Effects of herbivores and fire on

riparian and upland savanna ecosystems

Field Operations Manual for Herbivore & Fire Exclosures on the Sabie

and Letaba Rivers in the Kruger National Park

Compiled by

Thomas O’Keefe and Glynn Alard

December 2002

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Contents

Project Summary 3

Introduction 5

Project Background and History of Development 5

Guiding Research Questions 7

Vegetation Community and Disturbance Processes 7

Soil Ecology and Biogeochemistry 9

Additional areas of research interest 11

Exclosure Layout 12

Vegetation Sampling Protocol 13

Transects 13

Plots 14

Methods 16

Woody species 16

Herbaceous species 17

Alien plants 19

Instrumentation Protocol 19

Atmospheric Monitoring 19

Soil Monitoring 20

Ground water Monitoring 21

Fixed Point Photos 21

Fine scale 21

Coarse scale 21

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Detailed Site Map Methodology 22

Aerial Photography 22

Management 23

Site Management 23

Patrolling & Maintenance 23

Data Management 24

Access 24

Rules and Safety 25

Contacts 27

References 27

Appendix

Kruger Park Map

Kruger Park 2000 Flood photos

Sabie and Letaba River photos

Schematic of Exclosure Layout

Fencing Specifications

Letaba Site, species list

Sabie Site, species list

Aerial view of Sabie sites showing basic vegetation associations

Field Equipment List

Elephant and Fire Impact assessment

Aerial photo of Sabie pre and post flood

Aerial photo of Letaba pre and post flood

Channel detail of Sabie pre and post flood

Sabie River site map

Letaba River site map

Data Sheets

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Project Summary

Recent (February 2000) floods on the eastern seaboard of Southern Africa

inundated large areas of the Mozambique coastal plain. Rivers draining Kruger National

Park (KNP) in South Africa experienced flows (c. 8,000 m3 s-1 for the Sabie River) with

return intervals of approximately 1:50 years, causing widespread removal of riverine

vegetation and extensive alterations to channel habitat. The floods caused widespread

human suffering but also provided a unique research opportunity. For the first time in

nearly a century we will be able to characterize the long-term development and recovery

of riverine forests from a major disturbance.

Savanna landscapes in South Africa are important reservoirs of biodiversity that

are affected by expanding human populations and shifting patterns of land use. Within

these landscapes, the riverine forests are important boundaries between aquatic and

terrestrial systems that define the biodiversity and heterogeneity of these ecosystems.

South African National Parks rates research along with ecosystem conservation as

two of its core activities. Together with an international team of scientists we have

constructed large exclosures to study the role of herbivory and fire in the alteration and

determination of spatial and temporal heterogeneity patterns of vegetation. This research

will directly benefit our ecosystem conservation planning.

In their basic form, exclosures are fenced areas designed to keep out animals. At

each locality, a pair of exclosures will limit the accessibility of herbivores; one being a

“total” (electrified) exclosure, i.e. to exclude all herbivores (plant-eaters) from a hare

upwards in size, and a “semi-exclosure”, consisting only of two cables and electric wiring

at 1.8 m and 2.2 m above ground. The purpose of the semi-exclosure is to exclude

elephant, and, by virtue of their size, giraffe, but will allow access to all other herbivores.

Each exclosure will be divided in half, with one half allowed to burn should fire pass

through, and the other kept unburned. These exclosures will extend from within the river

channel to the crest, in order to enclose the full sequence of terrain morphological

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features and their associated soils, vegetation, and smaller fauna. This will allow for the

study of the relationships of habitats along the topographic gradient, from the crest to

within the river channel. Funding for construction of the exclosures was provided by a

grant from the U.S. National Science Foundation and funding from the Kruger Park

Marathon Club. Kruger Park staff will maintain the exclosures while continuing to

promote involvement with international scientists to conduct research at the sites.

The placement of large herbivore exclosures in the Kruger National Park (KNP)

is a fundamental research activity that provides solid evidence on which our whole

management policy rests. A critical component of the current research initiative in the

KNP concerns the effects of herbivores (especially elephant) and fire on the vegetation

and biodiversity of the Park, with the ultimate objective of devising (or revising existing)

scientifically based management policies. The rationale behind exclosures is that by

excluding these two important modifiers of the ecosystem, their effects on the ecosystem

can be determined over time. The proposed exclosures are thus designed to address these

issues, as well as post-flood recovery of riparian vegetation which is thought to be

heavily influenced by herbivory. As the nature of some ecological changes or processes

are of a long-term nature, the exclosures will serve as long-term monitoring and research

sites for at least 25 years. At that time, the objectives for the future use of the exclosures

should be reviewed. These exclosures will thus provide extremely valuable long-term

information on key ecological processes; information that would be nearly impossible to

obtain.

The exclosures along the Sabie are located across the river from Nkuhlu picnic

site, in the area between the Sabie River and the Salitjie road. The Letaba exclosures are

located approximately midway between the low-water bridge over the Letaba, and

Mingerhout dam, and thus far from public view in a wilderness area. Special permission

was obtained to locate the exclosure here and it may be subject to special research

conditions.

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Introduction

Savanna landscapes in South Africa are important reservoirs of biodiversity, and

are affected by expanding human populations and shifting patterns of land use. In order

to understand and manage these landscapes, several concepts must be employed.

Foremost is the application of a modern systems viewpoint (e.g., Likens 1992), which

hypothesizes that spatial and temporal heterogeneity of savannas are key to their function

(Rogers 1997). In these landscapes, large herbivores and fire are recognized to play an

important role in determining these heterogeneous spatial and temporal patterns through

their effects on vegetation and the physical landscape. Despite this general knowledge

that herbivory and fire are important, careful long-term studies that rigorously document

the changes in isolation and as interactions have yet to be conducted.

Through the construction of large herbivore exclosures overlapping with fire

treatments our primary research objective is to determine how herbivory and fire alter

spatial and temporal heterogeneity patterns. These exclosures will extend from within the

river channel to the crest, and encompass the riparian corridor representing a full

sequence of geomorphological features and their associated soils, vegetation, and smaller

fauna. Riparian corridors are perhaps the most obvious expression of boundaries in

savanna regions, and these boundaries defining the heterogeneity of these ecosystems are

of particular ecological interest.

Project Background and History of Development

This cooperative program builds on the extensive knowledge base generated by

the many decades of research conducted by the Kruger National Park Scientific Services,

and the decade-long Kruger National Park River Research Program and more recent

River Savanna Boundaries Program in collaboration with several South African and

American universities, government departments, and research agencies. The Kruger Park

has a long history of interest in the possibility of erection of formal research exclosures

(rather than the “incidental exclosures” which have become available because of for

instance, enclosures being built to breed up rare antelope). This interest relates

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particularly relating to fire and elephant effects. Fortunately this historical interest, and

the more recent interest of other groups in riparian and riparian-upland issues in the

Kruger Park, has provided an opportunity for unified structures dealing with all these

interests, to be put in place.

