exercises 6,7,8 handout

Exercise 6

HYDROCARBONS

HYDROCARBONS

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to:

develop ability to detect and record various signs of chemical change.

describe how hydrocarbon types may be detected and differentiated from each other by means of simple chemical tests (test tube reactions).

compare the reactivity of alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and aromatic hydrocarbons towards selected chemical reagents; and

carry out the laboratory preparation of acetylene.

Functional Group

is a group of atoms that has

characteristic chemical

behavior in every molecuIe

where it occurs.

(reactive sites)

The chemistry of

every organic molecule,

regardless of size and

complexity, is determined

by the functional groups

it contains.

Functional groups

Hydrocarbons

- they contain only carbon and hydrogen

Alkanes and Cycloakanes

Alkenes and Alkynes

Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons

Aromatic Aliphatic

Hydrocarbons

Aromatic Aliphatic

Alkanes Cyclic aliphatic Alkenes Alkynes

Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic

described as saturated hydrocarbons

have only C-C and C-H single bonds

contain the max possible # of H per C

general formula: CnH2n+2 (n is an integer)

Alkanes C C H H

H H

H H

Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic

sometimes referred to as paraffins (Latin parum affinis, meaning little affinity)

show little chemical reactivity

do react w/ O2, halogens and few subs under proper conditions

C C H H

H H

H H

Alkanes

Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic

sometimes called an olefin

contain a carbon-carbon double bond

general formula: CnH2n

C C

H H

H H

Alkenes

Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic

contain a carbon-carbon triple bond

HC CH Alkynes

Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic

the carbon atoms are arranged to form

rings

Cyclic aliphatic

Hydrocarbons

Aromatic

The most common aromatic

hydrocarbons are those that

contain a benzene ring.

H

H

H

H

H

H

HYDROCARBONS

Samples:

Cyclohexane Benzene

Cyclohexene

Toluene

Acetylene

Legend:

(+) miscible (-) immiscible

Solubility Tests

Sample CH2Cl2 H2O NaOH H2SO4

cyclohexane + - - -

cyclohexene + - - +

benzene + - - -

toluene + - - -

Legend:


Solubility Tests


cyclohexane + - - -

cyclohexene + - - +

benzene + - - -

toluene + - - -

likes dissolves like -HCs are soluble in CH2Cl2 but insoluble in

H2O because they are non-polar organic cpds

-CH2Cl2 is non-polar while H2O is polar

Legend:


Solubility Tests


cyclohexane + - - -

cyclohexene + - - +

benzene + - - -

toluene + - - -

HCs have no reaction with dilute base

Legend:


Solubility Tests


cyclohexane + - - -

cyclohexene + - - +

benzene + - - -

toluene + - - -

Alkenes are reactive with cold concentrated sulfuric acid (sulfonation).

Explanation:

When alkenes are treated with cold concentrated

sulfuric acid, they dissolve because they react by

electrophilic addition to form alkyl hydrogen sulfates

(ROSO3H)

Solubility Tests

Halogenation/Bromination

Reagent: Br2/CH2Cl2

Positive Result: loss of red-orange color of Br2

(-) (+)


Sample Light Reaction Dark Reaction

cyclohexane + -

cyclohexene + +

acetylene + +

benzene - -

toluene + -

Reagent: Br2/CH2Cl2

Positive Result: loss of red-orange color of Br2

Explanation:

CH2Cl2 serves as the solvent

- will bring Br2 in contact with the HCs

- good reaction medium since it is both non-polar and

inert towards the HCs and bromine

Bromination reaction of HCs proceed by 2 diff

mechanism:

Free Radical Substitution (FRS)

Electrophilic Substitution (EA)



requires light or heat

produce HBr as one of the products

mechanism by which alkanes and alkylbenzene

undergo bromination


Halogenation of an alkane is a FRS reaction

RH + X2 RX + HX

alkane halogen haloalkane hydrogen halide


Heat/UV light


radical - highly reactive because it contains an atom with an odd number of electrons

achieve a valence-shell octet in several ways

radical might abstract an atom and one bonding

electron from another reactant, leaving behind a

new radical

(radical substitution reaction)



Steps:



A halogen atom abstracts hydrogen from the alkane

(RH) to form an alkyl radical (R).

