experience economy constructs as a framework for understanding wine tourism

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2012 18: 3Journal of Vacation MarketingDonna Quadri-Felitti and Ann Marie Fiore

Experience economy constructs as a framework for understanding wine tourism

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Article

Experience economyconstructs as a frameworkfor understanding winetourism

Donna Quadri-FelittiNew York University, USA

Ann Marie FioreIowa State University, USA

AbstractGlobal growth in wine tourism mirrors that of wine consumption and rural tourism. Existing researchreveals that wine tourists look for dining, shopping, and cultural and recreational activities along withauthentic (e.g. reflecting local elements, unique events) products and experiences. This suggests theimportance of hedonic and experiential consumption theories, which have been recently referencedin wine tourism literature. The present study proposes utilization of pertinent constructs of the expe-rience economy model to explain the experiential nature of wine tourism. Evidence from wine tourismliterature in support of this proposition is presented. This proposed framework advances the emergenttheory in experiential consumption and wine tourism with a comprehensive approach that may beapplied to wine tourism geographies in varying stages of development. Consequently, this examinationof these associations promises new theoretical directions for wine tourism and contemporary appli-cations for managers.

Keywordswine tourism, rural tourism, experience economy

Introduction

Growth in wine tourism, a single-attribute exam-

ple of rural tourism, is a global phenomenon.

Wine tourism motivation involves seeking a par-

ticular cultural destination, site, or event related

to wine (Getz et al., 2008). The economic impact

of wine tourism is notable. In 2009, Australia’s

wine tourists spent AUD$7.1 billion on travel

(Tourism Research Australia, Department of

Resources, Energy, and Tourism, 2010), while

in California, wine regions hosted 20.7 million

tourists who spent US$2.1 billion in 2009

(California Wine Institute, 2011). In 2004, wine

tourism contributed US$75 million to the econ-

omy of Michigan (Wargenau and Che, 2006),

drove 800,000 visitors to North Carolina in

2005 (Evans et al., 2008), and was tied to 40%

of all hotel revenue in Walla Walla, Washington,

in 2007 (Storchmann, 2008).

The rising popularity of wine tourism

parallels the growth of rural tourism, which has

continuously evolved in Europe and North

America (Gartner, 2004; Page and Getz, 1997;

Sznajder et al., 2009; Timothy, 2005). During the

5 years between 2002 and 2007, income from

agritourism and recreation on farms in the United

States grew 55% (National Agricultural Statistics

Service, United States Department of Agriculture,

Corresponding author:

Donna Quadri-Felitti, New York University, Tisch Center for

Hospitality, Tourism, and Sports Management, 838 Broad-

way, NY 10014, USA

Email: [email protected]

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2009). Meanwhile, escalation of wine consump-

tion (see Table 1) has been steady at a 1% com-

pound annual growth rate (CAGR) worldwide

since 2004. Despite the drop in wine sales during

the recent global recession, projections through

2014 indicate a global 2% CAGR, with North

America and Asia leading the growth (Euromoni-

tor International, 2010). In the United States, con-

sumption of table wine has reached 34% of the

legal population with domestic wine sales grow-

ing ahead of imported wine (Mintel, 2010).

According to the International Trade Associa-

tion of the United States Department of Com-

merce, since 1999 the number of bonded

wineries in the United States rose to 81% total-

ing more than 5000 active wineries (Hodgen,

2008). Tourism linked to these wineries has

been estimated to employ nearly 50,000 people

in the United States, excluding wine production

and agricultural staff associated with vinifica-

tion (MKF Research LLC, 2007).

International travel has mirrored the world-

wide growth in wine consumption with interna-

tional arrivals increasing by 3.8% annually

from 2000 to 2008 (United Nations World Tour-

ism Organization, 2009). U.S. domestic travel

spending jumped 31.6% during the same period

(United States Travel Association, n.d.). The

search for wine destination experiences, which

marry the world’s interest in wine and travel, is

a contemporary tourism trend. Like its comple-

ment food tourism, wine tourism has been stud-

ied and characterized as a form of cultural

tourism and its subset, special-interest tourism

(Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002; Frochot, 2000).

