English Words from Latin and Greek Elements Donald M. Ayers

Part I: Word Elements from Latin

Notes, Vocabulary Lists, and Commentary For Mr. Current’s English Class

Ayers, Donald. English Words from Latin and Greek Elements. 2nd ed. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1986. Print.

Table of Contents Preface iii

Introduction (1) 4Part I: Word Elements from Latin 8

Lesson I: The Dictionary (16) 8Lesson II: Definition and Latin Bases (26) 8Lesson III: Assimilation of Prefixes (35) 11Lesson IV: Abbreviations and Acronyms (40) 14Lesson V: Back Formations, Aphersis, and Aphesis (46) 16Lesson VI: Combination of Bases (52) 18Lesson VII: Hybrids (57) 20Lesson VIII: Suffixes (60) 22Lesson IX: Word Analysis: Etymological Definition (65) 24Lesson X: Dissimilation and Other Sound Changes (70) 26Lesson XI: Semantic Change (75) 29Lesson XII: Specialization and Generalization of Meaning (82) 31Lesson XIII: Functional Change (86) 33Lesson XIV: Degeneration and Elevation in Meaning (90) 35Lesson XV: Change from Abstract to Concrete and Visa-Versa (94) 37Lesson XVI: Weakening and Hyperbole (98) 38Lesson XVII: Change of Meaning Due to Changing Concepts (101) 39Lesson XVIII: Euphemism, Taboo Deformation, and Circumlocution (106) 41Lesson XIX: Folk Etymology (112) 42

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PrefaceClasses,

The purpose of this document is to serve as an accompaniment to English Words by Donald M. Ayers. This will include several elements:

• The notes that will create the PowerPoints, • Your vocabulary lists, • Commentary from Mr. Current, • And eventually, the exercise numbers for each lesson.

My plan is to constantly update this document, so do not be surprised when I tell you to download the newest edition. Until then, use this as you need it or want it. I am merely trying to make your life easier.

Happy Studying!

Mr. Current January 2014

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Introduction (1) Opening Commercial • Wonder why we will be studying etymology? Watch the following commercial: • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JXnFdNrAiEk• Bottom line: Language changes. If you understand the rules that govern its change, you will

less surprised when you encounter something “new.”

Introductory Remarks (1) • The English language is best studied in the context of its development; not isolation. • Check out the similarities between the following words:

Chart 1

English German Dutch Danish

mother mutter moeder moder

father vater vader fader

brother bruder broeder broder

Now let’s expand to a few more languages…

Chart 2

Latin Greek Irish Sanskrit Persian

māter mētēr māthair Mātr mādar

pater patēr athair pitr pidar

frāter phrātēr brāthair bhrātr birādar

Parent Languages (2) • The explanation that languages purely borrowed only goes so far. • The most prevalent explanation is the hypothesis that a single parent language, or proto-

language, gave way to our own. • While written records do not exist, this view nonetheless unite many diverse languages. • This language gained descendants as its speakers became geographically isolated.

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The Development of the English Language Roman-Celtic Period, 50 B.C. to A.D. 410 (6) • English began (geographically speaking) on the British Isles • The Romans invaded, bringing Latin with them • Celtic dialects were spoken in rural areas, while Latin was spoken in towns

Words from the Roman-Celtic Period (7) • Place-name suffixes: -cester, -chester (like “Winchester”) meaning “village” (7). • Words from town- and village-life: street from strata (“paved road”), -wich (like “Greenwich”)

from vicus (“village”); cheap from caupo (“tavern-keeper”).

Old English, 450-1066 (7-8) • Around 350, three tribes speaking West Germanic moved into the area • This period was marked by invasions, and they hired other Germans to protect the area • English developed in this new isolation• Literature from this period includes the oral epic, Beowulf

Words of Old English (8-10) • Pronouns from this period: I, we, you, he, it, the, this, that, who, what, mine, your, each, any. • Examples include: good, better, best; evil, worse, worst (Saxon); bid, bade, bidden; sing, sang,

sung (9). • Other examples: love, say, live, have, own, do, be, will, bury, name, reach, long, strong, high,

quick, sun, food, hand, finger, friend, brother, father, mother, stone, earth (9). • We likewise have influences from the Vikings (11th century), the Danes, and the Scandinavians

(9-10).• Prefixes and Suffixes: -y, -en, -ful, -some, -ward, -hood, -dom, -ship, -ness, -th, -er, un-, for-,

be-

Middle English, 1066-1500 (10)

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• The Battle of Hastings in 1066 reduced England and brought an immediate French influence • Linguistic imperialism: the predictable pattern where overlords learn little of native languages,

and bilingual natives assimilate the invading language • English developed many redundancies from French words (synonyms)

Middle English, 1066-1500 (10) • This gives us synonyms from French: hog, swine, pig, farrow, sow, and boar. Also (English vs.

French), hut and cottage, bill and beak, clothe and dress, help and aid, deed and action, folk and people.

• This French influence affected our spelling, and gave us terms for government from Norman French: govern, state, realm, crown, country, nation, power, authority, parliament, people, and the list continues (10).

Middle English, 1066-1500 (11) • Latin likewise invaded the English language, both directly and indirectly • While English began with Latin, French words of Latin origin crept in, making true origins

nearly impossible in many cases • Mixed with printing, spelling at this time was almost phonetic in nature, although we have

dropped sounds since then. (The k and gh of knight were once pronounced!)

