examen literatura engleza
TRANSCRIPT
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1. The 17th
century Literature Historical Background.
The early seventeenth century extends from the accession of James I in 1603 to the
coronation of Charles II in 1660. But the events that occurred between these boundaries
make much more sense if they are seen in a larger pattern extending from 1588 to 1688.
Between these two dates massive political and social events took place that bridge the gap
between the Tudor tyranny by consent of the sixteenth century and the equally ill-
defined but equally functional constitutional monarchy of the eighteenth century.
A sense of deep disquiet, of traditions under challenge, is felt everywhere in the literary
culture of the early 17th century. Long before the term was applied to our own time, the
era of Donne and Robert Burton deserved to be called the Age of Anxiety. One may think
of the Metaphysical poets who followed Donne (such as Herbert, Crashaw, Vaugham,
and Cowley) as trying to reinforce the traditional lyric forms of love and devotion by
stretching them to comprehend new and extreme intellectual energies. In the other
direction, Jonson and his sons the so-called Cavalier poets (such as Herrick, Suckling,
Lovelace, Waller, and Denham) generally tried to compress and limit their poems, givingthem a high polish and a sense of easy domination at the expense of their intellectual
content. The common contrast of Cavalier with Metaphysical does describe two poetic
alternatives of the early century. Yet both style were wholly inadequate containers for thesort of gigantic energy that Milton was trying to express.
At the heart of the century of rapid change lies the Puritan Revolt of 1640-60. The
century together with the English Revolution was a time of intense ferment in all areas of
lifereligion, science, politics, domestic relations, culture. That ferment was reflected in
the literature of the era, which also registered a heightened focus on and analysis of the
self and the personal life. However, little of this seems in evidence in the elaboratefrontispiece to Michael Drayton's long "chorographical" poem on the landscape, regions,
and local history of Great Britain (1612), which appeared in the first years of the reign of
the Stuart king James I (1603-1625). The great seventeenth-century heroic poem, ParadiseLost, treats the Fall of Man and its tragic consequences.
The first issue: provides important religious, legal, and domestic advice texts through
which to explore cultural assumptions about gender roles and the patriarchal family.
Thesecond topic for this period, surrounds that radically revisionist epic with texts that
invite readers to examine how it engages with the interpretative traditions surrounding the
Genesis story, how it uses classical myth, how it challenges orthodox notions of Edenic
innocence, and how it is positioned within. The third topic provides an opportunity to
explore, through political and polemical treatises and striking images, some of the issues
and conflicts that led to civil war and the overthrow of monarchical government. These
include royal absolutism vs. parliamentary, monarchy vs. republicanism, Puritanism vs.
Anglicanism, toleration vs. religious uniformity.
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2. The 17th
century literature metaphysical Poetry.
Highly intellectualized poetry written chiefly in 17th-century England. Less
concerned with expressing feeling than with analyzing it, Metaphysical
poetry is marked by bold and ingenious conceits, complex and subtle
thought, frequent use of paradox, and a dramatic directness of language, the
rhythm of which derives from living speech. John Donne was the leading
Metaphysical poet; others include George Herbert, Henry Vaughan, Andrew
Marvell, and Abraham Cowley.
The name is given to a diverse group of 17th century English poets whose
work is notable for the use of intellectual and theological concepts in
surprising conceits, strange paradoxes, and far-fetched imagery.
Metaphysics refers to the philosophy of knowledge and existence.
Their style was characterized by wit and metaphysical conceitsfar-fetched
or unusual similes or metaphors, such as in Andrew Marvells comparison
of the soul with a drop of dew; in an expanded epigram format, with the use
of simple verse forms, octosyllabic couplets, quatrains or stanzas in which
length of line and rhyme scheme enforce the sense. The specific definition
of wit which Johnson applied to the school was: "...a kind ofdiscordia
concors; a combination of dissimilar images, or discovery of occult
resemblances in things apparently unlike." Their poetry diverged from the
style of their times, containing neither images of nature nor allusions to
classical mythology, as were common. Several metaphysical poets,
especially John Donne, were influenced by Neo-Platonism. One of the
primary Platonic concepts found in metaphysical poetry is the idea that the
perfection of beauty in the beloved acted as a remembrance of perfect beauty
in the eternal realm. Though secular topics such as scientific or geographical
discoveries interested them, there was also a religious or casuisticelement to
some of their work, by which they attempted to define their relationship
with God. The term was created by Samuel Johnson.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simileshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Marvellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Donnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_Neo-Platonismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_Neo-Platonismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Donnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Marvellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similes -
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3. Metaphysical poets. John Donne (1573-1631). His life and poetry.
John Donne was an English poet, satirist, lawyer and a cleric in the Church of
England. He is considered the pre-eminent representative of the metaphysical poets.
His works are noted for their strong, sensual style and include sonnets, love poetry,
religious poems, Latin translations, epigrams, elegies, songs, satires and sermons. His
poetry is noted for its vibrancy of language and inventiveness ofmetaphor. Donne's
style is characterised by abrupt openings and various paradoxes, ironies anddislocations. His early career was marked by poetry that bore immense knowledge of
British society and he met that knowledge with sharp criticism. Another important
theme in Donnes poetry is the idea of true religion, something that he spent much time
considering and theorising about. He wrote secular poems as well as erotic and love
poems. He is particularly famous for his mastery of metaphysical conceits. Donne lived
in poverty for several years, relying heavily on wealthy friends. He spent much of the
money he inherited during and after his education on womanising, literature, pastimes,
and travel. In 1601, Donne secretly married Anne More, with whom he had twelve
children. In 1615, he became an Anglican priest. In 1621, he was appointed the Deanof St Paul's Cathedral in London. He also served as a member of parliament in 1601
and in 1614. Donne was elected as Member of Parliament for the constituency of
Brackley in 1602, but this was not a paid position. many of his poems were written for
wealthy friends or patrons, especially Sir Robert Drury, who came to be Donne's chief
patron in 1610. Donne wrote the two Anniversaries, An Anatomy of the World (1611)
and Of the Progress of the Soul (1612) for Drury. In 1610 and 1611 he wrote two anti-
Catholic polemics: Pseudo-Martyr and Ignatius his Conclave. Although James was
pleased with Donne's work, he refused to reinstate him at court. Donne was awarded an
honorary doctorate in divinity from Cambridge in 1615 and became a Royal Chaplainin the same year, and was made a Reader of Divinity at Lincoln's Inn in 1616. In 1618
he became chaplain to Viscount Doncaster. In late November and early December
1623 he suffered a nearly fatal illness, thought to be either typhus or a combination of a
cold followed by a period of fever. During his convalescence he wrote a series of
meditations and prayers on health, pain, and sickness that were published as a book in
1624 under the title of Devotions upon Emergent Occasions. One of these meditations,
Meditation XVII, later became well known for its phrase "for whom the bell tolls" and
the statement that "no man is an island". In 1624 he became vicar of St Dunstan-in-the-
West, and 1625 a prolocutor to Charles I. He earned a reputation as an eloquentpreacher and 160 of his sermons have survived, including the famous Deaths Duelsermon delivered at the Palace of Whitehall before King Charles I in February 1631.
His work has received much criticism over the years, especially concerning his
metaphysical form. Donne is generally considered the most prominent member of the
Metaphysical poets.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysical_poetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elegyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sermonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sermonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elegyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysical_poetshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergy -
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4. Metaphysical poets. Ben Jonson. His life and poetry. Song To Celia.