In February 2000 the Kruger National Park was presented with a unique

opportunity to develop a long-term experiment designed to examine the effects of

herbivory. The largest flood since 1925 for the Sabie (7,000 to 8,000 m3 s-1) and Letaba

rivers removed most of the vegetation along these rivers, primary research sites in the

park, resetting the system to bedrock and sand. The vegetation before the flood was a

mature riparian forest including stately fig and other majestic riparian trees. The Sabie

River catchment is 7,086 km2 with a river length of 230 km and a mean discharge of 633

million m3/a. The Letaba catchment is 13400 km2 with a length of 490 km and a mean

discharge of 631 million m3/a.

Construction of large exclosures subsequent to this major flood event will allow

us to follow the successional development and pattern formation of vegetation along

riparian zones. Riparian zones are recognized as “hotspots” of activity because they

integrate terrestrial and aquatic systems (Naiman and Décamps 1997). We believe the

research we are conducting (viewed across aquatic, riparian and upland zones) will

generate a novel understanding of savannas as integrated yet heterogeneous ecological

systems.

The systems approach to ecosystem study requires ecologists to expose the

connections and fluxes between the elements of heterogeneity, and the feedbacks

between heterogeneity and ecosystem function (Risser 1995). Therefore, boundaries in

the landscape that define this heterogeneity are of particular ecological interest, and

riparian corridors are perhaps the most obvious expression of boundaries in savanna

regions.

The emerging view of system heterogeneity emphasizes that biological richness

has many facets (Noss and Cooperrider 1994). The first facet highlights the kinds of

ecological systems that are present in a region. The second facet indicates the relative

abundance of each kind of entity present in the area. The third facet indicates that the

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various ecological components are dynamic in time, and that they are functionally

connected with one another. Finally, the three facets of kind, relative abundance, and

function are expressed in all ecological realms. Therefore, genes, species and

populations, communities and ecosystems, and landscapes all can be considered as

components of system heterogeneity (Kolasa and Pickett 1991, Collins and Benning

1996). Riparian systems, and their connection to in-stream processes and to interchanges

with the upland components of savanna landscapes, provide a powerful test of the

functional significance of spatial and temporal ecosystem heterogeneity. The

development of this understanding is the overarching mission of our scientific

programme.

Guiding Research Objectives

Vegetation Community and Disturbance Processes Under our overall objective of examining the role that herbivory and fire play in the

alteration and determination of spatial and temporal heterogeneity patterns, we have

identified the following primary research questions:

How does herbivory change the vegetation pattern? When herbivory is imposed on the basic geomorphic template, greater spatial

heterogeneity in vegetation may occur resulting in a more structurally and biologically

complex habitat. Released from pressure by herbivores, we expect that large trees will

display higher growth rates although it will likely take up to 25 years to see this effect.

How does fire affect the vegetation pattern? Although previous long-term studies have been conducted in the park to examine the role

of fire in structuring vegetation patterns, we will add focus on the riparian zone and the

interaction effects with herbivory.

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How do herbivory and fire affect the regeneration of vegetation following a major flood event? Floods such as those experienced during February 2000 are a rare and major disturbance.

We predict that recovery of vegetation will be more rapid in the absence of herbivores,

but with less diversity and habitat complexity.

How do herbivory and fires affect seed dispersal, seed germination, and then seedling survival? Because herbivores are important transport vectors for seeds, we expect that in the

absence of herbivores, seed dispersal and germination decline. In the absence of fire, we

expect seed germination declines as disturbance by fire is recognized to be important for

successful germination. Our plots will allow us to examine the interaction between this

two factors affecting germination. Finally, we expect that once they are established, fire

and herbivory will both decrease individual seedling survival rates.

What effect do animals have on the physical and biogeochemical features of the landscape? One important example of this are pans which are a ubiquitous feature on the landscape.

We expect that animal activity is necessary for their continued maintenance. Without

animals to keep them open, we predict vegetation will invade and they will close up. In

the interim small semi-aquatic fauna may benefit from conditions were there is no major

large animal disturbance. Animals likely have an effect on soil structure and erosion rates

through physical disturbance of soils and we will be able to examine this.

Our basic methodology to address these research questions will be to characterize

riparian and upland vegetation in the different herbivory and fire treatments by measuring

basal area, stem density, and canopy dimensions for all woody and herbaceous species at

our sites, and individual growth rates of key species of interest that include Sclerocarya

birrea, Acacia nigrecens, Diospyros mespiliformis, Kigelia africana, Breonadia salicina,

and Trichilia emetica. We will also use fixed-point photography from the ground and

aerial photography to document overall changes through time. In addition we will

conduct biogeochemistry analyses to characterize the sites themselves and to better

understand the features of the physical template that affect the vegetation community.

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Soil ecology and Biogeochemistry In conjunction with studies on the vegetation community we will also conduct

studies on soil ecology and biogeochemistry. These will include long-term experiments

of water and nutrient availability on the development of vegetation and soil. The

observation of soil water and nutrient status and fluxes will be used to address a number

of hypotheses.

Within treatments “The different vegetation types along each transect from crest to river are influenced by

the retention capacity and flux of water and nutrients within the soil profiles prevalent at

each vegetation type.”

This involves comparison of soil water and nutrient uptake within each transect. Hence

soil water monitoring and sampling sites on each transect are located in the riparian zone

(2-3 sites), in a sodic zone where these exist and in the upland combretum zone. Here,

surface and subsurface water and nutrient fluxes will be studied.

Across treatments “The rate of recovery of vegetation with and without herbivory will depend on the

availability of soil water and nutrients.”

Observation of soil water and nutrient fluxes in profiles of similar vegetation types under

different treatments will enable factors affecting growth and survival of vegetation to be

distinguished between herbivore effects and effects due to water and nutrient availability.

Observations will include surface and subsurface water and nutrient balance

determination at each site in each treatment.

Transect dynamics “Surface and subsurface fluxes and accumulation both vertically and laterally influence

the availability of water and nutrients in specific topographic locations in the transect.”

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Surface runoff and subsurface water and nutrients observations will be used to define the

hydrological processes, which result in accumulations of water and nutrients at specific

locations in the profile and thereby influence the spatial distribution of vegetation

recovery.