Modern English, 1550-Present (11) • Three developments in this period changed our language:

• (1) British colonialism, • (2) the revival of ancient leaning in the Renaissance and Enlightenment, • (3) the industrial and post-industrial revolutions (11).

Modern English, 1550-Present (11) The new “international” nature of English absorbed words from the cultures it affected. Words include:

• divan, khaki (Persia); cot, punch (the drink), ginger, thug, loot (India); kowtow, tea, catsup (China)

• yacht, yawl, schooner, deck, cruise, iceberg, freebooter, easel, etch, landscape (from the Netherlands)

• armada, escaped, embargo, cargo, palaver (Spain)• caucus, moccasin, jerky, chocolate, tomato, wampum, powwow, tomahawk, totem, raccoon,

skunk, coyote, hickory, peyote (Native American)

Mr. Current’s Commentary After this lesson, I better not hear anyone claim that Shakespeare spoke in Old English, for that would have been from 450-1066, nearly five hundred to one thousand years before his time. What I want you to remember is this: English should be studied in the context of its long, rich history. Latin has been a major player of English since it started. By understanding a few, basic rules, etymology encompasses both spelling and vocabulary.

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Language, after all, changes with time. Urban Dictionary demonstrates this every day as new words (mostly slang) are recorded, become the fashion, and quickly fall out of use. Over a time span of hundreds and thousands of years, language itself does the same and carries the basic rules with it. Note the following picture:

Ultimately, this aspect of the course will be as useful as you want. I challenge you to take it seriously, connect it with what you know, and have no fear when encountering “new” words. A knowledge of the past will help guide your knowledge in the future!

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Part I: Word Elements from Latin Lesson I: The Dictionary (16)

While this lesson is interesting, this is not one I foresee teaching in class. However, I may reference it, so be sure to read it on your own.

Lesson II: Definition and Latin Bases (26)Definitions (26-27) • When using a dictionary, the book suggests paraphrasing definitions to enhance your memory. • This includes four helpful rules or reminders

I. A definition should be equivalent to the term to be defined. II. A definition should give the essential characteristics of the term to be defined and not merely make a statement about the term. III. A definition should be simple and clear, and expressed if possible in terms more familiar than the one to be defined. IV. A definition should not be expressed in negative terms where affirmation can be used.

I: Equivalent definitions (26)• Definitions should not be too broad or too narrow (or abstract vs. concrete) • Example: Saw. “A tool” is too broad to be useful while “an instrument with teeth used for

cutting wood” is too narrow, considering some may cut metal. • If the word is a noun, the definition should be a noun. This also applies for verbs and other

parts of speech.

II. Essential Characteristics instead of Statements (26-27)• Example: For democracy, “a type of government which has the interests of its citizens at heart”

is not as useful as “government by the people.” • Statements are typically surface deep

III. Simple and Clear using Familiar Terms (27)• Definitions should be expressed in terms more familiar than what they are defining. • Do not use the term you are defining in the definition! • Think concrete simplicity instead of growing in abstract complexity

IV. Use Affirmative Terms instead of Negative Terms (27)• Refrain from explaining in terms of what something is not • Not helpful examples: Sofa: neither a bed nor a chair (a pencil, after all, is neither bed nor chair!) Protestant: a Christian who is not a Catholic

Latin Bases (27-28) • Many English words are formed through the combination of prefixes (before the base), bases

or stems, and suffixes (come after the base).

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• Understanding these deep word components and their patterns explains much of our language • Many English words can come from a single base: con-FIRM-at-ion, in-FIRM-ity, in-FIRM-

ary, FIRM-ament, re-af-FIRM-at-ation, af-FIRM-at-ive.

Recognizing prefixes, bases, and suffixes • English Words is consistent notating these three parts: Prefixes: ex- Base: SPIR- Suffix: -ate • The learning curve in the book is sharp: A strong foundation early in the book, heavy on

memorization, will make the latter parts easier.

The Silent “e” (28) • Sometimes bases appear without any other prefixes or suffixes, or with a silent e in English.

Latin Base Meaning English Derivative

FIRM- Firm, strong Firm

VERB- Word, verb Verb

FORT- Strong Fort

*GRAV- Heavy Grave

*FIN- End, limit Fine

Latin to Other to English (28-29) • There are also cases where words pass from Latin to other languages and into English. • Sometimes, Latin bases are extended by Latin routes without any affect on the word.

a-SPIRE-e ex-SPIR-at(e) re-SPIR-at-ion

a-SPIRE-at(e) ex-SPIR-at-ion per-SPIR-e

a-SPIRE-at-ion in-SPIR-e per-SPIR-at(e)

con-SPIRE-e in-SPIR-at(e) per-SPIR-at-ion

con-SPIRE-at(e) in-SPIR-at-ion trans-SPIR-e

con-SPIRE-at-ion re-SPIR-e trans-SPIR-at(e)

ex-SPIR-e re-SPIR-at(e) trans-SPIR-at-tion

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Latin Lesson II Latin Base Meanings English Derivatives

