Excavation Handbook

HORACE K. CHURCH Consulting Engineer

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogoth Hamburg Johannesburg London Madrid Mexim Montreal New Delhi Panam Paris Silo Paul0 Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Church, Horace K Excavation handbook.

Bibliography: p. Includes index. I. Excavation. 2. Engineering geology.

I. Title. TA730.C48 624.1'52 80-19630 ISBN 07-010840-4

Copyright O 1981 by McCraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United Stabs of America. No part O F this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any fonn or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

2345 HDHD 83210

The editors for this b m k were Harold B. Crawford and Joseph Williams, the supervisor was T a s o F Leaden, and the designer wos Mark E Sofmn. It u s set in Gael by ComCom.

Printed and bound by Halliday Lithograph Cow.

Contents

Preface xv

. . . . . . . . . . . 1 . EARTH AND GEOLOGY OF EXCAVATION

2 . ROCKS. ORES. MINERALS. AND FORMATIONS . . . . . . . . . The Grand Canyon-The Classical Record of Rocks . . . . . . . . . Definition of Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classi6cation of Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

lgneous Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sedimentary Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Metamorphic Rockr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rocks. Ores. and Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Lineage of a Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attitude of FormationsDip and Strike . . . . . . . . . . . . . Correlation of Rock Formations for Excavation . . . . . . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 . ROCK WEATHERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forces of Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Deconlposition by Chemical Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . Disintegration by Mechanical Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . Combined Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rates of Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 . IANDFORMS AND GEOMORPHOLOGV . . . . . . . . . . Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Valleys and Gorges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Floodplains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fanglomerates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vlii Contents

Terraces . . . Mudflows . . . Mesas and Buttes

Wind . . . . . Valcanics . . . . Gravity . . . . . Crustal Movements

. . . . Faults Summary . . . .

5 . OPEN-CUT EXCAVATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Sites and Large-Foundation Excavations . . . . . . . . . Canals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dams and Levees . . . . . . . . . . . Highways . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pits and Open Mines . . . . . . . . . . Ouarriea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Railroads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanitary Fills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . Trenches and Small-Foundation Excavations Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6 . EXAMINATION OF EXCAVATION . . . . . . . . . Office Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Field Work Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Purpose of Field Reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . Long-Range Surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walking Centerline-Detailed Observations . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions from Field Work and Subsequent Excavation

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 . EXPLORATION OF EXCAVATION

Manual Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mechanical Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Backhoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bulldozers and Angledozers

Drills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lnstrumental Means-The Seismic Timer . . . . . . . . . . . .

Refraction Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ripping and Blasting Zones According to Seismic Velocities

Uphole Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Velocity-Depth Relationships for the Three Classes of Rock

Comoarison of Methods for Exdoration of Excavations . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8 . COSTS OF MACHINERY AND FACILITIES . . . . . . . .

Production of Machinery . . . . . . . Continuous Production . . . . . . . Intermittent Production . . . . . . .

Direct Job Unit Cost . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . .

9 . CLEARING AND GRUBBING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forest Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Estimating Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Necessary Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Timber Cruise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Methods and Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crane Method for Heavy Clearing and Grubbing . . . . . . . . Brush Rake Method for Light Clearing and Grubbing . . . . . . .

Production and Cost Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 . DEVELOPMENT OF WATER SUPPLY . . . . . . Symbols. Formulas. and Weights and Measures . . . General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . Fundamental Equations . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bernoulli's Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . General Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Friction Losses in Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . Hazen-Williams Formula . . . . . . . . . .

Frictiou Losses in Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . Friction Losses in Pipe Appurtenances . . . . . .

Equivalent Length of Pipe Method . . . . . . . Flow-of-Water Method . . . . . . . . . . . Velocity Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tables of Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Example of Use of the General Equation . . . . . Solution for Maximum Elevation. hSl. of the Pump Solution for Mechanical Head. h.". of the Pump . .

Methods and Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pipe Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Valves Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meters ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Examples of Water Supply Development . . . Use of Nearby Fire Hydrant . . . . . . . Use of Reactivated Line of Water Dishict . . Use of River Water Elevated above the River .

