Lecturer: James Reeler

Material by: Sam Hopkins

BCB 341: Principles of Conservation Biology

Involves taking an animal or plant out of its habitat and placing it in human care

This term covers old methods such as zoos, as well as new methods such as seed banks and gene banks

Ex-situ conservation may not be the ideal method but often the only answer

INTRODUCTION TO EX-SITU INTRODUCTION TO EX-SITU CONSERVATIONCONSERVATION

1992- a meeting of world leaders took place at the UN conference on environment and development

The convention on biological diversity was signed by over 150 countries

In this convention a whole article was set aside for ex-situ conservation (article 9)

This was supposed to complement the in-situ strategies already discussed in the convention

THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY DIVERSITY 11

Adopt measures for the ex-situ conservation of components of biological diversity, preferably in the country of origin of such components

Establish and maintain facilities of ex-situ conservation and research on plants, animals and micro-organisms, preferably in the country of origin of genetic resources

Adopt measures for the recovery and rehabilitation of threatened species and for their re-introduction into the natural habitats under appropriate conditions

Regulate and manage collection of biological resources from natural habitats for ex-situ conservation purposes so as not to threaten ecosystems and in-situ populations of species, except where special temporary ex-situ measures are required

Co-operate in providing financial and other support for ex-situ conservation facilities in developing countries

ARTICLE NINE OF THE CONVENTION OF ARTICLE NINE OF THE CONVENTION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 11

Zoos, parks and botanical gardens Seed banks Gene banks

THE THREE SIDES TO EX-SITU THE THREE SIDES TO EX-SITU CONSERVATIONCONSERVATION

The emperor Wen- Wang constructed a 600 hectare ‘Garden of intelligence’ in the 12th Century BC 2

Animal collections are known from Saqqarah in Egypt in 4500bp

Alexander the great kept tigers and parrots in his court 2

The Romans took many animals out of the wild for their amphitheater antics 2

THE HISTORY OF ZOOSTHE HISTORY OF ZOOS

London zoo in Regents Park was opened on 27th of April 1828 2

THE HISTORY OF ZOOSTHE HISTORY OF ZOOS

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These zoos were pleasure gardens for the rich

THE HISTORY OF ZOOSTHE HISTORY OF ZOOS

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Little changed until the 1960s when the public started to become aware

There are now over 1000 organised zoo houses in the world with around 1 million animals housed 4

THE HISTORY OF ZOOSTHE HISTORY OF ZOOS

Started life as an animal collector for other zoos

He established Jersey zoo which opened in 1959 and introduced the idea that zoos should be used to conserve, he believed that zoos had a responsibility to save animals from extinction

He pioneered inter-zoo exchange swapping information and animals

“There are only two ways to find out about how an animal lives, and what its habits are: one is to study it in the wilds and the other is to keep it in captivity. As the greater proportion of zoologists cannot go to outlandish parts of the world to study their specimens in the field, the specimens must be brought them.” Gerald Durrell (1953) The Overloaded Ark.

GERALD DURRELLGERALD DURRELL

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The main aim of a zoo is to house whole animals for breeding and re-introduction

A secondary aim is to educate the public The world zoos conservation strategy

estimates that there are 1100 zoos in the world and they receive over 600 million visitors annually 4

THE AIMS OF ZOOSTHE AIMS OF ZOOS

A paper was written by a collaboration between the IUDZG, CBSC, IUCN and SSC

It was meant to set out the future for zoos The ultimate goal is that in the future zoo collections will be

co-coordinated globally But for now they look to base zoo collections on

conservation objectives Suggesting that ex-situ zoo populations should be

managed so as to support the survival of species in the wild

THE WORLD ZOO CONSERVATION THE WORLD ZOO CONSERVATION STRATEGYSTRATEGY; THE ; THE ROLE OF THE ZOOS AND AQUARIA OF THE WORLD IN ROLE OF THE ZOOS AND AQUARIA OF THE WORLD IN

GLOBAL CONSERVATION GLOBAL CONSERVATION 44

This paper suggests that genetic degeneration and domestication can be minimised by co-operatively managing zoo populations

Guidelines are set out to try to maintain as much genetic variability as possible and when this is carried out properly these populations can serve as genetic reservoirs for species survival in the wild

There are a few ways of maintaining genetic diversity. Many zoos keep stud books or use population management software and animal record databases e.g. ARKS or ISIS

A population of 250 to 500 individuals is required to maintain genetic variability for at least 100 years

Ex-situ conservation will not work for all species so subjects must be carefully chosen. Zoos must be able to maintain and breed the species and species must raise public awareness

THE WORLD ZOO CONSERVATION THE WORLD ZOO CONSERVATION STRATEGYSTRATEGY; THE ROLE OF ; THE ROLE OF THE ZOOS AND AQUARIA OF THE WORLD IN GLOBAL THE ZOOS AND AQUARIA OF THE WORLD IN GLOBAL

