ExaminingtheVulnerabilityofanInuitFoodSystemtoClimateChangeintheContextof

ClimaticandNon-ClimaticStressors:ACaseStudyofUlukhaktok,NT

by

ColleenParker

AThesispresentedto

TheUniversityofGuelph

InpartialfulfillmentofrequirementsforthedegreeofMasterofScience

inGeography

Guelph,Ontario,Canada

©ColleenParker,June,2016

ABSTRACTEXAMININGTHEVULNERABILITYOFANINUITFOODSYSTEMTOCLIMATECHANGE

INTHECONTEXTOFMULTIPLECLIMATICANDNON-CLIMATICSTRESSORS:ACASESTUDYOFULUKHAKTOK,NT

ColleenParker Advisor:UniversityofGuelph,2016 Dr.TristanPearce Dr.BenBradshaw

The research presented herein examines the vulnerability of an Inuit food system to

climate change in the context of multiple climatic and non-climatic stressors through a case

study of Ulukhaktok, Northwest Territories (NT), Canada. More exactly, the community-

identified collaborative research project was completed with residents of Ulukhaktok to

understand how climate and socio-economic change is impacting key attributes of the

community’sdualfoodsystemincludingfoodavailability,access,qualityandstorage.Consistent

withthevulnerabilityapproachtostudyingimpactsofclimaticchange,attentionwasdirectedto

current climatic andnon-climatic exposure-sensitivities and adaptations. Datawere collected

from secondary sources, semi-structured interviews with a cross-section of community

members(n=39)andkeyinformants(n=3),andparticipantobservation.Thecollectedevidence

revealsthatmultiplestressors,bothclimaticandnon-climatic,impactfoodsecurity.Further,the

resultspointtotheneedforInuitfoodsovereigntyaswellastheneedtoreinforcebothformal

and informal adaptation mechanisms. In terms of its contributions to more universal

knowledge, the research establishes theneed for amore comprehensive framework to assess

food security, which includes attention to food storage.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ThisresearchwasmadepossiblethroughthefinancialsupportofArcticNetProject1.1

Community Adaptation, IK-ADAPT (Inuit Traditional Knowledge for Adaptation to the Health

Effects of Climate Change) supported by CIHR, the Canadian Federal Government’s Northern

Scientific Training Program, and the Arthur D. Latornell Travel Scholarship and the Dean’s

ScholarshipattheUniversityofGuelph.

IwouldliketothankDr.TristanPearceforhisintellectualguidance,moralsupportand

encouragementfromstarttofinishinthisprocess.IalsoappreciatetheroleplayedbyDr.Ben

Bradshaw, Dr. Barry Smit and Dr. James Ford in shaping this thesis. Marie Puddister was

instrumentalinthecreationofFigure4.2.

Quana to the community ofUlukhaktok for theirwarmwelcome and for sharing their

knowledge.Specifically,IwouldliketothankPhyliciaKagyutforactingasmyresearchpartner

(incrime)andforactingasmy lifecoachwithendlesswordsofwisdomandhumour. Iwould

alsoliketothankSusieMalgokakforherinterpretationbetweenInuinnaqtunandEnglish.Iam

grateful to Harold Wright, Adam and Melanie Kudlak, Mary Kudlak, Emily Kudlak, Joyce

BankslandandWinnieAkhiatakfortheirguidanceandfriendship.

Finally, I am grateful to my cohort and the Department of Geography for the

camaraderie,intellectualstimulation,andlaughs.Iwouldalsoliketoexpressmygratitudetomy

friends and family for their support throughout this process

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TABLEOFCONTENTSABSTRACT...........................................................................................................................................................................iiiACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................................................................iiiTABLEOFCONTENTS....................................................................................................................................................ivLISTOFTABLES..................................................................................................................................................................vLISTOFFIGURES..............................................................................................................................................................viLISTOFACRONYMS.......................................................................................................................................................viiCHAPTERONE:INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................11.1Researchrationale.................................................................................................................................................11.2Researchaimandobjectives.............................................................................................................................31.3Thesisorganization...............................................................................................................................................3

CHAPTERTWO:LITERATUREREVIEW................................................................................................................52.1ClimatechangeintheArctic..............................................................................................................................52.1Inuitfoodsystem...................................................................................................................................................92.2Inuitfoodsecurity.................................................................................................................................................92.3Thevulnerabilityapproach.............................................................................................................................122.3.1AssessingthevulnerabilityofanInuitfoodsystem....................................................................15

CHAPTERTHREE:APPROACHTOTHERESEARCH.....................................................................................173.1Casestudy...............................................................................................................................................................173.2Researchapproach..............................................................................................................................................203.3Datacollection.......................................................................................................................................................223.4Dataanalysis..........................................................................................................................................................26

CHAPTERFOUR:RESULTS.........................................................................................................................................284.1Communityfoodsystem...................................................................................................................................284.1.1Countryfood.................................................................................................................................................284.1.2Storefood.......................................................................................................................................................32

4.2Currentexposure-sensitivitiesaffectingfoodsecurity.......................................................................384.2.1Access...............................................................................................................................................................384.2.2Availability.....................................................................................................................................................414.2.3Quality..............................................................................................................................................................434.2.4Storage.............................................................................................................................................................44

4.3Currentadaptivestrategies.............................................................................................................................494.3.1Sharingnetworks........................................................................................................................................494.3.2Speciessubstitutionandopportunisticharvesting.....................................................................51

4.4Opportunitiesforandbarrierstoadaptation..........................................................................................524.4.1Opportunitiesforadaptation.................................................................................................................524.4.2Barriers...........................................................................................................................................................56

CHAPTERFIVE:DISCUSSION....................................................................................................................................61CHAPTERSIX:CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................................................................625.1Summaryofkeyfindings..................................................................................................................................635.2Scholarlycontributions.....................................................................................................................................655.3Practicalcontributions......................................................................................................................................65

WORKSCITED..................................................................................................................................................................67APPENDICES......................................................................................................................................................................74AppendixA:EthicsApproval(UniversityofGuelphResearchEthicsBoard)..................................74AppendixB:ResearchLicence(AuroraResearchInstitute)...................................................................75AppendixC:InterviewGuide..................................................................................................................................76AppendixD:ConsentForm.....................................................................................................................................77

AppendixE:AnticipatedManuscripts................................................................................................................78

v

LISTOFTABLES 3.1 Researchobjectivesandassociateddatacollectionmethods

3.2 Samplingofhouseholdsbytype(n=39/114)

4.1 ComparisonofstorefoodandequipmentpricesinUlukhaktok,NT(baseduponCondon

andOgina1996)

4.2. 2015cargoratesfromHayRivertoUlukhaktok,NT(NTCL2015)

4.3 FirstAirdomesticcargoratestoandfromUlukhaktok,NTin2015(FirstAir2015)

4.4 Averageamountoffreezerspaceincubicfeetperhouseholdtype

vi

LISTOFFIGURES2.1 FoodsecuritydeterminantsintheInuitfoodsystem(Ford2009)

2.2 Analyticalframeworkforvulnerabilityassessment(FordandSmit2004)

2.3 Avulnerability-basedmodelforassessingpotentialimplicationsofclimatechangefor

foodsecurityforInuitcommunities(Ford2009)

3.1 TheInuvialuitSettlementRegionintheNorthwestTerritories(Fastetal.2001)

3.2 ThelocationofUlukhaktok,InuvialuitSettlementRegion,NorthwestTerritories(Pearce

etal.2010)

3.3 TheframeworkforassessingthecurrentvulnerabilityofthefoodsysteminUlukhaktok,

NT(baseduponFordandSmit2004,SmitandWandel2006,Ford2009,2012)

4.1 SeasonaleconomiccycleofCopperInuit(Damas1972)

4.2 SeasonalcycleofharvestingactivitiesinandnearUlukhaktok,NT

4.3 AbandonedcommunityfreezerinUlukhaktok,NT

4.4 DerelicticehouseinUlukhaktok,NT

vii

LISTOFACRONYMSAANDC AboriginalAffairsandNorthernDevelopmentCanada

ARI AuroraResearchInstitute

CHAP CommunityHarvesterAssistanceProgram

HBC HudsonBayCompany

HTC HuntersandTrappersCommittee

IGC InuvialuitGameCouncil

IFA InuvialuitFinalAgreement

IHAP InuvialuitHarvestersAssistanceProgram

IHS InuvialuitHarvestSurvey

IRC InuvialuitRegionalCorporation

ISR InuvialuitSettlementRegion

ITK InuitTapiriitKanatami

NTCL NorthernTransportationCompanyLimited

NT NorthwestTerritories

OHTC OlokhaktomiutHuntersandTrappersCommittee

UCC UlukhaktokCommunityCorporation

1

CHAPTERONE:INTRODUCTION

1.1Researchrationale

Theoverwhelmingconsensusintheinternationalscientificcommunityisthattheglobal

climateischanging,withimplicationsforecosystemsandthehumancommunitieswhodepend

on them for their lives and livelihoods (Stocker et al. 2013, Hartmann et al. 2013). Rising

temperatureshavebeendocumentedaroundtheglobe,withthelasttwodecadesthehotteston

record (Screen and Simmonds 2010, Hartmann et al. 2013). Temperatures are projected to

continuerisingandthelagbetweenemissionsandwarmingmeansthatsomedegreeofglobal

warmingwillcontinuedespiteeffortstoreducegreenhousegasemissionsinthefuture(Stocker

etal.2013).WarmingisparticularlypronouncedintheArctic,wheretemperatureshaverisenat

over twice theglobalaverageandarepredicted tocontinue to increasemorerapidly thanthe

global mean (Pachauri et al. 2014, Comiso and Hall 2014). Diminishing snow and ice cover,

thawingpermafrost,hydrologicalchange,changestoabundanceanddistributionofarcticflora

andfauna,andincreasedUVradiationhavebeenrecordedintheArcticandarealreadyaffecting

Inuit livelihoods (Fordet al. 2012, Stockeret al. 2013,Vaughanet al. 2013,Najafi et al. 2015,

Ford,McDowellandPearce2016).The impactsofclimatechangeareparticularlyhard-hitting

forInuitduetotheircloserelationshipwiththeenvironmentandtheircontinueddependence

onfishandwildlifefortheirlivelihoods.Inparticular,theimplicationsoflocaleffectsofclimate

change on Inuit subsistence activities indicate negative impacts on food security (Ford 2009,

FurgalandProwse2009,WescheandChan2010,CanadianCouncilofAcademies2014).These

impacts are compounded by socio-economic factors such as limited and unreliable access to

cash income, high prices for nutritional store foods, and shifting food preferences away from

traditional foods in such a way that daily nutritional needs are not being met (Ford 2009,

BeaumierandFord2010,Pearceetal.2010,CanadianCouncilofAcademies2014).Inuithavea

longhistoryof copingwith andadapting to changing conditions (Balikci 1968,Krupnik1993,

Freeman1996,Collings2011,Pearceetal.2015).However,climaticandnon-climaticstressors

2

areoccurringinasettingwhereitmaynolongerbefeasibletousecertaintraditionaladaptation

options to respond. Such adaption options fall along a spectrum between short-term coping

mechanisms(e.g.movingtofollowpatternsofmigration)andlong-termculturalandecological

adaptivestrategies(e.g.flexibilityintermsofgroupsize)(BerkesandJolly2002).

Climate change is global in scale but its impacts are highly localized. Impacts and

adaptations are conditioned by a range of endogenous factors such as demographic trends,

livelihood characteristics, economic complexity and experience dealing with change; and

exogenousfactorssuchaseconomicandgeopoliticalcharacteristics(Duerden2004,Fusseland

Klein2006).Recognizingthesefactors,anumberofcasestudiesofInuitvulnerabilitytoclimate

change have been conducted in communities across the Canadian Arctic, including Sachs

Harbour (Berkes and Jolly 2002), Igloolik (Ford et al. 2006), Arctic Bay (Ford et al. 2006),

Ulukhaktok (Pearce et al. 2010), Kugluktuk (Prno et al. 2011), and Tuktoytaktuk (Andrachuk

andSmit2012).Thesestudiesservetoreveal localizedimpactsandadaptations,andallowfor

in-depth analysis of the interplay between humans and the environment. Subsequent studies

have specifically examined this interplay by studying climate change impacts on Inuit food

security (Ford 2009, Beaumier and Ford 2010, Ford and Beaumier 2011, Lardeau, Healy and

Ford2011, Stathamet al. 2014). These studies have advanced our knowledge of how climate

change is affecting food security by documenting key determinants of food insecurity (Figure

2.1, Ford 2009) and identifying marginalized populations including women and single men

(BeaumierandFord2010,Collingsetal.2015).

While this existing research has shown how climatic change is impacting Inuit food

security, less isknownabouthow Inuitare copingwithandadapting tomultiple climaticand

non-climatic stresses to the food system when these stressors are exerted in unison. The

researchpresentedhereinrespondstothisknowledgegapbyexaminingthevulnerabilityofan

Inuitfoodsystemtoclimatechangeinthecontextofmultipleclimaticandnon-climaticstressors

throughacasestudyofUlukhaktok,NorthwestTerritories,Canada.Inresponsetoacommunity-

identified need, the research seeks to understand how climate change interacts with socio-

3

economicconditionstoaffectthecountryfoodandstorefoodcomponentsofInuitfoodsystems,

andhowInuitarecopingwithandadaptingtothesemultiplestresses.

As used throughout this dissertation, food security refers to “people at all times

acquiring safe, nutritionally adequate, and culturally acceptable foods in a manner that

maintainshumandignity”(BeaumierandFord2010p.196).Foodinsecurityexistswhen“people

donothaveadequatephysical,socialoreconomicaccesstofood”(FAO2012).

1.2Researchaimandobjectives

The research aimed to examine the vulnerability of an Inuit food system to climate

change in the context ofmultiple climatic and non-climatic stressors through a case study of

Ulukhaktok, Northwest Territories, Canada. The term ‘examine’ refers to the consideration of

the availability, access, quality and storage of the components of the Inuit food system in

Ulukhaktokandthestressesthatimpactthesepillarsoffoodsecurity.Examinationtookplacein

lightofclimatechange,takingintoaccountbothenvironmentalandsocio-economicchange.The

researchalsosoughttoidentifyentrypointsforadaptionthatarebothrelevantandfeasiblefor

thecommunity.

Theaimwasachievedthroughfourobjectives:

1. characterizeelementsofthecommunityfoodsystem;

2. documentthewaysinwhichmultiplestresses(climaticandnon-climatic)affectfood

security;

3. documentcurrentadaptivestrategiesemployedtomanageorcopewithstressesto

foodsecurity;and

4. identifybarrierstoandopportunitiesforenhancingfoodsecurity.

1.3Thesisorganization

Thisthesisencompasses fivechapters.Chapter2,LiteratureReview,providesageneral

overviewofresearchonclimatechangeintheArctic,Inuit-specificresearchonfoodsystemsand

food security aswell as an overview of the approaches to assessing vulnerability. Chapter 3,

4

Methodology,describes thecasestudy location, thevulnerability-based framework thatguides

the research, and the quantitative and qualitative methods used in this research. Chapter 4,

Results, presents the findings organized around exposure-sensitivities, adaptive capacity,

opportunitiesandbarriersforadaptationandChapter5,Discussion,considerstheimplications

of the environmental and socioeconomic determinants for the dual food system for the food

securityresearchandpolicy.Chapter5alsoexplainshowmultiplestressors,bothclimaticand

non-climatic,playaroleinfoodsecurityandrecommendsthatadaptationoptionssupportInuit

food sovereignty and reinforce both formal and informal adaptation mechanisms. Chapter 6,

Conclusions, establishes the need for a more suitable framework to assess food security and

especially the need to include storage in considerations of food security. Finally, Chapter 6

identifiesscholarlyandpracticalcontributionsofthekeyfindingsfromtheresearch.

5

CHAPTERTWO:LITERATUREREVIEW

This chapter reviews four bodies of scholarship pertinent to the research. The first

sectiondescribesclimatechangeanditsimpactsonboththebiophysicalenvironmentandInuit

communities.ThenextsectiondescribestheInuitdualfoodsystem,composedofbothcountry

food and store food. The third section introduces the concept of food security and the three

pillarsoffoodsecurityintheInuitcontext.Thefourthandfinalsectionexaminestheconceptof

vulnerabilityandtheapproachesusedinitsassessment.

2.1ClimatechangeintheArctic

Climate change has a number of implications for the Arctic environment as well as the

people that inhabit it. Impacts on the biophysical environment include warmer surface air

temperatures, diminishing snow and ice cover, thawing permafrost, hydrological change,

changestoabundanceanddistributionofarcticspeciesandincreasedUVradiation(IPCC2013).