ALIEN- of another alien, alienation

ART- art, skill art, artifact

FIN- end, limit final, definite

FIRM- firm, strong firmament, confirm

FORT- strong fort, forte, comfort

GRAND- great grand, grandeur

GRAV-, [GREIV-] heavy grave, grievance

LINE-, [LIGN-] line line, align

NIHIL- nothing annihilate, nihilism

NUL(L)- nothing null, annul

PART- part part, depart

VERB- word, verb verb, adverb, verbatim, proverb

VEST- garment vest, vestment

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Lesson III: Assimilation of Prefixes (35)When studying prefixes (35) • Latin bases are often studied with prefixes (elements in front of the base which modify their

meanings)• Many prefixes were originally Latin prepositions or adverbs. • Some words will contain multiple prefixes, such as dis-af-fected, non-con-ductor, and re-pro-

duction. • Example: the base DUCT- (to lead) ab- (from) + DUCT- = abduct con- (with) +DUCT- = conduct de- (off) + DUCT- = deduct

Prefixes: Two Special Reminders (35-36) 1. When prefixes are used before certain consonants, they undergo phonetic or sound changes. Retroactive assimilation: determined by linguistic properties 2. Occasionally the base itself exhibits slight changes when prefixes are added. General rule: a to e, e to i Because these changes are difficult to categorize, they will be marked in parenthesis

1. Retroactive Assimilation (35) • Assimilation: when the second sound affects the sound before it• Retroactive assimilation: when the sound change moves backwards • Example: the usage of the prefix “in-” for “not” “Inglorious” works because it is easy to say “Inpossible” (rather than “impossible”) is harder to say, so the prefix is changed

1. Retroactive Assimilation (36) • A knowledge or awareness of these patterns will improve your spelling • Many spelling difficulties arise from double consonants • Assimilation examples: ag-gression, as-sist, col-lide, co-cur

Words formed through assimilation (36) • aggravate: ad- (to) + GRAV- (heavy) + -ate • assimilation: ad- (to) + SIMIL- (like) + -ation• collect: con- (together) + LECT- (to gather) • differ: dis- (apart) + FER- (to bring)

Words formed through assimilation (36) • effect: ex- (from) + FECT- (to make) • illegal: in- (not) + LEG- (law) + al • offer: ob- (toward) + FER- (to bring) • succumb: sub- (under) + CUMB- (to lie)

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2. Base Changes (36-37) • The general rule of base changes is a to e, and e to i. SACR- (holy): sacred, sacrament, but also conSECRate, deSECRate APT- (to fit): apt, aptitude, but also inEPT FAC-, FACT-* (to make) factory, manufacture, but also afFECT, deFECT, and efFICient SED- (to sit): sedentary, but also preSIDe

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Latin Lesson III Prefixes and BASES Meanings Examples

ab-, a-, abs- *This prefix never assimilates

away, from abduct, abnormal, avert, abstract

ad-, ac-, etc.** to, toward adopt, admire, access, aggression, attract, allocate, ascend

ambi- both, around ambidextrous

ante- Not like the Greek for “against”

before, in front of anteroom, antecedent

circum- around circumference, circumscribe

con-, com-, co- with, together, very connect, conduct, compose, compress, collect, correspond, co-operate

contra-, contro-, counter- against contradict, controversy, counteract

de- down, off, thoroughly descend, dejected

dis-, di-, dif- apart, in different directions, not

dispute, disable, divert, divorce, differ

CED-, CESS- to go, yield concede, precede, excess, procession

DUC-, DUCT- to lead induce, transducer, conduct, reduction

JUDIC- judgment judicial, adjudicate

JUR-, JUST- right, law; take an oath, form an opinion

jury, conjure, just, justify

LEV- light (in weight); to lift levity, elevate

LOQU-, LOCUT- to speak colloquial, eloquent, elocution, interlocutor

LUD-, LUS- to play, mock interlude, delude, illusion

PREC- to request, beg; prayer imprecate, precarious

TRUD-, TRUS- to push, thrust protrude, intrusion, unobtrusive

VEN-, VENT-, [VENU-] to come intervene, invention, avenue, venue**Occasionally this prefix appears simply as a-, usually before -sc-, -sp-, and -st-. When in doubt, assume the prefix a- is a form of ab-, “away.”

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Lesson IV: Abbreviations and Acronyms (40)Abbreviations and Acronyms (40-41) • The heavy use of acronyms is a recent historical development • Dictionaries only contain a fraction of the most useful and popular • There is a fine line between abbreviations and acronyms in speech Acronym: word formed through the initial letters of other words

Acronyms in Speech (41) • Acronyms assume the grammar of standardized words because they can be used like words • This affects pluralization in organizations because only singular organizations exist Wrongful pluralizations: NATOs, MADs, SHAPEs, M*A*S*Hes • However, certain acronyms can be inflected as other parts of speech WASP (white Anglo-Saxon Protestant): WASPs, WASPish, WASPily, WASPishness

A Note on Prefixes (42) • The prefixes in lessons III, IV, and IV are “living” English prefixes, and are constantly formed

to create new words as necessary • Any prefix may be used to create hundreds of words. Examples: ex-, non-, super-, intra-• Distinction between prefixes and bases are often lost today

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Latin Lesson IV Prefixes and BASES Meanings Examples

*ex-, e-, ef-, etc. out, from, completely expel, exasperate, eloquent, evade, efficient

extra-, extro- outside, beyond extraordinary, extrovert

*in-, im-, etc., ig- before n not ineffective, imminent, immoral, impartial, illegal, irresponsible, ignoble, ignore

*in-, im-, etc., [en-], [em-] in, into, against inject, impose, impel, illuminate, irrigate, endure, embrace

infra- below, beneath infrared

inter- between, among interrupt, intercept

intra-, intro- within intramural, intravenous, introduce

*non- not nonresident

*ob- toward, against, face-to-face, completely

obstruct, obstacle, occur, offer, oppress

per- through, wrongly, completely

permeate, persecute, perfect, perjury

CRUC- cross crucify, crux

GREG- flock, herd congregate, segregate

HAB-, AB-, (HIB-) to have, hold as customary

habit, dishabille, able, inability, inhibit

PED- foot pedal, impediment, pedestrian

PUNG-, PUNCT- to prick; point puncture, punctual

SACR-, (SECR-) sacred sacrament, desecrate

SANCT- holy sanctify, sanctimonious

SENT-, SENS- to feel, think sentiment, consent, sensation

TURB- to disturb perturb, turbulence

VERT-, VERS- to turn revert, aversion

VI(A)- way, road via, previous

*Contains additional information in the book.