Instrumentation that would otherwise be disturbed by large animals will include

freestanding equipment to measure atmospheric parameters to provide rainfall input and

estimates of potential evapotranspiration boundary conditions. Parameters to be

measured at the meteorological stations will include break-point rainfall, air temperature,

air humidity, wind speed and direction and solar radiation. Soil water monitoring will

include volumetric water content by Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) and soil water

tension status by tensiometry. Techniques have been developed to house this

instrumentation within and outside of exclosures so that comparisons of soil water status

can be made. The TDR method used will allow for simultaneous measurement of

volumetric water content as well as bulk soil electrical conductivity, giving a continuous

indication of nutrient and salinity status. The nutrients and salinity will also be sampled

periodically to determine the make up of soil water dissolved solids and N-P ratios. The

samples will be extracted, either by suction cup lysimeter or by a modified wick method.

The exclosures will, for the first time, allow experimental studies of nutrient limitation on

plant diversity and productivity. Surface runoff quantity and quality will be observed in

runoff plots located at the soil monitoring stations.

Fundamental questions remain as to which nutrients are limiting to riparian

vegetation (N or P) and in what elemental ratios, how water availability affects growth

and survivorship of key riparian species, and what is the course of ‘terrestrialisation’ once

water is removed. Instrumentation that would otherwise be disturbed by large animals

will include equipment to measure and sample the following parameters: atmospheric

monitoring (air temperature and rainfall), soil moisture, soil temperature, lysimeter and

surface water collectors to collect soil and runoff solution for nutrient analysis, and

groundwater monitoring wells. The exclosures will, for the first time, allow experimental

studies of nutrient limitation on plant diversity and productivity.

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Additional areas of research interest In addition to these primary research questions, we have identified other areas of

research interest particularly in the area of biogeochemistry and will encourage

collaborative relationships to develop other projects of interest that are compatible with

the primary research objectives set out for the exclosures. The objective is that these

exclosures will be used primarily for projects of a long-term nature.

The KNP has a well-documented objectives hierarchy (available at http://parks-

sa.co.za, go to Kruger park, Scientific services) which includes explicit research interests,

and many of these are obviously catered for by these exclosures. However, more detailed

fleshing out, or unpacking, of particular objectives still needs to be carried out to further

focus such questions.

Opportunities exist to examine the role of exotics in savanna landscapes. While

the most pervasive exotics will be removed in accordance with park management

activities (see management section of this manual) we predict that many exotic annuals

will be displaced over time as the native riparian forest community develops. With

changes in habitat structure we also anticipate changes in fauna including birds, rodents,

and insects. This can in turn have feedbacks on the vegetation community that could be

studied through the use of long-term mini-exclosures for these groups located within the

large exclosure.

Additionally, in the next few years KNP will be embarking on a large-scale

experiment to actively move elephants into high and low-density areas within the Park.

The Sabie River exclosure will be constructed in an area destined to have low elephant

densities, whereas the Letaba site is destined to have high elephant densities. Therefore,

secondarily the exclosures will be used in cooperation with the large-animal researchers

to quantify the long-term effects of differential elephant browsing and fire on ecosystem

processes.

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Exclosure Layout

Cost and practical considerations prevented us from replicating exclosures in a

manner consistent with traditional statistical techniques. Despite this, large-scale

ecosystem experiments have made important contributions to ecology, and this approach

was selected for the design of these exclosures. While the scale selected makes

replication prohibitive, designing smaller exclosures would have introduced edge effects

and prevented us from effectively addressing many of the ecosystem questions that are of

primary interest.

The design selected addresses the shortcoming of non-replication by

incorporating basic principles that others have successfully used to address ecosystem

questions (Carpenter and Kitchell 1993). The manipulations are strong and sustained with

exclosures being used to apply a strong treatment effect with regard to herbivory.

Statistical techniques designed for large-scale ecosystem experiments have been

developed and successfully implemented (Matson and Carpenter 1990) which will be

used in conjunction with ecological interpretation of changes that occur.

Exclosures are located at two sites within the Kruger National Park; one along the

Sabie River and one along the Letaba River. At each locality, a pair of exclosures were

erected; one being a “total” (electrified) exclosure, i.e. to exclude all herbivores (plant-

eaters) from a hare upwards in size, and a “semi-exclosure”, consisting only of two cables

and electric wiring at 1.8 m and 2.2 m above ground. The purpose of the semi-exclosure

is to exclude elephant, and, by virtue of their size, giraffe, but will allow access to all

other herbivores.

The exclosures are approximately 50 ha (1.0 x 0.5 km) in size and separated by an

unfenced distance of approximately 400 m. They extend along the catena, from within

the river channel to the crest, in order to enclose the full sequence of terrain

morphological features and their associated soils, vegetation, and smaller fauna. This will

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allow for the study of the relationships of habitats along the topographic gradient, from

the crest to within the river channel. Part of the latter will be included in "sacrificial"

exclosures, so-called because they may sustain damage and are designed to be

reconstructed when the river floods (bankfull events with a 5-10 year recurrence interval)

Nevertheless, they will serve a very important function as it is the lower riparian zone

that took the brunt of the impact by the recent floods and underwent the greatest change

In order to introduce fire as an experimental treatment in the areas, each exclosure

will be divided approximately in half with a firebreak. All natural fires will be allowed to

enter the exclosures from outside, but hopefully, will always be excluded from the no-

burn treatments. In addition, the open area between the two exclosures will act as a no

burn reference area, and the unfenced reference area at the outside ends of the exclosures

will serve as a natural fire regime treatment A total of six treatments will thus be

possible. See the diagram in the appendix for details.

The exclosures along the Sabie are located across the river from Nkuhlu picnic

site, in the area between the Sabie River and the Salitjie road. The Letaba exclosures are

located approximately midway between the low-water bridge over the Letaba, and

Mingerhout dam, and thus far from public view. Permanent interpretive signs at Nkuhlu

picnic site and along the Salitjie road provide an explanation and general background on

the exclosures, for the benefit of park visitors.

Exclosure Vegetation Sampling Protocol

Transects

We have established two permanent transects in each of the six treatments.

Transects extend from the river to the crest of the catena, perpendicular to the river

channel. Transects are as evenly spaced as possible within each area, and at least 100 m

from fences and at least 30 m from firebreaks and areas where construction activity was

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concentrated. The location and bearing of the transects was determined using aerial

photographs and 1:50 000 maps.

Permanent markers (25 x 25 x 50 cm concrete benchmarks) are located at the ends

of each transect. The transects have been laid out in two steps. In the riparian zone a

digital theodolite with a compass was used to establish a straight line from the benchmark

along the bearing of the transect. In the uplands, where tree density increases and a

straight, line of sight for the theodolite would be obscured by tree canopies, the line was

extended along the same using a differential GPS geo-referenced to a nearby base-station

to ensure accuracy.