The implicationsofchangingclimaticconditions forcommunitiesextend to infrastructureand

transportation,economy,aswellasidentity,culture,healthandwell-being.

TemperaturesintheArctichavebeenwarmingattwicetheglobalaverageoverthelast30

years(1966-2003)byasmuchas2°Cto3°CperdecadeinsomepartsoftheArctic,aprojected

rate of warming that is set to continue in the Arctic and is attributable to human activities

(Stockeretal.2013,Vaughanetal.2013).Theserisingtemperatureshavebeenassociatedwith

reduced extent and volume of snow and ice features. Sea ice cover has been shrinkingmore

rapidly than initially forecast, with a swift transition toward a seasonally open Arctic Ocean

(Stroeveetal.2012).Thistrendisprojectedtocontinuethroughthe21stcentury,butchanges

willdependonthefeedbackprocessesatplay.Somemodelprojectionsshowalossof100%of

summerseaice,a10-20%degradationofpermafrostandapermafrostboundarymovementof

severalhundredkilometerstothenorthofitscurrentlocation(Schuuretal.2008).

6

Another likely result associatedwith impacts on ecosystems is changes in abundance and

distributionofarcticspecies.Somespeciesmaybelostaltogetherwhileothersmaybedisplaced

fromtheircurrenthabitat(CAFF2013).Thesegapsinecosystemstructureandmovementmay

lead to an increase in overall biodiversity due to new speciesmoving north to fill the voids.

Ultimately,climatestresswillhaveprofoundeffectsforecosystems.

The cooling of the stratosphere associated with climate change is likely to lead to more

frequent polar stratospheric cloud formation (Stocker et al. 2013). These events cause ozone

depletionovertheArctic,whichresultsinincreasedlevelsofUV-Bradiationreachingtheearth’s

surface(Stockeretal.2013).Between1979and2000therehasbeenadeclineof11%inmean

springatmosphericozonelevelsanda7%declineinannualatmosphericozonelevelsoverthe

Arctic(ACIA2005).

Increased warming inevitably has far-reaching implications for global climate change

because of feedback processes amplifying change. Increasing greenhouse gas concentrations

leadtolatersnowandiceformationinthefallandearliermeltinthespring.Calledthealbedo

effect, this process accelerates climate change when darker exposed surfaces absorb more

radiation, which increases the warming of the surface, causing further melt and increased

warming(Stockeretal.2013).Feedbackfromthepermafrostthawprocesswillamplifychange

duetothelikelihoodofassociatedgreenhousegasreleases.

Other global changes are projected to result from factors such as freshening of theArctic

Ocean. With increased arctic precipitation, runoff levels to the Arctic Ocean are augmented,

causingmarked changes in patterns of global thermohaline circulation (Vaughan et al. 2013).

Themeltofglaciersand icesheetswillnotonlyaddto the fresheningprocess,butalsocreate

additionalproblemsassociatedwithsealevelrise.

These impacts of climate change are particularly hard-hitting for Inuit due to their close

relationshipwiththeenvironmentandtheircontinueddependenceonfishandwildlifefortheir

livelihood. Scholarship on the human dimensions of climate change focuses on “how human

systems(suchascommunities,businesses, regions,andstates)areaffectedbyandrespondto

7

climate change” (Ford et al. 2012). Significant research has been undertaken on the human

dimensionsofclimatechange in theCanadianArctic(e.g.Pearceetal.2011,Fordetal.2012).

Researchseekstoexaminevulnerabilitythroughthelensofmultiplestresses.Casestudiesare

used to examine the differing vulnerabilities between andwithin communities “as a result of

differing geographies, population attitudes, past experiences with change, cultural history,

economicrelationships,adaptivecapacities,andlivelihoodactivities”(FordandPearce2012).

Changing snowand ice regimes, less-predictableweather, and changingwindpatterns

are an increasing threat to the integrity of built infrastructure and travel routes (Ford et al.

2009, Laidler et al. 2009, Prno et al. 2011). The integrity of municipal and transportation

infrastructure is threatened by coastal erosion, flooding, and warming (Pearce et al. 2011).

Infrastructure is also sensitive to the thaw of permafrost as it results in unstable ground

conditions,posingathreattoroads,airportrunwaysandbuildingfoundation.Thisisespecially

true in areaswhere constructionhas takenplaceon ice-rich floodplains (Pearce et al. 2011).

The integrityof semi-permanent travel routes isalsoaffectedbyclimatechange,bothon land

andbywater,asearliermeltof lakes, riversand icemake forunsafeconditions inspringand

thawingpermafrost impacts summer travel. Increases in extremeweather events andnatural

hazards will impact human health through increases in accidents and emergency situations

while using these travel routes, which can result in injuries and death (Ford 2012).

Unpredictableweatherwillalsoaffecttheabilitytocarryoutsearchandrescuemissionssafely

(Fordetal.2008).

Challenges associatedwith the impacts of climate change on the economy aremainly

associatedwiththesubsistenceeconomywhileotherimpactsgenerateopportunitieswithinthe

wage economy. The impacts of climate change on species distribution and abundance will

increase thenumberof threatenedandendangeredspecies,whichcan impactprocurementof

traditionalfoodsandtheassociatedincomeaswellasearningsfromsporthunting(McLoughlin

etal.2008,Dowsley2009,SchmidtandDowsley2010).Thebenefitswithinthewageeconomy

include theexpansionofshippingroutesaswellasgrowth in theminingand tourismsectors.

8

Increasedshippingaccessthroughreducedsea-icecovercanleadtothefurtherexpansionofthe

economy,despitechallengestothecontinueduseoficeroads(Nuttall2008;Pearceetal.2011,

Stephensonetal.2011,Fordetal.2011).Reducedseaiceextentleadingtoincreasedshipping

wouldinturnbenefitminingoperations,especiallythosesituatedincoastalareas.Itwouldalso

allow for increased cruise tourism opportunities, and therefore increase employment

opportunities (Stewart et al. 2007). These economic opportunities offer a way of combating

existingdeterminantsof vulnerability suchashigh ratesofunemployment, overcrowdingand

low-qualityhousingbyincreasingaccesstofinancialresourcesandreducingpoverty(Fordetal.

2010).Bythesametoken,theseeconomicopportunitiesthatemphasizeandpromotethewage

economy could also create a cultural shift that acts to undermine determinants of adaptive

capacity such as sharingnetworks, resourceuse flexibility and traditional knowledge systems

(Wenzel2009,Fordetal.2006).

Inuit culture, identity and spirituality, health andwell-being are also impacted by the

resultsof climatechange. Ithasbeendocumented that thereexist linksbetweenenvironment

and psychological health and well-being, with a positive correlation between environmental

degradationandhumandistressandanxiety(CunsoloWilloxetal.2011,Fordetal.2012).The

impactsofanalteredenvironmentdue to climatechangecanaffectaspectsof culture suchas

interpersonalandenvironmentalrelationships,stewardship,oralhistoryandlandskills(Furgal

andSeguin2006,Gearheardetal.2006,Fordetal.2010,CunsoloWilloxetal.2011).Decreasing

participation in land-based activities due to the hazards brought on by climate change can

furtherleadtotheweakeningofthetransmissionoflandskillsandtraditionalknowledgewhich

inturncould limit theprocurementof traditional foodsources(Chanetal.2006,Laidleretal.

2009). The close tie between Inuit and the landmeans that such a change in wildlife access

impacts Inuitwell-beingandcultural identitywhenthere isreducedaccess to traditional food

sources(BeaumierandFord2010).

9

2.1Inuitfoodsystem

A food system, as defined by Gregory et al. (2005), is “a set of dynamic interactions

between and within the bio-geophysical and human environments, which result in the

production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food” (p. 2141). Food

systemsencompass: foodavailability, includingproduction,distributionandexchange; access,

includingaffordability,allocationandpreference;andquality,includingnutritionalvalue,social

valueandfoodsafety(withsomedefinitionsalsoencompassingutilizationoruse)(Gregoryet

al.2005,Ford2009). ThecontemporaryInuitfoodsystemiscomprisedofcountryfoods(also

knownasnativeortraditionalfoods)andstorefoods(alsoknownasstore-boughtorindustrial

foods),witheachcomponentdrawnupondependingonthetimeofyear,andspecificattributes

ofacommunity,household,andindividual(Ford2009).

Countryfoodcomprisesfoodthat isharvestedfromthelandandsea, includingmarine

andterrestrialmammals,birds,fishandplants.CountryfoodplaysastrongroleinInuitidentity.

Anumberoffactorsaretiedtoratesofcountryfoodconsumptionsuchasage,gender,levelof

education, community size, and region in northern Canada (Canadian Council of Academies

2014).

Inlightofsocietalchanges,storefoodsarenowanimportantcomponentinthedietsof

many Inuit (CanadianCouncil ofAcademies2014).Thishas importanthealth implications for

Inuit, due to the comparatively low quality of some food choices when compared to country

foods,aswellasthehighpricesofproduceingrocerystores,whichleadstoconstrainedhealthy

choices. When they can afford it, Inuit have low incentive to choose the expensive healthy

optionsasproducethatarrivesbyairisoftennearorpassedexpiry(Ford2009).

2.2Inuitfoodsecurity

Foodsecurityexistswhen“peopleatall timescanacquiresafe,nutritionallyadequate,

andculturallyacceptablefoodsinamannerthatmaintainshumandignity”(BeaumierandFord

2010,p.196).TheFoodandAgriculturalOrganizationof theUnitedNations(FAO)Committee

10

onWorld Food Security broadened the definition of food security in 2012 to refer to a state

where“allpeopleatalltimeshavephysical,socialandeconomicaccesstofood,whichissafeand

consumed in sufficient quantity and quality to meet their dietary needs and food

preferences…allowing for a healthy and active life.” This definition highlights three pillars of

food security: availability, access andquality,whichprovide thebasis for anexaminationof a

foodsystem.InanInuitcontext,foodavailabilitydenotestheavailabilityofsufficientfoodfrom

thestorefoodandcountryfoodcomponentsofthefoodsystemtomeetdemand(Ford2009,p.

86).Foodaccessreferstothe“abilityofhouseholdsandindividualstoaccessadequateresources

to acquire store and traditional foods for a nutritious diet” (Ford 2009, p. 86). Food quality

involvesthe“abilitytoobtainsafefoodofsufficientnutritionalandculturalvalue”(Ford2009,p.

86).Conversely, food insecurityexistswhenthefoodsystemisstressedsothatoneormoreof

thepillarsoffoodsecuritydonotexist.

IntheCanadianArctic,changingclimaticconditionsarecreatinganumberofstressorsthat

affectfoodsecurityandwhicharecompoundedbysocioeconomicstresses(Fordetal.2012,see

Figure 2.1). The climate-generated impacts outlined in section 2.1 are compounded by socio-

economicstressessuchasalackofincome,thecostsofhuntingandpurchasingstorefood,the

diminishednumberofactivehuntersinmanyhouseholds,conflictsbetweenwageemployment

and hunting opportunities, decreased transmission of land skills and traditional knowledge

important for safe and successful hunting among younger generations, reduced strength of

sharingnetworks,shiftingfoodpreferences,andlimitedgovernmentsupport(Myersetal.2004,

Pratley2005,Chan2006,Chanetal.2006,Lambdenetal.2006,KuhnleinandReceveur2007,

Power 2008). Climatic and non-climatic stresses on the food system are exerted at different

spatialandtemporalscales(Gregoryetal.2005,BeaumierandFord2010).Theimpactsonfood

securityareamplifiedwhenthesestressorsareexertedinunison.Inlightofthesestressors,the

incidenceoffoodinsecurityvariesbycommunitybutisgenerallyhighandsignificantlyexceeds

theCanadianaverage(Myersetal.2004,LedrouandGervais2005,Chanetal.2006).

11

Figure2.1:FoodsecuritydeterminantsintheInuitfoodsystem(Ford2009).

ThereareanumberofstressorsonbothcomponentsoftheInuitfoodsystem.Inthecase

of the store food system, these include high cargo rates via barges and planes, the limited

amount of storage available inwarehouses and thedistances of travel by food from southern

markets which contribute to high food prices and decreased quality of products (Canadian

Council of Academies 2014). Limited income, knowledge of budgeting and lack of nutritional

knowledge constrains the ability to afford healthy store food choices (Canadian Council of

Academies2014).

Stressors are also placed on access, quality and availability of the country food

componentof thesystem.These includesuchstressorsasa lackof transmissionof traditional

knowledge,presenceofahunterinthehousehold,changingdietarypreferencestoincludemore

store foods, lack of access to the wage economy or financial resources in order to purchase

equipment, decreased incentive to participate in harvesting activities with lower financial

returns (e.g. seal harvesting and trapping), limited time due towage employment,more time

spent on organized sports and decreased youth participation rates for harvesting activities

(Condon et al. 1995 and Pearce et al. 2010, Collings et al. 2015). The waning interest in

subsistence harvesting among youth is not a recent development, and was described in

UlukhaktokbyCondonetal.(1995).

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2.3Thevulnerabilityapproach

Thevulnerabilityapproachexamines the“abilityofasystemorpopulation toadapt to

climatechange”(FusselandKlein2006).Thevulnerabilityapproachexaminesseveralaspectsof

thehumandimensionsofclimatechangebyexploringtheinterplayofexposure,sensitivity,and

adaptive capacity, the importance of restructuring following the a stressor, the importance of

adaptive capacity determinants over multiple scales, non-linearity, the spatial dimension of

vulnerability, and the forces leading tonew risks (Turner et al. 2003, Smit andWandel 2006,

Adgeret al. 2009).Assessment involves identifyingwhatpeopleareexposedand sensitive to,

thevariationinexposureandsensitivitywithincommunities,theexistingandpotentialadaptive

capacities within communities, and the overall community vulnerability (Figure 2.2). By

examiningthesevariables,itispossibletohighlightadaptivestrategiesthatlessenvulnerability

and to inform policy developments to reduce climate change-related risks (Smit and Skinner

2002;FusselandKlein2006).

Figure2.2.Analyticalframeworkforvulnerabilityassessment(FordandSmit2004)

Theconceptofvulnerabilityinformsthevulnerabilityapproach.Intheclimatechangefield,

13

the term vulnerability refers to “the state of susceptibility to harm from exposure to stresses

associatedwith environmental and social change and from the absence of capacity to adapt”

(Adger2006).Vulnerability isa functionofexposureandsensitivitytorisksrelatedtoclimate

and adaptive capacity to address, strategize for, or manage these risks (Ford 2012).

Vulnerabilityanditselementsaredynamicastheyvaryovertime,bytype,bystimulusandare

place-andsystem-specific(SmitandWandel2006).

The related concepts of exposure-sensitivity, adaptive capacity and adaptation are

interconnectedandusefulintheexaminationofglobalchange.Exposure-sensitivityreferstothe

‘susceptibilityofacommunityorothersystemofinteresttoclimaticrisks(Pearceetal.2011).

Exposure-sensitivity is a property of both the characteristics of climatic conditions and the

nature of the system being examined (Pearce et al. 2011). Adaptive capacity refers to the

potential of a community to adapt to climate change (including climate variability and

extremes), tomoderatepotentialdamages, totakeadvantageofopportunities,ortocopewith

the consequences (IPCC 2007). The determinants of adaptive capacity include hazard-specific

and generic factors, as well as endogenous and exogenous factors (Brooks 2003). Generic

determinantsaremadeupofnon-climaticfactorssuchasaccesstofinancial,technologicaland

information resources, skills, infrastructure, institutions, and equity (Smit andWandel 2006,

Ford et al. 2012, Smit and Pilifosova 2001, Yohe and Tol 2002). Endogenous factors include

characteristics and behaviours of a particular population or system while exogenous factors

includeeconomicandgeopoliticalcharacteristics(FusselandKlein2006).Theadaptivecapacity

to current climate change is an important indicator of future adaptive capacity and thus

vulnerability assessment can be used to provide lessons for adaptation planning. The

assessment of the current level of exposure-sensitivity, adaptive capacity and adaptation

strategies provides a basis throughwhich future policies can be compared and built upon to

decrease the vulnerability of Inuit households and communities to future climate change.The

term adaptation, on the other hand, is used to denote “adjustments in response to actual or

expected climatic stimuli and their effects or impacts” and “refers to changes in processes,

14

practices, and structures to moderate potential damages or to benefit from opportunities

associatedwith climate change” (Smit andPilifosova 2003). Smit andWandel (2006) refer to

adaptationinthecontextofhumandimensionsofclimatechangeasbeing“aprocess,actionor

outcome in a system (household, community, group, sector, region, country) in order for the

systemtobettercopewith,manageoradjusttosomechangingcondition,stress,hazard,riskor

opportunity”. Adaptation has been an increasing focus of policy prioritization in the face of

climatechange(Huqetal.2004).TheArctichasaparticularneedforadaptationstrategiesdue

totherateatwhichclimateandsocialchangeareaffectingthelocalenvironmentandnorthern

livelihoods(Pearceetal.2010).Typesofadaptationincludeanticipatory/proactiveorreactive,

autonomousorplannedandprivateorpublic(Adgeretal.2007).