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Lesson V: Back Formations, Aphersis, and Aphesis (46) Typical Word Formation (46-47) • Words are typically formed through the continual addition of prefixes • Example: the Latin verb calare (the bases CAL- and CIL-, meaning “to call”) Conciliate: “to unite, to connect” (to “summon” + “together”); English, conciliate, conciliator Reconciliare: re- (“again”) to form reconcile With “ir-” (“not”) and a few suffixes, irreconcilability

Back Formation (47) • The repeated addition of prefixes and suffixes to bases is the most common way to form words • Back formation, or the reverse process, creates words through clipping suffixes While the word retains its meaning, it changes part of speech • Examples include: formate (from formation), respirate (from respiration), escalate (from

escalator), typewrite (from typewriter)

Apheresis (47) • Apheresis: the removal of a letter or syllable at the beginning of a word Examples: account to count, esquire to squire, most when it means almost Recent examples: before to ‘fore, because to ‘cause, mushrooms to shrooms, taxicab to cab, telephone to phone Nicknames: Alexander to Zander, Elizabeth to Beth, Alexandra to Sandra

Exercise IV (51) By changing the prefix, form the antonym of each of the following words. Example: exhale—inhale.

assent supersonic

preludedepreciateassociate

ante-bellumconvergepersuadediscordinflate

Exercise IV Answers

assent—dissentsupersonic—subsonic

prelude—postludedepreciate—appreciateassociate—dissociate

ante-bellum—post-bellumconverge—divergepersuade—dissuade

discord—concord (or accord)inflate—deflate

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Latin Lesson V Prefixes and BASES Meanings Examples

post- after, behind postpone, postscript

pre- before, in front of prevent, predict

pro- forward, in front of, for promote, produce

re-, red- (before vowels) back, again renew, recede, recall, redemption

retro- backward, behind retroactive

se-, sed- (before vowels) aside, away secede, segregate, sedition

sub-, sus-, suc-, etc. under, up from under, secretly

submerge, submarine, suspend, sustain, succumb, suffer, support

super-, [sur-] above, over superhuman, superfluous, surreal, surcease

trans-, tran-, tra- across, through transfer, transparent, transcend, transcribe, traverse, travesty

ultra- beyond, exceedingly ultraviolet, ultramodern

CLUD-, CLUS-, [CLOS-] to shut exclude, include, disclose

CUR(R)-, CURS-, [COURS-], [COR(S)-]

to run, go recur, current, excursion, concourse, succor

GRAD-, GRESS- to step, go gradual (literally, by steps), progress, aggression

PEND-, PENS- to hang, weigh, pay descendent, suspend, dispose, expense

PLE-, PLET-, PLEN- to fill; full implement, complete, deplete, plenary

SPEC-, (SPIC-), SPECT- to look specimen, conspicuous, inspect, respect

UND-, [OUND-] wave abundant, undulate, abound, redound

VID-, VIS-, [VIEW-] to see evident, provide, visual, provision, review

VOC-, VOK- voice; to call vocal, invoke, invocation, provoke, revoke

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Lesson VI: Combination of Bases (52)Blame the Romans (52) • English continues the Roman tradition of stringing bases together • Words were often connected in Latin with an “i” omnipotent: OMN- (all) + i + POT- (power) + -net multilateral: MULT- (many) + i + LATER- (side) + -al crucifer: CRUC- (cross) + i + FER- (to carry) floriculture: FLOR- (flower) + i + CULT- (to till) + -ure

Other Common Examples (52) • “i” was not the only vowel used to connect bases beneficial: BENE- (good) + FIC- (to make) + -ial aquifer: AQU- (water) + i + FER- (to carry) quadruped: QUARDR- (four) + u + PED- (foot) terraqueous: TERR- (land) + AQU- (water) + -eous sacrament: SACR- (sacred) + a + -ment sacrifice: SACR- (sacred) + i + FIC- (to make) sacrosanct: SACR- (sacred) + o + SANCT- (holy)

When there are no letters (52-53) • When consonants blend easily, no connecting vowels are necessary facsimile: FAC- (to make) + SIMIL- (similar) nomenclature: NOMEN- (name) + CLAT- (to call) + -ure• In English, /ks/ and /nk/ are common consonant clusters.