Along the transect, stakes (12 mm steel reinforcing bar) are placed every 10m in

the riparian zone and every 20 m in the upland. These points correspond to the location of

permanent vegetation plots located on the downstream side of the transect but will also be

used to relocate the transect for other studies. In the riparian zone, these distances were

measured using the theodolite and in the uplands where the transect was continued with

the GPS, the distances were measured using a laser rangefinder.

Plots Permanent vegetation sampling plots have been established 5 m downstream from

the transects (to reduce disturbance on the plots from other uses of the transect lines.)

Plots are 10m x 20m, with the long side parallel to the river channel.

Within the riparian zone, the permanent vegetation plots are contiguous to the top

of the macrochannel bank. As the upland limit of the riparian zone may be unclear

following the flood, a minimum of 6 plots are sampled at the beginning of each transect.

This allows for sampling from the edge of the active channel up to the top of the

macrochannel bank (where the sodic areas start). Most of the riparian zone will be

between the permanent and temporary fences (temporary fences are the ones that we

expect may be damaged in flood events, but they will be repaired as soon as possible

after such events). The plots in the riparian zone will be contiguous as this area has a high

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biodiversity and it is a narrow zone. Also, it is in this zone that most vegetation

succession will occur due to post-flood community development. Contiguous plots

ensure that data of this vital zone is maximized and thus future understanding of the

spatial and temporal heterogeneity of the riparian zone is improved.

Plots in the sodic sites (where present) and uplands will be the of same

dimensions (10m x 20m) and distance from the transect (5m). These plots will be spaced

20m apart along the transect. Plot placement may be subject to minor adjustment so as to

avoid areas of construction activity including roads used by the building crew. The sodic

sites and uplands are more extensive and vegetation patterns are more uniform; these

areas were not altered to the great extent that the riparian zone was during the floods.

Therefore, the scale of temporal heterogeneity will not be as great as in the riparian zone.

For these reasons, sampling need not be as intensive.

The river-upstream (UU) corner of each plot will be 5m perpendicular from the

transect, and correspond to the 20m stakes along the transect. All 4 corners will be

exactly located and permanently marked by hammering 12mm steel re-bar stakes into the

ground. Each stake is 0.5 m long, and approximately 10cm will be left exposed. Each

stake will be marked with grooves that will indicate their position so that if only corner

can be found, it will be possible to re-establish the plot correctly.

• 1= Upland-upstream (UU)

• 2= River-upstream (RU)

• 4= River-downstream (RD)

• 3= Upland-downstream (UD)

Further, the GPS co-ordinates of the UU corner of each plot will be found using a

differential GPS. Finally, a reference photograph will be taken diagonally across the plot

from the UU to the RD corner using a 28 mm lens and a monopod at a height of 2 meters.

In order to measure the degree of alluviation and illuviation (riparian zones only),

the length of the RU stake extending from the ground will be measured to the nearest

mm.

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Methods Woody vegetation sampling

A brightly coloured 60 m rope will be extended around the stakes to clearly mark

the edges of the plot and clarify which individuals fall within and outside the plot. All

plants rooted within the plot are recorded, i.e. even if the entire canopy of a tree extends

into a plot but it is rooted outside, it will not be recorded, and vice versa.

When it is not clear what constitutes an individual within a clump of multiple

stems or when stems may result from vegetative reproduction, clumps which are 0.5m or

further apart will be classified as different individuals.

Two canopy heights will be taken for each individual:

1. The height to the top of the tallest branch will be measured using a clinometer if the

individual is too tall to measure with a stadia rod. Tall trees that cannot be measured from

within the site will be measured from as far back as necessary to see the top of the tree.

2. The height of the lowest foliage (which could be a single twig with leaves) will be

measured.

Two canopy diameter measurements perpendicular to each other will be taken for

each individual across the longest and shortest perpendicular axes of the canopy.

The diameter of every stem will be measured just above the basal swelling, using

callipers for stems <5 cm in diameter and a diameter tape for stems >5cm in diameter.

Where an individual consists of more than 10 stems, the number of stems will be counted

and recorded; 10 stems will then randomly be measured for diameter. Dead stems will be

recorded as such, but will be measured. These records of dead stems are to be written and

then circled. Obviously, no foliage exists on a dead tree, therefore only the total height

will be recorded.

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Further, elephant damage to the individual will be noted. Qualitative data will be

recorded (type of damage e.g. broken side branch, tree pushed over, scar in trunk) and

quantitative data will also be recorded (the extent of damage will be described e.g. what

percentage of the tree is damaged) following the methods of Anderson & Walker (1974).

If the cause of the damage is not known, it will not be speculated upon, as this is often

very difficult to determine.

Fire damage will be assessed in order to capture the extent of past fires (e.g. main,

primary or secondary stems killed or alive).

Any impact of a known or unknown cause other than elephant and fire will be

recorded listing the cause of impact, if known. The following mammals have visible

impacts on woody vegetation and will be indicated by the use of the following codes:

• Porcupine = P

• Giraffe = G

• Kudu = K

• Buffalo = B

• Unknown = X

• Other = O

If the impact is not the cause of any of the above, and the cause is known, it will be noted

as such in the notes column.

Finally, there will be notes field in the data sheet to record additional

discretionary information that may be important.

Herbaceous vegetation sampling The herbaceous biomass of each plot will be estimated by dropping a disc pasture

meter every 2 paces across the E to W diagonal of the plot. The disc is not to be dropped

onto any woody or other non-herbaceous material, as this would give a false reading. A

minimum of 7 readings is required for calculation. The disc pasture meter is calibrated

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for the conditions and vegetation of the lowveld, and is used to calculate the standing

crop or fuel load.

Within each plot, two 1 m2 circular sub-plots will be sampled for herbaceous

vegetation. A metal hoop 1.12 m in diameter (1m2 in area) will be placed in the N and

then in the S corner. A circle is used as it has the least circumference relative to area, and

thus decreases the disputes of “borderline” plants. As with woody plants, only individuals

rooted in the circle will be recorded. Two thin metal poles will be laid at right angles at

ground level to sub-divide the hoop. This makes sampling much easier as mat forming

herbs are difficult to keep track of. Every life form will be counted and recorded,

including algal mats (% cover will be estimated), mosses, and ferns. All plants will be

identified to the furthest level possible, i.e. species level.

Within each 1m2 circular sub-plots:

1. Every forb will be identified and recorded to determine species abundance and density.

When a species occurs in very large numbers, rendering it impractical and

inaccurate to count individuals, sub-sampling will be used. A circle of known

diameter will be used (e.g. cellotape role). Also, when the total diameter of any

forb is less than 1 cm, and many occur in the plot, subsampling will be done by

tossing the sub-sample into the ring randomly four times and counting all such

minute individuals.

For stoloniferous forbs, each rooted point will be counted as an individual.