Research about wine tourism has expanded over

the past 20 years with an emphasis on develop-

ment and marketing in specific regions around

the world and on the nature of the wine tourist

(Carlsen and Charters, 2006; Mitchell and Hall,

2006). Recently, an increasing number of articles

have used theories of hedonic and experiential

consumer behavior to understand aspects of

wine tourism (Bruwer and Alant, 2009; Getz and

Carlsen, 2008; Williams, 2006), which suggests

the need for a more encompassing view of the

experiential nature of wine tourism.

The purpose of the present article is to

contextualize the current academic literature on

wine tourism using an experiential-based model,

the experience economy as proposed by Pine and

Gilmore (1999). This article provides an over-

view of research on wine tourists, outlines the

relevant constructs of the experience economy

model, and illustrates where wine tourism

research findings align with experience economy

constructs. By understanding the findings from

wine tourism research within an experience econ-

omy framework, destination managers and tourism

suppliers can better craft and communicate their

wine tourism offering to experience-seeking visi-

tors. Because the nature of the winery visit varies

from region to region (Mitchell and Hall, 2006),

this study contributes a holistic framework upon

which future empirical wine tourism studies may

be developed across destinations.

The evolution of understanding thewine tourist experience

A widely cited definition of wine tourism is

‘visitations to vineyards, wineries, wine festivals

and wine shows for which grape wine tasting

and/or experiencing the attributes of a grape

wine region are the prime motivation factors for

visitors’ (Hall et al., 2000: 3). Several broad

themes have emerged in the English language

academic literature on wine tourism: (1) devel-

opment and promotion of regional wine destina-

tions, (2) policy and environmental sustainability

of wine destinations, and (3) winery activities for

the public (i.e. tastings) to increase wine sales,

such as wine events (Carlsen, 2004; Mitchell

and Hall, 2006). The third theme encompasses

quantifying the motivations, satisfaction, and

spending of wine tourists (Mitchell et al., 2000;

Mitchell and Hall, 2006). Research about the

wine tourist is concentrated in three major areas:

(1) motivations and satisfaction of tourists visit-

ing winery tasting rooms, commonly referred to

as the cellar door; (2) demographic or psycho-

graphic profiles of wine tourists; and (3) market-

ing to tourists through wine routes, festivals, and

events (Carlsen, 2004; Mitchell and Hall, 2006).

Table 1. Percentage growth in household wine consumption

2004–2005 2005–2006 2006–2007 2007–2008

World 3.7% 4.7% 10.8% 6.0%United States 6.6% 9.3% 6.3% 4.1%

Source: Euromonitor International, 2010.

4 Journal of Vacation Marketing 18(1)




Studies about wine tourists have centered on

how to raise cellar door revenue or to understand

visitors as wine buyers to better promote product

sales (Alonso et al., 2007; Bruwer, 2004; Charters

et al., 2009; Dodd and Bigotte, 1997; Elder, 2001;

Lebkowski and Cole, 2005). Furthermore,

research has determined the attributes sought by

tourists and their behavioral intentions related to

wine sales (Bruwer, 2004; Dodd, 2000; Mitchell

et al., 2000). The relationship between consumers’

travel and their involvement with wine and food

has demonstrated the strength of their dependence

(Getz and Brown, 2006; Getz and Carlsen, 2008;

Mitchell and Hall, 2003; Sparks, 2007).

A number of research studies have sought to

identify wine tourists by generating lifestyle seg-

mentation typologies (Corigliano as cited in

Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002; Mitchell and

Hall, 2006; Williams and Dossa, 2003) and by

measuring their involvement or attachment to

wine and destinations (Getz and Brown, 2006;

Gross and Brown, 2006). These psychological

constructs have been linked to sensorial, hedo-

nic, and experiential consumption (Charters,

2006; Galloway et al., 2008; Lofman, 1991), ori-

ginating with wine enjoyment and broadening to

include the full range of ‘winescape’ tourism

components. Visitor motivation research reveals

that wine tourists also seek shopping, dining, and

cultural and recreational outlets (Charters and Ali-

Knight, 2002; Getz and Brown, 2006; Hashimoto

and Telfer, 2003; Roberts and Hall, 2004;

Tassiopoulos et al., 2004; Taylor et al., 2004).