Roman Numerals (55) • To use Roman Numerals, learn the basic symbols (I = 1, V = 5, X = 10, L = 10, C = 100, D =

500, M = 1000) and the two rules: • Rule 1: When smaller numbers fallow larger numbers, they are added (VII = 12, XV = 15, LV

= 55) • Rule 2: When smaller numerals are sandwiched, they are subtracted (IX = 9, XIX = 19)

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Latin Lesson VI Prefixes and BASES Meanings Examples

SEMI- half, partly semiannual

UN- one uniform, unanimous

PRIM- first primary, primitive

DU- two duet, dual

BI-, BIN- (before vowels) two; twice bicycle, binoculars

TRI- three tricycle, triangle

QUADR(U)- four quadrangle, quadruple

QUART- fourth quarter

QUINT- fifth quintuplet, quintet

SEXT- six; sixth sextet

SEPT(EM)- seven septet, September*

OCT- eight octet

OCTAV- eighth octave

DECI(M)- tenth decimeter, decimal

CENT- hundred century, centennial

MILL- thousand millimeter, mill

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Lesson VII: Hybrids (57) Hybrids (57) Not all word base combinations come from the same language. battle-ax: battle (Latin) + ax (English) crestfallen: crest (Latin) + fallen (English) contraband: contra- (Latin) + band (Germanic) genocide: GEN- (Geek) + CID- (Latin for “kill”)

The Promiscuity of “Type” (57) The word “type” has been combined with many other languages. typecast: type + cast (Scandinavian) typeface: type + face (Latin) typewrite(r): type + write(r) (English)

Words into English (57-58) When words are borrowed into English, we naturally add English prefixes. In the following examples, all the prefixes are English. by-pass: by- + pass (Latin) off-ramp: off- ramp (French) foreclose: fore- + close (Latin) ungracious: un- + gracious (Latin)

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Latin Lesson VII Prefixes and BASES Meanings Examples

ANIM- mind, feeling, life animal, animated

ANN(U)-, (ENNI-) year annals, annual, perennial

BENE-, BON- well, good benefactor, benefit, benign, bonus

CANT-, (CENT-), [CHANT-] to sing canorous, incantation, incentive, enchant

CUR- cure, care sinecure, secure

EQU-, (IQU-) equal, even equal, equidistant, iniquity

FER- to bear, carry refer, transfer, conference

LAT- to bear, carry elate, relate, translation

MAGN- great magnitude, magnify

MAL(E)- bad maladjusted, malicious, malignant

MULT- many multitude, multiply

OPTIM- best optimum

PLIC-, PLEX-, [PLY-] to fold, tangle, interweave

complicate, implicate, implicit, complex, imply, multiply

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Lesson VIII: Suffixes (60) Suffix Introduction (60) • Suffixes are word elements attached to the end of a base. kindness: kind + -ness (quality of) careless: care + -less (without) boyish: boy +-ish (like)• English words of Latin origin have been formed by the addition of suffixes. final: FIN- (end) + -al (pertaining to) numerous: NUMER- (number) + -ous (full of) popular: POPUL- (people) + -ar (pertaining to)

Direct Suffix Translation (61) • Direct translations of suffixes are impossible. • The meanings “full of” and “pertaining to” are merely practical efforts at paraphrasing. • Example: The Latin numerosus became the English numerous. NUMBER- (number) and -osus

becoming -ous.

Suffixes and Bases (61) • Like prefixes, some suffixes can also change the meaning of a base, but the basic function of a

suffix is to form a different part of speech. • We will study three types of suffixes: adjective-forming, noun-forming, and verb-forming. Note: Adjective-forming suffixes can be used as nouns. Example: English good is an adjective, but in “The good die young,” it is used to mean “good people”

Multiple Suffixes (61) • More than one suffix can be used to create a word classical: CLASS- (class) + -ic (belonging to) + -al (pertaining to) equality: EQU- (equal) + -al (pertaining to) + -ity (state of) populace: POPUL- (people) + -ar (pertaining to) + -ity

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Latin Lesson VIII BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples

-al (-ail, -eal) pertaining to, like, belonging to

vocal, verbal, equal

-ane, -(e)an, -ian, [-ian] same veteran, mundane, mountain

-ar same popular, regular, familiar

-ose, (-iose) full of grandiose, comatose

-ous (-ious, -eous) full of, having the character of, like

famous, populous, various

AQU(A)- water aquatic, aqueduct

CORPOR-, CORP(US)- body incorporate, corpuscle, corpse

OMN- all omnipresent, omnivorous

REG-, (RIG-), RECT- right, straight, to rule regular, incorrigible, rectify

SIMIL-, SIMUL- like, similar simulate, simile

TEMPER-, TEMPOR- time, due season; to set bounds

temperate, temperature, temporary

TEN-, (TIN-), TENT-, [TAIN-] to hold tenant, continue, content, contain

TEND-, TENT-, TENS- to stretch, strive tendon, tense, tent, distend, pretense

TENU- stretched, thin tenuous, attenuate

See the book for additional adjective-forming suffix explanations.

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Lesson IX: Word Analysis: Etymological Definition (65) Word Analysis: Introduction (65) • Now that we have analyzed bases, prefixes and suffixes, we should be able to break new words

into their component parts. • This technique will be useful for words of Latin and Greek origin. • Recognizing different word parts will make understanding new words easier.