Ben Jonson was born in 1572. He was educated at Westminster School and worked in his
stepfather's trade. He joined the army, serving in Flanders. He returned to England in 1592 and
married Anne Lewis. Jonson joined the theatrical company ofPhilip Henslowe in London as an
actor. In 1597 he was imprisoned for his involvement in a satire entitledThe Isle of Dogs.
Jonson's second known play,Every Man in His Humour, was performed in 1598 and bring fame
to Jonson. Jonson became a celebrity, and there was a brief fashion for 'humours' comedy, a kind
of topical comedy involving eccentric characters, each of whom represented a humour of
humanity. Every Man Out of His Humourand Cynthia's Revels were satirical comedies
displaying Jonson's classical learning and his interest in formal experiment. Jonson's classical
tragedy Sejanus, His Fall based on Roman history and offering an astute view of dictatorship,
again got Jonson into trouble with the authorities. Jonson was called before the Privy Council on
charges of 'popery and treason'. In 1605, Jonson began to write masques for the entertainment of
the court. The masques displayed his erudition, wit, and versatility and contained some of his
best lyric poetry.Masque of Blacknesse(1605) was the first in a series of collaborations
with Inigo Jones. This collaboration produced masques such asThe Masque of Owles,Masque of
Beauty (1608), andMasque of Queens (1609), which were performed in Inigo Jones' elaborate
and exotic settings. The collaboration with Jones was finally destroyed by intense personal
rivalry. The first comedies, Volpone is often regarded as his masterpiece. The following
plays,Epicoene: or, The Silent Woman, The Alchemist, andBartholomew Fair are all peopled
with dupes and those who deceive them. He was appointed as poet laureate and rewarded a
substantial pension in 1616. Jonson was appointed City Chronologer of London in 1628, the
same year in which he suffered a severe stroke. Jonson died in 1637 and was buried in
Westminster Abbey.
Song: to Celia is an epigram that praises love. Jonson starts of his poem completely ridiculing
love. This is seen noticed in the lines, Suns that set may rise again, for example because it
mocks the fact that their love will be so powerful that it will make the sun rise again once it has
already set. At this point, the poem begins to sound a lot like Andrew Marvels To His Coy
Mistress not only because it ridicules love. Toward the end of the poem when Jonson talks
about his love for Celia, the theme is immediately noticed. The theme, eternal love, can been
noticed in lines Tis no sin loves fruit to steal;/But the sweet theft to reveal:. With these lines
Jonson uses personification to talk about staling time, and how they should not focus on the fact
that time is passing and they are growing old and just focus on the love they have for each other.
He starts talking about how they should forget about the fact that they are growing older, and just
focus on loving each other. Once this is read, the reader can automatically recognize the change
in tone that has also occurred. The tone on the poem changed from ridiculing at the beginning to
praising towards to end. This proves that the poem had a round tone.
http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/westminsterschool.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/henslowe.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/isleofdogs.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/isleofdogs.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/isleofdogs.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/renlit/schellingmasque.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/editions/maskblack.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/editions/maskblack.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/editions/maskblack.htmhttp://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0826565.htmlhttp://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/jonson/owlmasq.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/jonson/owlmasq.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/jonson/owlmasq.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/jonson/owlmasq.htmhttp://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0826565.htmlhttp://www.luminarium.org/editions/maskblack.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/renlit/schellingmasque.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/isleofdogs.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/henslowe.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/westminsterschool.htm -
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5. Metaphysical poets. Andrew Marvell (1621-1678). His life and poetry.
Andrew Marvell was born in 1621. Marvell became lecturer in Holy
Trinity Church. He was educated at the Hull Grammar School, and in
1633 he matriculated as a Sizar ofTrinity College, Cambridge. Two
poems by Marvell, one in Greek, one in Latin, were printed in the Musa
Cantabrigiensis in 1637. In 1638 Marvell was admitted a Scholar of
Trinity College, and took his B.A. degree in the same year. He travelled
abroad in France, Holland, Switzerland, Spain, and Italy from 1642-46. In
1650, Marvell became the tutor of twelve-year-old Mary Fairfax (later
Duchess of Buckingham), daughter ofSir Thomas Fairfax. At the
Yorkshire seat of the Fairfax family Marvell seems to have written, over a
period of about three years, most of his non-satiric English poems. Thesojourn provided material for Marvell's most profound poem, "Upon
Appleton House," a poem crucial to his development both as man and as
poet. Here he examines the competing claims of public service and the
search for personal insight. To the same period probably belong Marvell's
"To his Coy Mistress" and "The Definition of Love." Marvell had
befriended John Milton by 1653, when Milton wrote a glowing
recommendation for Marvell for the post of Assistant Latin Secretary tothe Council of State, a post he eventually secured in 1657. Marvell, who
had been a supporter of the King, under the Commonwealth, became an
adherent of Cromwell. In September, 1657, Marvell was appointed
assistant to John Milton. During his last twenty years of life, Marvell was
engaged in political activities, taking part in embassies to Holland and
Russia and writing political pamphlets and satires.
Marvell'sMiscellaneous Poems were printed posthumously in 1681.Marvell died on 16 August, 1678 of tertian ague, and the malpractice of
the attending physician. He was buried in the church of St. Giles-in-the-
Fields.
http://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/fairfax.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/marvell/appleton.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/marvell/appleton.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/marvell/coy.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/marvell/definition.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/milton/http://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/milton/http://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/milton/http://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/milton/http://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/marvell/definition.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/marvell/coy.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/marvell/appleton.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/marvell/appleton.htmhttp://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/fairfax.htmhttp://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/ -
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6. Cavalier Poetry. Robert Herrick (1591-1674). To the Virgins to Make Much of Time.
Robert Herrick was born in Cheapsidein 1591, the seventh child of Nicholas Herrick, a
prosperous goldsmith. There is no record of Herrick attending school, although it is
possible he attended Westminster School. In 1607 he became apprenticed to his uncle Sir
William Herrick as a goldsmith. Herrick entered St. John's College, Cambridge in 1613,
graduated a Bachelor of Arts in 1617, and Master of Arts in 1620. He became the eldest ofthe "Sons of Ben", Cavalier poets who idolized Ben Jonson, mixing in literary circles in
London. He lived in Devon in the seclusion of country life, and wrote some of his best
work, never completely ceasing. In Herricks To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time,
it seems the speaker is a man who is simply trying to urge the virgins to be more
promiscuous. However, while the title of the poem and the use of the word coy allude to
the fact that sexual pleasure is key, the rosebuds are symbolic of pleasures of all types.