Oneadvantageof thevulnerabilityapproach is that it responds to thehighly localized

nature of human activity (Duerden 2004). The physical changes expressed at the community

level must be translated into human impacts, which can be difficult given the challenges of

predicting how communities may respond to changes in the physical environment (Duerden

2004). The scale of analysis used in the vulnerability approach canbe changeddepending on

research needs, ranging from the adaptation to one climate stress at the individual and

householdleveluptotheadaptationofcommunitiesorglobalsystemstomultiplestresses(Smit

andWandel2006).

A second advantage of the vulnerability approach is the consideration of non-climatic

factors in addition to climatic ones. Non-climatic drivers including demographic, economic,

sociopolitical,technological,andbiophysicaldriversaffectrelevantnon-climaticfactorssuchas

the degree of economic diversification, education levels and the strength of social networks

(FusselandKlein2006).Thesethencanbeusedindeterminingasystem’sexposure-sensitivity

toclimatechange(FusselandKlein2006).

Conversely, a weakness of the vulnerability approach as it has been applied in the

Canadian North lies in the fact that most scholars have not recognized the importance of

colonialism in shaping research objects, subjects, findings, and research relations (Cameron

15

2012). Colonialism is only brieflymentioned insofar as it has led to the current conditions in

Inuit communities, which have been shaped by colonization as well as movements toward

decolonizationandself-determination(Cameron2012).

2.3.1AssessingthevulnerabilityofanInuitfoodsystem

Theresearchapproachwasmodeleduponthevulnerabilityapproachasadaptedforthe

examination of Inuit food system vulnerability (Figure 2.3, Ford 2009). The vulnerability

approachcanbeappliedtofoodsecurityresearchthroughtheassessmentofthevulnerabilityof

foodsystems.Whenexaminingfoodsecurityinlightofclimatechange,vulnerabilityreferstothe

“susceptibilityof the food system to food insecurityas a consequenceof variability, extremes,

andchange,andimpliesthepotentialfornegativehealthoutcomes(wherehealthisviewedas

encompassingphysical,mental and socialwell-being)” (Ford2009).Exposure-sensitivity refers

to the “conditions that represent risks—including those associated with climate change—

manifestingitselfintheformofconstrainedfoodaccess,availability,andqualityofstoreand/or

countryfoods”(Ford2009).AdaptivecapacityrepresentstheabilityoftheInuitfoodsystemto

adjusttoclimatechangetomoderatepotentialdamages,totakeadvantageofopportunities,or

tocopewiththeconsequences(wherehouseholdsandindividualsaretheonesadjusting)(Ford

2009).

The model in Figure 2.3 shows the interplay of climate and socio-economic change,

exposure-sensitivity andadaptive capacity thatdetermines the vulnerability of a food system.

This model was applied in a case study in Igloolik, NU and was used to guide and inform

researchinUlukhaktok,NT.

16

Figure2.3:Avulnerability-basedmodelforassessingpotentialimplicationsofclimatechangeforfoodsecurityforInuitcommunities(Ford2009).

17

CHAPTERTHREE:APPROACHTOTHERESEARCH

This chapter serves to provide an overview of the approach to the research. It is

organized in four parts: theCasestudy sectionprovides the geographical context for research

and describes the mixed economy as well as the Inuit dual food system in Ulukhaktok; the

Research approach section describes how the vulnerability approach was adapted to the

research presented herein; the Data collection section outlines the use of secondary source

analysis, participant observation, as well as semi-structured and key informant interviews to

achieve the research objectives; and the Data analysis section summaries the for thematic

contentanalysisofthedatacollected.

3.1Casestudy

The Inuvialuit Settlement Region (ISR) is an area of 906,430 km2, counting

approximately10,000residents,whichencompassesthecommunitiesofUlukhaktok(formerly

Holman, Victoria Island), Sachs Harbour (Banks Island), Paulatuk and Tuktoyaktuk (Beaufort

Sea),aswellasAklavikandInuvik(MackenzieRiverDelta)(Figure3.1).Thesecommunitiesare

signatories, alongwith the Government of Canada, of the Inuvialuit Final Agreement (IFA) of

1984.

18

Figure3.1:TheInuvialuitSettlementRegionintheNorthwestTerritories(Fastetal.2001).

ThesettlementofUlukhaktokislocatedonthewestcoastofVictoriaIsland(70.7364°N,

117.7681°W)(Figure3.2).Beforesettlement,CopperInuitlivedanomadiclifestyle,inhabiting

theareaofPrinceAlbertSound,Minto Inlet and the southcoastofBanks Island (Condonand

Ogina 1996). Settlement began in the community in 1939 for the purposes of trapping and

employmentfollowingtheestablishmentofaHudson’sBayCompany(HBC)tradingpostanda

Catholicmission.Inuitcontinuedtoliveanomadiclifestyleintothe1940sand1950s,withthe

last family moving off the land to the settlement in 1967 (Condon et al. 1995). Today,

approximately480communitymembersliveinthesettlementnearlyyearround(NWTBureau

of Statistics 2012). Facilities include a school from kindergarten to grade twelve, a satellite

campus of Aurora College, a health care centre, an arena, a community hall, a hotel and

restaurant,anartistprintshopandcarvingstudio

Ulukhaktok has a mixed economy, consisting of both subsistence activities and wage

earnings. Overall, Ulukhaktokmiut are quite active in harvesting activities in relation to other

19

communities in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region, with 80% of residents 15 years and older

participatinginhuntingand/orfishing(NWTBureauofStatistics2014).Forthosewhochoose

to takepart in thewage economyandhave completed a high school degree, the employment

ratewas68.0%comparedto28.1%forthosewithout(NWTBureauofStatistics2012).Overall,

theemploymentratesatat42.9%1andtheunemploymentrateat19.9%2in2009(NWTBureau

of Statistics2012).Average family income in the communitywas$58,455and theFoodPrice

Indexwas204.1in2010(NWTBureauofStatistics2012).

Figure3.2:ThelocationofUlukhaktok,InuvialuitSettlementRegion,NorthwestTerritories

(Pearceetal.2010).

Thedualfoodsystemiscomprisedofstorefoodsinadditiontocountryfoodsharvested

fromtheland.Eachcomponentofthedualfoodsystemisemphasizeddependingonthetimeof

year,community,household,andindividual(Ford2009).Storefoodsareavailableforpurchase

1Unemploymentrate:thepercentageofthelabourforcethatwasunemployedduringtheweekpriortothesurvey,wherelabourforcereferstopersonswhowereeitheremployedorunemployedduringtheweekpriortothesurvey(NWTBureauofStatistics2012).2Employmentrate:thepercentageofpersons15yearsofageandoverwhowereemployedduringtheweekpriortothesurvey(NWTBureauofStatistics2012).

20

in thecommunityat theHolmanEskimoCo-operativeLimited, theNorthernStore,QuickStop

conveniencestoreandtheArcticCharInnRestaurant.TheNorthernStoreoffersretailitemsand

southern grocery items with the exception of some products (such as filets and jerky) from

Kitimeot Foods in Cambridge Bay (despite the small commercial fishery that takes place in

Ulukhaktok,which cannot be sold in stores due to a lack of processing facilities). The Co-op,

meanwhile,isamemberoftheKitikmeotRegionCo-opsofArcticCooperativesLimited.TheCo-

op,inadditiontobeingagroceryandretailstore,managestheArcticCharInnaspartoftheInns

North family ofArctic hotels, andpurchases country food fromharvesterswhen available for

preparation in the restaurant. The Quick Stop, owned by Territorial Investments Ltd, is a

convenience store that caters to sugar- and salt-cravings with additional basic grocery items

suchasbreadandcoffee.Thestorealsosells frozenreindeermeat fromtheBinders in Inuvik

and a limited amount of muskoxwhen the owner harvests and processes it. As of 2015, the

QuickStopactsasa fast foodtake-outrestaurantaswell.Foodorderscanalsobeplacedwith

grocerystores inYellowknifeand Inuvikandare flownto thecommunityonaweeklyskidor

shippedontheannualbarge.Thesestorefoodsareconsumedasasupplementtocountryfood.

Country food is harvested near the settlement on a seasonal basis and is shared as a

central part of Inuit culture. Sharing happens either through communal meals (called

nirriyaktuqtuq,or“eatingtogether”)orthroughdirectexchange(Collings,WenzelandCondon

1998).Sharingtakestheformofreciprocalexchangewithinafamilialsharingnetworkormay

be exchanged in return for goods and services within or outside the sharing network.

Unilaterallysharingcountryfoodwitheldersiselevatedaboveallotherformsofsharing.Intra-

community sharing also takes place with family members who reside in the Inuvialuit

SettlementRegion,theKitikmeotorinYellowknifeandEdmonton.

3.2Researchapproach

The research approach is founded upon the vulnerability-based model for assessing

potential implications of climate change for food security for Inuit communities in Figure 2.3

21

(Ford2009).However,inlinewiththeobjectivesoftheresearch,thefocusoftheresearchwas

on thecurrentvulnerabilityof the foodsystem,as illustrated inFigure3.3. InUlukhaktok, the

dual country/store foodsystemrestsonavailability, access,qualityandstorageof food.Thus,

themethodsofdatacollectionfocusonthesepillarsinordertoachievetheresearchobjectives.

Figure 3.3. The framework for assessing the current vulnerability of the food system in

Ulukhaktok,NT(baseduponFordandSmit2004,SmitandWandel2006,Ford2009,2012).

The vulnerability research was carried out in collaboration with the community of

Ulukhaktok,andfollowsmethodsforcommunity-researchercollaborationdescribedbyITKand

NRI (2007), Pearce and others (2009) andNickels andKnotsh (2011). The research question

was a response to a community-identified research need and the research project received

support from key community partners including the Ulukhaktok Community Corporation,

Hunters and Trappers Committee and Hamlet. With guidance from these partners, the

researcher collaborated with a community research partner. The research partner was

instrumental in the design of methods, providing guidance on the appropriate way of going

about interviews, identifying suitable participants and illuminating a number of important

aspectsregardingthelocalcultureandworkingsofthecommunity.Theresearcheralsoworked

withaninterpreterwhofacilitatedinterviewswitheldersinInuinnaqtun.

CurrentVulnerability

CountryFood StoreFood

Avail.

Acc. Qual.

Avail.

Acc. Qual.

22

The development of the methodology involved an iterative process that incorporated

community feedback before being applied. Collaboration in this way, beyond ensuring

responsiveness to community needs and interests, accomplishes the goal of holding the

researcheraccountable to thecommunityand letsparticipantsdeterminewhetherresearch is

being conducted ethically. Research was also carried out in accordance with the ethical

guidelinesprovidedbytheUniversityofGuelphResearchEthicsBoard(seeEthicsApprovalin

AppendixA), theAuroraResearch Institute (seeResearchLicense inAppendixB) andACUNS

(2003).

3.3Datacollection

Amixedmethodsapproachwasundertakentocollectinformationthatcorrespondswith

the objectives of the researchproject (seeTable 3.1).Datawere collectedusing ethnographic

researchtechniquesincludingkeyinformantinterviews,semi-structuredinterviews,participant

observationandanalysisofsecondarysources.

Table3.1:Researchprojectobjectivesandassociateddatacollectionmethods.

Objective DataGatheringMethods1.Characterizeelementsofthecommunityfoodsystem.

• Analysisofsecondarysourcesofinformation

• Participantobservation• Keyinformantinterviews

2.Documentthewaysinwhichmultiplestresses(climaticandnon-climatic)affectfoodsecurity.3.Documentcurrentadaptivestrategiesemployedtomanageorcopewithstressestofoodsecurity.

• Analysisofsecondarysourcesofinformation

• Participantobservation• Semi-structuredinterviews

4.Identifyanddescribeopportunitiesandbarrierstoenhancingfoodsecurity.

• Synthesisofresearchfindings

When conducting semi-structured interviews, stratified sampling was used to create a

representative picture of the community and eventually generalize to the population.Within

eachofthestrataidentifiedbelow,participantswereselectedthroughconveniencesamplingas

23

participantswere chosen based on their relationship and rapportwith the researcher or the

researchpartner.Householdswerecategorizedbytheresearchpartner(inTable3.2)aselder-

headed(n=10/35)(apersonorcoupleovertheageof50withorwithoutotherfamilymembers

over 18 residing with them, often very knowledgeable about hunting techniques), families

(n=11/33) (two parents including those above 50with school-age children under 18), single

mother (n=9/22) (with school age children under 18), single father or bachelor (n=5/16),

bachelorette (n=2/4) and couple (n=2/4) for a total of 114 households with Inuvialuit

beneficiaries (where Inuvialuit beneficiaries aremeant as “those people known as Inuvialuit,

InuitorEskimowhoarebeneficiariesunder [the InuvialuitFinal]Agreementbyreasonof the

settlementoftheirclaimtotraditionaluseandoccupancyofthelandintheInuvialuitSettlement

Region(IJS2006)).Inuvialuitbeneficiarieswerechosensoastofocusoncommunitymembers

ratherthantransientresidentsliketeachers,nurses,socialworkersandstoremanagers.

Table3.2:Samplingofhouseholdsbytype(n=39/114).

Householdtype Numberofinterviews Completesample %interviewed

Elders 10 35 29%

Familywithchildren 11 33 33%

Singlemother 9 22 41%

Singlefather/bachelor 5 16 31%

Bachelorette 2 4 50%

Couple 2 4 50%

Total 39 114 34%

Semi-structured interviews followed a guide (see Appendix C) in order to document

exposure-sensitivities and determinants of adaptive capacity. Interviews consisted of open-

ended questions in order to conduct interviews in a conversational manner allowing

participants to elaborate on themes and topics important to them. This interviewing strategy

24

allowedforflexibilitywhilegivingtheinterviewersomeguidanceonthethemesthatneededto

beaddressed.Inthecaseofobjective1,questionsfocusedontheseasonalnatureoffood,when

foodsareavailable,whatfoodsareorderedandwhy,whatanimalsarebeinghunted,ifandhow

food is shared. When touching on objectives 2, 3 and 4 the questions focused on exposure-

sensitivitiesofthedualfoodsystem,adaptivestrategiesandadaptationoptions.

Interviewswereconductedmainlyinteamsoftwoduringthe2014fieldseason.These

teamsincludedtheresearcherandeithertheinterpreter(whoprovidedonthespottranslations

ofquestionsintoInuinnaqtunandanswersintoEnglish)ortheresearchpartner,exceptwhere

the latterwasnotcomfortableconducting interviewsdue topersonal relationshipswithin the

community.Withineachhousehold,thepersonorpeoplewhopreparedfoodwereapproached

to take part in semi-structured interviews. All those approached for interviewswerewomen

exceptwhennowomenwerepresentinthehousehold.Thiswasbasedontheassumptionthat

thepersonpreparingthefoodhadknowledgeofthehouseholdbudget,theavailabilityofboth

storefoodandcountryfoodaswellasthehuntingactivitiesoftheirpartner.Thisdecisionwas

alsobasedon thegenderednatureof thecommunitywhichmade itdifficult for theall-female

research team to interviewmenwithout awoman being present. This limited the amount of

environmentalandclimaticknowledgethatwasdiscussedbecausewomentend, ingeneral, to

spendlesstimeonthelandthanmen.Evenwhenmenwerepresentduringtheinterview,itis

possiblethattheresearchteambeingcomposedentirelyoffemalememberspreventedmorein-

depth discussion of environmental and climatic changes based on a lack of comfort with the

femaleinterviewers.