CONSERVATION CONSERVATION 44

On top of keeping endangered species alive and genetically diverse zoos also have an important role to play in research

This research is relevant to in-situ conservation Zoo knowledge on the biology of small populations will

become increasingly relevant to conservation of wild species when natural habitats are reduced and species ranges are fragmented

THE WORLD ZOO CONSERVATION THE WORLD ZOO CONSERVATION STRATEGYSTRATEGY; THE ; THE ROLE OF THE ZOOS AND AQUARIA OF THE WORLD IN ROLE OF THE ZOOS AND AQUARIA OF THE WORLD IN

GLOBAL CONSERVATION GLOBAL CONSERVATION 44

The first deliberate use of a zoo was to prevent extinction of the Arabian Oryx

These animals were hunted by the Bedouin as a test of manhood

When spears were swapped for machine guns the numbers declined

ZOO SUCCESSES – THE ARABIAN ORYXZOO SUCCESSES – THE ARABIAN ORYX

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The last wild animals were shot in 1972 15 individuals were in a zoo in Phoenix, Arizona The first six calves were male but in 1966 a

female was born By 1977 there were 60 individuals in the herd Now they are found in zoos around the world and

are being re-introduced in Oman

ZOO SUCCESSES – THE ARABIAN ORYXZOO SUCCESSES – THE ARABIAN ORYX

The Californian Condor fed on carrion of bison

When bison numbers declined (killed to starve the Native Americans) so did the condor numbers

In the mid 1980s there were 5 birds in the wild and 24 in zoos

In 1992 the zoo population had increased to over 60 individuals

Now the birds are being re-introduced Some of the introductions have been successful, others not

so. If the animals get into urban areas they tend to hit power lines and drink anti-freeze

ZOO SUCCESSES- THE CALIFORNIAN CONDOR ZOO SUCCESSES- THE CALIFORNIAN CONDOR 22

Peter Davids Deer Przewalskis wild horse Mauritius kestrel Hawaiian goose European bison

OTHER ZOO SUCCESSES OTHER ZOO SUCCESSES 22

As has been discussed before, it is important to keep genetic variation in these small zoo populations

In the cases of the Arabian Oryx and the Californian Condor the last remaining animals were taken from the wild to preserve genetic diversity

KEEPING GENETIC DIVERSITYKEEPING GENETIC DIVERSITY

An oddity is the Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus. This cat lacks retractable claws, fertility is low, infant mortality is high and keepers find it less intelligent than other big cats

Tests looked at variation of 52 enzymes and found none

DNA analysis suggests that 10,000 ybp the cheetah population was down to one female and one cub

KEEPING GENETIC DIVERSITY- THE KEEPING GENETIC DIVERSITY- THE CHEETAHCHEETAH

The Quagga inhabited the Karoo and the Free State and became extinct in 1883. It was hunted to extinction, not for meat but because it competed with livestock

Suggested that it is a sub-species of the plains Zebra

Looking at the most resent genetic work it diverged from the plains zebra 120,000- 290,000ybp 6

Quagga project established in 1987. Attempting to breed a Quagga through selecting plains

Zebras with Quagga traits Suggest that these animals could be called Quaggas as

they are determined though coat characteristics

THE QUAGGA THE QUAGGA 55

There are estimated to be around 1600 botanical gardens throughout the world and these receive over 150 million visitors a year 2

The Botanic Gardens Conservation Institute (BGCI) was set up in 1987 and its role is to collect and make available information on plant conservation 2

These botanical gardens are important as it is estimated that 60,000 plant species could be lost in the next 50 years 2

BOTANICAL GARDENSBOTANICAL GARDENS

Botanical gardens tend to look after plants in one of the five categories below 2

Rare and endangered Economically important Species that are needed for the restoration of

an ecosystem Keystone species Taxonomically isolated species

BOTANICAL GARDENSBOTANICAL GARDENS

Selecting these species is hard and a number of factors must be taken into consideration 2

Extinction risk Suitability of plant for ex-situ conservation Value of plant Ease of collection Funds available Chances of success

BOTANICAL GARDENSBOTANICAL GARDENS

In some ways plant re-introductions are easier than animal e.g. easy to monitor as plants don’t move

In others, it is harder because if the wrong site is selected then the plant cant get up and move

When re-introducing it must be decided on whether seeds, seedlings or adults are going to be replaced, each has their pros and cons

BOTANICAL GARDENS – PLANT RE-BOTANICAL GARDENS – PLANT RE-INTRODUCTIONS INTRODUCTIONS 22

Another type of botanical gardens are like plantations

They provide a safe place for plants that do not take well to seed banks

Problems include; The risk of disease like any mono-culture Take up space Less genetic diversity than normal seed banks Vulnerable to environmental disaster