Herrick uses figurative language to appeal to the reader and of course, his audience, the
women he speaks of. When he writes this same flower that smiles today, tomorrow will
be dying, he is not speaking of an ordinary flower. He is referring to the virgins, who are
young and warm-blooded, now, but with time, will age and ultimately, die. The women
are being likened to blooming flowers that are full of beauty in one season of life and
then, wither away and are gone the next. With a beautiful metaphor, the sun is compared
to the glorious lamp of heaven and the sun is referred to as he. The Sun given human
characteristics and is personified as a race-runner who will soon finish his race. The sun
will set and the day will be over. Today, as Herrick uses it in the first stanza seems to
refer to ones life. With life being so short, the poem urges the reader, and specifically, the
virgins, as the targeted audience, to make the most of time, just as the title suggests. Herrick has an uplifting tone in this poem. There is internal rhyme through Herricks
poem, strengthening its structure and encouraging a light, lyrical nature, making it read
like a song. His tone is also persuasive, as the speaker is urging the virgins, or maidens, to
make the most of their lives. He urges the virgins to be not coy and to go marry ,
making sexual pleasure an important rosebud to gather, but in saying gather ye
rosebuds while ye may, he makes the pleasures plural and not singular. He urges the
women to enjoy life to its fullest and to experience as many pleasures as possible before
life runs away with itself. The last stanza warns that if the virgins are coy and wait toolong to marry, having lost their appealing youth and beauty, they may remain alone
forever. In doing so, they would neglect to gather a very desirable rosebud, or
pleasure that life stands to offer. This poem has been called a carpe-diem poem, which
means seize the day in Latin and Herricks counterparts also wrote English poetry of
this type in the sixteenth and seventeenth century. In 1648 Herrick published his major
collection, Hesperides, consisting of 1200 poems.
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7. Cavalier Poetry. Richard Lovelace.
Cavalier Poetry is an early seventeenth century movement centred mainly on Robert Herrick,
Thomas Carew, John Suckling, Richard Lovelace, and Henry Vaughn. Most of these poets were
admirers of Ben Jonson. Cavalier Poetry gets its name from the supporters of King Charles I in the
seventeenth century who was at that period called the Cavaliers; they were royalists during the Civil
Wars. Cavalier Poetry is different from metaphysical poetry since it does not use complicated
metaphors and unrealistic imagery, but prefers a rather straightforward expression. This poetry waserotic and its strength lied in its shortness. Simply, it did not confuse readers with deep meaning and
allegory but reflected every thought as they were supposed to be understood along with their motto
"Carpe Diem" meaning "seize the day". The most common characteristic of Cavalier Poetry is its use
of direct language which expresses a highly individualistic personality. In more detail, the Cavaliers,
accept the ideal of the Renaissance Gentleman who is at once a lover, a soldier, witty, a man of
affairs, a musician, and a poet, but abandon the notion of his being also a pattern of Christian
chivalry. They avoid the subject of religion, apart from making one or two graceful speeches. They
attempt no plumbing of the depths of the soul. They treat life cavalierly, indeed, and sometimes they
treat poetic convention cavalierly too. For them life is far too enjoyable for much of it to be spentreading verses in a study. The poems must be written in the intervals of living, and must reflect
things that are much livelier and enjoyable than mere philosophy or art. The Cavaliers made one
great contribution to the English Lyrical Tradition.
Richard Lovelace was born into an old and wealthy Kentish family in 1618 in Woolwich. He was
educated at Charterhouse School and at Gloucester Hall, Oxford. He was attractive, handsome, and
witty, the very model of a courtier. His comedy, The Scholar, was acted at Oxford in 1636. King
Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria admired his demeanor so much when they visited
Oxford.Lovelace took part in the King's military expeditions to Scotland in 1639-40. After the failure
of the campaign he withdrew to his estates in Kent where he remained until 1642. Presumably,
Lovelace made Sir John Suckling's acquaintance at this time. In 1642, Lovelace presented a Royalist
petition to Parliament favoring the restoration of the Anglican bishops who had been excluded from
the Long Parliament. He thus aligned himself with such royalist upstarts as Sir Edmund Dering.
Lovelace was imprisoned in Westminster Gatehouse from April 30 to June 21, 1642. While in prison,
Lovelace wrote "To Althea. From Prison" which includes the famous words: "Stone walls do not a
prison make, nor iron bars a cage." Following his release, Lovelace lived briefly in London, after
which he removed himself to the Low Countries and France until after King Charles' capture at
Oxford in 1646. Lovelace left the field when he was wounded at the battle of Dunkirk. He was
committed by Parliament to Peterhouse Prison, Aldersgate in October 1648, probably for hisconnection with some disturbances in Kent. Released from prison in April 1649, Lovelace published
Lucasta. The Lucasta of the poems was Lucy Sacherevell, whom Lovelace liked to call Lux casta.
Upon hearing that Lovelace had died of the wounds he received at Dunkirk, she married another.
Financially ruined by his support of the royalist cause, Lovelace lived on charity and died in poverty
in 1658. He was buried at St. Bride's, one of the churches that burnt down in the Great Fire of
London in 1666. Lucasta: Posthume Poems was published the year after Lovelace's death.
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8. Cavalier Poetry. Sir John Suckling (1609-1642). His life and poetry.
Sir John Suckling was born at Whitton in 1609. Suckling matriculated at Trinity
College, Cambridge in 1623 but left without taking a degree in 1626. Suckling
inherited extensive estates on his father's death in 1626, and was admitted to Gray's
Inn in 1627. Just eighteen years old, he pursued a military and ambassadorial career
in the Low Countries, and joined the English soldiers serving in the army ofGustavus Adolphus during the Thirty Years' War. Suckling was knighted in
September 1630. He returned to the English court in May, 1632, where he became
very popular through his wealth and charm. He was known as a gamester, and is
credited with having invented the game of cribbage. In 1637, Suckling wrote the
prose work Account of Religion by Reason. His play, Aglaura, was published in
1638 and performed twice for Charles I. The play had two different endings, one
tragic and one happy. It was not a critical success, but it introduced the wonderful
lyric poem "Why so pale and wan, fond lover?" In the same year, Suckling's
comedy The Goblins was published. It was much influenced by Shakespeare's The
Tempest and is generally thought to be Suckling's best. In 1639, Suckling recruited
and equipped cavalry to help King Charles I in his first Scottish war. He was
ridiculed in London for the troops' scarlet uniforms and plumed hats, but he was
well-favored by the King. In 1640, Suckling sat in Parliament for Bramber and took
part in an unsuccessful action against the Scots. In May, 1641, Suckling took an
active part in the royalist plot to rescue Strafford from the Tower. When Parliament
ordered him to account for his movements, Suckling fled through Dieppe to Paris.
He died in Paris in 1642, either from suicide by poison, or by the hand of a servant
who placed a razor in his boot. Most of Suckling's work first appeared
posthumously in Fragmenta Aurea of 1646. Suckling's treated poetry casually, as a
pastime, never committing himself to serious study of literature, and as a result, his
poetry suffers from irregularity. Suckling never attached himself to any school of
poetry in particular. Suckling wrote disparagingly of Jonson both in the Sessions of
the Poets and the unfinished drama, The Sad One. He was more inclined in thedirection of Donne's style, with its elaborate metaphors and explosive passion.
Suckling's poetry lacks the depth of feeling; he seems to have prided himself on its
absence. In poems like Ballad upon a Wedding and 'Love, Reason, Hate,'
Suckling approaches Herrick.
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9. John Milton (1608-1674). His life and work. Paradise Lost.
John Milton was an English poet, polemicist, a scholarly man of letters, and a civil servant for the
Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell. He wrote at a time of religious flux and political
upheaval, and is best known for his epic poem Paradise Lost. Milton's poetry and prose reflect deep
personal convictions, a passion for freedom and self-determination, and the urgent issues and political
turbulence of his day. Writing in English, Latin, and Italian, he achieved international renown within his
lifetime, and his celebrated Areopagitica is among history's most influential and impassioned defenses offree speech and freedom of the press. He also was named "Milton the Divorcer" after he published the
Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce.