Semi-structured interviews were audio recorded (subject to participants’ consent) or

noted by the researcher or research partner. Interviews took place in locations that were

relativelyneutral, informal (butnot noisy) and easily accessible including theKayutakCentre

boardroom, participants’homesortheresearcher’shomedependingonparticipantsfeltmost

comfortable orwasmost convenient. Drinks and snackswere offered during the interview if

being conducted at the researcher’s home and participants received a $40 gift certificate for

25

NorthernortheHolmanEskimoCoopdependingontheirpreference(consistentwiththerate

participantswerebeinggivenduringanotherresearchprojectbeingundertakeninthesummer

of2014).Eldersweregiven$40incashratherthangiftcertificatesuponrecommendationfrom

theinterpreterwhohadextensiveexperiencewithelderinterviews.

Keyinformantinterviewswere conductedwith the InuvialuitRegionCorporationDietician,

the Department of Natural Resources officer and the resource person for the Olokhaktomiut

Hunters and Trappers Committee to fill in information gaps and provide complementary or

supplementaryevidencetothesemi-structuredinterviews.

Analysis of secondary sources of information involved assembling government and

communityreports(e.g.UlukhaktokCommunityWellnessPlan,ClimateChangeAdaptationPlan

for Ulukhaktok) economic and harvesting reports, health surveys (e.g. Inuit Health Survey),

climate records, books, and peer-reviewed journal articles. Information regarding both the

countryfoodandstorefoodsystemswerecompiledtogainacomprehensiveunderstandingof

the community food system. Once compiled, these documents were analyzed using iterative

coding in QSR International NVivo qualitative data software. Just as with the analysis of

interviewdata,documentswerecodedusingthemesthatemergedrelevantto,forexample,food

security, food sovereignty, Ulukhaktok, vulnerability and its associated terms, socio-economic

indicators,climatechange,sharing,well-being,nutrition,wildlifespecies,etc.

Groundtruthingof informationfromsecondarysourcestookplacethroughparticipant

observation,which involved residing in the community from July 17 to October 4 2014. This

included keeping detailed field notes about activities, observations and harvesting activities

takingplaceatthetime.Italsoinvolvedmappinghouseholdsinordertodeterminethesample,

documenting store food prices, recording the number and size of freezers inside and outside

people’s homes and photographing elements of interest such as the community freezer and

icehouses. Participant observation also involved building relationships with community

membersthroughparticipatingineverydaycommunitylife.Thisincludedvisitstotheirhouses;

participation in sewing classes and drum dance practice; time spent chatting in the stores,

26

during coffee hour at the hotel, on the street orwhile standing on the beachwith onlookers

whenhuntershadbroughtbelugawhalesbacktotheshore;andtakingpartinboatrides,fishing

trips, the Billy Joss Open Golf Tournament, elders’ picnics and school trips. Participant

observation was essential for building rapport that would allow participants to feel more

comfortablewhentakingpartinasemi-structuredinterviewandforallowingtheresearcherto

detectwhen participantswere either uncomfortable orwhen theywere not being altogether

truthfulandneededtobepromptedforadditionalordifferentinformation.

WithinInuitculture,askingdirectquestionsisconsideredunseemlyandsomewhatrude

andchildish.Thisissuchthat“theinterviewremainsanarenainwhichInuitmaynotbetruthful

evenwhentheinterviewerhasahighdegreeofrapportwithinformants”(Collings2009).One

technique thathasprovenuseful toCollings (2009) inUlukhaktokandelsewhere isknownas

phased assertion. This technique requires the researcher to show they possess an

understandingof the topicasameansof creatingrapportand leading togreateropennesson

thepartoftheparticipant(Collings2009).Byspending3monthsinthecommunity,visitingand

participating indaily life, itwascleartoparticipantsthat theresearcherwasalreadyawareof

some information andparticipantswere able to elaborateon topics rather than starting from

the verybeginning. Thiswas especially true in the case of interviewsbeing conductedby the

researchpartner.

However,duetothesensitivenatureofsomeofthequestions(aboutaccesstofood,the

participants’abilitytoprovidefortheirfamily,theirpartner’sabilityasaharvester), it isclear

some participantswere not completely honest and therefore participantswere prompted for

additional or different information. Interview data was further supplemented with other

methods,suchaskeyinformantinterviewsandparticipantobservation.

3.4Dataanalysis

Uponcompletionofeachinterview,theresearcherdocumentedthegeneraltoneofthe

conversation, the key themes that emerged and anything particularly notable about the

interview. Interviews were transcribed as soon as possible after being conducted. These

27

transcriptswerethencodediterativelyusingqualitativedatasoftwareQSRInternationalNVivo

inordertoidentifycategoriesandpatternsintheinterviews.Data-drivencodingrequiresdata

to be constantly revisited. Initial coding sought to identify nodes related to exposure-

sensitivities andadaption (suchas adaptationoptions; access, availability andqualityof store

and country food; education; employment; health and wellness; Inuinnaqtun; money;

preparation;harvestquotas;safety;commercializationofcountryfood;sharing;storage;trade).

Ascodesbecamemorecomplexandconnectedtotheproject’stheoreticalframework,theywere

builtintothemesthatthenservedasthemainfindingsdescribedinChapter4.

The findings of the research projectwere sharedwith the community during a visit from

March9toApril42015.ThisinvolvedreportingresultsonthelocalradiothroughtheTumivut

radioshowonMarch27.Resultsweredisseminatedtoacademicaudiencesthroughposterand

oral presentations at Arctic Change in December 2014 and the ArcticNet Annual Scientific

MeetinginDecember2015.Resultswillalsobesharedwithinacademiathroughpeer-reviewed

journalarticles.

28

CHAPTERFOUR:RESULTS

This chapter serves to present the results of the research objectives. The chapter is

divided into four sections according to these objectives: the Community food system section

describes both the store food and country food component of the dual food system in

Ulukhaktok (objective 1); the section outlining Current exposure-sensitivities affecting food

security documents the ways in which multiple stresses affect food security (objective 2)

through access, quality, availability and storage; the section Current adaptive strategies

documents current adaptive strategies employed to manage or cope with stresses to food

security(objective3);andthefinalsectionidentifiesbarrierstoandopportunitiesforenhancing

foodsecurity(objective4).

4.1Communityfoodsystem

Consistentwithresearchobjective1,thedualfoodsysteminUlukhaktokwasexamined

andisdescribedhere.Theelementsofthecountryfoodandstorefoodcomponentsofthefood

systemarecharacterized.First,theseasonalityofharvestingactivitiesisexplained,followedby

adescriptionof the cost, subsidizationand logistical considerationsof acquiring store food in

Ulukhaktok.

4.1.1Countryfood

Asonepartofthemixedeconomy,subsistenceisanimportantpartoflifeinUlukhaktok.

Involvementinharvestingactivitiesinrelativelyhighinthecommunitycomparedtotheregion

andiscentraltoculture,healthandwell-being.Harvestingactivitiesarecarriedoutbasedona

seasonalcyclethathasinsomewayschangedandotherwaysremainedsimilarovertheyears.

Ulukhaktomiut follow a seasonal pattern of subsistence harvesting based on the

migrationofanimalsandaccesstohuntinggroundsonthelandandseaice.Speciesoffishand

wildlife commonly harvested include Arctic char, iqalukpik (Salvelinus alpinus); ringed seal,

natiq (Phoca hispida); bearded seal, ugyuk (Eringnathus barbatus); lake trout, ihuuhuk

(Salvelinusnamaycush);Pearycaribou,tuktu(Rangifiertarandus);Dolphin-Unioncaribou,tuktu

(Rangifertarandusgroenlandicusxpearyi); Muskox, umingmak (Ovibosmoschatus); king eider

29

ducks, kingalik (Somateria spectabilis); snow geese, uluagulik (Chencaerulescens); arctic cod,

iqalukpik (Arctogadus glacialis); beluga, kilalugak (Delphinapterus leucas); and berries, kabla

(Figures4.1and4.2).Somespeciesareavailableyearroundbutareonlyharvestedorharvested

preferentiallywhentheyareinprimecondition(e.g.favouringsmallerarcticcharwithlessfat

when they aremigrating backwest toward the ocean, avoidingmuskox during themating or

ruttingseasoninJuneandJuly).

Figure4.1showstheseasonaleconomiccycleoftheCopperInuitin1972(Damas1972).

Primary pursuits are featured in the outer circle,with secondary pursuits in the inner circle.

Seasonal pursuits can be broken down into two main phases: “1) the winter period, lasting

roughly from December through much of May, when breathing-hole sealing was the chief

activity(thoughsupplementedinsomeregionsbypolarbearhunting),and2)theperiodfrom

May to November, when caribou hunting, fishing and some small-game hunting and fowling

werecarriedout.Asnotedabove,economicactivitywasvirtuallyatastandstillatthebeginning

ofwinter”(Damas1972).

30

Figure4.1:SeasonaleconomiccycleofCopperInuit(Damas1972).

Data were collected in Ulukhaktok in 2014 in order to update Damas’ 1972 seasonal

economiccycle(Figure4.2).Anewfeatureofthecycleshowstherelativeamountofequipment

neededtoharvestdifferentspeciesthroughouttheyear.Thefartherthelinefromthecentreof

thecircle, themoreequipmentmayberequired toharvesteachspecies.Forexample,berries,

whicharerepresentedclose to thecentre, canbecollectedbywalkingor takinganall-terrain

vehicle to nearby berry patches. Conversely, harvesting caribou (indicated further from the

centre)requiresaboat,gasandoilfortheapproximately200kmjourney,gasfortheall-terrain

vehicle,foodforthedurationofthetrip,atent,stove,gun,scopeandshells.Otheractivitiesvary

in the amount of equipment required, such aswith char,which can be harvested bywalking

along the coast and casting with a fishing rod, or can be harvested by setting nets, which

requiresaboat,nets,gasandoiltosetandchecknetsalongthecoast.

31

Figure4.2:SeasonalcycleofharvestingactivitiesinandnearUlukhaktok,NT.

Today, these figures present similarities and differences in species harvesting and

timing. Thewinter period still presents a decrease in harvesting activities duringwhich time

peoplenolonger liveoncachedfoodbutrathermuststoretheir foodinfreezers.Belugawere

also unusually important for subsistence in Ulukhaktok during the summer period of 2014,

whileonlyafewhavebeensightedandevenfewerhavebeenharvestedinlivingmemory.

Thefinancialimportanceofspeciesbetweenfigureshaschangedwithtime,asdoesthe

financialimportanceofsomespeciesoverotherstoday.Thesealharvesthasfluctuatedinterms

of financial importance for households and in its role of feeding dogs,whichwas phased out

32

when dog teamswere replacedwith snowmobiles. Sport hunting of polar bears began in the

1970s(Condon1999)andcontinuestobeanimportantsourceofincomeforguidesandhelpers

whospendashortperiodoftimeontheland,teachyouththeskillsrequiredfortheharvestof

polarbearandotherspeciesandareabletofinancetheirownharvestingactivitiesandpaybills

withthelargewindfallofcash.

The cycle follows a pattern but timings change slightly from year to year. Species are

expectedtoreturnduringthetimes indicatedandmanypeoplerelyonthiscycletoanticipate

harvesting activities. Peoplewithwage employmentmust hope their time off alignswith the

cycle.Forexample,arequest fortimeoff inspring2014wasbasedontheexpectedmigration

time for the ducks. However, the eider ducks came later and were behind Mashuyak (near

HolmanIsland),whichmeantthatmanypeoplemissedthem.Thosewhohadbookedthistime

offwouldhaveseenitwasted.Peoplewhodidnottimetheirvacationtocoincidewiththeducks

orthosewholivepaychequetopaychequeanddidn’thavethefundstogetgastogooutonthe

land,missed theirmain opportunity to harvest ducks to last thewinter. This also applied to

people who had the means but were not expecting the ducks to pass by so far from the

community.

Anecdotalevidenceshowsthatclimatechangeisaffectingmigrationpatternsandtiming:

“This spring I think itwas hard for duck hunting because the ice all breaking up and

everything.Wecouldn’treallygooutduckhuntingmuchbecausealltheicewasbroken

up.UsuallyIgowithmymomormysisterduckhunting.Mysondoesalotofittoobut

withtheicebreakinguphewasn’tabletogooutasmuchsoourstockpile…ormymom’s

stockpileforcountryfoodwasreallylowwiththeducks.”-JanetKanayok

4.1.2Storefood

4.1.2.1Cost

Storeboughtfoodmay,onitsown,provideanadequatedietforresidents,butthecost

(tosaynothingofqualityandculturalrelevance)ofnutritiouslydenseitemssuchasfreshand

33

frozenfoodsarerestrictiveandimpacttheabilitytocreateabalanceddiet(Collings,Wenzeland

Condon1998).Thecostof store food isnearlydouble (195%) the costof food inYellowknife

based on the Food Price Index (NWT Bureau of Statistics 2014). These costs are limiting for

somehouseholds,andespeciallythoseon incomesupport.Multipleparticipantsexpressedthe

difficultyinmakingtheirincomesupportallotmentscovertheirexpensesfortheentiremonth.

Thisdifficultymaybecompoundedbya“lackofeducationaboutnutritiousmarketfoodchoices,

byaddiction,orbysocialexclusion”(CanadianCouncilofAcademies2014).

Table4.1 illustrates thedifference in store foodandequipmentprice from theHBC in

1963and1991andfromtheNorthernandCo-op(wheresomeitemswerenolongeravailable

andmustbeorderedonline)in2014.However,thesewerecollectedfromJulytoOctober2014

and are not reflective of the average price based on lower prices following the arrival of the

bargeandhigherpriceswhenstockisexhaustedandmustbeflownin.Theresearcherwasnot

able toobtain a list ofpricesor thevolumeof sales,whichwas said tobe confidential by the

store managers. The IRC regional dietician had also asked for store prices lists and sales by

volume and these proved impossible to uncover (with the exception of Stanton’s, which is

ownedbyIRC).

Table4.1ComparisonofstorefoodandequipmentpricesinUlukhaktok,NT(baseduponCondonandOgina1996).Item HBC1963

(Usher1965)HBC1991(CondonandOgina1996)

Northern2014 Co-op2014

Butter(1lbcan) 1.05 3.84 5.65 3.99Evaporatedmilk(12ozcan)

0.25 1.57 2.85 3.19

Teabags(1lbbag) 1.45 4.89 7.15 4.99Coffee(1lbcan) 0.95 4.32 13.99 13.99ChocolateBar 0.13 0.91 2.85 2.79Softdrink 0.30 1.41 2.85 2.69Cigarettes 0.40(20pack) 7.50(20pack) 18.72(25pack) 19.03(25pack)Gas(1L) 1.20 3.40 7.36 7.36222Shells(20) 3.60 18.98 N/A 25.99222Rifle 69.95 649.00 N/A N/A20ftcanoe 500.00 N/A 8,299.00 N/A10HPoutboardmotor

450.00 3,200.00 3,195.00 N/A

Traps(1.5)(havetoorder)

0.95 3.79 N/A N/A

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4.1.2.2.NutritionNorthsubsidy

In an effort to alleviate high costs since the 1960s, food subsidy programs have been

appliedtofoodinnortherncommunities.ThefirstofthesewastheNorthernAirStageProgram,

whichwas an initiative of the federal government delivered by the Canada Post Corporation

(CanadianCouncil ofAcademies2014).More recently, theFoodMailProgram, an initiativeof

IndianandNorthernAffairsCanadafrom1999-2011,replacedtheNorthernAirStageProgram.

TheFoodMailProgramwasitselfreplacedbyNutritionNorthCanadain2011whichcontinues

to run today amid controversy in themedia and criticism from the Facebook advocacy page

FeedingMyFamily(CanadianCouncilofAcademies2014).

ThegoaloftheFoodMailProgramwastopromotehealthyeating.Bysubsidizingapart

ofthetransportationcoststocommunitiesthatareonlyaccessiblebyplaneatleastpartofthe

year,theprogramincreasedtheaffordabilityandaccessibilityofnutritiousperishablefoodand

other essential items (AANDC 2010). In the federal evaluation of the effectiveness of the

program, it was deemed an essential service to northern communities that continued to be

relevant. The evaluation found that the program was not well communicated to community

members,therewaslimitedprogramtransparency,uncertaintyastowhethertheprogramwas

reaching those who needed it most and food quality issues due to transportation times and

handling (AANDC 2010), although it was estimated by AANDC that 62% of the subsidy was

passedon(CanadianCouncilofAcademies).Finally, itwas foundthattherewas“noevidence-

based support to suggest that any identified alternatives (e.g., subsidies, program transfer,

enhanced income support, other transportation options) would be more successful, cost

effective, or have a greater impact on end users than the current postage subsidy” (AANDC

2010).