2. Every grass species will be identified and recorded.

For grasses that form a tuft base, basal diameter will be measured. For

stoloniferous grasses, the diameter of all rooted points will be measured and

treated as individuals. This can be used to measure the amount of basal cover.

3. % cover of algal mats will be estimated.

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Herbarium specimens of all plant species will be collected, preferably not from

within the plots, so that these can be compared in future surveys if/when confusion arises

regarding species identifications (especially if species have been taxonomically split).

Although taking specimens from within the plot destroys seed producers and individuals

which may need to be surveyed in the future, this trade-off has been decided upon as the

future benefits of a reference collection outweigh the minimal damage that will be done

to the site. However, unnatural disturbance (of which specimen collection is an example)

must at all times be kept to an absolute minimum within the plots where possible.

Surveying of Alien plants Woody alien plants present at the time of survey will be recorded but not in the same

detail as the indigenous species. Total canopy height will be measured and a subjective

visual estimate of percentage cover will be made. It would be valuable to monitor the

presence of alien populations historically over time subjected to the various treatments.

However, alien plant eradication/removal will continue as part of the SANParks/Working

for Water management programme.

Instrumentation protocol

Instrumentation is designed to facilitate study of spatial and temporal variation in

environmental parameters and nutrient dynamics at critical points along a transitional

toposequence from the river edge to the upland boundary. This will provide us with

greater insight on the physical template at our sites. We anticipate deploying one

meteorological station and twenty-six soil water-monitoring stations at each site (Sabie

and Letaba). These will comprise either four or five stations along each of six transects

located in each treatment. Sampling stations will be selected to capture local topographic

and vegetation variation.

Atmospheric monitoring A simple weather station at each site will measure point rainfall, air temperature,

air humidity, wind speed and direction and solar radiation. These data will be logged on a

20

10-minute interval and resolved to yield daily summaries.

Soil monitoring Volumetric soil water contents will be continuously monitored at specific

sampling stations using TDR probes installed at various depths in the profile and

connected to a data logger. These will provide data that are critical to understanding

water and solute movement, both locally and across the toposequence and will be useful

in assessing the importance of soil moisture to nutrient transformations. The TDR

measurements are sophisticated and expensive, yielding both volumetric soil water

contents and soil water electrical conductivity (EC) measurements simultaneously. Two

sets of recording instrumentation will be available. These can be moved from station to

station to record intervals of soil water and EC measurements where probes have been

installed. In addition to the TDR, each station will be equipped with three or four

automatic recording tensiometers, positioned at different depths within the profile. The

tensiometers will record the soil moisture tension and provide a record of the prevailing

direction and gradient of the soil water potential. These data will be used to determine

both the water and nutrient balance at each location as well as the mechanisms and rates

of vertical and lateral accumulation or uptake.

Soil solution will be collected either in ceramic cup lysimeters or modified wick

samplers. Two samplers will be installed at each station: a shallow lysimeter (15 cm

depth) for sampling nutrient concentrations in surface soil horizons and a deep lysimeter

to sample for changes in solute chemistry as rainwater infiltrates into deeper soil layers.

Gaseous losses are of major interest in determining the fate of nitrogen and

carbon. A permanent collar for attachment of a gas collection enclosure will be installed

in each sampling station. Permanent installation of collars is necessary to minimize the

effects of soil disturbance on gas evasion rates.

Surface runoff is an important vector for loss of nutrients during storms. A

sampler for collecting surface runoff during storms will be installed at each sampling

21

station. Runoff collectors will be simple standpipes installed vertically in the soil, with

the upper lip slightly above the level of the soil to intercept surface-draining water.

Soil temperature sensors will be installed in six of the sampling stations at

different distances along the toposequence

Ground water monitoring Changes in ground water height are important indicators of surface water ground

water interactions. Wells for monitoring ground water height and for sampling ground

water chemistry will be installed in selected upland sites with deep water tables. At sites

where the water table is three meters or less deep and either perched or permanent water

tables are anticipated, wells will be installed to a depth of 3m. Water level sensors will

be installed in six wells to continuously monitor groundwater height.

Fixed-Point Photography

Fine-scale A final decision has yet to be made on the exact locality of fixed-point sites. The

suggestions were made to take one (1) photograph per transect plot along a diagonal line

(will still have to decide on the direction) and at a fixed height which necessitates the

usage of a tri- or monopod. The problem with this way of taking fixed-point photos is

that because only short distances are covered, trees and taller shrubs will not fit entirely

onto photographs. An alternative way would be to cover longer distances along the

transects, i.e. to take a photograph every 50 m or so while standing on the centre line

(middle of transects), thereby including the whole spectrum of height classes of woody

plants.

Frequency and timing must be consistent, in other words photographs will have to be

taken annually during the same time of day of same month.

Coarse-scale In addition to the above-mentioned points, other sites can be selected in order to gain an

22

overall bigger overview of the vegetation across the exclosures. Potential sites include

corner points in the fences and or junctions of internal firebreaks with fences. Such sites

would be easy to find and also show out differences between burned and unburned

blocks.

Frequency and timing must be the same as above.

Detailed Site Map Methodology

A once-off detailed (fine-scale) set of aerial photographs will have to be taken during

2003 in order to produce a digital elevation model (DEM) at a spatial resolution of 0.5 m,

reflecting three-dimensional differences between vegetation types along the catenas as

well as indicating contour lines to illustrate changes in topography. The DEM can be

used to assist in compiling detailed maps of the entire exclosures as well as immediate

surrounding areas in terms of plant communities, soil types, geology and drainage.

A company will be hired to take the aerial photographs and produce the DEM. The

classification of the vegetation, soils and geology can be handed out as research projects

to students under good supervision of an academic institution.

Aerial photography

Large and/or small-format aerial photography will have to be conducted on an annual

basis approximately the same time of the year. Fine-scale photography at high spatial

resolution will be required if even small changes in vegetation cover and drainage lines

are to be detected. Changes in the number of large trees, size of sodic patches, bush

encroachment and NDVI are amongst the parameters that can be extracted from such

photographs.

The possibility of Scientific Services conducting the large-format photography will be

investigated since the camera belongs to CSIR but is out on loan to Scientific Services.

Should it not be possible to pursue this option, the alternative would be to use small-

format photography as is currently applied in the rest of the KNP.

23

Management

Site Management An exclosure committee has been formed in order to manage the site in terms of

maintenance decisions and scientific studies/surveys. The various members of the

committee as well as brief explanations of their respective roles in the exclosure project

are:

Dr R. Scholes [CSIR]– external and moderating advice in terms of research,

monitoring and data & site management

Dr H. Eckhardt [SANParks]– convener/chairperson of the committee; areas of

involvement include inter-departmental matters relating to exclosures [funding,

maintenance, strategic planning], conceptual advice, remote sensing.