Word Analysis: A Word of Caution (65) • Using roots alone is not infallible, or incapable of making mistakes • Two main areas of difficulty arise: 1.) When different (Latin) bases spelled the same way, 2.) When etymological meanings differ from contemporary meanings

Same Bases, Different Spellings (65-66) • An extreme case: Transparent, parent, and preparation contain three different bases, each

spelled alike but with different meanings. PAR-: “to appear,” “to give birth,” “to make ready” • Also, some words may contain familiar bases, but not be of Latin origin Artichoke is not ART-, but of Arabic origin

Etymological Meaning (66) • Etymological Meaning: the combined meaning of a words’ base, prefix, and suffix • Contemporary meanings (usages) do not always match the etymological meaning • This creates certain difficulties in analyzing new or unfamiliar words

Etymological Meaning: Examples (66) • “Precarious” literally means “pertaining to prayer” (PREC-, “prayer”), but means out of human

control • “Transgressor” literally means “one who steps across,” but means “sinner” • “Decimate” literally means “to destroy a tenth of,” but means to destroy a large part of a group

Remedying the Problem (66) • Be conscious that etymological definitions are not perfect • Word meanings change through time, just like words themselves • Always check a dictionary if you are not sure

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Latin Lesson IX BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples

-(u)lent, -(o)lent full of, disposed to fraudulent, violent

-ic, -tic pertaining to, like civic, classic, rustic

-ary pertaining to, connected with, having the character of

literary, military, temporary

-ile, -ill pertaining to, like, belonging to, having the character of

juvenile, hostile, civil

DOM(IN)- house, master dome, predominant

FLAG(R)-, FLAM(M)-

to burn; flame flagrant, conflagrant, inflammation

FLAT- to blow inflate, flatulent, conflation

*GEN-, GENER- race, kind, origin general, genus, generous

LATER- side equilateral, laterally

LUC-, LUMIN- to shine; light lucid, illuminate

PAR- to ready, bring forth, provide prepare, separate

SEN- old senate, senior

SERV- to serve, save servant, service, preserve, conservation

*Contains additional information in the book. See the book for additional adjective-forming suffix explanations.

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Lesson X: Dissimilation and Other Sound Changes (70) Assimilation vs. Dissimulation (70) • In Chapter III, we covered assimilation, or how sounds mirrored neighboring sounds• A reverse process, called dissimilation, occurred during Roman times • Dissimulation: a process “by which two identical sounds are made unlike, or two similar

sounds are made to diverge.” • Common sounds to be dissimilated: r-r or l-l

Examples of Dissimilation (70) • The Latin stem PEREGRIN- (per “through” + ager “the field”) dissimilated the “r” in French

for “pilgrim” (one who wanders) In English, this became peregrine, peregrine falcon, and peregrinate • The Latin turtur converted to turtle in English; the French marbre became the English marble,

and bramble from brimbrum.

More Examples (71) • The suffixes -al and -ar (Lesson VIII) are the same. Words include: popular, regular, familiar;

verbal (like regal, royal, natural, parental) • Dissimilated vowels: ii to ie. The Latin piitas (derived from pius, pii) turned to pietas, which

became the English piety and pious.

Other Sound Changes (71) • dt or tt before a vowel to ss or s: VID- + -tum = vidtum > visum — producing VIS-, VIS- MITT + -tum = muttum > missum — producing MITT-, MISS- VERT- + -tum = verttum > versum — producing VERT-, VERS- SENT- + -tum = senttum > sensum — producing SENT-, SENS- CLUD- + -tum = cludtum > clusum — producing CLUD-, CLUS- LUD- + -tum = ludtum > lusum — producing LUD-, LUS-

Other Sound Changes (71) • rrt went to rs: VERR- “to drag” + -tum = verrtum > versum — VERR-, VERS- CURR- + -tum = currtum > cursum — CURR-, CURS- • before s or t, b went to p and g went to c SCRIB- + -tum = scribtum > scriptum — SCRIB-, SCRIPT- REG- + -tum = regtum > rectum — REG-, RECT- FRANG- + -tum = frangtum > fractum — FRANG-, FRACT-

Reasons for Sound Changes (71-72) • These sound changes were not random or thought out, but natural functions of how we talk • Example: It is easier to pronounce two voiceless consonants together, like the -pt- in SCRIPT-

and the -ct- in RECT- than to pronounce voiced and unvoiced consonants (-bt- and -gt-).

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• It is easier to say /bodl/ for “bottle” than /botl/ because the voiced l makes us want to use the voiced d in front rather than the voiceless t.

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Latin Lesson X BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples

-ine pertaining to, like, of feminine, canine

-ate, -it(e) possessing, being accurate, adequate, favorite, explicit

-ant, -net, (-ient) equal to English “ing” urgent (or “pressing”), apparent (or “appearing”), vigilant (or “watching”)

CUMB-, CUB- to lie down succumb, incubator

FEDER- league, treaty confederate

FID- faith confident

FIDEL- faithful infidelity

HER-, HES- to stick adhere, adhesive

ORD(IN)- to put in order, arrange order, ordinary

POT-, POSS- to be able, have power potent, possible

SAL-, (SIL-), SALT-, SULT- to leap salient, resilient, saltatorial, insult

SED-, (SID-), SESS- to sit, settle sediment, insidious, session

TERR- land, earth terrestrial, territory

See the book for additional adjective-forming suffix explanations.

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Lesson XI: Semantic Change (75) Introduction (75) • The vocabulary of a language describes the things and activities which the speakers of the

language consider important. • The relationships between values and language is important. • While analysis of these relationships is for linguists, they are useful for non-linguists as well.

Similitude (76) • Similitude: words which due duty in several territories, or grown in their application Horse has become sawhorse and pummel horse The eye of a needle is based on the shape of a human eye, not necessary the “eye’s” function Head and foot are based on location of top and bottom

Similitude Subcategories (76-77) • Emotional: Bite from the literal, to “this bites” • Operational: Writing as scratching, to writing as writing letter-symbols • Symbolic: The words “bulldozer” or “wrecking ball”

Metaphorical (77-78) • When used metaphorically, words are used in new territory • This territory can change over time, giving rise to “dead” metaphors, or words whose meanings

are lost to time • Example: “Rehearse” meant to “re-hearse,” or “to harrow again.” Whereas it meant to repeat an operation for success, the word meaning has been forgotten, and the metaphor has died.