Despitethis,theNutritionNorthSubsidyreplacedtheFoodMailProgramin2011,asa

market-drivenmodelthatsubsidizesnutritiouschoicesdirectlythroughretailers,suppliersand

country food processors, who then pass savings on to consumers (Canadian Council of

35

Academies2014).Subsidizeditemsincludeperishablefruitandvegetables;milkandotherdairy

products;meatandperishablealternatives;bread,cerealandotherperishablegrainproducts,

and; perishable combination food (e.g. frozen and ready-to-cookmeals). Nutrition North also

aimstosupport“culturallyappropriateretailandnutritioneducationactivities” inaneffortto

increaseknowledgeofhealthyeating,healthystoreandcountry foodchoicesandpreparation

throughnutritionworkshops,cookingclasses,healthyfoodsamplesinstoresandschoolbased

nutritionprograms(GovernmentofCanada2014).Theannualbudgetfortheprojectasawhole

iscappedat$60million(SCAAND2011).

4.1.2.3Transportation

Becausethecommunityisonlyaccessiblebyair,thecostoftransportationofallgoodsis

substantially higher than communities that are accessible by road (even forpart of the year).

UlukhaktokisaccessedbybargeonceayearfromHayRiver(seeTable4.2forcargoratesfrom

HayRivertoUlukhaktok).Ordersareplacedbybothstores,Hamlet,UCC,HelenKalvakElihakvik

SchoolandresidentswiththeNorthernTransportationCompanyLimited(NTCL).For2015,the

cargo cutoff (the deadline by which an order must be placed) was July 2, with an expected

delivery theweekofAugust10. In2014, thebargewasdelayedbeyond thescheduleddeliver

datebyoveramonthduetolowwaterlevelsintheMackenzieandarrivedSept11.Regardless

of thearrivaldate, someparticipantsacknowledged their lackofknowledgeofhowtoplacea

bargeorderortheirlackofplanningwhenneedingtoplaceanorderinadvance.

Table4.2.2015CargoratesfromHayRivertoUlukhaktok,NT(NTCL2015).Feetype AmountGeneralcargorate(basedonarevenuetonnewhichiseither(i)1,000kilogramsofweight,or(ii)2.5cubicmetres–whicheverproducesthegreaterrevenueatagivenrate)

$421

Standard20’container(20'x8'x8.5'(lwh)withamaximumgrossweightof29,000lbs)

$6200+$975forcontainerrental

Lightdutyvehicles(Forallboats,sidebysidestyleATV's) $358ATVflatrate $600Snowmobileflatrate $850Carflatrate $2250Lightdutypickuptruck&fullsizeSUV $3500Heavydutypickuptruck $4800

36

Compared to the $0.64/lb rate paid for the barge delivery by stores in 2014, the rate

appliedtoairfreightis$2.67/lb.Perishablefoodsandnon-perishablefoodsthatareoutofstock

arealsobroughtinbyairyearroundinvariousconditions.Whentheresearcherhelpedunload

afreighterflightonAugust9,2014theshipmentwasmostlybeverageswithsomefreshproduce

wherealmosteveryboxhadatleastonemouldyitem.Theratesforfreightflowninto(andout

of)thecommunityareshowninTable4.3.

37

Table4.3.FirstAirdomesticcargoratestoandfromUlukhaktok,NTin2015(FirstAir2015).

First Air has a special cargo rate for intercommunity shipments of country food for

personal consumption. The base rate for the transportation of country food between

communities is $1.50per kilogram (up from$1.19per kg in 2012 and $1.23per kg in 2014)

(FirstAir 2015). The current rate has also changed frombeing chargedper kg fromorigin to

destination, tobeingbrokenupbysegment.People takeadvantageof theratenonetheless. In

2014,peoplecapitalizedontheratewithmuktukmorethananyotherspecies,inpartbecause

of the large amount of pride people felt in harvesting beluga for the first time and in part

because of the lack of freezer space available to accommodate the amount of muktuk that

amountsfrom34whales.Approximately500lbsofmuktukwereshippedin2014throughFirst

Airtofamilyinothercommunitiesusingthecountryfoodrate.

ULUKHAKTOK ENVELOPEto/from Maximum

2 kgMinimum Charge

Per kg Rate 1-499

Per kg Rate500+

Minimum Charge

Per kg Rate 1-499

Per kg Rate500+

Arctic Bay 36.00 100.00 18.54 17.61 135.00 25.03 23.78

Arviat 36.00 47.00 12.04 11.44 70.00 15.66 14.87

Baker Lake 36.00 47.00 12.04 11.44 70.00 15.66 14.87

Cambridge Bay 36.00 47.00 5.30 5.04 70.00 7.16 6.80

Cape Dorset 36.00 47.00 18.34 17.43 70.00 23.84 22.65

Chesterfield Inlet 36.00 47.00 11.43 10.87 70.00 14.86 14.12

Clyde River 36.00 116.00 21.51 20.44 157.00 29.04 27.58

Coral Harbour 36.00 47.00 13.27 12.61 70.00 17.24 16.38

Edmonton 36.00 52.00 9.54 8.85 70.00 12.10 11.20

Fort Simpson 36.00 54.00 9.82 9.32 72.00 13.26 12.60

Gjoa Haven 36.00 47.00 8.58 8.15 70.00 11.59 11.01

Hall Beach 36.00 99.00 18.34 17.43 134.00 24.76 23.53

Hay River 36.00 47.00 8.84 8.39 70.00 11.93 11.33

Igloolik 36.00 99.00 18.34 17.43 134.00 24.76 23.53

Inuvik 36.00 53.00 9.76 9.28 71.00 13.18 12.52

Iqaluit 36.00 65.00 11.94 11.34 88.00 16.12 15.32

Kimmirut 36.00 77.00 14.39 13.67 105.00 19.43 18.46

Kugaaruk 36.00 52.00 9.62 9.14 70.00 12.99 12.34

Kugluktuk 36.00 47.00 2.38 2.26 70.00 3.21 3.05

Kuujjuaq 36.00 81.00 14.99 14.23 109.00 20.23 19.22

Montreal 36.00 91.00 16.74 15.90 123.00 22.60 21.47

Norman Wells 36.00 47.00 10.12 9.62 70.00 13.16 12.50

Ottawa 36.00 91.00 16.74 15.90 123.00 22.60 21.47

Pangnirtung 36.00 87.00 16.03 15.22 117.00 21.64 20.56

Pond Inlet 36.00 124.00 22.81 21.67 167.00 30.80 29.26

Qikiqtarjuaq 36.00 96.00 17.82 16.93 130.00 24.06 22.86

Rankin Inlet 36.00 56.00 10.23 9.71 74.00 13.81 13.12

Resolute Bay 36.00 100.00 18.54 17.61 135.00 25.03 23.78

Taloyoak 36.00 49.00 9.13 8.67 70.00 12.32 11.70

Whale Cove 36.00 47.00 11.43 10.87 70.00 14.86 14.12

Winnipeg 36.00 47.00 14.14 13.43 70.00 18.39 17.47

Yellowknife 36.00 47.00 7.07 6.72 70.00 9.54 9.06

DOMESTIC CARGO RATES Add 23% fuel surcharge to all rates

Add 6.5% Nav Canada surcharge to all rates

PRIORITY CARGOGENERAL CARGO

38

4.2Currentexposure-sensitivitiesaffectingfoodsecurity

This section accomplishes research objective 2, which was to document the ways in

whichmultiple stresses (climatic and non-climatic) affect food security. Determinants of food

insecuritycausedbyenvironmentalandsocio-economicchangewereexploredbyexaminingthe

ways inwhichthecountryfoodandstorefoodcomponentsofthefoodsystemarevulnerable.

ThisexplorationisbasedonthevulnerabilityframeworkasappliedtotheInuitfoodsystemin

Ulukhaktok.

4.2.1Access

This section examines the exposure sensitivities of the dual food system related to

access.Storeandcountryfoodaccessimplies“theabilityofhouseholdsandindividualstoaccess

adequateresourcestoacquirestoreand[country]foodsforanutritiousdiet”(Ford2009).

4.2.1.1.Climaticandenvironmentalconditions

In the face of rising temperatures, participants described a number of changing

environmentalconditions,includingthemeltingofpermafrost,longericefreeseason,andmore

unpredictable ocean conditions. The melting of permafrost was identified by one participant

whodescribedamudslideonahillwhere thepermafrosthadmelted.The implicationsof the

melt include the impacts of unstable ground on housing. For homeowners, this implies costly

repairs to the structure and foundation that detract from the disposable income available for

harvestingactivities.Italsomeansharvestersmayhavetospendmoremoneyongastotravel

onthetundrabyATViftheirmachineissloweddownbywet,soggyconditionsinthesummer.

The earlier melting of ice interferes with the seasonal cycle outlined in Figure 4.2.

Traditionally,kingeiderduckstravelalongtheleadintheicearoundbreakupbutarehunted

alongtheleadwhentheicebreaksup.Giventhechangesinthetimingandpatternofthemelt,

the icegetstoothintobeabletohuntducksfromthefloe.Whentheytravelalongthe lead, it

becomesnecessarytohuntducksfromthewater,whichismoredifficultgiventhemovementof

aboat.

39

Theunpredictabilityofconditionsalsomakespeoplefeelunsafewhentravelingonthe

land. This means either loading up more gear to be able to stay out longer in case of an

emergencyordelaysormakingbrief tripsornone at all. This also ties into theknowledgeof

howtobesafeontheland,buttheoldtechniquesarenolongeralwaysapplicablewhenreading

iceconditions. Inorder toadapt to theseconditions,harvestersmusthaveaknowledgeof the

factors that make traveling safe including ice conditions, weather and migration patterns,

usuallyheldbyexperiencedharvesters.Thisreinforcedtrendofdeclininghuntingparticipation

meansa reducedamountof country foodentering thesharingnetwork.Oneadaptation is the

developmentofnew,oftenlongertrailsthatareknowntobesafegivennewconditions,butthe

price of gas makes this inaccessible for people with limited income. This illustrates how

changingconditionsarecompoundedalongsidechanginglifestyles.

4.2.1.2Changinglifestyles

Since the first familiesmoved to the settlement, a rapid change in lifestyle took place

withinthecommunity.Familiestransitionedfromanomadicexistencetoasemi-nomadicone,

typicallyspendingthesummersinoutpostcampsontheland.Thishasledtoanaccompanying

transition from the subsistence economy to a mixed subsistence and wage economy with

increasingimportanceplacedonthewagecomponent.TheemploymentrateinUlukhaktokfor

2014was50.9%,withaparticipationrate(thoseemployedoractivelyseekingemployment)of

57.9%(NWTBureauofStatistics2015).Thewageearnersarerestrictedintheamountoftime

they can spend on the land. This means that they are limited to longer one- or two-day

harvestingtripsontheweekendorduringtheirtimeoffwhichneedstobesynchronizedwith

theseasonalcycle.

In order to become wage earners at all, residents are often also required to have, at

minimum,ahighschooleducation.Thetimespentinformaleducationandinwageemployment

limits the amount of time residents are able to spendon the landover their lifetime learning

fromexperiencedharvesters.However,wageearnersareoftentimespartofaresourcesharing

40

network that supports subsistence harvesters through the purchase of equipment in order to

allowforthedivisionoflabour.

Inadditiontotheadventofsettlement,therehasalsobeenatransitioninthestructure

ofhouseholdscomparedtotheirmakeupwhentheyfirstcameaboutandespecially inrecent

years, principally since the introduction of income support. Collings and others (2015) found

that there has been an increasing number of single mother headed households. These

householdsdon’thaveanexperiencedhunterandifasonparticipatesinharvestingactivities,he

oftenhastorelyonanothermalefamilymemberorfriendto learn.This issummarizedinthe

followingquote:

“WhenIwasmarried, Ihadnoproblemsgettingaccessto it,becauseIhadahunter inthe house, but now looking for people to buy it off is kind of hard. […] I don’t likedepending on people. I don’t like asking for help. So it’s hard to feedmy kids healthynutritiousfoodwhenthere’snohunterinthehouse.SoIthinkthat’stheonlythingIseewrongaboutbeingseparatedishavingnohunterinthehouse.”-JanetKanayokThereisincreasingrecognitioninthecommunitythatsinglemothershavelimitedaccess

to country foods and hunters will sometimes share with single mothers outside their family

networkinrecognitionofthis.

Finally, the bureaucratization of community life has also become a hindrance when

attemptingtoengageinharvestingactivities.Forexample,residentsarerequiredtohavetheir

Possession and Acquisition Licence in order to buy ammunition. The course offerings in the

communityarelimitedandoftennotwelladvertised.Manytimes,peopleresorttohavingother

people with licenses do the purchasing for them (often the same person who is doing the

teaching,e.g.thegrandfatherofaboywillbuyshellsforbothofthem,themotherreimbursing

thegrandfatherassheisnotabletolegallybuythemherself).Anotherexampleisthesupport

programs in the form of CHAP and IHAP, which involve more paperwork in the form of an

applicationthatrequirestimespentinthecommunity.

4.2.1.3Accessanduseofincome

Thehighpriceofstorefoodwasidentifiedasabarrier.Despitethis, foodchoicesoften

includesomelargeticket,lownutrient-denseitemssuchaspop.In2014,poppriceswerevery

41

high for the kinds that are preferred, run out quickly and need to be flown in. A dip in price

occursbeforethebargetofreeupspacebyliquidatingthelessconsumedvarieties.

Inhouseholdswherethereisnoactiveharvest,moreincomemustbeusedonstorefood.

As is thecase forsinglemothers, inahouseholdwhereonepartnerhasan injuryordisability

andisn’tabletohunt,theremayalsobeanincreasedrelianceonstorefoods:

“…Inoticedthatwhenmyhusbandgothurt,wespentalotofmoneyonthestoreboughtfood.Althoughwe’regettingfoodfromourfamily,butyouknow,itcan’tlastforeverandever throughout the year. So we’re spending a lot more at the Northern.” – SusieMalgokakBecausea largerportionofdisposable income isbeingput towardstore foods, even if

householdswere able to be part of a sharing network through family ties, theymay not feel

comfortabledrawingonthisnetworkforcountryfoodsbecauseof theethicofreciprocityand

theirinabilitytocontributefinanciallytothenetwork.

Useofincomebasedonaknowledgeofbudgetingisalsoalimitationthataffectsaccess.

Residentsmaynothavetheknowledgetobudgetfortheirneeds,especiallywhentheyreceive

incomesupport for thewholemonthorare livingpaycheque topaychequeandhave tomake

theirmoney lastuntil thenextpayment.This lackofbudgetingwas illustratedbyparticipants

whentheystatedthattheyneededcertainthingsandbecausethepricescouldn’tbehelped,they

justpaidtheamountratherthanlookingforotheroptionsorbuyingwhatwasonsale.

Thehighcostofstorefoodandanincreaseinstorefoodconsumptionrelativetocountry

foodcauseconcernsforfoodsecurityandhealth.55%ofincomeinInuithouseholdsisspenton

foodcosts,withtheremaindergoingtoanalreadyhighcostofliving(Duhaimeetal.2002).

4.2.2Availability

This section examines the exposure sensitivities of the dual food system related to

availability.Storeandcountryfoodavailabilityreferstotheavailabilityofsufficientfood(Ford

2009).

4.2.2.1Wildlifedistributionandabundance

42

Wildlifedistributionandabundanceisthekeyfactorintheavailabilityofcountryfood.

Belugaswereopportunisticallyharvestedin2014,ananomalousyearintermsofwhalestaken.

Arecordtotalof34belugaswereharvested.Theideathatthebelugarangeisexpandingbased

onfoodavailabilityandforageecologyhasbeensupportedbypreliminaryfindingsofsandlance

(also spotted in the shallowwatersofQueen’sBaybyparticipants) in the stomachofbelugas

sampled inUlukhaktok. One participantwas echoed by otherswho stated that belugaswere

sometimesspotted in thewatersnearUlukhaktokwithin the last20years,but itwasnevera

regularsightingorthetargetofanactivehunt:

“…when Iwasayounggirl, therewerehardlyanywhales.Once inagreat,greatwhilesomewouldcome in.Thatwas the time Jimmyand themused tobehere. I rememberthey were the hunters then, they were hunting the whale when it came in. Just one,maybejustoneeverysoandsobutthisyear,there’salotofit.Andagain,Ithinkit’stheirfoodsomehowgettinghereandtheyfollow.”-SusieMalgokakParticipantsalsoobservedthatnewpredatorshaveappearedintheformofgrizzlies.In

2010,thefirst ‘grolarbear’washarvestedbyaresidentandprovidesevidencethatthegrizzly

range is expandingnorthwardand that thesebears areproducingviableoffspring.This could

impactthenumberofpolarbearsorgrizzlybearpreyavailableforharvest.