BOTANICAL GARDENS BOTANICAL GARDENS 22

In the 1970s there were about 750 individuals of the Malheur wire lettuce (Stephanomeria malheurensis) in the wild

Thankfully, Dr L Gottlieb collected seeds from all portions of the population in the 1970s

After a fire in 1972 an exotic called cheat grass (Bromus tectorum) took over

By 1985 the wire lettuce was extinct in the wild

BOTANICAL GARDENS SUCCESSES – BOTANICAL GARDENS SUCCESSES – MALHEUR WIRE LETTUCE MALHEUR WIRE LETTUCE 77

The collected stock was maintained Re-introductions took place In some plots where the lettuce was re-

introduced the cheat grass was removed In the first year 40,000 seeds were produced Plots with cheat grass remaining yielded smaller

and less quick to flower plants Now numbers fluctuate due to cheat grass,

mammals, rainfall etc

BOTANICAL GARDENS SUCCESSES – BOTANICAL GARDENS SUCCESSES – MALHEUR WIRE LETTUCE MALHEUR WIRE LETTUCE 77

In 1988 there were only 400 to 500 individuals of the Torrey pine (Pinus torreyana) in the wild

BOTANICAL GARDENS SUCCESSES – BOTANICAL GARDENS SUCCESSES – TORREY PINE TORREY PINE 77

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In 1989 there was an outbreak of Ips beetles (Ips paraconfusus)

By 1991, 840 trees had died due to the Ips beetle 30,000 seeds from 149 trees were collected Before the trees could be re-introduced the Ips

beetles had to be exterminated

BOTANICAL GARDENS SUCCESSES – BOTANICAL GARDENS SUCCESSES – TORREY PINE TORREY PINE 77

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Ips paraconfususIps paraconfusus

In the first 6 months of 1991, 280,000 Ips beetles were caught in funnel traps and the Ips were eliminated by 1992

In 1992 trees were returned Returning progeny to correct area genetically Seeds only had a 2% germination rate Container grown seedlings did well Now there are 6000 individuals in the wild

BOTANICAL GARDENS SUCCESSES BOTANICAL GARDENS SUCCESSES – TORREY PINE – TORREY PINE 77

The last wild individual died in 1960 There have been 13 unsuccessful re-

introductions between 1965 and 1994 Trees are kept in botanical gardens in New

Zealand, Australia, Chile and Europe but they are probably all from the same parent

BOTANICAL GARDENS FAILURES – BOTANICAL GARDENS FAILURES – SOPHORO TOROMIRO SOPHORO TOROMIRO 77

Seed banks allow the storage of genetic diversity of whole plant populations

Preserving the seeds for use later is a long process, it involves;

Cleaning X-ray analysis Drying, packaging and storage Germination monitoring

SEED BANKS SEED BANKS 88

Occasionally clean seed is collected in the field

More often seed is collected still in its fruit Seed must be taken from the fruit

undamaged This reduces bulk and disease risk Seeds are often liberated by hand

SEED BANKS – CLEANING SEED BANKS – CLEANING 88

A few seeds are taken and X-rayed This is done to see how many of the

sample are empty seeds and find any insect larvae hiding in the seeds

The X-rayed seeds are often thrown away afterwards as they may be genetically damaged

SEED BANKS – X-RAY ANALYSIS SEED BANKS – X-RAY ANALYSIS 88

Drying and freezing the seed increases the time that the seed will last

Seeds are dried in cool conditions (15-18°C) with the relative humidity at 11-15%

This takes about a month The seed is then put into an airtight

container and kept at -20 °C

SEED BANKS – DRYING, PACKAGING SEED BANKS – DRYING, PACKAGING AND STORAGE AND STORAGE 88

A few seeds are tested for viability once they have been frozen

If they do not germinate they are either dead or dormant, to distinguish between the two states the vital stain Tetrazolium is used

A few seeds are tested every ten years to check germination

SEED BANKS – GERMINATION SEED BANKS – GERMINATION MONITORING MONITORING 88

Global conservation program Linked to Kew gardens Aims of the project are;

Conserve 10% (24,000 spp) of the worlds seed baring flora by 2010

Conserve all the seed baring flora in the UK by 2000 Research into seed conservation Allow seeds to be used in research elsewhere Make seeds available for re-introduction Assist in plant conservation globally Public education

SEED BANKS – SEED BANKS –

THE MILLENNIUM SEED BANK PROJECT THE MILLENNIUM SEED BANK PROJECT 88

So far the project has managed to secure most of the UKs native flowering plants

Collaborations have been formed with 16 other countries

As well as conserving seeds these collaborations are helping to prioritise species to conserve, research into local plants and train local people

Each of these collaborations are different depending on the country e.g. Kenyan seed for life, USA seeds for success