Modulation and Radiation (78-79) • Modulation: when the change of meaning occurs without the involvement of territories other

than the native of the word Example: Liquids and liquor. The former has always retained its broad, general meaning (generalization), while the latter has been narrowed to one type of liquid (specialization). • Radiation: when a very broad meaning fans out, or radiates into specific meanings which keep

the same basic meaning of the word Example: action, and prime and primary

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Latin Lesson XI BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples

-able, -bile able to be, able to, tending to portable, adaptable, flexible

-ile able to be, able to, tending to agile, volatile, reptile

-acious tending to, inclined to audacious, tenacious

CRED- to believe, trust credential, creditor, discredit

DOC-, DOCT- to teach document, doctor, indoctrinate

FA(B)-, FAT-, FESS-, FAM-

to speak, reveal affable, infant, preface, confess, fame, fabulous

FALL-, FALS-, [FAIL-], [FAULT-]

to deceive fallacy, false, failure, default

MOD- measure modicum, modest, modern, modify

MUT- to change mutant, mutation

TANG-, (TING-), TACT- to touch tangent, contingent, contact, intact

TRACT- to drag tractor, traction, detract

See the book for additional adjective-forming suffix explanations.

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Lesson XII: Specialization and Generalization of Meaning (82) Specialization (82) • Specialization: where the word meaning shifts from the general to the specific

• “Undertaker” meant “one who undertakes to do something,” but means “one who undertakes the special task of preparing bodies for burial”

• “Disease” went from “discomfort” to “illness” • “Deer” in Shakespeare’s time meant any animal, but now means one type

Generalization (83) • Generalization: When the opposite occurs and word meanings broaden • “Decimate” literally means the destruction of 1/10th of a military unit, but now refers to large

destruction • “Vaccine” comes from the Latin vacca (“cow”) because said vaccination came from cowpox

Clear as Mud (83) • Not all changes are easy; some are very complex in nature!

• Expedite (ex-, “from” + PED- “foot”) means “to free one caught by the foot” but refers to the removal of any sort of difficulty

• Divest (di-, “apart” + VEST- “garment”) does not purely mean taking off clothing • Excruciate (CRUC-, “cross”) no longer refers to crucifixion, but any pain

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Latin Lesson XII BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples

-itious tending to, characterized by fictitious, expeditious

-id tending to, inclined to frigid, rapid, humid

-ulous tending to, inclined to garrulous, tremulous

AC(U)-, ACR-, ACET- sharp, bitter acid, acute, acetic acid

CAD-, (CID-), CAS- to fall, befall cadence, accident, incident, casual, occasion

CAP-, (CIP-), CAPT-, (CEPT-), [CEIV-]

to take, seize incapacitate, recipient, capture, except, reception, receive

FAC-, (FIC-), FACT-, (FECT-)

to do, make faculty, efficient, manufacture, effective

FLOR- flower florist, floral, Florida (through Spanish)

FLU-, FLUX-, FLUV-, FLOUR(O)-

to flow; a flow fluid, flux, effluvia, fluoroscope

FOLI-, [FOIL-] leaf folio, defoliant, tinfoil

NOC-, NOX-, NIC-, NEC-

to harm, kill innocent, obnoxious, pernicious, internecine

NOV- new novel, novice, innovative

See the book for additional adjective-forming suffix explanations.

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Lesson XIII: Functional Change (86) Functional Change (86) • Functional change: the process when words change part of speech without the addition of

suffixes • Adjectives become nouns, nouns become verbs, and so on• This is very common, and frequently happens when Latin becomes English

Example (87) There are numerous examples, so here are a few: • Words used as nouns: reptile, agent, inhabitant • Colors used as nouns: red (communist), pink (communist sympathizer), whites (of a person’s

eyes), the blues, greens (golf course) • Nouns as verbs: “to book a criminal,” “to knife a person,” “to iron a shirt” • Literally thousands of words have undergone this process

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Latin Lesson XIII BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples

-ive tending to, inclined to active, attractive, effective

-uous tending to, inclined to continuous, conspicuous

-ory tending to, serving for introductory, compulsory, contradictory

CERN-, CRET-, CERT- to separate, distinguish discernment, secrete, excrete, ascertain

DUR- hard; to last duration, endurable

FUND-, FUS-, [FOUND-]

to pour, melt refund, fusion, confusion, foundry

NASC-, NAT- to be born nascent, native, prenatal, nature, natural

PEL(L)-, PULS- to drive, push propel, compelling, impulsive, repulsive

PON-, POSIT-, [POUND-], [POSE-]

to place; put component, deposit, position, compound, compose, oppose

TORT- to twist torture, distort

See the book for additional adjective-forming suffix explanations.