Productions and Costs . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11 . FRAGMENTATION OF ROCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

Ripping . . . . . . Principles . . . . . Methods and Machinery Productions and Costs

Blastine Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-23 Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-23 Methods of Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-37

Air Noise and Earth Vibration frarn Blasting . . . . . . . . . . Safety in the Use of Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blasthole Drills and Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of Successful and Economical Drilling and Use of Explosives

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12 . LOADING AND CASTING EXCAVATION . . . . . . . . . Tractor-Bulldozers and Tractor-Angledozers . . . . . . . .

Resolution of Forces when Bulldozing on the Level over Loose Rock-Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Resolution of Forces when Bulldozing Downgrade aver Loose Rock-Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Capacities .m d Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . Loading by Tractor-Bulldozers . . . . . . . . . . . . Castine bv Tractor-Aneledozers . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bucket Loaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crawler-Mounted Bucket Loaders . . . . . . . . Wheels-Tire-Mounted Bucket Loaders . . . . . .

Shovels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motions. Mechanics. gnd Specifications . . . . . . Operating Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Backhoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Operating Cycle and Specifications . . . . . . . . EEciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Operating Cycle Times . . . . . . . . . . . . Backhoe with Telescoping Boom and Rotating Dipper Production and Cost Estimation for Difficult Work . .

Small Backhoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Auxiliary Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uses in Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Operating Cycle Times . . . . . . . . . . . . Auxiliary Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crane Selection and Prodnction and Cost Estimation . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Draglines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Operating Cycle Times . . . . . . . . . . . . Production and Cost Estimation for Various Operations Area Mining by Dragline . . . . . . . . . . . summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Trenchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ladder Trencher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Efficiencies of Trenchers . . . . . . . . . . . Wheel Trencher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Productions of Trenchers . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Belt Loaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Belt Loaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . Movable Belt Loaders . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Wheel-Bucket Excavators . . . . . . . . . . . . Estimating Productions . . . . . . . . . . . .

Contents XI

Linear-Digging-Linear-TravelingExcavator . . . . . . . . . . 12-79 Circular.Digging-Linear.TravelingExcavator . . . . . . . . . . 12-82 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-84

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-85

13 . HAULING EXCAVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Crawler.Tractor.Bulldozers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crawler-Tractor-Drawn Scrapers and Rock Wagons . . . . . . .

The Effective Drawbar Horsepower . . . . . . . . . . . . Coefficient of Tractor and Rolling Resistance . . . . . . . . . Dynamics of Haulage by Crawler-Tractors and Scrapers . . . . . Production and Cost Estimation for Crawler-Tractor-Scrapers . . . Pull-type Rock Wagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Wheels-Tires-Mounted Scrapers and Bottom.Dump. Rear.Dump. and Side-Dump Haulers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Principles of Haulage by Wheels-Tires-Mounted Scrapers and Haulen Dynamics of Haulage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hauline-Cycle Calculationr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Scrapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Push-Loaded Scraper . . . . . . . . . . . . Self-hading Scraper . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bottom-Dump Haulerr . . . . . . . . . . . . Types and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison with Scrapers as Fundamental Haulers . Hauling Cycle Times and Average Loads . . . . Productions and Costs . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary Rear-Dump Haulers . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Types and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . Hauling Cycle Times . . . . . . . . . . . . Average Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Productions and Costs . . . . . . . . . . . summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Side-Dump Haulers . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hauling Cycle Timer . . . . . . . . . . . . Averaee Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Production and Cost Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-79 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-80

Considerations for Scraper or Hauler Selection . . . . . . . . . . 13-80 Belt-Conveyor Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-84

Parts of a Belt-Conveyor System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-91 Dynamics of a BelbConveyor System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-96 Productions and Costs of a Belt Conveyor . . . . . . . . . . . 13-109 Rear-Dumo Truck Haulaee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.111

~ u

Belt Conveyor Haulage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.112 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.113

Cableway Scraper-Bucket Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-113 Dragscraper Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-113 Track Cable Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-122 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-127

Railroads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-128 Physical and Economic Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-128 Principles and Dynamics of Railroad Haulage . . . . . . . . . . 13-131 Locomotive Selection Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.134

Xi1 Contents

Production and Cost Calculations for Locomotives and Cars . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Hydraulickers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Principles of Hydraulicking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Machinery and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Production and Costs for Hydraulicking . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Haulage by Hydraulicking and by Scrapers . . . . .