SEED BANKS – SEED BANKS – THE MILLENNIUM SEED BANK PROJECT THE MILLENNIUM SEED BANK PROJECT 88

Collaboration with National Botanical Institute started 2000 Aim to conserve SAs flora by creating seed collections that

are well documented concentrating on threatened and endemic spp

exciting discoveries; Brachystegia spiciformis has been found in a

Miombo woodland in Soutpansberg, 20m tree that has been undetected until now

Rediscovery of Dioscorea elephantipes (Elephants foot yam) Rediscovery of the last remaining population of

Cylindrophyllum hallii 2 MSC projects investigating germplasm storage of the

medicinal plants of the family Amaryllidaceae

SEED BANKS – THE MILLENNIUM SEED BANK SEED BANKS – THE MILLENNIUM SEED BANK PROJECT IN SOUTH AFRICA PROJECT IN SOUTH AFRICA 88

Gene banks are somewhat like seed banks Eggs, sperm and embryos are

cryogenically frozen to protect the genetic variation of a species

The zoological society of San Diego has developed a frozen zoo

GENE BANKSGENE BANKS

It is housed by the Zoological Society of San Diego and is one of the worlds largest collections

The frozen zoo is meant to provide materials to aid species recovery and population viability they also bank cells from species that are close to extinction

Holds frozen skin cells, DNA, RNA , semen, embryos, oocytes, ova, blood and frozen tissue

They hold the genetic material from 500 Przewalskis horses, 150 western lowland gorillas, 80 black rhinos, 22 Queensland Koalas and 19 Bornean bearded pigs

These are all available for scientific study

GENE BANKS – THE FROZEN GENE BANKS – THE FROZEN ZOO ZOO 99

Most recently cells from a Hawaiian honeycreeper called a po’ouli

The species is now extinct in the wild Cell harvesting is not a way that the bird can be “brought

back to life” but more a way that research can be carried out on their DNA

"Even though the genetic program of the po'ouli may be preserved through cell cultures, the DNA will not tell us what it's song was or allow but a most primitive view of the living organism in its environment, yet, we save all that we can, trust that those in the future will be glad for our efforts, and hope that efforts for other species can be undertaken to forestall the necessity to save a few precious cells as the legacy of a unique species." Oliver Ryder Ph.D., geneticist for the San Diego Zoo's department of Conservation and Research for Endangered Species

GENE BANKS – THE FROZEN ZOO GENE BANKS – THE FROZEN ZOO 99

Captive and wild populations diverge genetically 2

Interbreeding 2

Hybridisation 2

In the case of gene banks, living populations are necessary to pass on non-genetic learned behaviours 9

Ex-situ tends to only save particular species whereas in situ saves whole ecosystems 10

Impossible to conserve whales! 11

THE PROBLEMS WITH EX-SITU THE PROBLEMS WITH EX-SITU CONSERVATIONCONSERVATION

With only 3% of land in nature reserves world wide often the only answer 10

“No large wild terrestrial animal will persist long into the future unless cared for in some way by man. There will be insufficient habitat for most large species and protected habitats will be in pieces too small or too unstable to sustain viable populations of the plants and animals they seek to protect. For these and other reasons conservation biologists will be forced to depend more and more on ex-situ care and biotechnology to help protect diversity at both species and genetic levels” William Conway, New York Zoological Society taken from In Ecology, Change brings stability (1986) Science 234:1071-1073

Botanical gardens can help in ethno biology strengthening collections that have traditional and cultural implications 2

Re-introductions have occurred for at least 120 animal species and 15 of these are definitely established in the wild and are now self sufficient populations 4

THE BENEFITS OF EX-SITU CONSERVATIONTHE BENEFITS OF EX-SITU CONSERVATION

1. Convention on biological diversity http://www.biodiv.org/convention 2. Worley, D., (1996) Ex situ conservation. Chapter in Conservation

biology ed Spellerberg, I. Pp 186-201 3. www.wta.org.za/info/history/zoos.htm 4. World Zoo conservation strategy. IUDZG/ CBSC/ IUCN/ SSC (1993).

Executive summary, the world zoological conservation strategy; the role of the zoo and aquaria of the world in global conservation

5. www.quaggaproject.org 6. Leonard et al. (2005). A repid loss of stripes: the evolutionary history

of the extinct Quagga. Biological Letters 1: 291-295 7. Conservation Biology for the coming decade (2ed) (1998). Eds

Fielder, P. L. and Kareiva, P. M. 8. http://www.kew.org/msbp 9. www.cres.sandiegozoo.org/projects/grfrozenzoo.html 10. Soule, M. E. (1991). Conservation tactics for a constant crisis.

Science 253:744- 750. 11. (1986)In Ecology, Change brings stability. Science 234: 1071- 1073.