Paradise Lost was published in 1667, in ten books. It is about Adam and Evehow they came to be
created and how they came to lose their place in the Garden of Eden, also called Paradise. It's the same
story you find in the first pages of Genesis, expanded by Milton into a very long, detailed, narrative
poem. It also includes the story of the origin of Satan. Originally, he was called Lucifer, an angel in
heaven who led his followers in a war against God, and was ultimately sent with them to hell. Thirst for
revenge led him to cause man's downfall by turning into a serpent and tempting Eve to eat the forbidden
fruit. The story opens in hell, where Satan and his followers are recovering from defeat in a war theywaged against God. They build a palace, called Pandemonium, where they hold council to determine
whether or not to return to battle. Instead they decide to explore a new world prophecied to be created,
where a safer course of revenge can be planned. Satan undertakes the mission alone. At the gate of hell,
he meets his offspring, Sin and Death, who unbar the gates for him. He journeys across chaos till he sees
the new universe floating near the larger globe which is heaven. God sees Satan flying towards this world
and foretells the fall of man. His Son, who sits at his right hand, offers to sacrifice himself for man's
salvation. Meanwhile, Satan enters the new universe. He flies to the sun, where he tricks an angel, Uriel,
into showing him the way to man's home. Satan gains entrance into the Garden of Eden, where he finds
Adam and Eve and becomes jealous of them. He overhears them speak of God's commandment that they
should not eat the forbidden fruit. Uriel warns Gabriel and his angels, who are guarding the gate ofParadise, of Satan's presence. Satan is apprehended by them and banished from Eden. God sends Raphael
to warn Adam and Eve about Satan. Raphael recounts to them how jealousy against the Son of God led a
once favored angel to wage war against God in heaven, and how the Son, Messiah, cast him and his
followers into hell. He relates how the world was created so mankind could one day replace the fallen
angels in heaven. Satan returns to earth, and enters a serpent. Finding Eve alone he induces her to eat the
fruit of the forbidden tree. Adam, resigned to join in her fate, eats also. Their innocence is lost and they
become aware of their nakedness. In shame and despair, they become hostile to each other. The Son of
God descends to earth to judge the sinners, mercifully delaying their sentence of death. Sin and Death,
sensing Satan's success, build a highway to earth, their new home. Upon his return to hell, instead of a
celebration of victory, Satan and his crew are turned into serpents as punishment. Adam reconciles with
Eve. God sends Michael to expel the pair from Paradise, but first to reveal to Adam future events
resulting from his sin. Adam is saddened by these visions, but ultimately revived by revelations of the
future coming of the Savior of mankind. In sadness, mitigated with hope, Adam and Eve are sent
away from the Garden of Paradise.
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10. The 17th
century Prose. John Bunyan (1628-1688). The Pilgrims Progresse.
John Bunyan was an English Christian writer and preacher, who is well known for his
bookThe Pilgrim's Progress. Though he became a non-conformist and member of an
Independent church, and although he has been described both as a Baptist and as a
Congregationalist, he himself preferred to be described simply as a Christian. He is
remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on August 30, and on
the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church on August 29. Some other Churches of the
Anglican Communion, such as the Anglican Church of Australia, honour him on the day of
his death (August 31) together with St Aidan of Lindisfarne.
The Pilgrim's Progress from This World to That Which Is to Come is
a Christian allegory which was published in February, 1678. It is regarded as one of the most
significant works of religious English literature, has been translated into more than 200
languages, and has never been out of print. The English text comprises 108,260 words and is
divided into two parts, each reading as a continuous narrative with no chapter divisions. The
first part was completed in 1677. The Second Part appeared in 1684. The Pilgrims
Progress" is a religious allegory. It tells, of the spiritual pilgrimage of Christian, who flies
from the City of Destruction, meets with the perils and temptations of the Slough of Despond,
Vanity Fair, Christian and Hopeful in the Dungeon and Doubting Castle, faces and
overcomes the demon Appollyon, and finally comes to the Delectable Mountains and the
Celestial City. Though an allegory, its characters impress the reader like real persons. The
places that Bunyan paints in words are English scenes, and the conversations which enliven
his narratives vividly repeat the language of his time. Bunyan describes, in the peoples
homely yet powerful language, the spiritual sufferances of the poor People at a time of greatchanges, and their aspiration for " the land that floweth with milk and honey, where "they
have no want of corn and wine." In reality, the Celestial City in "The Pilgrims Progress" is
the vision of an ideal happy society dreamed by a poor tinker in the 17th century, through a
veil of religious mist. Christian and Faithful come to Vanity Fair. As they refuse to buy
anything but Truth, they are beaten and put in a cage, and then taken out and led in chains up
and down the fair and at length brought before a court. Judge Hate-good summons three
witnesses: Envy, Superstition and Pick-thank (i.e. tale-bearer), who testify against him. The
case is given to the jury, composed of Mr. Badman, Mr. No-good, Mr. Malice, etc. Each
gives a verdict against Faithful, who is presently condemned. " Pilgrims Progress" had won
immediate success among the bakers, weavers, cobblers, tailors, tinkers, shepherds,
ploughmen, dairy--maids, seamstresses and servant-girls of his time, and has become one of
the most popular works in the English language. Bunyans prose is admirable. It is popular
speech ennobled by the solemn dignity and simplicity of the language of the English
Bible.
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11. Enlightenment. Historical Background.
The Enlightenment or The Age of Reason is the period in the history of western
thought and culture. This period was from the second half of 17 c/y and whole 18 c/y,
it was characterized by dramatic revolutions in science, philosophy, society and
politics. Enlightenment thought culminates historically in the political upheaval of the
French Revolution, in which the traditional hierarchical political and social orders were
violently destroyed and replaced by a political and social order informed by theEnlightenment ideals of freedom and equality for all, founded, ostensibly, upon
principles of human reason. The Enlightenment begins with the scientific revolution of
the 16th and 17th c/ies, that had provided a new model for how problems could be
solved through rational thought and experimentation, rather than on the authority of
religion or the ancients. The rise of the new science progressively undermines not only
the ancient geocentric conception of the cosmos. The dramatic success of the new
science in explaining the natural world, in accounting for a wide variety of phenomena
by appeal to a relatively small number of elegant mathematical formulae, promotes
philosophy from a handmaiden of theology, constrained by its purposes and methods,to an independent force with the power and authority to challenge the old and construct
the new, in the realms both of theory and practice, on the basis of its own principles.
The writers and philosophers started a public movement for enlightening the people.
In England, the contact between writer and democratic reader was established by
Addison and Steele, the famous English essayists who started and directed several
magazines such as The Tattler, The Guardian and The Englishman. Periodical
newspapers helped to spread information among the general public. The copies of
current newspapers were kept in the coffee-houses. These coffee-houses become
centers of political and literary discussion. Each rank and profession, shade of religiousand political opinion had its own coffee-house.
The features of the enlightenment are:1. the rise of the political pamphlet and essay, the leading genre of the enlightenment
became the novel.
2. the hero of the novel was a representative of the middle class
3.literature became very instructive, problems of good and evil were set forth.
The periods of the enlightenment:1. from the Glorious Revolution till 1730. Is characterized by classicism in poetry. The
greatest follower of the classic style was Alexander Pope. Here also appeared newprose literature: the essays of Steele and Addison and the first realistic novels written
by Defoe and Swift. Most of writers wrote political pamphlets.
2. from 1740-1760. It was the most mature period. The development of the realistic
social novel represented by Richardson, Fielding and Smollett.