Wine tourists want more from their wine destina-

tion experience than just to purchase wines. They

desire quality culinary offerings; attractions,

including cultural, recreational, and retail choices;

and a rural, wine region landscape to enjoy

(Brown et al., 2006; Bruwer and Alant, 2009;

Cohen and Ben-Nun, 2009; Dawson et al., 2011;

Getz and Brown, 2006; Getz et al., 2008; Park

et al., 2008). This intimates the interrelated activ-

ities within the overall wine tourism experience.

However, little wine tourism research addresses

this type of global approach. Research to date has

yet to take a holistic approach to understanding

the nature of the wine tourist experience (Beames,

2003; Colman, 2008).

Emergence of the hedonic andexperiential nature of wine tourism

Studies have applied various consumer behavior

models to overall tourist motivations, resulting in

copious theoretical frameworks and models both

competing with and complementing one another

(Holbrook, 2000; Huang and Hsu, 2009; Pizam

and Mansfeld, 1999). Rational, information-

processing approaches, such as the Theory of

Planned Behavior (TPB), have been employed to

measure tourist utilitarian motivations and pur-

chase intentions (Bamberg et al., 2003; Lam and

Hsu, 2004; March and Woodside, 2005), including

those of wine tourists (Barber et al., 2009; Sparks,

2007; Yuan and Jang, 2008). More recently, how-

ever, tourism and hospitality researchers have

employed emergent customer experience or hedo-

nic consumption theories (e.g. Hall and Sharples,

2008; Knutson et al., 2006; McIntosh and Siggs,

2005; Williams, 2006). Hedonic consumption, in

contrast to utilitarian consumption, does not focus

on resolution of a need or problem; it focuses on

the intrinsic value of ‘feelings, fun, and fantasy’

fostered by the experience (Hirschman and

Holbrook, 1982; Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982).

The proliferation of literature on the hedonic

view of consumption signifies the relevance of

this theoretical framework to understanding the

experiences sought by customers (Holbrook and

Hirschman, 1982; Palmer, 2010; Pine and

Gilmore, 1999) in an ever increasingly competi-

tive environment (Christensen, 2009). Wine

tourism researchers have begun to examine these

experiential concepts (Charters et al., 2009;

Galloway et al., 2008; Getz and Carlsen, 2008;

Pikkemaat et al., 2009). Whereas ‘there is no sin-

gle theory that defines the meaning and extent of

tourist experiences, a number of authors have

made attempts to formulate models by generaliz-

ing and aggregating information’ (Chhetri et al.,

2004: 34, as cited in Volo, 2009). The expanding

body of literature related to customer experience,

while still evolving, affords a logical connection

to wine tourism with its emphasis on senses, emo-

tions, and enjoyment of pastoral settings (Bruwer

and Alant, 2009; Carmichael, 2005; Mitchell

et al., 2000; Peters, 1997; Williams, 2006). Wine

tourists seek an experience that ‘is a complex

interaction of natural setting, wine, food, cultural,

and historical inputs and above all the people who

service them’ (Charters, 2006: 214).

Experience economy constructsfor conceptualizing the winetourism experience

The experience economy

The lay popularity of Pine and Gilmore’s (1999)

experience economy model has stood out among

Quadri-Felitti and Fiore 5




the various applications of the experiential view

of consumer behavior. It described four stages of

economic progression from commodities to

goods to services and finally to experiences with

the last stage requiring businesses to create mem-

orable experiences for customers. The model

delineated four realms of consumer experience:

educational, escapist, esthetic, and entertainment

experiences, which they have coined, the ‘4Es’.

These experiences form permeable quadrants,

which reflect their position along two continua

of experience (see Figure 1). The horizontal con-

tinuum reflects consumer participation in creat-

ing the experience, either passive or active, and

the intersecting vertical continuum reflects an

absorption of or immersion in the destination

of the experience (Pine and Gilmore, 1998,

1999). The 4Es comprise the central foundation

of the experiential model of the experience

economy. Staging, another important element

in the experience economy, entails execution

of the 4Es in a comprehensive, thematic design

that strengthens the customer’s experience

(Pine and Gilmore, 1999).