Mr N. Zambatis [SANParks]– construction overseer and management, matters

relating to site management and development, conceptual & vegetation science

advice.

Mr Thando Msomi [SANParks]– site management, maintenance, staff management,

general matters.

Mr G. Alard [Wits University, RSBP]- baseline vegetation surveys, research-staff

management and training, instrumentation monitoring, general matters.

Patrolling and Maintenance The relevant rangers will be in charge of the patrolling and reporting of breakages.

The idea is that the patrolling team should have the capacity to fix minor breakages and

only report major damages to the maintenance team at Skukuza. Technical Services in

Skukuza will delegate the repair work of major damages to an outsourced contractor.

A wider strip along the fences has been cleared of all vegetation, meaning trimming

branches, removing bushes and shrubs, and keeping the herbaceous layer very short in

order to improve visibility for animals but also to enable better maintenance and prevent

shortages in the electrical system. The herbaceous layer will be maintained in order to

prevent erosion.

24

A firebreak has been created in both the full and partial exclosure. Only woody plants

were removed, but the herbaceous layer will be maintained although it will be kept short

to prevent fire jumping. Scientific Services’ fire ecology department will maintain the

firebreak.

Data Management Objectives:

Make data widely available in timely fashion while protecting intellectual

property rights of program participants.

Guidelines: Data collected as part of the long-term monitoring efforts will be made available

to those participating in projects within the exclosures. After two years these data will be

publicly available. Kruger Park Scientific Services will coordinate data management for

these data.

Researchers who wish to publish data from the exclosures or associated long-term

monitoring efforts must specify an intent to publish with Kruger Park Scientific Services

and acknowledge the source of the data.

Researchers who conduct individual projects within the exclosures will serve as

custodians for data that they collect, but will be expected to contribute their data to the

data manager upon completion of their project. Those collecting more general

monitoring data may be asked to contribute on a more regular basis to be established in

consultation with the program participants.

Access control of Exclosure sites Even though the exclosure sites are areas which have been impacted upon and

manipulated by humans, the areas remain part of the Kruger National Park, and therefore

all rules and safety practices required of all National Parks must at all times be upheld. It

must be remembered at all times that the sites have been selected for the purpose of

25

research, and that any impacts/unnatural processes within the system will negatively

affect the results of the project. The sites are under the management of Conservation

Services but access is controlled by Scientific Services. Therefore permission must be

sought from Scientific Services to enter the area. Entrance will be limited to officially

approved visitors and those participating in a SANParks registered scientific project.

Rules & Safety For the safety of those entering the exclosure for whatever purpose it is imperative to note the following:

• The KNP falls within a “big five” or “dangerous game” area. Those entering the

area on foot must at all times be accompanied by a game guard; or will have to

carry a firearm (if allowed to). Heavy calibre rifles such as .375 or .458 are

recommended. Keep in mind that even though the full exclosure is supposed to be

free of large dangerous game, breaks in the fence may occur, allowing access to

dangerous game. Buffalo, hippo, rhino, lion and leopard may be found in the

partial exclosure. SANParks indemnifies itself of any damage of property, injury

or death which may occur in or around the exclosure sites.

• A fairly well equipped First Aid Kit must be taken along on all field excursions.

Special note must be made before embarking that adequate supplies and

knowledge is available to treat accidents such as snake/scorpion bites,

broken/sprained bones and joints, etc.

• No mobile phone reception is available in the exclosure sites. Communication

measures must be taken to avoid unnecessary dilemmas. Make enquiries at

scientific services if any two-way hand held radios are available. If not,

communicate the excursion schedule with persons in Letaba/Skukuza, should you

not return within a certain time frame, appropriate rescue/search procedures may

be put into action.

• It goes without saying that thorough vehicle and fuel checks must be done before

embarking for the exclosure site.

• Always make sure that an ample supply of water is available for the excursion. This

26

could be crucial for use with injuries, heat stress, dehydration, vehicles, etc.

• The fence is electrified; do not touch it.

General rules apply to all who enter the exclosure sites: • At all times the uppermost intention should be to inflict minimal impact within the

sites – remove nothing (unless it is for research purposes) and add nothing (unless

it is for research purposes).

• Littering is strictly prohibited. Please remove all foreign materials from the site

after completion of field work (e.g. cigarette stubs, paper, piping, off-cuts, etc.)

• Keep gates closed at all times. The keys are available from Scientific Services.

• Drive only on the roads provided. Soils in the sodic sites are particularly sensitive

and prone to erosion if heavily impacted, therefore under no circumstances will

vehicles be allowed on the sodic sites.

• It is KNP policy to prohibit collecting of wood in the veld. This is even of greater

importance within the exclosure sites. Removal of rocks and firewood destroy

microhabitats and remove a valuable source of nutrients.

• Avoid walking on the vegetation sampling plots; the transect lines 5 m upstream of

the plots were created to orientate researchers to the plots to obviate direct

walking on them.

• Damage or removal of living material is strictly prohibited, except during collection

of herbarium specimens

• Report any strange occurrences or sightings in exclosure e.g. break in fence, open

gates, game sightings in full exclosure, etc.

• Do not tamper with the box containing the power source for the fencing. This is

primarily for your safety. Please report any visible signs of tampering on the

electrical equipment.

• Various hydrological and soil monitoring equipment has been installed within the

exclosure sites. Do not tamper with this equipment.

• Restrict ablutions to areas well away from vegetation survey plots and

soil\hydrology monitoring installations.

27

Contacts/Current Projects

Glynn Alard, glynna@parks-sa.co.za, University of the Witwatersrand

Dr. Harry Biggs, biggs@parks-sa.co.za, South African National Parks

Dr. Holger Eckhardt, holgere@parks-sa.co.za, South African National Parks

Angela Gaylard, angelag@parks-sa.co.za, University of the Witwatersrand

Dr. Shayne Jacobs, shaynej@parks-sa.co.za, University of Washington

Judith Kruger, judithk@parks-sa.co.za, South African National Parks

Dr. Simon Lorentz, lorentz@nu.ac.za, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg

Thando Msomi, thandom@parks-sa.co.za , South African National Parks

Prof. Robert Naiman, naiman@u.washington.edu, University of Washington

Thomas O’Keefe, okeefe@u.washington.edu, University of Washington

Prof. Kevin Rogers, kevinr@gecko.biol.wits.ac.za, University of the Witwatersrand

Dr. Robert Scholes, Bscholes@csir.co.za, CSIR

Jacques Venter, jacquesv@parks-sa.co.za, South African National Parks

Nick Zambatis, nickz@parks-sa.co.za, South African National Parks

References:

Anderson. G.D. & Walker, B.H. 1974. Vegetation composition and elephant damage in

the Sengwa Research Area, Rhodesia. J. Sth. Afr. Wildl. Mgmt Ass. 4(1): 1-14.