3. the last decades of the 18 c/y is marked by the appearance of Sentimentalism. This
period also saw the rise of the realistic drama and the revival of poetry.
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12. Daniel Defoe (1661-1731). Robinson Crusoe.
Daniel Defoe (ca. 1660 24 April 1731), born Daniel Foe, was an English trader, writer,
journalist, pamphleteer and spy, who gained fame for his novelRobinson Crusoe. Defoe is notable
for being one of the earliest proponents of the novel, as he helped to popularize the form in Britain,
and, along with others such as Samuel Richardson, is among the founders of the English novel. A
prolific and versatile writer, he wrote more than 500 books, pamphlets and journals on various topics
(including politics, crime, religion, marriage, psychology and the supernatural). He was also a
pioneer ofeconomic journalism. Daniel Foe (his original name) was probably born in the parish
ofSt. Giles Cripplegate, London. Defoe later added the aristocratic-sounding "De" to his name and
on occasion claimed descent from the family of De Beau Faux. His parents
were Presbyterian dissenters; he was educated in a dissenting academy at Newington Green run
by Charles Morton and is believed to have attended the church there. During this period, England
was not tolerant of all forms of religious belief. Roman Catholics were feared and hated. Dissenters
refused to conform to the services of the Church of England; they were despised and oppressed.
Robinson Crusoe is a very long book, but the novel can, more or less, be broken down into three
major movements. Part I: Before the Island: Before landing on the island, Crusoe's father wants
him to be a good, middle-class guy. Crusoe, who wants nothing more than to travel around in a ship,
is definitely not into this idea. He struggles against the authority of both his father and God anddecides to thumb his nose at both by going adventuring on the sea instead. After sailing around for a
while, he makes a bit of money in trade, but then is captured and made into a slave off the coast of
Africa. Here he befriends a young man named Xury, with whom he escapes from captivity. Picked
up by a Portuguese sailing captain, Crusoe makes it to Brazil where he buys a sugar plantation. He
does fairly well financially, but soon becomes involved in a venture to procure slaves from Africa.
On the voyage there he gets shipwrecked and is left as the only survivor on a deserted island. Part
II: Life on the Island: This portion of the novel is dedicated to Crusoe's time alone on the island. He
builds three main structures: his initial shelter, his country home on the opposite side of the island,
and his guns and ammo fort in the woods. He spends his time planting corn, barley, and rice. He
learns to make bread. He builds furniture, weaves baskets, and makes pots. Crusoe also raises goatsand tends to his little animal family of cats, dogs, and a parrot. Most importantly, though, Crusoe
becomes stronger in his religious faith, eventually submitting to the authority of God. He devotes
himself to much religious reflection and prayer. Part III: Escape from the Island: In final section
of the book, Crusoe sees a footprint on the shore one day and learns that he's actually not alone on
the island. There are also (gasp!) cannibals. Crusoe struggles with the question of whether or not he
should take revenge on them. Eventually, he meets with Friday, a native man whom he is able to
rescue from the cannibals. Crusoe teaches Friday English and converts him to Christianity. The two
become like father and son (more or less). Friday and Crusoe also rescue a Spaniard and Friday's
father from a different group of cannibals. Eventually, an English longboat full of sailors lands on the
island. Crusoe learns that the men have mutinied against their captain. After Crusoe helps restore
order to the ship, the men and captain pledge allegiance to Crusoe and agree to take him home.Crusoe then returns to Europe with Friday, where he comes into a great deal of money from his sugar
plantations. Crusoe gets married and eventually revisits the island in his late years. The novel ends
with promise of more adventures for him in the sequel.
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13. Jonathan Swift (1667-1745). Gullivers Travels.
Jonathan Swift (30 November 166719 October 1745) was an Anglo-Irish satirist, essayist,
political pamphleteer (first for the Whigs, then for the Tories), poet and cleric who became
Dean of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin. He is remembered for works such as Gulliver's
Travels,A Modest Proposal,A Journal to Stella,Drapier's Letters,The Battle of the Books,
An Argument Against Abolishing Christianity, and A Tale of a Tub. Swift is probably the
foremost prose satirist in the English language, and is less well known for his poetry. Swiftoriginally published all of his works under pseudonyms such as Lemuel Gulliver, Isaac
Bickerstaff, MB Drapieror anonymously. He is also known for being a master of two styles
of satire: the Horatian and Juvenalian styles.
Gulliver's Travels, a large portion of which Swift wrote at Woodbrook House in County
Laois, was published in 1726. It is regarded as his masterpiece. Gulliver goes on four
separate voyages inGulliver's Travels. Each journey is preceded by a storm. All four voyages
bring new perspectives to Gulliver's life and new opportunities for satirizing the ways of
England.
The first voyage is to Lilliput, where Gulliver is huge and the Lilliputians are small. At first
the Lilliputians seem amiable, but the reader soon sees them for the ridiculous and petty
creatures they are. Gulliver is convicted of treason for "making water" in the capital - among
other "crimes." The second voyage is to Brobdingnag, a land of Giants where Gulliver seems
as small as the Lilliputians were to him. Gulliver is afraid, but his keepers are surprisingly
gentle. He is humiliated by the King when he is made to see the difference between how
England is and how it ought to be. Gulliver realizes how revolting he must have seemed to
the Lilliputians. Gulliver's third voyage is to Laputa. In a visit to the island of
Glubdugdribb, Gulliver is able to call up the dead and discovers the deceptions of history. In
Laputa, the people are over-thinkers and are ridiculous in other ways. Also, he meets theStuldbrugs, a race endowed with immortality. Gulliver discovers that they are miserable. His
fourth voyage is to the land of the Houyhnhnms, who are horses endowed with reason. Their
rational, clean, and simple society is contrasted with the filthiness and brutality of
the Yahoos, beasts in human shape. Gulliver reluctantly comes to recognize their human
vices. Gulliver stays with the Houyhnhnms for several years, becoming completely enamored
with them to the point that he never wants to leave. When he is told that the time has come
for him to leave the island, Gulliver faints from grief. Upon returning to England, Gulliver
feels disgusted about other humans, including his own family.
Gulliver's Travels is an anatomy of human nature, a sardonic looking-glass, often criticizedfor its apparent misanthropy. It asks its readers to refute it, to deny that it has adequately
characterized human nature and society. Each of the four booksrecounting four voyages to
mostly-fictional exotic landshas a different theme, but all are attempts to deflate human
pride. Critics hail the work as a satiric reflection on the shortcomings of Enlightenment
thought.
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14. The Development of the English Realistic Novel.
The foundations of early bourgeois realism were laid by Daniel Defoe and
Jonathan Swift, but their novels, though of a new type and with a new hero,
were based on imaginary voyages and adventures supposed to take place far
from England. Gradually the readers tastes changed. They wanted to find
more and more of their own life reflected in literature, their everyday life of abourgeois family with its joys and sorrows. These demands were satisfied
when the great novels of Samuel Richardson, Henry Fielding, Tobias Smollet
appeared one after another. The greatest merit of these novelists lies in their
deep sympathy for the common man, the man in the street, who had become
the central figure of the new bourgeois world. The common man is shown in
his actual surroundings, which makes him so convincing, believable, and true
to life.