Scant scholarly literature exists that has

examined the role of the 4Es (Hosany and

Witham, 2010; Oh et al., 2007; Stamboulis

and Skayannis, 2003) and staging (Hayes and

MacLeod, 2007; Morgan et al., 2009; Pikkemaat

et al., 2009; Pullman and Gross, 2004) in tourism

venues. Pine and Gilmore, themselves, have

depended on anecdotal support of the importance

of experience economy concepts to business suc-

cess, including tourism venues. Building off such

evidence, they have developed a how-to guide

for hoteliers and restaurateurs on staging

experiences through operational design (Gilmore

and Pine, 2002). Moreover, we have found only

two scholarly articles that have applied the expe-

rience economy framework to wine tourism (i.e.

Ali-Knight and Carlsen, 2003; Pikkemaat et al.,

2009).

The concept of staging an integrated customer

experience has been utilized to evaluate tourism

products such as heritage trails (Hayes and

MacLeod, 2007) and special events (Pullman and

Gross, 2004). Conversely, scholars have dis-

cussed the difficulties of using staging’s theatri-

cal metaphors for managing a destination

(Morgan et al., 2009). Ali-Knight and Carlsen

(2003) called for wineries to pay more attention

to staging experiences a la Pine and Gilmore

(1999) in their presentation to Australian wine

marketers. The article offered numerous exam-

ples associated with staging the experience

but fell short of aligning their suggested activi-

ties with the 4Es specifically (Ali-Knight and

Carlsen, 2003: 5–6). The authors called for the

need to empirically examine the role of staged

experiences in the tourism setting on wine

purchases rather than the tourism experience

(Ali-Knight and Carlsen, 2003: 6).

Pikkemaat et al. (2009) explored the experi-

ence economy concept of staging along the South

Tyrol wine trail. Part of the study surveyed visi-

tor experience of the 4Es. Although the study’s

survey instrument was not subjected to reliability

and or validity testing, it did attempt to use the

4Es to estimate visitor expectations and satisfac-

tion. Results of the study, with a small (38 per-

sons) sample, indicated that esthetic experience

was the most important expectation (Pikkemaat

et al., 2009: 248). Educational and escapist

experiences were noted to be the least important

on average. In line with the caveat regarding lack

of reliability and validity testing, individual

items in each dimension had widely different

results. For example, the entertainment item of

‘guided tour in vineyard with tasting’ (Pikkemaat

et al., 2009: 249) was reported to be important by

75% of the sample, whereas the entertainment

item of wine-themed events was reported to be

important by 40% of the sample. Items used to

measure the 4Es in this study may not have accu-

rately captured the constructs. The escapist expe-

rience was measured with the item ‘guided tours

through vineyard’, and entertainment experience

was measured with a similar item of ‘guided

wine tours in vineyards with tasting’ (Pikkemaat

et al., 2009: 249), which suggests a lack of discri-

minant validity between constructs.

Figure 1. The 4Es of experience economySource: Pine & Gilmore, 1998, p. 102





Furthermore, the three items that measured

the esthetic dimension, ‘well-tended wine bars

and shops’, road signage and information, and

a wine-dominated landscape (Pikkemaat et al.,

2009: 248), may not fully capture the esthetic

dimension in the experience economy. These

may not accurately describe the wine country

environment that often includes many other

natural elements and manmade visual improve-

ments (e.g. building architecture). This study

demonstrates both the necessity and challenges

of reliably operationalizing the 4Es in wine

tourism.

Although the following empirical research did

not look at wine tourism, it suggests the potential

applicability of the 4Es within a wine tourism

setting. Oh et al. (2007) operationalized the 4Es

by creating and testing a measurement scale in

a bed-and-breakfast experience setting. Adapting

the Oh et al. scale, Hosany and Witham (2010)

measured the 4Es in the cruise experience. The

results of both studies demonstrated the validity

of using the 4Es to explain tourist experiences.