Finally,manyparticipantsobservedthatlessmuskoxandcaribouarepresentneartown.

Theprevailingnarrativeindicatesthatmuskoxandcariboupopulationsareinverselyrelatedso

thatduringtimesofcaribouabundance,muskoxpopulationsaredepressedandviceversa.

4.2.2.2Logistics

TheavailabilityofstorefoodsislimitedtowhatcanbepurchasedattheNorthern,Coop,

QuickStoporthatcanbeorderedfromtheInuvikStanton’sandthelesserusedoptionofonline

shoppingfordryandfrozengoods(e.g.throughAmazonorM&MMeatShopsonlineordering).

The items that can be purchased are limited to what can be brought in by barge during the

summer(atacargorateof$0.64/kg)and flown in throughout therestof theyear (atacargo

rateof$2.67/kg).In2014,thisonlyoccurredonTuesday,ThursdayandSaturdayonscheduled

First Air flights or on separately scheduled freighters. There is also the option of making

43

requestsofthestoremanagerwhodoestheordering(e.g.oneresidentrequestsflatsofcherries,

whicharenotnormallyshippedinduetoperceivedtastepreferences).

Becausethereexistswhatisessentiallyaduopolyonstorefood,thereistheideainthe

community that there is price fixing between the two stores. During the communitymeeting

regarding the regional economic survey that was conducted by the Inuvialuit Regional

Corporation in2014, therewerecalls foraStanton’s inUlukhaktok inorder tobenefit froma

largervarietyofitemsandlowerprices.

4.2.3Quality

This section examines the exposure sensitivities of the dual food system related to

quality. Store and country food quality refers to “the ability to obtain safe food of sufficient

nutritionalandculturalvalue”(Ford2009).

4.2.3.1Wildlifecondition

Fifteen participants explicitly perceived country food to be healthier than store food.

Thismay inpart stem from thepublic awareness campaignswithmessagespropagated since

the90saboutthesafetyofcountryfoods.Thismessagingismeanttoreassurepeopleandincite

them to continue eating country food despite what they might hear in the media around

contaminants(especiallymercury)infoods.Thebenefitsofeatingthesefoodsourcesoutweigh

therisks(CanadianCouncilofAcademies2014).

Someparticipantsraisedanomaliesinmeat.Participantsraisedtheissueofwormsand

blistersinchar.Manyofthesesameparticipantsdidnotknowwheretheseabnormalitiescame

fromandcalledformoreresearchorawarenesstoberaisedaroundtheissue.Therewasalso

one case of brucellosis in a human known by the researcher. This zoonotic disease is passed

betweenmuskoxandhumans.Thispersonwasevacuatedformedicalservicesontwoormore

occasions and remained outside of the community for an extended period of time while

receivingmedicalattention.

44

4.2.3.2Nutritionalcontentandcondition

Becauseofthelogisticsdescribedabove,theproducethatarrivesbyair isoftenof low

quality.Thisduetoconditionsduringtransport,especiallyduringthewintertimewhenproduce

freezesandthawsmultipletimesenroutetoitsdestination.Fordryorfrozengoods,theamount

of time required to reach the destination oftenmeans that items are close to or passed their

expirydate,asdescribedbyoneparticipant:

“…somany things that factor into eating properly and good food and nutritious food.Right from cost to being able to afford, knowing to check expiry dates. Like notmostInuitknowthat, they justbuy it.Theysee it.Today,moreandmorepeopleare findingout about expiry dates but expiry dates sometimes overcome sales because you couldaffordit,youbuyitwhileit’sonsale.Andit’sonsalebecauseoftheexpirydate.”–EmilyKudlakNutritional content may also be at a low priority for residents when shopping at the

stores. A combination of lack of nutritional knowledge, the high price of nutritionally dense

items and the desire to satisfy a cravingmeans that awindfall of cash (e.g. Nevada or bingo

winnings) or payday often meaning ‘treat day’. It is viewed as good parenting (and

grandparenting)tobeabletoprovidechildrenwith‘junk’.Forexample,duringaweeklongstint

atsummercampatKegivic,asinglemotherdrovetwoandahalfhoursoverlandtoprovideher

childwithjunkfoodboughtforhimbyhisgodmother.

4.2.4Storage

The total freezer spacewas calculated for 47 of 114 households and broken downby

type(Table4.4).Thestandardsizefreezeraboveafridgeis6cubicfeet.Thisissupplementedby

largerchestfreezers.

Table4.4.Averageamountoffreezerspaceincubicfeetperhouseholdtype.Householdtype Totalhouseholds Householdssampled Averageamountof

freezerspace(cu.ft)Elder-headed 35 15 32.2Family 33 15 18.7Singlemother 22 9 13.4Singlefather/bachelor

16 5 12.6

Singlewoman 4 1 6Couple 4 2 16

45

Thecommunityfreezerwasalocationwherehunterscouldstorelargepiecesofmeator

wholeanimalssuchassealsandlayentirefishflat.Thisfacilitywasavailableuntil2004when

regionalfundingfortheservicedriedup.Familieshadlockersandpaidafeefortheuseofthe

communityfreezer.Atanoperatingcostof$30,000ayear,thesefeeswerenotenoughtokeep

thedoorsopenwithoutexternalfundingsources(seeFigure4.3).Twoicehouses(underground

storageinthepermafrost)werealsopreviouslyinusebutweredecommissioned(Figure4.4).In

2013,intheabsenceofaworkingcommunityfreezeroricehouse,fundingwassecuredbya3rd

party and a committee was formed to build a new icehouse. However, the members of the

committeecouldnotagreeonalocationforthebuildandtheprojectranintobarriersrelatedto

insuranceandminingregulationsassociatedwiththedig.Inordertoavoidlosingthe$50,000in

funding (GNWT Time-honoured Aboriginal Actions Sustaining Traditional Eating (TAASTE)

grantthatneededtobespentbyMarch31),theHTCandUCCorganizedacommunitymuskox

huntofapproximately30muskoxthatweredistributedtoeveryhouseholdinthecommunity.In

the ISR, there is currently one working community freezer in Paulatuk (with a proposed

research project on its evaluation) and one icehouse in Tuktoyaktuk (currently closed to the

publicbutstillavailableforusebyresidentswithstorage).Thereisalsooneicehousebuiltby

InuitandwhalersonHerschelIslandthatremainsinseasonaluse(YukonGovernment2006).

In the absence of community storage space, the Hunters and Trappers Committee

distributedapproximately10chestfreezerstohouseholdswhicheffectivelychangedthesharing

mechanismtobefree-flowingexchangewherepeoplewereabletohelpthemselvestosharing

through bilateral exchange between households with well stocked freezers to households in

needofcountryfood.Thesehouseholdshaveabsorbedthecostofthefreezerswhichwasshifted

fromthegovernment,andmanyhouseholdsunplugtheirfreezerstoreducepowercostsduring

the winter months when food can be kept frozen in the porch. One ingenious harvester

increasedtheamountofstoragespaceavailableinhischestfreezerbybuildinganextensionout

ofplywood.The freezerwas fullofmuktukandducks,whichwererotatedtokeepeverything

46

frozen.Thisextensionwasremovedwhentheharvesterwasabletoprocureanadditionalchest

freezer.

Figure4.3.AbandonedcommunityfreezerinUlukhaktok,NT.

Figure4.4.DerelicticehouseinUlukhaktok,NT.

The ability to store preferred country foods impacts household food security. Storage

becomes a factor in availability in the sense that ifmeat cannot be preserved, it is no longer

availableforconsumption.Thebulkofpreservationinthecommunitytakestheformofstorage

infreezers,eitherthoseabovefridgesorinchestfreezersdistributedbytheHTCover10years

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agoorsoldattheNorthernandCoop.Thesefreezersareoftentimesnotlargeenoughtostore

largepiecesofmeatwithoutthembeingcutupintosmallportionswhicharemorelikelytobe

freezerburntorforfishtobelaidflatwithoutbeingtwistedtofit.Oneparticipantsummeditup

asfollows:

“Yeah.Freezerspace.Icehouse,walk-infreezer,it’sabigissue.Itwassonicetobeableto get seals in the summer, freeze themwhole in thewalk-in freezer, in the icehousewithout skinning them and then pick them up around Christmas during your familysuppersandstuffandbring theminandskin itand it’snot freezerburnt, it’s likenewbecause you froze itwhole. It’s sonice to be able to do that for thewintermonths.” -EmilyKudlakStorageisprimarilyaconcernduringthesummermonths,asevidencedbytheseasonal

cycle, when the majority of meat is caught andmust be stored in freezers until they can be

movedtotheporchorboxesoutsideforthewinter. Forthisreason,harvestsmayattimesbe

limitedbytheabsenceofafunctionalcommunityfreezeroricehousebecauseofthelimitations

imposed by the amount of freezer space available. This is demonstrated in households with

activehunters(mainlyelder-headedandfamilies)where largeramountsof freezerspacethan

the community average enable them to store their harvest (e.g.musk-ox, fish, caribou, ducks,

muktuk).Thesehouseholds inturnplayarole inprovidingcountry foods forhouseholdswith

lessfreezerspacebysharingwhattheyareabletostore.Householdswithoutanactivehunter

either do not keepmeat in their freezers because it is available to be shared from others or

because they don’t have the freezer space themselves, creating conditions whereby active

harvestersmust also primarily be responsible for storage.When askedwhether they needed

morefreezerspace,singlemothersansweredinthenegativebecausetheirstorageneedswere

beingmetinotherhouseholds:

“Idon’tgetbigportionsofcountryfoodlikethehuntersdo,likethemainhunters.Ijust

geta littleportion that’llmaybebegood forawhileandmymomhasall the foodso I

don’t…maybeonceinawhileIgotoherhouseandgetalittlecountryfoodandbringit

homebutthat’saboutit...She’sgotallthefreezers.”-DonnaAkhiatak

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The householdswith themost freezer space (elder-headed and families) indicate that

theyarecentralnodesinthefoodsharingnetwork.Elderstendtohavelargeamountsoffreezer

spacebecause there is a strongethicof sharingwithelders,with childrenbeing laudedwhen

they remember to share or bring food to elders and with people who share with elders

garneringmuch respect from the community.Families tend tohavea largeamountof freezer

space because there is often at least one active hunter in the household.What isn’t shared is

storedattheirhousetobeeatenbythefamilyortobesharedlateronintheyear.Forexample,

withinasharingnetworkoneelder-headedhouseholdwillhave inputs fromtheelderherself,

her son and her grandson contributing to the stores while her other son, grandsons and

daughter,whoisasinglemother,drawonthereservesforthemselvesandagranddaughter.

Inbothhouseholdtypes,meatwillbesharedtoclearroominanoverlyfullfreezer.This

wasthecaseduringthesummerof2014whenroomwasmadeforthelargeamountsofmuktuk

beingpreserved.Roomwasmadeagainwhenmuktukwasreplacedwithcaribou,muskox,fish,

etc.

Another drawback of limited freezer space comes during the summer months when

there is not enough space to store ice for drinking water. This was illustrated when one

participantsaid:

“…foryourdrinkingwater inthespringtimeweusedtobagupicefromthe lakesandbringittothewalk-infreezerandthenwhenallthesnowmelts,youhavenomoreplacetocollectsnowinthespringtime,yougotothewalk-infreezer,grabyourbag,dumpitinyourcontainerandthatwasanothergoodwaytohaveyourfreshwater, thewalk-infreezerandicehouse.”–EmilyKudlakLonger summers (during which the majority of harvesting activities take place) with

increasingtemperaturesresultinthewideningofthewindowduringwhichtimemeatmustbe

storedinfreezersratherthantheporch,andthusincreasingamountsofmeatandnumbersof

species must be preserved during that time. Longer periods of preservation increase power

coststomaintainarunningfreezeruntilthewinter.

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Storageisalsoaconsiderationinthelogisticsofstorefood.Storefoodpriceisimpacted

bythehighcostoftransportation,warehousinganddistributionoffoodintheArctic(Canadian

Council ofAcademies2014). InUlukhaktok, theNorthern storehasa storagearea for smaller

itemsthatisaccessiblethroughadooratthebackofthestoreandalargerstorageareabeside

the storewhich housesmostly large furniture items aswell as dry goods to last the year, in

theory,untilthenextresupplybybarge.Becausethereisnotenoughcommercialstorageforthe

drygoodsto last the fullyear,essential items(suchas flourwhich is inhighdemandandalso

bulky) are flown in once the supply of stored dry goods is exhausted. Stock often runs out

aroundspringandresultsinanincreaseinpriceuntilresupplyattheendofsummer.Stockof

non-essentialitemssuchaspop(which,in2014,wasboughtinmassquantitiestothedetriment

ofotheressentialsandwhichispricedquitehighduringtheyearduetotheweightpercan)are

liquidatedatareducedpricebeforethearrivalofthebarge.

4.3Currentadaptivestrategies

Thissectionaddressesresearchobjective3anddocumentscurrentadaptivestrategies

employedtomanageorcopewithclimaticandnon-climaticexposure-sensitivitiesaffectingfood

security. When participants discussed specific ways to support food security they mainly

focused on access to food, including: government subsidies such as Nutrition North for store

foods; harvester assistance programs for country foods; and food and resource sharing

networks as a means of acquiring both country and store foods. Participants also noted the

flexibility and adaptability of hunters to changing conditions including harvesting alternative

species of wildlife and during different times of year. In addition to these responses, most

participantsalludedtopre-existingsocietalchallengesthatareexacerbatingstressestothefood

systemandactasbarrierstoadaptation.Thesebarrierscanalsobeconsideredentrypointsto

supportadaptationandarediscussedhere.

4.3.1Sharingnetworks

Inuit resource sharing and food sharing networks are long-standing strategies for

maintaining food security and their continued importance has been documented (Collings,

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MartenandPearce2015).Today,withhighhuntingcostsandconstrainedschedules,thesharing

of financial resources required to supportharvestingactivities (e.g.purchasinggasornaptha;

purchasingasnowmobile,boatorATV)oftenresultsinfoodsharingandprovidescountryfoods

tothosewhomayotherwisenothaveaccess.

Formal and informal food sharing networks have been documented in Ulukhaktok.

Today,most foodsharing is informalandtakestheformofsharingbetweenrelativesbutmay

alsooccurasagifttoanunrelatedelderorfriend.Forexample,onthereturntripfromawhale-

turned-muskoxhuntdescribedinsection4.3.2,theboatdriverpassedanislandwhereanelder

lives.Theboatdriverstoppedanddeliveredamuskoxlegbeforecarryingon.Uponreturntothe

community, themuskoxmeatwas cut up and ground andmost of themeatwas kept by the

harvester’smother,who acts as a central node in the sharingnetworkbyproviding themain

mealof thedaytochildren,grandchildrenandfriends.Thebackstrapwastheonlyportionof

meatkeptbytheharvester. Informalfoodsharingofcountryfoodwasalsoevidentduringthe

summerbelugahuntwhen34belugawhaleswerelandedbyUlukhaktokhunters.Ofthewhales

landed,mostwerebroughtbacktothecommunityandbutcheredonthebeachesofQueen’sBay,

which provided an accessible area for community members to gather and help with the

butchering.Thosewhowerepresentwouldtakemuktukandmeatawayingarbagebagsoroffer

todeliverbagstoelderswhoweren’tpresent.

FoodsharingalsotakesplacebetweencommunitiesintheISRandNunavut.Duringthe

2014belugawhalehuntitwascommontoseeboxespiledhighintheFirstAirmanager’shome,

filledwithmuktukandwhalemipkuforfamilymembersinothercommunities.Approximately

500lbsofmuktukwasshippedviaFirstAirtofamilymembersandfriendsinothercommunities

in2014.ThisisbutoneofmanyexamplesofintercommunitytradeinwhichUlukhaktomuitwill

send country foods that are regionally abundant in exchange for those that are available in

anothercommunity(e.g.exchangingeiderducksinUlukhaktokforgeeseinSachsHarbour).