Collins, S.L. and T.L. Benning. 1996. Spatial and temporal patterns in functional

diversity. Pages 253-280 in K. J. Gaston, editor. Biodiversity: a biology of numbers

and difference. Blackwell, New York.

Kolasa, J., and S. T. A. Pickett, editors. 1991. Ecological heterogeneity. Springer-Verlag,

New York.

Likens, G. E. 1992. Excellence in ecology, 3: The ecosystem approach: its use and abuse.

28

Ecology Institute, Oldendorf/Luhe, Germany.

Naiman, R.J., and H. Décamps. 1997. The ecology of interfaces — riparian zones.

Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 28:621-658.

Noss, R. F., and A. Y. Cooperrider. 1994. Saving nature’s legacy: protecting and

restoring biodiversity. Island Press, Washington, DC.

Risser, P. G. 1995. Biodiversity and ecosystem function. Conservation Biology 9:742-

746.

Rogers, K. H. 1997. Operationalizing ecology under a new paradigm: an African

perspective. Pages 60-77 in S. T. A. Pickett, R. S. Ostfeld, M. Shachak and G. E.

Likens, editors. The ecological basis of conservation: heterogeneity, ecosystems,

and biodiversity. Chapman and Hall, New York.

Kruger National Park

Effects of herbivores and fire on post-flood recovery ofriparian ecosystems

Appendix

BASALT

GRANITE

Letaba Site

Sabie Site

S O U T HA F R I C A

THE KRUGER NATIONAL PARK (KNP)

Almost 2,000,000 ha (4,942,000 acres) in size, the KNP is 350 km (212 mi) long and on average, 65 km (41mi) wide. It extends from 22˚ 20’ to 25˚ 30’ S. Mean altitude above sea level is approximately 320 m (1,050ft).

The KNP is situated within a tropical to semi-tropical region, with deciduous savanna vegetation. It ispredominantly arid to semi-arid, with summer rainfall, generally from November to March). Mean rainfall is530 mm (21 in), varying from about 430 mm (17 in) in the Limpopo river valley in the extreme north, tosome 800 mm (32 in) on the low mountains in the south-western corner. Summers are hot, with a meantemperature of 26.3°C (79.3°F), with mild winters. Frost is a rarity.

The Sabie and the Letaba rivers flow over the two major geological formations in the park, granite andbasalt, resulting in two distinct channel types and vegetative communities.

Floods on the eastern seaboard of Southern Africa inundated large areas of the Mozambiquecoastal plain, extending well beyond the alluvial floodplain. Rivers draining Kruger NationalPark (South Africa), which are tributary to the Limpopo River in Mozambique, experiencedflows (c. 8,000 m3/s) with return intervals of approximately 1:150 years, causing widespreadremoval of riparian vegetation and extensive alterations to channel habitat. The floods causedwidespread human suffering but also provided a truly unique research opportunity. For the firsttime in nearly a century there is the possibility to describe and manipulate the long-term recoveryof riverine forests.

Kruger National Park Floods (February/ March, 2000)

Letaba River

Sabie River

These photos are taken near the study sites.

SCHEMATIC LAYOUT AND TREATMENTS TOBE APPLIED TO THE EXCLOSURE SETS

PARTIAL EXCLOSURE FULL EXCLOSURE

UNBURNEDAREAS

SACRIFICIALEXLOSURES

BURNED AREASBURNED AREAS

FIRE BREAK

river channel

floodplain

FIRE TREATMENT

NO BURN

BURNED

HERBIVORE UTILIZATION

FULL ACCESS ALL EXCLUDEDELEPHANTS EXCLUDED

A B C

D E F

F E B C A D F

At each site, a pair of exclosures was erected; one being a “total” (electrified) exclosure, i.e. toexclude all herbivores from a hare upwards in size, and a “semi-exclosure”, consisting only of twocables and electric wiring at 1.8 m and 2.2 m above ground. The purpose of the semi-exclosure is toexclude elephant, and by virtue of their size giraffe, but will allow access to all otherherbivores.Transects outside the exclosures will be used to chacterize vegetation recovery in thepresence of all herbivores. In addition to herbivore utilization, fire will also be a treatment variable.Plots in the burn areas will be allowed to burn following the natural fire regime of the surroundinglandscape (i.e. natural fires). The fire break will prevent these fires from entering the unburnedplots.. There will be two transects in each of the six treatment combinations with contiguous 10 x 20m plots along each transect.

Specifications:Fencing:·Galvanized steel posts (101 x 2.5 mm) and stays (48 x 2.0 mm) concreted at 80 m intervals.·76 mm intermediate posts at 20 m.·Y-section standards every 5 m.·2 droppers between standards.·Concrete lintel 200 x 100 mm under fence.·3 strands of 4 mm galvanized wire.·3 rows of 12 mm black cable and shackles.·Diamond mesh 1.2 m x 63 x 2.5 mm

All tied with 2.5 mm wire.

Other equipment:·2 sets of shock equipment per exclosure pair comprising energizers, solar panels, batteries, ashock box to house and protect the equipment. The reason for having two systems per exclosureset is that one powers two wires and the second the remaining three wires. Thus in the event thata wire is broken or shorts, the exclosures are still provided with some protection.·Current-disruption radio transmitter and receiver, effective up to 100 km on flat terrain.·Double-leaf gate with electrification.

Herbaceous SpeciesAgeratum houstonianumAlternanthera pungensArgemone mexicanaArgemone ochroleucaAristida congesta ssp. CongestaCentela asiaticaChloris virgataCrabbea angustifoliaCrabbea ovalifoliCynodon dactylonCyperus compressusCyperus esculentusCyperus rotundusDactyloctenium aegyptiumDatura spp.Digitaria erianthaEchinochloa pyramidalisEragrostis heteromeraEragrostis lehmannianaEragrostis rotiferHelichrysum argyrosphaerumHeliotropium steudneriOxalis spp.Panicum maximumPaspalum scrobiculatumPhragmites australisPogonarthria squarrosaSchmidtia pappophoroidesSphaeranthus incisusSporobolus africanusSporobolus iocladosSporobolus nitensTagetes minutaUrochloa mosambicensisUrochloa panacoidesVerbena bonariensisVerbena brasiliensisVernonia natalensis

Woody SpeciesAcacia nigrescensBrachylaena discolorCassia abbreviataColophospermum mopaneCombretum apiculatumCombretum erythrophyllumCombretum hereroenseCombretum imberbeCombretum microphyllumCombretum sppCommunis ricinusCroton megalobotrysDichrostachys cinereaDiospyros mespiliformesEhretia rigidaEuclea natalensisFicus sycomorusFluggia virosaJasmineLantana camaraLonchocarpus capassaNuxia oppositifoliaPappea capensisPhyllanthus reticulatusPyrostria hystrixRhoicissus tridentataSenna sppTerminalia pruiniodesTrichilia emeticaXimenia caffra

Plant Species List for Letaba study site. Note, this is an incomplete list based on the 2001 surveythat only included half of the transects in the riparian plots. No upland plots were included.