The radical in turn abstracts a halogen atom from a

halogen molecule to yield the alkyl halide (RX).

Which alkyl halide is obtained depends upon which

alkyl radical is formed.



Study of the halogenation of many alkanes has shown

that the rate of abstraction of H atoms is always found

to follow the sequence: 3 > 2 > 1



The relative ease with which the different classes of H

atoms are abstracted is:

Ease of abstraction of H atoms:

3 > 2 > 1 > CH4

(based on the relative stability of the free radicals)



relative stability of the free radicals:

- the amount of E needed to form the various classes of

radicals decreases in the order:

CH 3 > 1 > 2 > 3

(abstraction of a 1 H yields a 1 radical,

abstraction of a 2 H yields a 2 radical...)



R-H R + H H= bond dissociation energy

if less E is needed to form one radical than another

- the one radical contains less E than the other is more

stable



Relative to the alkane from which it is formed,

Stability of free radicals:

3 > 2 > 1 > CH 3



Ease of abstraction of H atoms:

3 > 2 > 1 > CH4

Ease of formation of free radicals:

3 > 2 > 1 > CH 3

The more stable the free radical, the more easily it is

formed.



Reaction: cyclohexane



Reaction: toluene



Reaction:

toluene undergoes bromination at a faster rate despite

that it is brominated at a 1 carbon

explained by the resonance stabilization of benzyllic

free radical



Reaction:

stability of free-radical:

benzyllic > 3o > 2o > 1o > CH3

ease of formation of free-radical:

benzyllic > 3o > 2o > 1o > CH3

simple generalization:

the reactivity of a H depends chiefly upon its class, and not upon the alkane to which it is attached


Electrophilic Addition (EA)

can take place even in the dark

no HBr is produced

mechanism by which alkenes and alkynes are

brominated



Electrons in the bond of alkenes/alkynes react with electrophiles

these reagents that are seeking a pair of electrons are

called electrophilic reagents (Greek: electron-loving)



Alkenes are readily converted by Br2 into saturated cpds

that contain two atoms of halogen attached to adjacent

carbons

addition proceeds rapidly at room T or below, and does

not require exposure to UV light



With alkynes the addition may occur once or twice,

depending on the number of molar equivalents of halogen

we employ:

addition proceeds rapidly at room T or below, and does

not require exposure to UV light



electrophilic addition to an alkene/alkyne involves the

intermediate formation of the more stable carbocation

Stability of carbocation:

benzyllic > 3o > 2o > 1o



Reaction: cyclohexene



Reaction: acetylene


Reaction with Baeyers Reagent

Sample Results Explanation

cyclohexane - absence of unsaturation

cyclohexene + presence of unsaturation

acetylene + presence of unsaturation

benzene - presence of unsaturation but

resonance stabilized

toluene - presence of unsaturation but

resonance stabilized

Reagent: cold, dilute, neutral KMnO4

Positive Result: disappearance of purple color of permanganate

solution and formation of brown precipitate (MnO2)


Reagent: cold, dilute, neutral KMnO4

Positive Result: disappearance of purple color of permanganate

solution and formation of brown precipitate (MnO2)

(-)

(+)

Explanation:

Alkenes: 1,2-Dihydroxylation is an important oxidative

addition reaction of alkenes. (Glycol or dihydroxy alcohols

formation)

(Heat and the addition of acid are avoided which can promote further

oxidation of the glycol, with cleavage of the carbon-carbon double

bond)


Reaction with Baeyers Reagent Reaction: cyclohexene

Oxidation: Alkenes can be partially oxidized by permanganate

Explanation:

Alkynes: leads to cleavage at the carboncarbon triple bond. The products are carboxylic acids:


Reaction with Baeyers Reagent Reaction: acetylene

Reaction with Ammoniacal AgNO3


cyclohexane

cyclohexene

acetylene

Reagent: Ammoniacal AgNO3 [Ag(NH3)2+]

Positive Result: formation of insoluble substance or gray ppt

Reaction with Ammoniacal AgNO3


cyclohexane - not a terminal alkyne

cyclohexene - not a terminal alkyne

acetylene + terminal alkyne

Reagent: Ammoniacal AgNO3 [Ag(NH3)2+]

Positive Result: formation of insoluble substance or gray ppt

Reaction with Ammoniacal AgNO3 Reaction: acetylene - an acid-base reaction (not an oxidation) - used to detect presence of terminal alkynes

Preparation of Acetylene Gas Reaction:

Exercise 7

ORGANIC DERIVATIVES OF WATER


OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the exercise, the student should be able to:

identify the chemical properties of organic derivatives of

water; and

observe the differences in chemical reactivity of primary,

secondary, and tertiary alcohols, phenols, and ethers

towards selected chemical reagents.