Community harvests are a mechanism by which hunters are subsidized to acquire

country foods,whichare thensharedthroughout thecommunity.Theharvestsaremostoften

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organized jointly by the Hunters and Trappers Committee and Ulukhaktok Community

Corporation and employ harvesters (including payment for the use of their equipment ) to

harvestmuskox,caribouor fishanddistribute itpreferentiallytoeldersandsinglemothers in

the community before dividing it between the remaining households in the community. One

participantwasverysupportiveofcommunityharvests,sayingthat“underNutritionNorth,they

shouldreallybegivingfundingtoeachcommunitytodoahuntparticulartoeachcommunity,

whattheirdietisandsupplythatunderNutritionNorthtohouseholds.Notonlytodisabledand

elderly andunemployedbut to everyhouseholdbecauseeven those that areworking, it’snot

alwayseasyforthemtogooutandhunt.”–EmilyKudlak

4.3.2Speciessubstitutionandopportunisticharvesting

Only one participant explicitly identified species substitution as a feasible option for

dealing with changes in environmental conditions or distribution and abundance of wildlife

populations,despite the fact that it isa copingmechanism thathasbeenused forgenerations

andwasapparent throughparticipantobservation.Opportunisticharvesting is a strategy that

stems from a subsistence way of life. To neglect to harvest an animal when an opportunity

presentsitselftoahunterwouldbeanopportunitywasted.Assuch,ifaspeciesisnotabundant

oravailableandanotherpresentsitself,aharvestertakesadvantageofthatopportunityorrisks

notbeingabletoprovideforone’sfamily.

An example of opportunistic harvesting occurred during the field season when the

researcherwentoutwithafewhuntersonaboatridetowardPrinceAlbertSoundinsearchof

belugawhales.Normally, in 2014, harvesterswould set out afterwhaleswhen theyhadbeen

seenfromthebluffsor ifsomeonehadreportedseeingwhales intheareabutthishunterhad

justreceivedalargeamountofgasolinefromahuntersupportprogramandwaswillingtotake

aleisurelyrideinsearchofwhales.Thismissiongotdivertedwhenalonemuskoxwasspotted

atMasoyak,notfarfromthesettlement,andallthoughtsofbelugaswereabandonedinfavourof

hunting the muskox at hand. The boat was equipped with a number of guns suitable for

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harvesting a number of animals and the lone muskox was taken and brought back to the

community

Another such example took place while the researcher was pulling in the boat after

returningfromasummersealhuntandaharvesteraskedtheresearchertobringafishingrod.

Because a by-law exists that no shots may be fired within 2 miles of the community, the

harvesterhadthrownarockandhitaswaninthehead,knockingitunconsciousbeforeitwas

hookedwiththefishingrod,reeledinanditsneckwaswrung.Itwasservedbytheharvester’s

motherforlunchthenextdayintheformofsoup.

Speciessubstitutionwasan importantadaptivestrategy in2014whentheduckswere

notasreadilyaccessibleasinpreviousyears.Theunexpectedwhaleharvestmadeuptosome

extent for the lackofducks thatpeoplecounton to stock their freezers.Thesheernumberof

whalesharvestedmeantthatthewhalesweren’tquiteasvaluableastheduckswerethatyear.

Hadtheanomalouswhalesnotbeenpresentthatsummer,harvestersmighthavehadtorelyon

speciessubstitutionbyharvestingmorecharorbytravelingfartherawayfromthecommunity

toharvestmoremuskoxorcaribouthatyearinordertoreplacetheamountofcountryfoodlost

bytheshortfall.

4.4Opportunitiesforandbarrierstoadaptation

Thissectionalignswithobjective4oftheresearch,whichwasto identifyanddescribe

opportunities and barriers to enhancing food security. Opportunities and barriers were

identifiedanddescribedinresponsetothelocalizedclimaticandnon-climaticstressesandthe

adaptive strategies being employed in the community in order to identify opportunities and

barriersthatarebothrelevantandfeasible.

4.4.1Opportunitiesforadaptation

4.4.1.1Commercializationofcountryfoods

Historically, therewas a perception that you don’t sell country food and peoplewere

reluctant to buy something that shouldn’t be sold (Gombay 2007).Within the last few years,

perhapspromptedbytheincreaseinincomesupportandtheshifttoincreasedsinglemother-

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headedhouseholds,peoplearelessreluctanttobuycountryfoods,withonehousehold(asingle

motherherself)regularlysellingbagsofmipku(driedcariboumeat).

Some participants on the fringes of a sharing network (e.g. those on income support) and

otherwise, expressed an interest in the commercialization of country food through a country

foodstore,countryfoodbeingsoldinthegrocerystore(e.g.KitikmeotFoodsLtdproducts)ora

countryfoodrestaurant.

Country foodsold in stores isperceivedasbeingdifferent thanbuyingdirectly froma

friendorrelative.Inabind,someonemightbuymuskoxorreindeermeatfromtheQuickStop.It

israrethatacommunitymemberwouldbuyafishfromthesmallscalecommercialfishery,for

example,withthemajorityofthosesalesbeingmadetovisitorsfromelsewhereortobuyersin

Inuvik.

4.4.1.2Huntersupport

There are twomainhunter supportprograms established to alleviate a portion of the

costs associated with subsistence harvesting. The first is the Community Hunters Assistance

Program,administeredbytheUCCandthesecondistheInuvialuitHuntersAssistanceProgram,

administeredbyIRC.

TheUlukhaktokCommunityCorporationacceptsapplicationsfromactiveharvestersfor

upto50gallonsofgasforboats,snowmobilesandATVswithanexplanationofhowitwillbe

puttouse.

The Inuvialuit Regional Corporation administers the Inuvialuit Hunter Assistance Program,

which,alongwith theGNWT,acceptsapplications fromharvesters for largeequipmentand, if

accept,willcoverupto75%ofthecosts.Thecostsgotowardsthepurchaseofmajorequipment

such as snowmobiles, 4-wheelers, boats and outboard motors. It also covers some smaller

equipmentincludingradios,GPSunits,binoculars,tents,stoves,firearms,generators,sledsand

chainsaws, sewingmachines, stoves, heaters, fish nets and ice augers. In order to qualify for

IHAP, theapplicantmustbean Inuvialuitbeneficiaryunder the IFA,must self-identify as1) a

full-timeorpart-timeharvester,2)afull-timeharvesterbutlimitedincome,3)needinglimited

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start-up funds to become a harvester. The applicant must list members of household, past

assistance (last 3 years) under IHAP or similar program, income, current equipment in

household, and a request for assistance (quote from retailer) for snowmobile, boat, outboard

motororATV,andmustprovideanexplanationofwhytheassistanceisneededandhowitwill

helptheapplicantandtheirhousehold.TheIHAPcontributionformajorequipmentamountsto

up to 75%of total costwith amaximumof $5000 and the contribution forminor equipment

amounts toup to75%of totalcostwithamaximumof$1000. In2014,5majorand2minor

applicationsweresuccessful.

4.4.1.3Subsidiesandprograms

Health Canada is responsible for programs such as the Aboriginal Diabetes Initiative,

Brighter Futures, and the Nutrition North subsidy as well as research grants. These are

implementedatthecommunitylevelwithvaryinglevelsofsuccess.

The Aboriginal Diabetes Initiative is a good program in theory but has issues with

uptake. In2014, theAboriginalDiabetes InitiativePhase3wasongoing (2010-2015)with the

stated goal of reducing “type 2 diabetes among Aboriginal people by supporting health

promotion and primary prevention activities and services delivered by trained community

diabetesworkersandhealthserviceproviders”(HealthCanada2013).Inpractice,theprogram

is administered by the Inuvialuit Regional Corporation’s Regional Dietician, who provides

diabetesworkshopswith diabetes friendly snacks and leads discussions surrounding healthy

diet and exercise. Theseworkshops have low attendance rates and there ismuchwork to be

done on culturally appropriatemessaging around healthy diet and exercise. For example, the

Canadian Diabetes Association’s ‘Plate Method’ is distributed to diabetic elders whose main

stapleismeat,whereastheplatemodelindicateditmustbehalfcoveredinvegetables.

The Brighter Futures Program “is a community-based health promotion and ill-health

preventionprogram forFirstNationsand Inuit communities.Theprogram typicallypromotes

health and prevents ill-health through learning-related activities that strive to increase

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awareness, change attitudes, build knowledge and enhance skills…First Nations and Inuit

communities have the flexibility to determine which program component(s) to provide

community-basedprograms,servicesand/oractivitiesin”(HealthCanada2013).Eachprogram

must include at least one element out of five, which include communitymental health, child

development, injuryprevention,healthybabies and/orparenting skills (HealthCanada2013).

TheBrighterFuturesprogramemploysonepart-time staff personat theKayutakCentrewho

wasresponsiblefortheimplementationofprogramsinthecommunity.Oneoftheseprogramsis

the Breakfast Program at Helen Kalvak Elihakvik School, where a community member is

employedduringtheschoolyeartoallowchildrentoeatahealthymealbeforethestartofthe

schoolday.Anumberofparentsexpressedreliefduringthesummertimethattheirchildwould

soonbereceivingahealthymealinthemorningoncetheschoolyearbeganagain.Community

membersmay apply for additional programs under Brighter Futures through the Community

Corporation.

TheNutritionNorthprogram, in addition to the subsidy, alsodeliversweekly cooking

classesthroughalocalinstructortoteachresidentshowtointroducenutritiousstorefoodsinto

theirdietby teachingvarioussimplerecipes.Theclass iswell runbya local teacherandwell

attendedbywomenofallages.Therecipesweresimpleandteachattendeeshowtocookwith

(not necessarily affordable) nutritionally dense ingredients they may not have experience

cookingwith.

Health Canada also funded two years of a knowledge transmission project under the

Climate Change and Health Adaptation Program for Northern First Nations and Inuit

Communities,knownasNunaminIllihakvia:Learningfromtheland(2013-2014)andTumivut:

Inthetracksofourancestorstowardsahealthyfuture(2014-2015).ThegoalsoftheNunamin

Illikhakviaprojectwereasfollows(withsimilargoalsforTumivutrelatedtocaribou):

1.facilitatethetransferofknowledgeandskillsamongexperiencedhunters,Eldersandyounger

generation Inuit forhow tomake seal hunting equipment, how to travel on the sea iceunder

changingclimaticconditions,andhowtohuntsealsinthewinter;

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2. involve younger generation Inuit in butchering and sharing seal meat in the community

followingtraditionalfoodsharingnetworks;

3.teachtraditionalsealskinpreparationandsewingskills;

4. conduct Inuit-led interviewswithElders,huntersandsewers toevaluate theprojectand to

better understand relationship between seal hunting and health in the context of a changing

climate;and

5. develop multi-media research and learning tools that promote Inuit knowledge and skills

related to seal hunting, seal skin preparation and sewing skills and their importance to Inuit

health.

Theprogramprovidedanumberofemploymentopportunitiestocommunitymembers

andalsocontributedtophysicalandmentalwellbeingthroughincreasedphysicalactivity,time

spentlearningskillsandspeakingthelanguagewithelders,asenseofprideanddistributionof

harvestedmeatfromhuntingtripstocommunitymembers.

Finally, a number of programs provide support for residents of the Northwest

Territories of low socio-economic status, such as the Income Assistance program (support in

covering basic living needs on a case by case basis, as well as supplementary benefits for

education and training costs, child care expenses, and record suspension application fees in

ordertoenterthelabourforce),theSeniorHomeHeatingSubsidyProgram,theNWTChildTax

Benefit (inaddition to theNationalprovidedby the federalgovernment)and theNWTSenior

CitizenSupplementaryBenefit for low income seniors.Theseprogramsoffset thehigh cost of

living in the north and may impact household food security by liberating funds that may

otherwisehavebeenspentonbasicneeds.

4.4.2Barriers

4.4.2.1Familypolitics

ThecommunityofUlukhaktokwassettledbyfour‘familygroups’:twobandsofCopper

InuitknownastheKangiryuarmiutfromPrinceAlbertSoundareaandtheKanghiryuatjagmiut

from theMinto Inlet area (Jenness 1922), Puivlingmiut fromRead Island aswell as residents

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with heritage from the Mackenzie Delta and the Inupiat (Collings 2011). Despite the

intermarriageof the families, thedistinctionsbetween thegroupsare importantandcontinue

today. An added dimension of these distinctions comes from the dynamics of a small town,

wherebythosewhohavelivedtherealltheirliveshavehistorieswitheachpersonintheroom

and failings from the past may impact current events. These complexities may not be

immediately perceived by the outsider, which is why some third party interventions fail. An

exampleofthistookplaceduringtheicehouseinitiativewhichtooktheformofacommitteeto

plan the construction. This committeewasmade up ofmember of different ‘families’ and the

memberswouldhavepreferredtohavetheicehousebuiltinalocationeasilyaccessedbytheir

family.Intheend,theicehousewasstalledbytheobstacleposedbyinsurancebutthedissention

amongmembersabouttheappropriatelocationwouldhaveledtodifficultiesbeforefiscalyear

end.

4.4.2.2Relianceonimportedgoods

Relianceonimportedgoodsmeansthepriceoflivingishigherandthatthecommunityis

notassuchasself-sufficientasitwasbeforesettlement.Thehighcostofgasolineisduetothe

fact that it must be brought in by barge every year, as is diesel which is needed for power

generationandoilforheatinghomes.Thesenecessitiesarepaidforthroughemploymentinthe

wageeconomy,inacommunitywheretherearefewemploymentopportunities.Engagementin

thewageeconomymeansthatanindividualhasatleastahighschooleducation,meaningthey

spentlesstimeonthelandduetothetimeduringtheweekspentintheclassroom.Nowthatthis

individualhasaccesstomoneyfortheequipmentneededtospendtimeontheland,theyhave

limitedtimeandknowledge,whichtheythencan’tpassontotheirchildren.

While relianceondogs for travelatone timerequiredharvestingseals to feeda team,

nowharvestersarereliantoncostlymechanizedequipment,suchassnowmobiles,whichfewer

and fewer people know how to repair as they are builtwithmore digital components.When

componentsdobreakdown,iftheycan’tbefoundonanotherderelictmachine,theymustoften

beorderedfromthesouthandaharvestermustwaitforthemtoarrivebymail.

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Theadventofstorefoodinthecommunityhasalsoledtothenutritiontransitionandan

increasedrelianceonstorefood,tothedetrimentofcountryfoodconsumption.Thismeansthat

a larger portion of household income is being spent on store food, providing less financial

freedomtoengageinharvestingactivities.

4.4.2.3Deleteriousactivities

Decisions to spend financial resources on deleterious activities results in less money

available for basic household items or harvesting activities. This type of decision-making is

presentyear roundbut is especiallyprevalentduring the shoulder seasons (ice freezeupand

thaw)when it isnotpossible to travelon the landandduring the coldestmonthsof theyear

whentherearefeweractivitiesandfewerpeoplechoosetoharvest.

An example of this type of decision-making took place when a father of five sold the

family’s snowmobile at a reduced price during the summer months, wanting to get rid of it

quicklyinordertoafforddeleteriousactivities.Thiscanbeseenasacopingmechanismifassets

arebeingliquidatedtocoverhouseholditems,butineithercase,futurefinancialorfoodsecurity

isreducedasmaterialresourcesaredepleted.

4.4.2.4Changinglevelsoftraditionalknowledge

Decreasinglevelsofknowledgetransmissionareabarriertofoodsecurity.Asalludedto

above, various constraints are placed on an individual’s time from a young age. Limited time

spenton the landwithexperiencedharvestersdue to commitments in theWesterneducation

system mean that less traditional knowledge is being passed down to younger generations.

Whattraditionalknowledgeistransmittedhasthebenefitofprovidingchildrenwithimportant

characteristics such as patience and forethought. These childrenmay go on to engage in the

wageeconomy,whichlimitstheirtimeforon-the-landactivitiesandlimitstheamountoftime

andknowledgetheyareable tosharewith theirchildren.Thesechildrenthenhaveareduced

likelihoodoflearningevenaportionoftheknowledgeofpreviousgenerations.Theproblemis

compoundediftheyarenotabletoengageinthewageeconomy,theymayhavelimitedincome

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toput towardharvestingactivitiesandagainaren’table to learnor transmit theskillsneeded

forbeingontheland.