Other scholars conceptualized technology as a

means for destination managers to interact with

tourists along the 4Es (Stamboulis and Skayannis,

2003). These studies, along with the fragmentary

evidence found in the current wine tourism litera-

ture, discussed in the following section strengthen

the call for wine tourism research to explore the

applicability of the 4E framework.

We posited that the 4Es are equally relevant to

and useful in conceptualizing the wine tourism

experience and that the current wine tourism lit-

erature provides evidence of the framework’s

value on the whole. Descriptions and motivating

factors culled from the existing wine tourism

research are cataloged according to the con-

structs of the 4E model. Table 2 inventories evi-

dence of individual 4Es selected from the current

wine tourism literature. It suggests the need for a

more encompassing view of the experiential

nature of wine tourism.

Figure 2 provides a depiction of typical wine

tourist activities positioned within the model,

which demonstrates the suitability of this

Table 2. Indicators of the 4Es in literature on wine tourists

Article Year Entertainment Education Esthetics Escapist

Alant and Bruwer 2004 XAli-Knight and Charters 2001 XAli-Knight and Carlsen 2003 XAlonso et al. 2007 XAxelsen and Swan 2010 XBruwer and Alant 2009 X XBeames 2003 XBrown and Getz 2005 XCarlsen 2004 X XCarmichael 2005 X XCharters and Ali-Knight 2000 X XCharters 2006 XCharters and Pettigrew 2005 XCharters et al. 2009 XCohen and Ben-Nun 2009 X XDodd and Bigotte 1997 XFrochot 2000 XFountain and Charters 2010 XGalloway et al. 2008 XGetz and Brown 2006 X XGetz and Carlsen 2008 X XJohnson and Bruwer 2007 XMitchell and Hall 2006 X XPark et al. 2008 X XPeters 1997 XPikkemaat et al. 2009 XSparks 2007 X XWilliams 2001 XWilliams and Kelly 2001 X XYuan et al. 2005 X X





framework in helping to understand the greater

wine tourism experience.

Education in wine tourism

Education is repeatedly identified as a motivator

of wine tourists (Ali-Knight and Charters, 2001;

Charters and Ali-Knight, 2000; Williams and

Kelly, 2001), which offers strong evidence that

this aspect of the 4E model is appropriate for

examining the wine tourism experience. Learn-

ing as a consumer motivation consistently mate-

rializes in the wine tourism consumer research

regardless of the demographics of gender, cohort

(e.g. Boomers, Generations X or Y), or life cycle

stage (Fountain and Charters, 2010; Getz and

Carlsen, 2008). Although learning was less

important to repeat visitors than first-time visi-

tors to South African wineries, it remained one

of the top five motivating factors (Bruwer and

Alant, 2009). Personal development (i.e. enrich-

ment as an aspect of personal growth) was one of

three key factors in the wine tourism experience

according to results of a national Australian

study (Sparks, 2007). Learning was an important

wine tourism inducement for visitors with higher

levels of sensation seeking (Galloway et al.,

2008). The wine tourism supply chain includes

accommodations and culinary, cultural, and

recreational activities—all of which may offer

an educational component. The most common

educational activity is wine tasting, followed by

wine–food pairing events at local restaurants.

Some wineries offer home winemaking seminars

and partner with chefs and farmers to offer culin-

ary classes (see Figure 2). Festivals and gal-

leries, whether retail or exhibition, serve as an

educational as well as an entertainment element

(Carlsen, 2004; Mitchell and Hall, 2006; Park

et al., 2008; Yuan et al., 2005).

Entertainment in wine tourism

As expressed by Pine and Gilmore (1999),

entertainment reflects the passive/absorption

dimension of the model wherein performers

engage a customer’s attention. Whereas agricul-

tural and viticultural activities taking place at a

winery, farm, or vineyard may be viewed and

absorbed, cultural attractions and events that

contribute to wine destinations may also be a

considerable draw (Carmichael, 2005; Frochot,

2000; Williams and Kelly, 2001). The growth

in themed festivals centered on wine and food

(Carlsen, 2004; Hede, 2008) is noticeable (e.g.,

wine and jazz, art and wine). Wine festivals

and shows, central to the definition of wine

tourism, provide ‘elements of the spectacular’

(Axelsen and Swan, 2010: 437) to entertain

attendees. The connection of art, music, and

cultural heritage as entertainment within wine

destinations is well documented (Charters,

2006; Williams and Kelly, 2001; Yuan et al.,

2005). Wine is positioned as a luxury item that

includes a lifestyle inclusive of art and culture

(Charters, 2006), whereby being engaged by

performances (see Table 2) is woven into the

lifestyle of the community. Getz and Brown

EntertainmentTourists are engaged by performances.