The optimism felt in literature during the first half of the 18th century' gave
way to a certain depression as years went by. Towards the middle of the
century a new trend, that of Sentimentalism, appeared. The first representative
of the sentimental school in English literature was Samuel Richardson. His
novels "Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded" (1740), "Clarissa" (1748), and "The
History of Sir Charles Grandison" (1754) are works in which the inner world
of the characters is shown. Richardson glorifies middle-class virtues as
opposed to the immorality of the aristocracy. He makes his readers sympathize
with his heroes. These novels were very much admired in the 18th and 19thcenturies. They were well-known in Russia Much in the works of the novelists
of the time does not appeal to readers today; but the novels of these writers are
full of humour and truthful descriptions of men and things, and will always be
read.
Sentimentalists were influenced by the French writer Rousseau, they thought
that civilization was harmful to humanity. They believed that man should live
close to nature and be free from the corrupting influence of town life. In OliverGoldsmith's novel "The Vicar of Wakefield" (1766) and Laurence Sterne's
"Sentimental Journey", as well as in other novels of the time, the corruption of
town life is contrasted to the happy patriarchal life in the country. Oliver
Goldsmith was also a poet His famous poem "The Deserted Village" shows
England at the time of the expropriation of the peasants.
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15. Henry Fielding (1707-1754). His life and work. Tom Jones.
Henry Fielding, the greatest representative of bourgeois realism in the 18th century, was a
descendant of an ancient, aristocratic family. He studied at the old-established boys' school of
Eton. At the age of twenty he started writing for the stage, and his first play "Love in Several
Masques" was a great success with the public. The same year he entered the philological faculty
of the University at Leyden, but in less than two years he had to drop his studies because he was
unable to pay his fees. From 1728 till 1738, twenty-five plays were written by Fielding. In hisbest comedies: "A Judge Caught in His Own Trap"(173O), "Don Quixote in England" (1734),
and 'Pasquin" (1736). He mercilessly exposed the English court of law, the parliamentary
system, the corruption of state officials. As a result of the popular success of Fielding's comedies,
strict censorship was introduced, which put an end to Fielding's career as a dramatist. He was
obliged to think how to earn his living. He tried his pen as a novelist; besides, at the age of thirty
he became a student of a University law faculty. On graduating, he became a barrister and in
1748 accepted the post of magistrate. This work enlarged his experience, helped him to acquire a
better understanding of human nature and greatly increased his hatred of social injustice. Being
unable to do away with social evils, he exposed them in his books. In the period from 1742 to
1752 Fielding wrote his best novels: "Joseph Andrews" (1742) "The Life of Mr. Jonathan Wildthe Great" (1743), "The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (1749), "Amelia" (1752). All these
novels, excellent as they were, didn't make him rich: only his publishers prospered Fielding
continued to act as a judge till the year 1754, when he had to leave England for Portugal to
restore his health, which had begun to fail. But the warm climate of the country did not help him,
he died in Lisbon in October, 1754 and was buried there. Fielding possessed qualities rarely
found together: a rich imaginations great critical power, a keen knowledge of the human heart.
He used to say that the three essential qualities in a novelist are genius, learning and experience
of human nature. The qualities of candour and sincerity are especially apparent in Fielding's
works. His characters are living beings of flesh and blood, a combination of contradictions of
good and bad He appreciates such virtues as courage, frankness and generosity. The most
detestable vices for him are selfishness and hypocrisy He can forgive frivolity and light-
mindedness, but he has no pity for actions which arise from calculating or conventional motives.
All this found the expression in Fielding's masterpiece "Tom Jones". The novel consists of 18
books, each beginning with an introductory chapter where the author discourses with the reader,
m a free and easy manner, on certain-moral and psychological themes. The plot of the novel is
very complicated, its construction is carefully worked out every detail is significant. Depicting
England of the 18th century, Fielding touches upon all spheres of life. We are shown the courts
of law, the prison, the church, the homes of people of all classes, inns and highways, even the
theatre. Many people of different social ranks and professions are introduced. The charm of the
book lies in the depiction of Tom's character. He is human in the everyday sense of the word,
neither idealized nor ridiculed and at the same time full-blooded. His open, generous andpassionate nature leads him into a lone series of adventures. Tom acts on impulse, sometimes
well and sometimes ill, but never from interested motives. He is light- minded and naive, but
kind, honest and unselfish, always ready to help anyone who needs his assistance. Heaps of
misfortunes happen to him, he makes fault after fault, because he falls a victim of prejudice. His
intentions are noble and good, he is simple-hearted, and it is often coupled with bad luck, he is
accused of vices he is not guilty of.
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16. Samuel Richardson (1689-1796). Clarissa Harlowe.
Samuel Richardson was an 18th-century English writer and printer. He is best
known for his three epistolary novels: Pamela: Or, Virtue Rewarded (1740),Clarissa: Or the History of a Young Lady (1748) and The History of Sir Charles
Grandison (1753). Richardson was an established printer and publisher for most of
his life and printed almost 500 different works, with journals and magazines.Richardson lost his first wife along with their five sons, and eventually remarried.
Although with his second wife he had four daughters who lived to become adults,
they had no male heir to continue running the printing business. While his print
shop slowly ran down, at the age of 51 he wrote his first novel and immediately
became one of the most popular and admired writers of his time. He knew leadingfigures in 18th century England, including Samuel Johnson and Sarah Fielding. In
the London literary world, he was a rival of Henry Fielding, and the two responded
to each other's literary styles in their own novels. His name was on the Index
Librorum Prohibitorum, a list established by the pope containing the names ofbooks that Catholics were not allowed to read.
Clarissa, or, the History of a Young Lady is an epistolary novel by SamuelRichardson, published in 1748. It tells the tragic story of a heroine whose quest for
virtue is continually thwarted by her family, and is one of the longest novels in the
English language. Clarissa Harlowe tells the story of a virtuous, beautiful
eighteen-year-old woman who is brought to tragedy by the wickedness of her world.
Her family possesses great wealth but little status. The trouble starts when Richard
Lovelace comes to pay court to Clarissas sister, but is attracted by Clarissa instead.
The family forbids Clarissa from corresponding with Lovelace and commands herto marry a horrible rich man, Roger Solmes. Clarissa refuses and when she is able to
run away, she is in Lovelaces power. Roger is a manipulator who is in love with
her, but hates the idea of marriage. His intention is to force Clarissa to compromiseher strict morals, sully her reputation, and gain full control over her. Clarissas
virtue has a powerful effect on Lovelace and sometimes sways him away from his
bad intentions. . Finally suspecting Lovelaces vileness, Clarissa escapes, but
Lovelace finds her and he rapes her. The rape has failed to put Clarissa fully in hispower because she has never compromised her virtue, and she runs away again, this
time successfully. But once Clarissa has been raped, she stops eating and no longer
worries about worldly problems like reputation. Her health steadily worsens, and
she begins to prepare for death. She finally dies, expressing forgiveness for
everyone in her life and joyful anticipation of heaven.
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17. The Early Romanticism. Robert Burns (1759-1796). Tom OShanter.
The early Romantic period thus coincides with what is often called the "age of revolutions"--
including, of course, the American (1776) and the French (1789) revolutions--an age of upheavals in
political, economic, and social traditions, the age which witnessed the initial transformations of the
Industrial Revolution. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the starting
point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The imagination
was elevated to a position as the supreme faculty of the mind. This contrasted distinctly with thetraditional arguments for the supremacy of reason. The Romantics tended to define and to present the
imagination as our ultimate "shaping" or creative power, the approximate human equivalent of the
creative powers of nature or even deity. "Nature" meant a work of art, constructed by a divine
imagination, in emblematic language. Symbolism and myth were given great prominence in the
Romantic conception of art. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own
original work through this process of "creation from nothingness", is key to Romanticism, and to be
derivative was the worst sin. This idea is often called "romantic originality."