Organic Derivatives of Water

Ether Alcohol Phenol


Alcohol

have a hydroxyl (-OH) group bonded to a saturated carbon atom

general formula: R-OH


Alcohol

classified as 1o, 2o, or 3o


Phenol

have a hydroxyl group attached directly to a benzene ring


Ether

organic compounds in which two saturated carbon atoms are bound

through a single oxygen atom


Samples:

1-Butanol 2-Butanol

tert-Butanol

Phenol

Diisopropyl ether

Sample H2O NaOH H2SO4

1-butanol - - +

2-butanol +/- - +

tert-butanol + - +

phenol - + +

diisopropyl ether - - +

Solubility Tests

Immiscibility can be explained by:

size of the hydrophobic parts in each molecule is so great compared to the hydrophilic portion, thus, rendering each molecule as water-insoluble


1-butanol - - +

2-butanol +/- - +

tert-butanol + - +

phenol - + +


Solubility Tests

Increasing solubility of the alcohols as branching increase is explained in terms of the shape of each molecule.


1-butanol - - +

2-butanol +/- - +

tert-butanol + - +

phenol - + +


Solubility Tests

degree of branching, molecule becomes more spherical in shape

inc in spherical shape reduces the surface area of each molecule, thus reducing the IMFA of the alcohol molecules

this makes it easier for water to solvate the molecules


1-butanol - -

2-butanol +/- -

tert-butanol + -

phenol - +

diisopropyl ether - -

Solubility Tests

Comparative acidities of alcohols and phenols:

Both alcohols and phenols, under certain conditions, can act as Lewis acids due to the proton (H+) present

in the molecule.


1-butanol - -

2-butanol +/- -

tert-butanol + -

phenol - +

diisopropyl ether - -

Solubility Tests


However, the solubility test in NaOH clearly shows that phenols are stronger Lewis acids than alcohols.

Solubility Tests

Explanation:


Solubility Tests

Explanation:


The differences in acidities can be explained by the relative stabilities of the conjugate bases.

Solubility Tests

Explanation:


conjugate base of alcohol: alkoxide e.g. butanol 1-butoxide

The negative charge on the O atom of the butoxide is

intensified by the electron

releasing alkyl group

(CH3CH2CH2CH2-) and is

therefore destabilized.

Solubility Tests

Explanation:


conjugate base of alcohol: alkoxide e.g. 1-butanol 1-butoxide

In fact, most alkoxides are strong bases and will easily

attract protons to form back

the alcohols.

Solubility Tests

Explanation:


For phenol, it forms upon losing a proton the resonance-stabilized phenoxide ion.

Solubility Tests

Explanation:


Because of the resonance forms of the phenoxide, phenol has a greater tendency to lose a proton to form

the more stable phenoxide ion.

phenol is thus a stronger acid than butanol


1-butanol - - +

2-butanol +/- - +

tert-butanol + - +

phenol - + +


Solubility Tests

Solubility in H2SO4

Most organic derivatives of water are soluble in H2SO4. This solubility test is often used to indicate the presence of oxygen atoms in a molecule.

Solubility Tests

Explanation:

2o alcohols are oxidized to ketones

Potassium permanganate Test

Reactions: 2-butanol

Solubility Tests

Explanation:

3o alcohols dont normally react with most oxidizing agents (no H on the C-OH to oxidize)


Reactions: tert-butanol

Solubility Tests

Explanation:

reaction of a phenol with strong oxidizing agents yields a quinone


Reaction: phenol

Lucas Test

Sample Result

1-butanol

2-butanol

tert-butanol

Reagent: HCl-ZnCl2

Positive Result: appearance of cloudiness due to (alkyl chloride

formed)

Lucas Test

Sample Result

1-butanol -

2-butanol +

tert-butanol +

Reagent: HCl-ZnCl2

Positive Result: appearance of cloudiness due to (alkyl chloride

formed)

Lucas Test

Left to right: 1, 2 & 3 alcohol

immediately after addition of Lucas reagent

Lucas Test


2 minutes after addition of Lucas reagent

Lucas Test



Lucas Test



Note:

1 alcohols do not turn cloudy

2 alcohols turn cloudy after

2-5 minutes

3 alcohols turn cloudy

instantly with addition of Lucas

reagent

Lucas Test



The time required for cloudiness to appear is a

measure of the reactivity of

the alcohol.