EducationalTourists enhance their knowledge or skills.

� Cellar concerts, music in vineyard � Wine blending demonstration� Farm & food demonstrations� Museum & heritage site visits

� Wine tastings & seminars� Culinary-wine pairing events� Home wine making seminars� Cooking & craft making classes

EstheticsTourists are enriched by sensual environments.

EscapistTourists become engrossed by participating in a

different time or place.

� Consuming the ‘winescape’ � Enjoying unique lodging (B&B) and wines� Driving rural roads lined with vin eyards� Art & craft fairs at wineries

� Vineyard hiking, cycling tours� Hot air ballooning over vineyards� Vineyard tour by horse & carriage� Harvesting grapes, riding a grape picker

Figure 2. Typical wine tourist activities within the 4E model of the experience economySource: Adapted from Pine and Gilmore (1999).





(2006) proposed a model of wine tourism as the

crossroads of the destination’s attributes, specif-

ically the vineyards and wineries intersecting

with the overall culture as part of ‘lots to see and

do’ crossing with entertainment elements offered

by ‘unique accommodations, traditional wine

villages’ and numerous ‘specialty shops’ (p.

156). Tours of vineyards and winemaking facili-

ties with informative narrations is another exam-

ple of both the educational and entertainment

dimensions as tourists learn about viticulture and

are engaged by the presenters. Getz and Carlsen

(2008) labeled the fun, informative aspects of

wine tourism as ‘edutainment’ (p. 262), also a

term used by Pine and Gilmore (1999: 31–32)

to describe the synthesis of the educational and

entertainment experiences in the experience

economy.

Esthetics in wine tourism

The esthetic experience entails immersion in a

sensual environment. The winescape reflects this

opportunity and has proven to be fundamental for

wine tourism (Alant and Bruwer, 2004; Bruwer

and Alant, 2009; Carmichael, 2005; Cohen and

Ben-Nun, 2009; Peters, 1997; Williams, 2001).

Views of the world’s wine regions are the subject

of countless coffee table picture books and are

illustrative of Urry’s (1995) central tenet of the

tourist’s gaze: ‘The gaze is directed [based on

esthetic judgments] to features of landscape and

townscape which separate them off from every-

day’ (Urry, 1995: 132). Places are selected for

the pleasure and uniqueness they offer that dif-

fers from modern, everyday urban or suburban

life. Visitors driving rural roads lined with vine-

yards and orchards is a typical consumption

activity of excursionists spending a day in wine

country (Alant and Bruwer, 2004; Alonso et al.,

2007; Barber et al., 2008; Getz and Brown,

2006). Likewise, unique, well-appointed coun-

try inns and bed and breakfasts populate rural

tourist regions to accommodate the overnight

wine tourist.

Williams (2001) found a shift in wine region

advertising; more emphasis is being placed on

the esthetic dimension of the rural landscape.

In addition, some scholars argue that the evalua-

tive consumption of wine, as it takes place in a

winery’s tasting room, has much in common

with consuming music and art (Charters and Pet-

tigrew, 2005). Although wine consumption as an

esthetic experience is arguable, enjoying and

purchasing wine have been identified as

contributing motivators to visit a particular

region (Brown and Getz, 2005; Charters et al.,

2009; Johnson and Bruwer, 2007; see Figure 2).

Escapism in wine tourism

Research about rural wine tourists’ motivations

supports both the esthetic and escapist princi-

ples within the model. The escapist experience

is highly immersive wherein consumers are

engrossed in a different time or place. While

tourists may gaze at the wine region’s vineyard,

they may also immerse themselves by partici-

pating in wine country recreation, abundant in

the natural, rural setting of wine appellations.