Traditional knowledge that is being passed down has often been acquired under

differentcircumstancesthanthosethatharvestersarecurrentlyexperiencing.Inthefaceofthe

stressors of changing environmental and climatic conditions, traditional knowledge is not

alwaysenoughtorespondtocontemporarychangingconditions.Asoneparticipantstated:

“We’restilllearning.Andit’schangingreallyquicklybecauseofclimatechange.Sointhespringtimewhenweusedtobeabletogetoursupplyoftroutdryfish,likeinJune,weused to startmaking trout dry fish to gowith ourmealswithducks inmid-June.Twoyears in a rowwe couldn’t do that because of the quick thaw. So everythingweweretaught about hunting, what time of year to go, when it’s safe, is all changing now soeverything’ssounpredictable.Sowedon’tgoanymore…Youcan’tdoanythingbut tryandexperienceandlearn.Nothingreallyyoucoulddobutgowiththechangesandhopetobesafe.”-EmilyKudlakAnotherfactorinthetransmissionoftraditionalknowledgeiscommunicationbetween

eldersandyouth.Thereareahandfulofelders inthecommunitythatonlyspeakInuinnaqtun

with grandchildrenwho only speak English. One elder expressed, through a translator, great

frustration that shewasn’t able to communicatewithhergrandchildrenand teach themwhat

shehadlearned:

“Shesaidonethingshenoticeswithhergrandchildrenandherchildren(grandchildrenmainly)isthattheydon’tknow,theyhaveacommunicationproblem.Becauseshecan’ttalkEnglishandtheycan’ttalktheir…herlanguageanymore.Becausethey’veforgottenortheywerenottaught.MaybebecausetheyweremostlytalkedtoinEnglish.Shesaidshe would love to teach them on how to prepare their food, to keep their food fromspoilingbuttheyhave,shehasacommunicationproblem.”-JeanKagyut(interpretedbySusieMalgokak)It has been suggested by Condon et al. (1995) that there is a growing lack of interest

among young Inuit in harvesting activities who are acquiring less and less training, have

restricted financial access to harvesting equipment, are undergoing the nutrition transition,

benefit less financially fromactivities suchas sealingand trappingand increasinglyengage in

organizedsportssuchashockey.

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4.4.2.3 Budgetingandnutritionalknowledge

As inmostCanadiansettings,highschoolgraduatesarenotnecessarilyequippedwith

the skills to run a household, including the budgeting skills to cover basic costs with a set

amount of funds. Without an understanding of how to select the most nutritious food on a

budget, an individual must either sacrifice quality, quantity or both. This lack of household

economicsknowledgeappliestotheplanningrequiredtosaveforandplaceabargeorder.Even

ifahouseholdisforwardthinkingandplacesabargeorderforbasic,often-useditemsthatare

moreexpensivewhenflownin(e.g.flour),theincentivetodosoisreducedwhenothersinthe

communityorsharingnetworkbecomeawarethatonehouseholdhasastoreofitemswhichcan

bedrawnfromas“agrocerystoreforthefamily”.

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CHAPTERFIVE:DISCUSSION

ThisresearchexaminedthevulnerabilityofanInuitfoodsystemtoclimatechangeinthe

context of multiple climatic and non-climatic stressors through a case study of Ulukhaktok,

NorthwestTerritories.WhileotherstudiesfocusonclimatechangeasakeystresseffectingInuit

food security, this research suggests that risks associated with climate change should be

considered in the broader context of other socio-economic-political stresses already effecting

foodsecurity,andwhichconditionhowInuitexperienceandrespondtoclimatechange.

The research shows that storage is an important determinant of food security. The

finding that storage is the backbone, which supports the availability of country food is not

surprising given that Inuit now live in permanent settlements and depend on cold storage

facilities during summer months. Unlike most store food, access to country food is highly

seasonal and harvesting activities are concentrated during the spring, summer and fall in

preparationforthecolderwintermonths.Theseharvestingactivitiescoincidewiththewarmest

timeof theyearwhenmeatmustbekept in cold storageuntil it canbemoved toanoutdoor

locationforthewinter.Withoutacentralcoldstoragefacilityinwhichtokeepmeat,harvesting

is limitedbyhowmuchfreezerspaceahunterhasaccessto.Furthermore, focusingstorage in

households, rather than a central facility, affects food sharing networks; sharing becomes

bilateraltwopersonexchanges,ratherthanafreeflowingexchangewherepeopleonthefringe

of sharing networks can involve themselves without invoking issues of pride (i.e. help

themselvestomeatfromacommunityfreezer).

Sometraditionalsourcesofadaptivecapacitytoupholdfoodsecurityarestillrelevant.

Sharing networks involving food, equipment, freezer space and even money continue to be

relevantformanyInuitintermsofaccessingbothcountryandstorefoods.Huntingisadynamic

activityandthesuccessofInuithuntershaslongbeenlinkedwiththeabilitytobeflexibleinthe

face of change. Hunters are accustomed to altering harvesting activities to accommodate

changingconditionsontheland,seaandice,andchangesinwildlifeavailabilityandcontinueto

62

dosotodayunderchangingclimaticconditions.Insomecases,however,theseandothersources

of adaptive capacity have been compromised by societal stresses including family politics, a

greater reliance on imported goods, deleterious activities (e.g. drugs, alcohol, gambling),

changing levels of traditional knowledge, budgeting, and nutritional knowledge. This finding

reinforceswhatotherresearchhasfoundinafoodsecuritycontext:addressingthenon-climatic

driversofstress,whilenotdirectedatclimatechangeorfoodsecurityperse,willinadvertently

enhance individual and collective adaptive capacity to deal with current and expected future

riskstofoodsecurity(Pearceetal.2010;Pearceetal.2011).Theresultssupporttheargument

for greater Inuit food sovereignty; food security initiatives should be driven by community

needs. Individual community needs could be recorded and communicated in a regional food

security strategy that could be implemented through a body similar to the Nunavut Food

SecurityCoalition(ataskgroupoftheNunavutRoundtableforPovertyReduction)orFoodFirst

NL (a provincial, member-based non-profit organization). The implementing body would be

structuredinawaythatcombinesastrongemphasisoncommunityvoiceswiththeknowledge

andexperienceoforganizationsalreadyactive in facilitating foodsecurity initiatives. Suchan

initiativewouldrequiresecure,long-termfundingtopaysalariedstafftodocumentcommunity

foodneedsandprovideadequatefundingtoimplementactions.

CHAPTERSIX:CONCLUSIONS

This chapter summarizes themainmessages of this research and highlights scholarly

andpracticalcontributions.Thisresearchsupportsandbuildsonfindingsfrompreviousstudies

examining food security and demonstrates that food security is affected by underlying socio-

economic conditions that are exacerbated by climate change. In particular, this research

identifies the roleof storageas adeterminantof food security,whichneeds tobe included in

conceptualizationsof foodsecurityandshouldbe included in futureresearchon foodsecurity

63

withInuitcommunities.AdaptationoptionsmustsupportInuitsovereigntyandreinforceboth

formalandinformaladaptationmechanisms.

5.1Summaryofkeyfindings

Themainmessagesofthisresearchare:

There is a need for a more adequate framework to assess food security in the

Arctic.Theresultsofthisstudyshowtheinterconnectionbetweenthewageeconomyandthe

subsistence economy as well as the country food and store food system. The current

frameworksmakeanartificialdistinctionbetweenthestoreandcountryfoodsystemaswellas

betweenthewageandsubsistenceeconomy.Recentwork(e.g.CanadianCouncilofAcademies

2014andtoagreaterdegreeICCAlaska2016)hasmovedawayfroma focusonthepillarsof

food security toward Inuit-developed conceptualizations of food security with a greater

emphasis on food sovereignty and the connectivity of all dimensions and drivers of food

security. Recent work has also addressed culturally appropriate assessment processes. The

Alaskan Inuit Food Security Conceptual Framework: How to Assess the Arctic from an Inuit

Perspectiveisasteptowardthis.AsimilarframeworkintheWesternArctic,onethattakesinto

accountuniqueInuitprioritiesandviewsasawayofassessingfoodsecurity, isawayofmore

holistically identifying and supporting food security adaptation options that are relevant and

feasibleforcommunities.

Inuitfoodsecurityshouldbeexaminedholisticallyandadaptationoptionsshould

reinforce both formal and informal mechanisms. When the topic of interviews with

participants shifted focus from exposure-sensitivities to adaptive capacity, the majority of

participantswere unable to identify specificways inwhich theywere dealing or adapting to

challenges. In the face of barriers that seem overwhelming, some participants were of the

opinion that adaptation was out of reach. Those who were able to identify specific ways to

combat food insecuritymainly focusedoncountryand industrial foodaccess throughexisting

subsidies such asNutritionNorth for store foods and CHAP and IHAP for harvesting country

64

foods. However, there exists an adaptive capacity within the community and goes beyond

institutionalizedmechanismsofsupportthattakevariousforms.Thiscallsforthereinforcement

of adaptation options that support such informal mechanisms as food sharing networks and

resourcesharingnetworksthatbridgethecountry foodandstore foodcomponentsaswellas

thewageandsubsistenceeconomy.

Food storage is an important pillar of Inuit food security.Oneway of reinforcing

informaladaptationmechanismsisthroughagreateremphasisonstorageintherecommended

holistic foodsecurity framework.Thisresearchuses thepillarsof foodavailability,accessand

qualityasthedefinitionoffoodsecurity,whereassomedefinitionsoffoodsecurityincludeuse

rather than availability as one of the three pillars (in addition to access and availability). Use

refersto ‘appropriateusebasedonknowledgeofbasicnutritionandcare,aswellasadequate

waterandsanitation’(WHO2006).Otherworkplacesstorageundertheumbrellaofavailability,

asfoodisonlyavailableafterithasbeenharvestedifitcanbeproperlypreserved.Neitheruse

noravailabilityencompassstorageperse.Onitsown,storageisakeyconsiderationaswellasa

possibleadaptationoption.InUlukhaktok, increasingtheamountofstorageavailabletoelder-

headed and family households as nodes in the sharing network is a relevant and feasible

adaptationoption.

Adaptation interventions to strengthen food security are most effective if they

supportInuit foodsovereignty. In this case, foodsovereignty is “basedon theprinciple that

decisions about food systems, including markets, production modes, food cultures, and

environments, should be made by those who depend on them. Support for autonomous

community food systems, community-based research, and community-based solutions that

respond to locally identified needs emerged as essential steps towards meeting the goal of

sustainableandlocalfoodself-sufficiency”(CanadianCouncilofAcademies2014).Inthissense,

efforts to address food security aren’t necessarily geared toward addressing food security

65

directly, or focusing on either climatic or non-climatic stressors, but rather addressing

underlyingfactorsthatincreaseadaptivecapacity.

Currently, community tours are carried out by regional and federal decision-making

bodies to gain insight into community wants and needs. These community tours provide a

snapshot into community life, don’t necessarily reflect all inputs and the take-awaymessages

may getmuddledwithout community context. Atworst, they result in the implementation of

projects by third parties that do not address community priorities, or are meant to address

community priorities but cannot be successfully executed. A lack of capacity to provide

guidanceduring thesecommunity toursorprojectsat thecommunity levelusingdocumented

community knowledge and a lack of any holistic community food security forum or board

ensurethatthedecision-makingstructuresremaintop-downinpracticeratherthanbottom-up.

Increasingcapacitytoinfluencethedecision-makingprocesswillresultin,andbeanoutcomeof,

greaterInuitsovereignty.

5.2Scholarlycontributions

Thisresearchprojectseekstomakebothscholarlyandappliedcontributions.Theuseof

a case studywill increase the understanding of food security at the local level in the light of

multiplestressors(Duerden2004).Theresearchprocessusedinthecasestudywillserveasan

example for other researchers undertaking case studies in the Canadian Arctic and will also

provide material for future longitudinal studies examining food security in the context of

climaticandsocio-economicfactors.

5.3Practicalcontributions

Further, this project will prove useful to the community of Ulukhaktok and policy

makersresponsiblefortheimplementationofadaptioninitiatives.Byidentifyinganddescribing

opportunities and barriers to enhancing food security, it is possible to highlight adaptation

measuresthatarebothrelevantandfeasiblegiventhe localized impactsofclimaticandsocio-

economic factors. One such practical adaptation measure is the reopening of the community

66

freezer, whichwill increase storage for elder-headed and family householdswho require the

most storage space. This adaptation initiativemoderates the restriction placed on harvesting

activities during the warmer months, when outdoor storage is not available and when

harvestersaremostactiveandneedtopreservefoodfortherestoftheyear.

67

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APPENDICES

AppendixA:EthicsApproval(UniversityofGuelphResearchEthicsBoard)

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AppendixB:ResearchLicence(AuroraResearchInstitute)

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AppendixC:InterviewGuide

Theme QuestionBackgroundinformation - Age?

- Relationshipstatus?- HaveyoualwayslivedinUlukhaktok?- Doyouworkintown?- Howmanypeoplelivewithyou?- Doyouownorrentyourhouse?

Householdcharacteristics(startherewithintroduction)

- Whopreparesmealsatyourhouse?- Whohunts?Howoften?- Howoftendoyoueatcountryfood?Howoftento

youshare/receivecountryfood?- Howmanypeopleeathere?Howoften?What

meals?Doyougoanywheretoeat?Quality - Canyoutellmeaboutniqainnaqvs.qablunaaqtat

niqit(“realfood”/countryfoodvs.storeboughtfood)?(e.g.nutrition?preference?contaminants?access?quality?)

Availability - Isthereanythingaffectingyourabilitytogetstorefood?(Choiceofstock?Price?)Whatdoyoudoaboutit?

- Isthereanythingaffectingyourabilitytogetcountryfood?(Equipment?Knowledge?Money?)Whatdoyoudoaboutit?

- Haveenvironmentalchanges(e.g.icechanging,animalsarefurther,extremeweather)affectedyourabilitytogetcountryfood?Whatdoyoudoaboutit?

- Hastheamountorqualityoffoodchangedfrompreviousyears?Whatdoyoudoaboutthat?(seeseasonalcycle)

- Areyougivenanysupportinaccessingfood?- Doyouoranyoneinyourhouseholdeatother

foodsthatyoudonotlikeasmuchbutareeasierorcheapertoget?

- Whatcouldbedonetomakefoodmoreaccessible?Future - Doyouthinkenvironmentalchallenges(e.g.

changingice,animalsgettingfurtherfromthecommunity,extremeweather,etc.)willcontinueinthefuture?Whatwillyoudo?Areyouconcerned?

- Doyouthinkotherchallenges(e.g.highpricesoffoodandequipment,changingaccesstoequipmentandstorage,etc.)willcontinueinthefuture?Whatwillyoudo?Areyouconcerned?

Storage - Isstoringyourfoodachallenge?- Howmanyfreezersdoyouown?Whatsize?- Aretheretimesofyearyouwishyouhadmore

freezerspace(e.g.forducks,muskox,caribou,fish)?

- Doyoueversharefreezerspace?Conclusion - Isthereanythingyouwouldliketoadd?

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AppendixD:ConsentForm

ConsentForm

InuitTraditionalKnowledgeandAdaptationtotheHealthEffectsofClimateChangeWhatistheresearchabout?Aim:AssessInuitfoodsecurityinlightofclimatechangeandexamineadaptationoptions.Whoisinvolved?Researchteam:ColleenParkerandTristanPearceYourrights:Ihavebeenfullyinformedoftheobjectivesoftheprojectbeingconducted.Iunderstandtheseobjectivesandconsenttoparticipatinginaninterviewfortheproject.IunderstandthatstepswillbeundertakentoensurethatmyinformationwillremainconfidentialunlessIconsenttobeingidentified.IalsounderstandthatifIwishtowithdrawfromthestudy,Imaydosoatanytimeuntilthecompletionofthestudywithoutrepercussions.

☐Mynamecanbepublishedinconnectionwiththisproject(myidentitywillnotremainconfidential)☐Directquotationswithmynamemaybeused(myidentitywillnotremainconfidential)☐Idonotwantyoutopublishmyname(myidentitywillremainconfidential)☐Ihavereadtheletterofconsentandclearlyunderstandmyrightsandresponsibilitiesconcerningtheresearch☐IconfirmthatIamovertheageof16

NA

ME

(Ple

aseprint):_____________________________________

Signature:_____________________________ Date:_________________

Signatureofwitness:________________________ Date:_________________

☐Igivepermissionforaudiorecording☐Igivepermissionforacopyoftheaudiotapetobekeptsecurelyinthecommunity,intheKayutukCentretowhichonlytheresearchteamwillhaveaccessfordocumentationpurposesuntilcompletionofthestudy.

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AppendixE:AnticipatedManuscriptsTitle Authors JournalExaminingtheVulnerabilityofanInuitFoodSystemtoClimateChangeintheContextofClimaticandNon-ClimaticStressors:ACaseStudyofUlukhaktok,NT

ColleenParker,TristanPearce,BenBradshaw,PhyliciaKagyut,SusieMalgokak

RegionalEnvironmentalChange

TheRoleofStorageasaDeterminantofFoodSecurityinUlukhaktok,NT

ColleenParker,TristanPearce,PhyliciaKagyut,SusieMalgokak,PeterCollings,BenBradshaw

Arctic