* Research and Ethics in Sociocultural Analysis and Defining Culture

*How do we know what we know?Experiments: lab and field

Correlational Studies – surveys and interviews

Case Studies

Naturalistic Observations

* Causation

* Keep in mind that LAB experiments are intended to be artificial.

* Some experiments are conducted in the field to gain ecological validity.

* Issue of culture in experimentation

*Why experiments?

* Correlation allows us to apply research findings to larger groups, but…

Hofstede (1973) – IBM and cultural dimensions

* Observations do not involve manipulation of variables.

Festinger (1956) – “when prophecy fails”

* An observation can take the form of an ethnography in cultural psychology– what’s the goal?

*Correlation, Observation

*Ethics Issues of the

Sociocultural Level of Analysis

*Lab experiments that cause stress – Milgram, Zimbardo, Asch.

*Is the deception worth it?

*Is it ethical to activate a stereotype?

*Is it ethical to induce compliance?

*Can we afford NOT to study it?

*Research must be presented to those studied.

*Must have informed consent.

*Recognize that by studying cultures, you might change them.

*What is CULTURE?

*“A unique meaning and information system, shared by a group and transmitted across generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of survival, pursue happiness and well-being, and derive meaning from life.”*

*The 4 Components:

*Meaning and information system

*Shared by a group

*Transmitted across generations

*Helps to meet basic needs

*How do we learn culture?

*Enculturation – learning the practices of culture

*Cultural Norms – expected ways of behavior that align with the group’s beliefs about what is acceptable.

*Objective vs. Subjective culture

*Etics and Emics

*Etics – universal behaviors.

*Emics – culture-specific behaviors

*Etic based research looks at cross-cultural comparisons.

*Emic based research explores the uniqueness of an individual culture – the meaning of these behaviors can only be defined from within the culture being studied.

*A lack of understanding etics and emics is a major flaw in most psychological research… why?

*Example: Mental Health and Depression

*Etic exists that the psychological mechanisms and experience of disorders is very similar.

*WHO (1983) found that depression patients in Switz., Canada, Japan and Iran had some common symptoms using a standard diagnostic scheme.

*However 40% displayed somatic symptoms that were not measured by the diagnostic scheme.

*An Emic approach

*Manson et al (1985) developed an American Indian Depression scale.

*Worry sickness

*Unhappiness

*Heartbroken

*Druken-like craziness

*Disappointment

*The Hopi did not have a word equivalent to depression. Some of their characteristics were similar to the Western standard, others were very different.

*Tabbasum et al (2000)

*What are the differences between emics of depression and Western etics of evaluation and treatment?

*An interview study of Pakistani women in the UK. – interviews conducted in family groups…problems?

*Results showed the mental disorder centering on physical symptoms.

*Also, most viewed aggression as a primary sign of abnormality.

*Prevalent attitude that individuals should cope with the disorder on their own – issues with this?

*Cultural Dimensions

*an aspect of culture that can be measured relative to other cultures

*We think about the dimensions as continuums

*We must be careful to avoid over-identifying people with a specific cultural trait.

*Geert Hofstede’s research

*Hofstede studied survey data from IBM in the 1970s.

*Collected data from workers in over 60 countries.

*Did a factor analysis to find statistical relationships.

*Important points to consider

*The goal is to understand how culture affects individual behavior. The only way to accomplish this is by understanding fundamental differences among cultures.

*These dimensions are known to exist because of the work done by cross-cultural researchers.

*The dimensions work at the population level, not the individual level.

*The Dimensions

*Individualism v. Collectivism

*Individualist – those within a culture are defined by personal characteristics

*Collectivist – identity is defined by the characteristics of groups

*Power Distance

*The continuum is the extent to which cultures promote and legitimize power and status differences between individuals.

*continued

*Masculinity v. Femininity

*Masculine – focus on achievement and possessions

*Feminine – emphasis on interpersonal harmony. Also, there is considered less of a difference between the sexes.

*Uncertainty Avoidance*The extent to which

members feel threatened by ambiguous/unknown situations

*Long and Short Term Orientation/Time Orientation

*Long Term – culture values delaying gratification of needs to focus on the future; culture values the preservation of traditions

*Short Term – culture values gratifying needs as they come; less concerned with tradition, people strive for individual results

*Do cultural characteristics of individualism and

collectivism influence compliance?

*Petrova et al (2007) – correlation study that compared Asian international and American students (at ASU). Students were asked to complete a survey that included a measure of individualist/collectivist tendencies. Later, they were asked to complete a follow up survey.

*A similar percentage of students responded to the survey the first time (around 10%). But on the second try, 69% of Americans that responded to the first survey also responded to the second, whereas only 44% of Asians did the same.

*So what does this suggest?

*Does time orientation

influence shopping

decisions?

*Chen et al (2005) compared long-term and short-term orientation in Singaporean bicultural participants. The participants were primed to one cultural identity or the other, then participated in an online shopping scenario where a book could be delivered immediately for a charge, or later for free. Short-term orientation primed participants were more likely to have the book delivered immediately.

*Does time orientation

influence academic

achievement?

*Jones and Brown (2004) found that a person’s time orientation is correlated with their academic achievement. In this study they broke down past, present, and future orientation. *Those with future orientation (concern about

future consequences) had the highest grades.

* Jones (2003) study hypothesizes that people of African origin are more likely to have present orientation – a focus on living life and not planning it.