Rural wine destinations provide ample sports,

recreation, and engaging activities in which the

tourist may be engrossed, including hot air bal-

loon and helicopter rides. The participatory,

immersive activities of performing agricultural

or viticultural activities, such as taking part in

the harvesting or crushing of the grapes, are

applicable to this realm (see Figure 2). Such

activities are consistently rated as important

reasons for wine tourism (Fountain and Char-

ters, 2010; Sparks, 2007). This escapist con-

struct is substantiated in the wine tourism

literature with findings that confirm tourists

want more to do than just to visit wineries and

taste wine (Beames, 2003; Charters and Ali-

Knight, 2002; Cohen and Ben-Nun, 2009).

Mitchell (2004) found that only 23% of New

Zealand winery visitors identified tasting and

buying wine as their main purpose for visiting the

destination (as cited in Mitchell and Hall, 2006).

Engaging the customer fully in greater novelty

and sensory activities has been successful in var-

ious winery settings (Ali-Knight and Carlsen,

2003; Thomas, 2009); the greater the number of

activities offered within the wine destination, the

greater the potential for customers to fully realize

the escapist dimension. In the experience econ-

omy, the wine tourist may not only gaze in delight

at the winescape but also be improved, amused,

and thoroughly absorbed in one holiday experi-

ence if all of the 4Es are present.

Augmenting the tourism experience withauthenticity

Authenticity engages tourists in staged experi-

ences (MacCannell, 1999; Pine and Gilmore,

1999). Pine and Gilmore (1999) emphasized the

importance of authentically rendering the staged

experience (Gilmore and Pine, 2007). Authenticity





has been a substantial topic of tourism research

(MacCannell, 1999; McKercher and duCros,

2002; Taylor, 2001; Wang, 1999), particularly as

an overall motivation of rural tourist, including

wine tourist. Tourists may employ several con-

structs of authenticity. Wang (1999) argues that the

tourist may search for originals (object-relate

authenticity), may project authenticity on toured

objects (constructive or symbolic authenticity),

and may experience authenticity through activities

(existential authenticity). Wine tourism includes

objects (e.g. wine) as well as the activities (e.g.

vineyard hikes), which are two paths to experien-

cing authenticity (Wang, 1999). Sims (2009)

linked tourists search for local foods and drinks

to a quest for authenticity in ‘the face of the increas-

ing commodification of culture’ (p. 325). Research

has identified the need for and encourages authen-

tic wine region development (Williams, 2001).

Culinary and wine tourists may seek authenticity

by meeting the winemaker (Cambourne and

Macionis, 2000), enjoying extraordinary experi-

ences (Ali-Knight and Carlsen, 2003), and savor-

ing foods and wines that are unique to the

destination (Long, 2004; Sims, 2009). Service

satisfaction and the contributions of friendly ser-

vice delivery in wineries have shown to be impor-

tant to generating trust and believability, both

aspects of authenticity (Griffin and Loersch,

2007; O’Neill and Palmer, 2004; Williams and

Dossa, 2003). Due to society’s increasing aliena-

tion from nature, the search for authenticity has

been intensifying (Gilmore and Pine, 2007; Mac-

Cannell, 1999; Taylor, 2001; Wang, 1999). Subse-

quently, today’s tourist seeks travel opportunities

such as the kind offered by rural wine tourism to

bridge this disconnect.

Implications and future research

A growing body of research has validated the rele-

vance of the experiential view of consumer beha-

vior to understanding wine tourism. Within this

experiential view, the experience economy has

recently emerged as a viable framework

for understanding how to enhance the wine tour-

ism value chain, in both design and delivery

(Christensen, 2009; Zomerdijk and Voss, 2010).

Much research in this vein remains to be done. For

example, future research should examine how

various parts of the holistic wine tourism experi-

ence (i.e. accommodations, cultural attractions,

recreational activities, and winery offerings) con-

tribute to the 4Es and whether all of the 4Es weigh

heavily in evaluation of this tourism experience.

