence as a fixed trait. Instead,
emphasize that intelligence is malleable and evolving.
Strategy: Emphasize a growth mindset
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People who believe that ability is innate (fixed mindset) are
significantly less resilient than those who believe it can be
developed with effort (growth mindset.)
Minor interventions can help create a growth mindset.
Carol Dweck, 2006
Research on Mindset
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When individuals from a stereotyped group are
anxious about confirming a negative stereotype, it
impedes cognitive processes and performance.
Steele & Aronson, 1995
Aronson et al, 1989
Gonzales, Blanton, & Williams, 2002
Franceschini et al, 2014
Research on Stereotype Threat
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• Black and white Stanford
students given a challenging
multiple choice test.
• Group 1: Race was cued
• Group 2: Race was not cued
• Black students in group 1 showed
significantly depressed
performance relative to group 2.
Ex. Steele & Aronson, 1995
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• Older people and memory tasks
• Women and math/entrepreneurship/science
• Southerners and intellectual ability
• White men and basketball…
Replicated extensively
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•When the stereotype is relevant to the task at hand
•When the task is challenging
•When the task matters to the individual’s self-identity.
•Whether or not the individual believes the stereotype.
Stereotype Threat occurs…
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• Emphasizes factors students
have power over
• Helps to overcome
stereotype threat
Why does a growth mindset help?
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•Use exam wrappers (metacognition, Dunning-Kruger)
• Train students to reappraise anxiety (cognitive reappraisal)
•Consider group testing (collaborative testing)
•Use skeletal slides(desirable difficulties)
•Cultivate a growth mindset (mindset and stereotype threat)
Recap
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Thoughts? Questions?
Applications?Take-aways?
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Thank you!
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References
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• Aronson, J., Lustina, M.J., Good, C., Keough, K., Steele, C.M., & Brown, J. (1989). When white men can’t do math: Necessary and sufficient factors in stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 29-46.
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• Franceschini, G., Galli, S., Chiesi, F., & Primi, C. (2014). Implicit gender-math stereotype and women’s susceptibility to stereotype threat and stereotype lift. Learning and Individual Differences, 32,273-277.
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• Rivaz, M., Momennasab, M., & Shokrollahi, P. (2015). Effect of collaborative testing on learning and retention of course content in nursing students. Journal of Advances in Medical Education & Professionalism, 3(4), 178-182.
• Roediger, H.L, III, & Karpicke, J.D. (2006). The power of testing memory: Basic research and implications for educational practice. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 181-120.
• Rohrer, D., & Pashler, H. (2010). Reviews/Essays: Recent research on human learning challenges conventional instructional strategies. Educational Researcher, 39(5), 406-412.
• Steele, C.M. & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African-Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5),797-811.
• Yue, C. L., Castel, A. D., & Bjork, R. A. (2013). When disfluency is—and is not—a desirable difficulty: The influence of typeface clarity on metacognitive judgments and memory. Memory & Cognition, 41(2), 229-241.