Woody SpeciesAcacia burkeiAcacia erubescensAcacia grandicornutaAcacia nigrescensAcacia robustaAcacia sppAlbizia anthelminticaAlbizia harveyiBerchemia discolorBerchemia sppBolusanthus sppCassia abbreviataCombretum apiculatumCombretum hereroenseCombretum imberbeCombretum molleCombretum sppCommiphora africanaCommiphora neglectaCommiphora sppDalbergia melanoxylonDichrostachys cinereaDiospyros mespiliformesDovyalis sppEhretia obtusifoliaEhretia rigidaEhretia sppEuclea divinorumEuclea natalensisFicus sycomorusFluggia virosaGardenia sppGardenia volkensiiGrewia bicolorGrewia flavescensGrewia hexamitaGrewia occidentalisGrewia sppJasmineKigelia africanaLantana camaraLonchocarpus capassaMelia azederach - ALIENPappea capensisPeltophorum africanumPhyllanthus reticulatusPhyllanthus sppPyrostria hystrixRhus queinziiSclerocarya birrea subsp. CaffraSecurinega sppSecurinega virosaSenna spp??ALIEN??Spirostachys africanaStrychnos spinosaSyzygium guineeseThilachium africanumTrema orientalisTrichilia emeticaZanthoxylum capenseZiziphus mucronata

Herbaceous SpeciesAgeratum houstonianumAgeratum spp.Alternanthera pungensAmarathus sppBothriochloa insculptaCentela asiaticaChloris gayanaChloris virgataCommelina erectaCommelina livingstoniiCommelina sppCrab sppCrabbea angustifoliaCrabbea hirsutaCrabbea ovalifoliCymbopogon plurinodesCynodon dactylonCyperus esculentusCyperus rotundusDactyloctenium aegyptiumDactyloctenium geminatumEchinochloa pyramidalisEleusine coracanaEragrostis rotiferEragrostis superbaEragrostis trichophoraEuphorbia sppHeliotropium steudneriHeteropogon contortusLantana camaraMariscus congestusOxalis corniculataOxalis sppPanicum deustumPanicum maximumPanicum schinziiPaspalum distichumPaspalum scrobiculatumRuellia cf. patulaRuellia sppsedgeSolanum panduriformeSorghum bicolor subsp. ArundinaceumSphaeranthus incisusSphaeranthus sppSporobolus africanusSporobolus iocladosSporobolus nitensTagetes minutaThemeda triandraTragia rapratisUrochloa mosambicensisUrochloa panacoidesVerbena bonariensisVerbena brasiliensis

Wahlenbergia caledonica

Plant Species List for Sabie study site. Note, this is an incomplete list based on the 2001 surveythat only included half of the transects in the riparian plots. No upland plots were included.

SODIC AREA

RIPARIAN & IN-STREAM COMMUNITIES AND ASSOCIATIONS

Combretum-Sclerocarya ASSOCIATION

CRESTSEASONAL STREAM

Aerial View of site on the Sabie River at Nkuhlu Picnic siteillustrating the major vegetationcommunities.

Differential GPSLaser rangefinderDigital theodolite, tripod, reflector, poles50 cm x 12 mm steel re-bar stakes (pointed end)hammerflaggingcompasscamera, 28 mm lens, and monopodspray paintconcrete markers

60 m bright nylon rope1m2 frame1.12 m cross pieces for metal hoopcalipersdiameter tapemeasuring tape (100 cm)disc pasture meter

stadia rodclinometer

plant pressplant id sheetsvegetation id books

extra data sheets on water-resistant paper

Field Equipment and Supplies required for Vegetation Surveyreconcile lists--more detail on equipment specs

SurveyingTheodoliteRain coverTripodPoles (4)ReflectorData SheetsClipboardStake descriptionsStakesCompassMapHammerPencils (2) and eraserExtra battery (CHARGED)

HerbaceousringData sheetsdisc pasture metersmall subsample ringID books (flowers and grasses)Stake descriptionsClipboardField herbarium(s)Cello tape

WoodyCompassClinometerDBH tape (5m and 10 m)Calipers30 m tape measureStake descriptionsData sheetsPencils (3) and eraserClipboardTree BookField herbariumTapePlot ropes (2)Quarter ropes (2)GlovesStadia rod1.5 m measuring stick

End of DayData sheets to NotebookRefill clipboardsCheck in all equipmentCharge dead batteriesStakes for next day

ELEPHANT IMPACT (Type) CODEPulled or kicked outPushed over and dead or appears deadMain trunk broken, stump is or appears deadMain trunk broken resprouting or likely to repsroutPushed over but still alive aliveMain trunk tusk-slashedMain trunk debarked (% O )Roots exposed and eaten (% O )Primary branches brokenSecondary and/or smaller branches brokenNone - no obvious LEAVE EMPTY

ABCDEFGHJK

1-10%11-25%26-50%51-75%76-90%91-100%

123456

QUANTIFYAS FOLLOWS:

Tertiary & smaller branchesSecondary branchPrimary branchMain trunk/stem(s)

PROPORTIONS OF CANOPY/TRUNK/ROOT-BASEDIAMETER:

1-10%

11-25%

26-50%51-75%

76-90%

91-100%

1

2

34

5

6

FIRE IMPACT (Assess only after a burn)

Main stem(s) killed, entire plant dead, or apparently soMain stem(s) killed but coppicing from ground levelOnly debarked area of main stem burntPrimary stems killed, no signs of re-sproutingPrimary stems killed, re-sprouting off main stemsSecondary and/or smaller branches killed, resproutingNone - no obvious impact

ABCDEF

Sabie River Study Site, preflood 1996.11.02

Sabie River Study Site, postflood 2000.08.03note: photos have not been orthocorrected

Letaba River Study Site, preflood 1996.11.04

Letaba River Study Site, postflood 2000.09.07

note: photos have not been orthocorrected

Sabie River pre (1996.11.02) and post (2000.08.03) flood comparison of thechannel near Nkuhlu Picnic Site

Sabie River Site Map

Site Transect Plot HERBS Recorder

Page Date Measurere

ID Species Tuft Diameter Pasture Meter

Site sketch

Small herbs (<1cm)

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Slope Horiz.

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