3 alcohols reacts

immediately with the Lucas

reagent

2 alcohols reacts within

five minutes

1 alcohols does not react

appreciably

Lucas Test

Reactions:

KMnO4 and Lucas Test

The KMnO4 and Lucas test may be used in combination

to classify alcohols as primary, secondary and tertiary.

Alcohol KMnO4 Lucas

1 ROH + -

2 ROH + +

3 ROH - +

Ferric Chloride Test

Sample Result

1-butanol -

phenol +

Reagent: FeCl3

Positive Result: formation of a colored (usually purple or red) complex


Left to Right: Hydrocarbon and Phenol reacted with 1% FeCl3

Note:

formation of red color indicates

positive results and therefore the

presence of an aromatic

compound

(-) (+)


Reactions:

A (+) reaction with the test is indicated by a distinct color change.

Phenols are usually confirmed using this test. form colored complexes, ranging from green through blue and violet to red, with ferric chloride

Tollens Test

Sample Result

1-butanol -

2-butanol -

phenol +

Reagent: Ag(NH3)2+

Positive Result: formation of silver mirror

Tollens Test

Reagent: Ag(NH3)2+


(+) (-)

Tollens Test

Reactions:

A (+) Tollens' test is given by easily oxidized compounds.

Iodoform Test

Sample Result

1-butanol -

2-butanol +

Reagent: I2/KI

Positive Result: formation of yellow precipitate

Iodoform Test

Left to right: methyl ketone, 2-butanol and alkane

an alcohol of the structure

yields a yellow precipitate of

iodoform (CHI3)

Iodoform Test


Iodoform Test


Note:

Formation of pale yellow precipitate

indicates positive test for the

presence of methyl ketones.

2-Butanol is oxidized to 2-

butanone which is a methyl ketone.

it will also produce a pale yellow

precipitate

Iodoform Test


The reaction involves oxidation, halogenation, and cleavage.

Iodoform Test

Generalization:

Sample Hot Acidic

KMnO4

Lucas Test FeCl3 Tollens Test

1 ROH + - - -

2 ROH + + - -

3 ROH - + - -

Ar-OH + NA + +

R-O-R - NA - -

Exercise 8

CARBONYL COMPOUNDS AND

CARBOHYDRATES

CARBONYL COMPOUNDS AND CARBOHYDRATES

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this laboratory exercise, the student should

be able to:

identify the chemical properties of carbonyl compounds

and carbohydrates

to recognize the similarities and differences in the

chemical reactivity of aldehydes and ketones; and

to apply chemical tests that distinguish among the

different types of carbohydrates.

CARBONYL COMPOUNDS

Solubility Test (in H2O)

solubility of carbonyl compounds (presence of polar groups)

Sample Result

benzaldehyde -

acetone +

glucose +

starch -

Solubility Test (in H2O)

Samples:

Benzaldehyde Acetone

Glucose Starch

Reaction with 2,4-DNP

Reagent: 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine

Positive Result: yellow to orange precipitate

Sample Result

acetaldehyde +

acetone +


Left to right: aldehyde, ketone and amine

Note:

precipitate indicates (+)

test for aldehydes and

ketones

while yellow solution

indicates (-) test


Explanation:

Aldehydes and ketones can be differentiated from non-carbonyl cpds through their reactions with

derivatives of ammonia


Explanation:


Explanation:

reactions with other derivatives of ammonia


Explanation:

2,4-DNP used a general test for carbonyl cpds form C = N derivatives of aldehydes and ketones


Reaction: acetone

Tollens Test

Reagent: Ag(NH3)2+


Sample Result

acetaldehyde +

acetone -

Tollens Test Explanation:

Tollens test is used to differentiate aldehydes from ketones based on their ability to be oxidized

aldehydes - easily oxidized to carboxylic acids

oxidation of the aldehyde is accompanied by reduction of silver

ion to free silver (metallic silver) silver mirror test

ketones - inert to most oxidizing agents

oxidation takes place only under vigorous conditions

Iodoform Test

Reagent: I2/KI

Positive Result: formation of yellow precipitate

Sample Result

cyclohexanone -

acetone +

Iodoform Test


a haloform reaction that converts methyl ketones to

carboxylic acids

when iodine is the halogen component, the bright yellow

solid iodoform (CHI3) results.