Robert Burns was a Scottish poet and lyricist. He is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland
and is celebrated worldwide. He is the best known of the poets who have written in the Scots
language, although much of his writing is also in English and a light Scots dialect, accessible to anaudience beyond Scotland. He also wrote in standard English, and in these his political or civil
commentary is often at its bluntest. He is regarded as a pioneer of the Romantic movement, and after
his death he became a great source of inspiration to the founders of both liberalismand socialism, and
a cultural icon in Scotland and among the Scottish Diaspora around the world. As well as making
original compositions, Burns also collected folk songs from across Scotland, often revising
or adapting them. His poem (and song) "Auld Lang Syne" is often sung at Hogmanay (the last day of
the year), and "Scots Wha Hae" served for a long time as an unofficial national anthemof the country.
Other poems and songs of Burns that remain well known across the world today include "A Red, Red
Rose"; "A Man's A Man for A' That"; "To a Louse"; "To a Mouse"; "The Battle of Sherramuir";
"Tam o' Shanter"; and "Ae Fond Kiss"
Tam o' Shanter is a wonderful, epic poem in which Burns paints a vivid picture of the drinking
classes in the old Scotch town of Ayr in the late 18th century. It is populated by several unforgettable
characters including of course Tam himself, his bosom pal, Souter (Cobbler) Johnnie and his own
long suffering wife Kate, "Gathering her brows like gathering storm, nursing her wrath to keep it
warm". We are also introduced to Kirkton Jean, the ghostly, "winsome wench", Cutty Sark and let's
not forget his gallant horse, Maggie. The tale includes humour, pathos, horror, social comment and in
my opinion some of the most beautiful lines that Burns ever penned. For example, "But pleasures are
like poppies spread, You sieze the flower, its bloom is shed; Or like the snow falls in the river, A
moment white--then melts for ever". It tells the story of Tam, a farmer who gets drunk with his
friends in a public house and then rides home on his horse Meg. On the way he sees the local haunted
church lit up with witches and warlocks dancing and the devil playing the bagpipes. He creeps in tothe churchyard to watch and on seeing a pretty witch in a short dress he shouts,`Weel done, cutty-
sark!'. Having drawn attention to himself the dancing stops abruptly and the witches chase him and
Meg to the River Doon. The witches cannot cross the water but they come so close to catching Tam
and Meg that they pull Meg's tail off just as she reaches the bridge over the Doon.
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18. The Lakists. William Wordsworth (1770-1850). A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal.
The Lake Poets (Lakists) are a group of English poets who all lived in the Lake
District ofEngland at the turn of the 19th century. As a group, they followed no
single "school" of thought or literary practice then known, their works were
uniformly disparaged by theEdinburgh Review. They are considered part of
the Romantic Movement. The three main figures of what has become known asthe Lakes School are William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Robert
Southey. They were associated with several other poets and writers,
including Dorothy Wordsworth, Charles Lloyd, Hartley Coleridge, John Wilson,
and Thomas De Quincey. The beauty of the Lake District has also inspired many
other poets over the years, beyond the core Lake Poets. These include James
Payn, Bryan Procter, Felicia Hemans, Walter Scott and Norman Nicholson.
William Wordsworth was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with
the 1798 joint publicationLyrical Ballads. Wordsworth's magnum opus is
generally considered to be The Prelude, a semiautobiographical poem of his
early years which he revised and expanded a number of times. It was
posthumously titled and published, prior to which it was generally known as the
poem "To Coleridge". Wordsworth was Britain's Poet Laureate from 1843 until
his death in 1850.
"A slumber did my spirit seal" is one of Wordsworth's "Lucy Poems," which
focus primarily on the death of a young woman named Lucy (though she remains
unnamed in this poem). Lucy, the fairy child of the green earth, is Wordsworthsonly true love. Untouched by the unfriendly factors of ageing, she grew up in an
Eden like environment, and does not feel the effects of her all round growth.
There is no place for worries in the poets mind for any change in her physical
and heartfelt appearance. His mind can easily rest at peace and each night he is
able to enjoy the sleep of his body and spirit into a deep slumber. His intense love
for her has conquered all his human fears. Her sudden death in the prime of her
youth, has heavily burdened his heart with immeasurable sorrow. It would be a
life-long lasting experience that would drag his heart in the long course of his
life, to his grave, in his last days. She would not move, speak, hear or see. When
her coffin was lowered into the grave and buried for ever, gradually her corpse
was united with the components of the earth six feet under. She became one with
the earth and the only movement she could make then was the united movement
with the earth in rotation on its own axis and the revolution round the sun, along
with the trees, flowers and plants that grow upon the earth.
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19. Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834). Lyrical Ballads.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (21 October 177225 July 1834) was an English poet, literarycritic and philosopher who, with his friend William Wordsworth, was a founder of
the Romantic Movement in England and a member of the Lake Poets. He is probably best
known for his poemsThe Rime of the Ancient MarinerandKubla Khan, as well as for his
major prose workBiographia Literaria. His critical work, especially on Shakespeare, was
highly influential, and he helped introduce German idealist philosophy to English-speaking culture. He coined many familiar words and phrases, including the
celebrated suspension of disbelief. He was a major influence on Emerson, and
American transcendentalism. Throughout his adult life, Coleridge suffered from crippling
bouts of anxiety and depression; it has been speculated by some that he suffered
frombipolar disorder, a condition as yet unidentified during his lifetime. Coleridge
suffered from poor health that may have stemmed from a bout of rheumatic fever and
other childhood illnesses. He was treated for these concerns with laudanum, which
fostered a lifelong opium addiction.
Lyrical Ballads, with a Few Other Poems is a collection of poems by WilliamWordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, first published in 1798 and generally
considered to have marked the beginning of the English Romantic movement in literature.
The immediate effect on critics was modest, but it became and remains a landmark,
changing the course of English literature and poetry. In the Advertisement to the 1798
edition of Lyrical Ballads, Wordsworth and Coleridge state that the poems in the
collection were intended as a deliberate experiment in style and subject matter.
Wordsworth elaborated on this idea in the Preface to the 1800 and 1802 editions whichoutline his main ideas of a new theory of poetry. Rejecting the classical notion that poetry
should be about elevated subjects and should be composed in a formal style, Wordsworth
instead championed more democratic themesthe lives of ordinary men and women,
farmers, paupers, and the rural poor. In the Preface Wordsworth also emphasizes his
commitment to writing in the ordinary language of people, not a highly crafted poetical
one. True to traditional ballad form, the poems depict realistic characters in realistic
situations, and so contain a strong narrative element. Wordsworth and Coleridge were also
interested in presenting the psychology of the various characters in the Lyrical Ballads.
The poems, in building sympathy for the disenfranchised characters they describe, also
implicitly criticize England's Poor Laws, which made it necessary for people to lose all
material possessions before they could receive any kind of financial assistance from the
community. Wordsworth also discussed the role of poetry itself, which he viewed as anaid in keeping the individual sensitive in spite of the effects of growing alienation in the
new industrial age. The poet, as Wordsworth points out, is not a distant observer or
moralist, but rather a man speaking to men, and the production of poetry is the result of
the spontaneousoverflow of powerful feelings, recollected in tranquility, not the sum
total of rhetorical art.