Dredges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grapple Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bucket Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Self-Propelled Hopper Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Suction-Cutterhead-Pipeline Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . Production and Cost Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary of Haulers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14 . DUMPING AND COMPACTING EXCAVATION

Dumping and Placing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Compacted Embankments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Spreading and Muing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Principles. Testing. and Specifications for Coznpartian of Embankments Wettine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u

Compacting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compaction of Trash and Cover Material in a Sanitary Landfill or Dump Summary . . .

15 . HAUL ROAD CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE . Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Grader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alignment

Methods and Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . Productions and Costs . . . . . . . . . . .

Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motor Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tow-Type Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Wagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16 . ALLIED OPERATIONS. MACHINERY AND COMPONENTS. AND FACILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wellpoint Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Principles. Methods. and Machinery . . . . . . . . . Fstirnated 1978 Cost of Unwatering Fonndation Excavation Alternative Dewatering Methods for Foundation . . . .

Cofferdams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lead Cofferdams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Cofferdams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Principles of Fundamentals of Cofferdam Design . . . .

Pumps for Unwatering for Excavation . . . . . . . . . Centrifugal Suction Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Centrifugal Submersible Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . Diaphragm Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magnitude of Large Unwatering Jobs . . . . . . . . .

Lighting Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Principles of Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lighting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Estimated Costs for a Floodlighting System . . . . . . .

Contents xiii

Weiehine Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-28 Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tire Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors Affecting Life of Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tire Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Selection of Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Life of Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Repairs to Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relative Costs of Nylon Bias-Ply Versus Steel Radial-Ply Tires . . . .

Engines . Engine-Generator Sets, and Mobrs . . . . . . . . . . . Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EngineGenerator Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Transporting Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methods and Machiuery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Production and Costs for Transporting Machinery . . . . . . . . Servicing and Maintaining Machinery on the Job . . . . . . . . Servicing in the Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maintenance in the Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Yards. Shops, and Offices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . offices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17 . CALCULATIONSOF QUANTITIES FOR EXCAVATION . . . . . . . A r a s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Subdivision Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prismoidal Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average-End-Area Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average-End-Area Method with Prismoidal Adjustment . . . . . . Caclulating Excavation Volumes According to Manner of Fragmentation Excavation Volumes and Weights According to Position or Condition .

Center of Gravity or Center of Maes of Volume in Excavation or Embankment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Importance of Using Centers of Gravity When Estimating Hauling Casts

Measurement of Haul and the Mass Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . Making Up Tables 17.1, Calculations for Mass Diagram . . . . . . .

Plotting Mass Diagram. Figure 17-9. from Data of Table 17-1 . . . Use of Mass Diagram for Calculating More Economical Haulage by

Substituting Another Borrow Pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of Mass Diagram for Calculating Centers of Gravity in Cuts and Fills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary

18 . PREPARATION OF BID AND SCHEDULE OF WORK . . . . . . . . Preparation of Bid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Example of Bid Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Unbalanced Bid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Bid Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Schedule of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Critical-Path Method (CPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General Observations and the Value of Preplanning and Scheduling Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11" Contents

APPENDIXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . Approximate Material Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . Rock Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . Depreciation Schedule for Machinery and Facilities . . . . . . 4 . Conversion Factors for System of Measurement . . . . . . . . 5 . Fornlulas Frequently Used in Calculations for Rack Excavation

Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 . Swell Versus Voids of Materials and Hauling Machine Load Factors 7 . Approximate Angles of Repose of Materials . . . . . . . . . . 8 . Bearing Powers of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 . Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Glossary . :

Bibliography

Index follows bibliography