Iodoform Test


Iodoform test is used to detect methyl ketones and

methyl 2 alcohols

Iodoform Test

Reaction:

CARBOHYDRATES

often have the formula C x(H2O)y - hydrates of carbon

simple carbohydrates are also known as sugars or saccharides (Latin saccharum, Greek sakcharon, sugar) and the

ending of the names of most sugars is ose

usually defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones

substances that hydrolyze to yield polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones

they exist primarily in their hemiacetal or acetal forms

CARBOHYDRATES

Classification based on whether the carbohydrate can be broken down into smaller units:

monosaccharides - simplest CHO, those that cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler carbohydrates

disaccharides - CHO that undergo hydrolysis to produce only 2 molecules of monosaccharide

oligosaccharides CHO that hydrolyze to yield 210 molecules of monosaccharide

polysaccharides - CHO that yield a large number of molecules of monosaccharides (>10)

CARBOHYDRATES

Monosaccharides

further classified as either aldoses or ketoses ose suffix designates a carbohydrate aldo- and keto- prefixes identify whether aldehyde or ketone

CARBOHYDRATES

Monosaccharides

D (dextrorotatory) and L (levorotatory) designations of D sugars have the -OH on their penultimate carbon on the right

CARBOHYDRATES

Monosaccharides

Addition of an alcohol to an aldehyde:

The product is called a hemiacetal (-OH and OR attached to the same carbon).

CARBOHYDRATES

Monosaccharides

Ketones undergo analogous addition reactions with alcohols.

The initial product is a reactive hemiketal (two R groups, one OH, and one OR).

CARBOHYDRATES

Monosaccharides

undergo cyclization to form hemiacetals

and hemiketals

nucleophilic addition of the OH group on C-5

CARBOHYDRATES

Monosaccharides

undergo cyclization to form hemiacetals

and hemiketals

Monosaccharide addition reactions

1

2 3

4

5

6 ] alcohol

aldehyde

D-glucose

]

CARBOHYDRATES


1

2 3

4

5

Hemiacetal:

one H one OH one OR one -R

CARBOHYDRATES

CARBOHYDRATES

Monosaccharides

2 possible configurations on the

hemiacetal and hemiketal:

a). -anomer - -OH group on anomeric C is

oriented downward

b). -anomer - -OH group is oriented upward

CARBOHYDRATES

Disaccharides

two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bond

example:

Lactose composed of D-galactose and D-glucose Only the anomeric carbon of D-galactose is involved in the formation

of glucosidic bond between D-galactose and D-glucose. That of D-

glucose if left free.

CARBOHYDRATES

Disaccharides

two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bond

example:

Sucrose composed of D-glucose and D-fructose Both the anomeric carbon of D-glucose and D-fructose are used in the

formation of glycosodic bond.

CARBOHYDRATES

Polysaccharides

composed of several monosaccharide units

examples:

Starch composed of D-glucose units; orientation of anomeric carbon is

CARBOHYDRATES

Polysaccharides

composed of several monosaccharide units

examples:

Cellulose made up of D-glucose units, but glycosidic bonds formed are - at the anomeric carbon

Hydrolysis of Di- and Polysaccharides

Sample Hydrolysis Reaction

sucrose + sucrose:

D-glucose + D-fructose

starch

cellulose

Sucrose is hydrolyzed easily since only

one glycosidic linkage per molecule has

to be broken.

Explanation:



sucrose + sucrose:


starch + sucrose:


cellulose

Starch is hydrolyzed because the -

glycosidic bond is hydrolysable (less

stable than the -glycosidic bond).

Explanation:



sucrose + sucrose:


starch + sucrose:


cellulose -

Cellulose is not hydrolyzed due to -

orientation is glycosidic bond which is

stable.