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20. The Later Romantics. George Gordon Byron (1788-1824). Good Night.
The poets of the next generation (SHELLEY, KEATS, AND BYRON) shared theirpredecessors passion for liberty (now set in a new perspective by the Napoleonic
Wars) and were in a position to learn from their experiments. Following in the wake
of the first writers in Britain who called themselves Romantic, thesecond wave
of British Romantic writing proved both a continuation of and a departure from theinfluential writings of predecessors such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor
Coleridge. Percy Shelley and Lord Byron, for example, variously pursued the
radical or revolutionary initiatives initially embraced but subsequently abandoned
by the early Romantics whereas John Keats used the Romantic preoccupation with a
poetry of self and mind as a sanction for a more sophisticated and refined poetic
idiom, whose influence continues to this day. In addition, then, to the major poetical
works of Shelley, Keats and Byron, we will read novels by Austen and MaryShelley (Frankenstein), which register what broadly speaking is a womans
perspective on many of these same developments. We will also read Thomas
DeQuincey's Confessions of an English Opium Eater and other prose works by both
Charles Lamb and William Hazlitt, which give another perspective, alternately
critical, theoretical and at times satiric, on the Romantic movement overall.
George Gordon Byron commonly known simply as Lord Byron, was an English
poet and a leading figure in the Romantic movement. Among Byron's best-known
works are the lengthy narrative poems Don Juan and Childe Harold's
Pilgrimage and the short lyric "She Walks in Beauty." He is regarded as one of the
greatest British poets and remains widely read and influential. He travelled to fight
against the Ottoman Empire in the Greek War of Independence, for which Greeksrevere him as a national hero. He died at 36 years of age from a fever contracted
while in Missolonghi in Greece. Byron was celebrated in life for aristocratic
excesses including huge debts, numerous love affairs, rumours of a scandalous
incestuous liaison with his half-sister, and self-imposed exile. It has been speculated
that he suffered from bipolar I disorder.
Good Night/ "A Farewell to Land": In portraying the expanse between
shrinking shore and distant horizons, Charles Ives' setting of Lord Byron's "A
Farewell to Land" (1909) leads the singer from one end of her vocal range to the
other. As the poem's speaker follows the path of the sun as it sinks into the ocean, so
too does the singer's voice slowly slip underneath the surface of the sea. As the line
of the horizon disappears, leaving the ship encircled by the uninterrupted border of
sky and water, the chordal roar of the breakers and the dissonant "shrieks of the wildsea mew" become the sparser, more static sounds of the sea .
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21. Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822). His life and work.
Percy Bysshe Shelley was one of the major English Romantic poets and is critically regarded as
among the finest lyric poets in the English language. Considered too radical in his poetry and his
political and social views to achieve fame during his lifetime, recognition of his significance
grew steadily following his death. Percy Shelley was a key member of a close circle of visionary
poets and writers that included Lord Byron; Leigh Hunt; Thomas Love Peacock; and his second
wife, Mary Shelley, the author of Frankenstein. His first publication was a Gothic novel,
Zastrozzi (1810), in which he vented his early atheistic worldview through the villain Zastrozzi.
In the same year, Shelley, together with his sister Elizabeth, published Original Poetry by Victor
and Cazire. In 1811, Shelley published his second Gothic novel, St. Irvyne; or, The Rosicrucian,
and a pamphlet called The Necessity of Atheism. This latter gained the attention of the university
administration and he was called to appear before the College's fellows, including the Dean,
George Rowley. His refusal to repudiate the authorship of the pamphlet resulted in his being
expelled from Oxford on 25 March 1811, along with Hogg.
Shelley is perhaps best known for such classic poems as Ozymandias, Ode to the West Wind, Toa Skylark, Music, When Soft Voices Die, The Cloud and The Masque of Anarchy, which are
among the most popular and critically acclaimed poems in the English language. His major
works, however, are long visionary poems that include Queen Mab (later reworked as The
Daemon of the World), Alastor, The Revolt of Islam, Adonas, the unfinished work The Triumph
of Life; and the visionary verse dramas The Cenci (1819) and Prometheus Unbound (1820). The
latter is widely considered one of Shelley's most fully realised works.
Shelley's early profession of atheism (in the tract "The Necessity of Atheism") led to his
expulsion from Oxford and branded him as a radical agitator and thinker, setting an early patternof marginalisation and ostracism from the intellectual and political circles of his time. His close
circle of admirers, however, included the most progressive thinkers of the day, including his
future father-in-law, philosopher William Godwin. Though Shelley's poetry and prose output
remained steady throughout his life, most publishers and journals declined to publish his work
for fear of being arrested themselves for blasphemy or sedition. Shelley never lived to see the
extent of his success and influence, which would reach down to the present day not only in the
literary canon, but in major movements in social and political thought.
Shelley became an idol of the next three or four generations of poets, including important
Victorian and Pre-Raphaelite poets such as Robert Browning, and Dante Gabriel Rosetti. He was
admired by Oscar Wilde, Thomas Hardy, George Bernard Shaw, Bertrand Russell, W. B. Yeats,
Karl Marx, Upton Sinclair and Isadora Duncan.Henry David Thoreau's civil disobedience and
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi's passive resistance were apparently influenced and inspired by
Shelley's non-violence in protest and political action, although Gandhi does not include him in
his list of mentors.
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22. John Keats (1795-1821). Ode to a Nightingale.
John Keats, one of the greatest English poets and a major figure in the Romantic movement, he was
one of the main figures of the second generation of romantic poets along with Lord Byron and Percy
Bysshe Shelley, despite his work only having been in publication for four years before his death. He
was born in 1795 in Moorfields, London. Keats was well educated at a school in Enfield, where he
began a translation of Virgil's Aeneid. In 1810 he was apprenticed to an apothecary-surgeon. His first
attempts at writing poetry date from about 1814, and include an `Imitation' of the Elizabethan poetEdmund Spenser. In 1815 he left his apprenticeship and became a student at Guy's Hospital, London;
one year later, he abandoned the profession of medicine for poetry. Keats' first volume of poems was
published in 1817. It attracted some good reviews, but these were followed by the first of several
harsh attacks by the influential Blackwood's Magazine. Undeterred, he pressed on with his poem
`Endymion', which was published in the spring of the following year. Keats toured the north of
England and Scotland in the summer of 1818, returning home to nurse his brother Tom, who was ill
with tuberculosis. After Tom's death in December he moved into a friend's house in Hampstead, now
known as Keats House. There he met and fell deeply in love with a young neighbour, Fanny Brawne.
During the following year, despite ill health and financial problems, he wrote an astonishing amountof poetry, including `The Eve of St Agnes', 'La Belle Dame sans Merci', `Ode to a Nightingale' and
`To Autumn'. His second volume of poems appeared in July 1820; soon afterwards, by now very ill
with tuberculosis, he set off with a friend to Italy, where he died the following February. Keats and
his friend Joseph Severn arrived in Rome, after an arduous journey, in November 1820. They found
lodgings in a house near the Spanish Steps. Keats rallied a little at first, and was able to take gentle
walks and rides, but by early December he was confined to bed, extremely ill with a high fever.
Severn nursed him devotedly throughout the next few distressing and painful weeks. Keats died
peacefully, clasping his friend's hand, on 23 February 1821.
"Ode to a Nightingale" is a poem by John Keats written in May 1819. According to Brown, a
nightingale had buil