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Lesson XIV: Degeneration and Elevation in Meaning (90) Degeneration (90) Degeneration: semantics change where words change from a good or neutral meaning to a objectionable, low or unpleasant meaning • Villain: from “farm laborer” (from a villa or countryside) to the present meaning • Vulgar: from “pertaining to the common people” to the present meaning • Hussy: originally a contraction of “housewife” • Homely: “home-like” in Britain to “plain or ugly” in the United States

Elevation (91) Elevation: when words comes to mean something better than it originally did. Note: This happens less often than degeneration • Fame: from any report (good or bad) to good report • Lord: a contraction for “loaf” and “guard” or “bread keeper” • Constable: a “chief groom of the stable” to the highest military officer in France, and back

down • Chancellor: originally an usher in the court of law

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Latin Lesson XIV BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples

-ity, (-ety -ty) quality of, state of gravity, sanity, society, novelty

-(i)tude quality of, state of longitude, multitude, magnitude

-acy quality of or state of having accuracy, inadequacy, confederacy

AM- to love amorous, amatory

DE-, DIV- god deify, divine

[JOURN-] day journal

OR- to speak formally, plead oracle, oration, peroration

PROB-, [PROV-] good; to test probe, probity, approve

RAP-, RAPT-, (REPT-) to seize rapid, rape, rapture

STRING-, STRICT-, [STRAIN-]

to draw, tight stringent, strict, restrict, restrain

VER- TRUE veritable, aver, very

See the book for additional noun-forming suffix explanations.

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Lesson XV: Change from Abstract to Concrete and Visa-Versa (94) Latin Lesson XV

BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples

-(i)mony quality of, state of testimony, matrimony

-acity quality of being inclined to audacity, capacity, rapacity

-y quality of, state of, act of, result of

custody, perjury, controversy

-ate office of, holders of the office of senate, magistrate, electorate

CID-, CIS- to kill, cut insecticide, fratricide, incision, precise

MATR-, MATERN- mother matron, maternity

PART-, PATERN- father patrimony, paternity

PATRI- fatherland, country repatriate

SEQU-, SECUT- to follow sequence, consequence, prosecute, consecutive

SOL- alone solitude, desolation

VIV- to live vivid, revive

See the book for additional noun-forming suffix explanations.

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Lesson XVI: Weakening and Hyperbole (98) Latin Lesson XVI BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples

-ion act of, state of, result of completion, prevention, production

-ment result of, means of, act of, state of excitement, ligament, monument, regiment

-men result of, means of, act of, state of specimen

CRE-, CRESC-, CRET-

to grow crescent, excrescence, concrete

I-, IT- to go transient, ambient, initial, transition

JUG-, JUNCT-, [JOIN-], [JOINT-]

a yoke; to join jugular, junction, join, rejoined, conjointly

LEG-, (LIG-), LECT-

to choose, pick out, read legible, legend, eligible, elect, selective

MON- to warn, advise admonish, monument, monitor, premonition

SOLV-, SOLUT- to free, loosen solve, absolve, solution, absolute

See the book for additional noun-forming suffix explanations.

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Lesson XVII: Change of Meaning Due to Changing Concepts (101) This section is under construction.

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Latin Lesson XVII BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples

-(i)clue little molecule, muscle (but muscular), particle (but particular)

-el little novel, morsel, panel

-il little pupil, codicil

-ole, -ule little vacuole, aureole, capsule, globule, scruple (but scrupulous), circle (but circular)

FERV- to boil, bubble fervent, fervidity

FRANG-, (FRING-), FRACT-

to break frangible, fraction

GRAN- grain granary, granite, granola

MINOR-, MINUS-, MINUT-

small, smaller minority, minute, diminutive

PATI-, PASS- to endure, suffer patient, passive, passion

QUIR-, QUISIT-, QUEST-

to ask, seek inquire, inquisition, question, inquest

SEC-, SEG-, SECT- to cut secant, segment, bisect, section

See the book for additional diminutive suffix-forming explanations.

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Lesson XVIII: Euphemism, Taboo Deformation, and Circumlocution (106) Latin Lesson XVIII

BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples

-acne, -ancy; -ence, -ency

quality of ___ing, state of ___ing

vigilance, hesitancy, influence, fluency

-or state of, result of ardor, furor, error

-ary (-arium) place for library, granary, aquarium

-ory (-odium) place for dormitory, lavatory, auditorium

AG-, (IG-), ACT- to do, drive agent, agile, inactive, transact

CLAM-, [CLAIM-] to cry out exclamation, proclamation, declaim, proclaim

COG- to think, reflect, consider cogent, cogitation

DIC-, DICT- to say dictation, contradiction, edict

GER-, GEST- to carry, produce exaggerate, congestion, digest

MIT(T)-, MIS(S)- to send, let go admit, transmitter, missile, transmission

SCI- to know science, conscientious

SON- sound supersonic, resonance, sonata

VAL-, [VAIL-] to be strong, worthy value, equivalent, valid, avail, prevail

See the book for additional noun-forming suffix explanations.

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Lesson XIX: Folk Etymology (112) Latin Lesson XIX

BASES and Suffixes Meanings Examples

-ure act of, result of fracture, puncture, rupture

-(u)lence, -(o)lence state or quality of being full of violence, fraudulence

-or one who does, that which does actor, aggressor, tractor, motor

-aud(um), -(i)end(um)

that which must be ___-ed *agendum, memorandum

ERR- to wander error, erratic

JAC-, JECT- to throw ejaculate, inject, project, reject

NOMEN-, NOMIN- name, noun nomenclature, nominate, pronominal

SCRIB-, SCRIPT- to write describe, inscribe, scribble, conscription, subscription

ST(A)-, STIT-, SIST- to stand stance, circumstance, station, insist

VOLV-, VOLUT- to roll resolve, involve, evolution, revolution

See the book for additional noun-forming suffix explanations.

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