In a rural tourism setting, Oh et al. (2007) found

that the 4Es were not of equal importance to tour-

ists’ evaluations of the bed and breakfast experi-

ence. The same may be true of the wine tourism

experience, which would be valuable information

for rural, small business operators who must make

the best use of limited resources. Individual

operators could develop strategies to enhance the

appropriate combination of the 4Es lacking in

their business, such as an educational experience

(e.g. offering classes) and an entertainment expe-

rience (e.g. producing a dinner-theater). Including

more participant experiences, such as a ‘cook-off’

with local chefs using the regional wines, could

enhance the escapist experience. Opening the nat-

ural setting for visitor events such as concerts or

framing the view from within the tasting area

could strengthen visitors’ appreciation of the rural

esthetic experience while being entertained.

While the measurement scale developed by

Oh et al. (2007) was intended to be generic

enough to apply to other tourism settings, it was

tested in a single, stand-alone tourism setting of

bed and breakfast hotels. Hosany and Witham

(2010) measured the 4Es successfully using Oh

et al.’s scale in the self-contained tourism expe-

rience of a cruise ship, but they did not delineate

the separate consumption experiences of lod-

ging, attractions, and so forth. Measuring the

entire tourist experience presents several chal-

lenges. One challenge in this approach is in mea-

suring each supplier’s proportional contribution

to the visitor’s overall evaluation of the wine

tourism experience. For example, visitors may

experience all the 4Es at a winery but not at their

hotel. Moreover, tourists interface with various

combinations of suppliers, which calls for com-

bining different sets of variables to determine

overall experience. For instance, many studies

have identified wine tourists as day excursionists

(Alant and Bruwer, 2004; Alonso et al., 2007;

Getz and Brown, 2006), which means lodging

would not contribute to overall tourist experience.

Last, in rural wine tourism, most suppliers have

small family-owned businesses (Haven-Tang and

Jones, 2010) run by individuals who are pressed

for time and who know little about experience

economy concepts, which may decrease desire

to participate in such research studies.

Research about how well a wine region deli-

vers the various dimensions of the experience

economy paradigm (e.g. 4Es, authenticity) would

be beneficial to determining if suppliers’ charac-

teristics emphasize the appropriate 4Es in their

communication and promotion mix to potential





visitors. For instance, if escapist experiences were

found to be important, they could be highlighted

through advertising and website photos, videos,

or narratives that underscore the immersive and

participatory nature of activities offered at recrea-

tional or cultural attractions. This could commu-

nicate to potential visitors the ultimate

experience, as defined by the experience econ-

omy model.

Whereas the wine tourism literature is mount-

ing, there remains a knowledge gap between

what wine tourists want in their total wine desti-

nation experience and what tourism suppliers

deliver. Destination managers who understand

which components of the 4Es are missing in their

destination may more accurately adjust their

market strategies, incubate entrepreneurial enter-

prises needed, seek resources for missing ele-

ments, and encourage economic development

along the 4Es. Shared understanding of the visi-

tor experience by suppliers engenders coopera-

tion and alignment in rural tourism product

development (Boyne et al., 2003; Sparks and

Malady, 2006; Stewart et al., 2008). Little

empirical research to date has examined either

the individual suppliers or the whole of the wine

tourism product from the experience economy

perspective. This approach may be applied to

wine tourism products in both mature and emer-

ging wine destinations and contribute to the stra-

tegic planning efforts of both wine destination

marketers as well as individual tourism operators

throughout rural wine tourism regions. Applic-

ability across geographies and destination life

cycles establishes a stronger theoretical under-

standing of the wine tourism experience.

Testing the experience economy framework

using Oh et al.’s (2007) proven quantitative scales

will solidify theory and contribute to a more rigor-

ous body of knowledge. However, qualitative

research methods that triangulate the experiential

view of wine tourism would also advance the the-

oretical framework outlined in this study. This

framework provides the foundation upon which

research may be developed to expand the theore-

tical knowledge of the experience economy

within another destination-specific tourist experi-

ence and to investigate if the wine tourist experi-

ence may be realized and improved using the 4Es.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any

funding agency in the public, commercial, or

not-for-profit sectors.

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experience economy constructs as a framework for understanding wine tourism

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