Explanation:

Molisch Test

Reagent: 10% naphthol in ethanol

Positive Result: purple color at the interface

(-) (+)

Molisch Test

Sample Result

cyclohexanone -

glucose +

sucrose +

starch +

Reagent: 10% naphthol in ethanol

Positive Result: purple color at the interface

Molisch test is a general test for the presence of carbohydrates

monosaccharides give a rapid (+) test disaccharides and polysaccharides react slower

Molisch Test

Explanation:

reaction involves hydrolysis of

glycosidic bond followed by

formation of furfural and

hydroxymethyl furfural

furfurals further react with

naphthol present in the reagent

to produce a purple product

Benedicts Test

Reagent: Cu2+ in Na citrate solution

Positive Result: formation of brick red precipitate

(-)

(+) (+)

Benedicts Test

Explanation:

Benedicts test is used to differentiate between reducing and non-reducing sugars

sugars that give (+) tests with Benedicts solutions (known as reducing sugars) contain a hemiacetal group

CHOs that contain only acetal groups do not give (+) tests

with Benedicts solutions, and they are called non-reducing sugars


1

2 3

4

5

Hemiacetal:

one H one OH one OR one -R

CARBOHYDRATES


CARBOHYDRATES

Benedicts Test

Explanation:

noncyclic aldehydes or -hydroxy ketones - undergo the oxidation

in order for oxidation to occur, the cyclic form must first ring-

open to give the reactive aldehyde or -hydroxy ketones

Benedicts Test

Explanation:

reducing sugars reduce the Cu2+ to Cu+ which forms as a red

precipitate (copper(I) oxide)

Benedicts Test

Sample Result

glucose +

fructose +

sucrose

lactose

sucrose hydrolysate

starch hydrolysate

cellulose hydrolysate

Explanation:

All monosaccharides give

(+) results due to availability

of the anomeric carbon.

all monosaccharides are

reducing sugars

Benedicts Test

Sample Result

glucose +

fructose +

sucrose -

lactose

sucrose hydrolysate

starch hydrolysate


Explanation:

In sucrose, both potential carbonyl groups of fructose

and glucose are used in

glycosidic bond, hence non-

reducing.

Benedicts Test

Sample Result

glucose +

fructose +

sucrose -

lactose +

sucrose hydrolysate

starch hydrolysate


Explanation:

In lactose, the potential

carbnyl group of the glucose

unit is not used in the

glycosidic bond; hence it is

free (reducing sugar)

Benedicts Test

Sample Result

glucose +

fructose +

sucrose -

lactose +

sucrose hydrolysate +

starch hydrolysate


Explanation:

Hydrolysis of sucrose yields the monosaccharides

glucose and fructose which

are reducing sugars.

Benedicts Test

Sample Result

glucose +

fructose +

sucrose -

lactose +


starch hydrolysate +


Explanation:

In starch, hydrolysis yields glucose (reducing sugar).

Benedicts Test

Sample Result

glucose +

fructose +

sucrose -

lactose +


starch hydrolysate +

cellulose hydrolysate -

Explanation:

In cellulose, no hydrolysis takes place.

Osazone Test

Sample Reaction time*

fructose 2 min

glucose 5 min

sucrose 30 min

lactose Crystals formed are soluble in hot

H2O and crystallizes upon cooling

Reagent: phenyl hydrazine HCl

Positive Result: formation of yellow orange precipitate/crystals

* the time required in forming crystals is used to

identify the carbohydrate

Osazone Test

Reagent: phenyl hydrazine HCl

Positive Result: formation of yellow orange precipitate/crystals

Osazone Test

Explanation:

Phenylhydrazine reacts with carbonyl compounds to

produce phenyhydrazones (osazones)

Osazone Test

Explanation:

with enough phenylhydrazine, 3 molar equivalents of

phenylhydrazine are consumed and a second

phenylhydrazone group is introduced at C2

The real value of infinity is known when we open the

first page of our notebook on the night before exam and see the number of

pages to be read.. ! :D

exercises 6,7,8 handout

Documents

ch single bonds

saturated hydrocarbons

common aromatic hydrocarbons

functional groups hydrocarbons

c general formula

carbon atoms

toluene reagent

benzene ring