exploring the use of a mobile robot as an imitation …in 1976, the use of a remote controlled robot...
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Abstract—Unpredictability and complexity of social interactions are important challenges for a child with
low-functioning autism. The objective of this research is to study how a mobile robot can, by appearing more
predictable, appealing and simple than a human being, facilitate reciprocal interaction such as imitative play.
By conducting an exploratory study with four children, we found that forms of shared conventions such as
imitation of body movements and of familiar actions are higher with two children paired with a human
mediator, compared to two children paired with a robot mediator. However, the two children paired with the
robot mediator demonstrate increased shared focused attention (visual contact, physical proximity) and in
imitating smiling more than the children paired with the human mediator.
Index Terms—Mobile robotics, Pediatric rehabilitation, Low-functioning autism, Human-robot interaction.
Manuscript submitted January 25th, 2007. This work was supported in part by the Canada Research Chair (CRC), the Fonds
québécois de recherche sur la nature et les technologies (FQRNT) and the Canadian Foundation for Innovation (CFI). Audrey Duquette was a Master’s student at the Department of Psycho-Education of the Université de Sherbrooke, Québec
CANADA J1K 2R1 (e-mail: [email protected]). F. Michaud holds the Canada Research Chair in Mobile Robotics and Intelligent Autonomous Systems. He is with the
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Engineering at the Université de Sherbrooke, Québec CANADA J1K 2R1 (phone: 819-821-8000 x 62107; fax: 819 821-7937; e-mail: [email protected]). Contact author.
Henri Mercier is a Professor at the Department of Psycho-Education of the Université de Sherbrooke, Québec CANADA J1K 2R1 (e-mail: [email protected]).
Exploring the Use of a Mobile Robot as an Imitation Agent with Children with Low-
Functioning Autism
Audrey Duquette, François Michaud, Henri Mercier
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I. INTRODUCTION
Autism is one of the Pervasive Developmental Disorder subtypes (e.g., Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome,
Childhood disintegrative disorder, Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified) described in DSM-
IV revised diagnostic tool [1], reaching 9 out of 10000 people [2]. Even though many intervention programs exist,
progress made by children with autism on overcoming their disorders is limited, and no program has yet
demonstrated how to initiate a desire within them to learn and communicate with the intent of sharing with others
instead of for satisfying primary needs [3].
This work focuses on children aged 5 that are diagnosed with low-functioning autism. These children show very
limited language skills and symbolic or pretend play [4,5]. They present similar sensory interests to 8-9 month old
typically developing children. However, their sensory play patterns are more repetitive [4], their imitation is selective
and used with an aim of increasing the stimuli [6]. They present unexploited abilities (e.g., attribute intentions to the
imitator; plan and induce imitative behaviors and understand incitation to imitate) [7,8]. They also show deficits in
sharing attention (avoids eye contact, does not respond to smiling) and conventions (poor imitation of facial
expressions and gestures such as moving the head to say no or raising a hand to say goodbye) for communicating
common interests [6]. Also noted is the quasi-absence of verbal language and pretend play [4]. These deficits are
explained by a difficulty in perceiving and understanding stimuli from their environment, affecting their
understanding of social signals (gestures, words and intentions of others) [9]. Typically developing 8-9 month old
children demonstrate communication intent from eye gaze and imitation of gestures. Thus, assuming that the
complexity of human interaction is limiting reciprocal communication of children with autism because of their
sensory impairments, we believe that children with low-functioning autism need interventions that take into account
their particular interests and their deficits in comprehension by using a predictable and simple medium, able to catch
their attention and that is also easy to understand.
Mobile robots show potential in this regard because they are predictable, simple and easy to comprehend [10] and
they can be designed in accordance of the particular interests and comprehension deficits of children with autism.
They can generate more interest and a wide variety of interplay situations compared to static objects, and also bring
into play social interactions skills (visual contact, imitation) [11]. More specifically, this exploratory study aims to
verify the research hypothesis that an animated object, more predictable and less complex than interacting with
humans, can make the child with autism demonstrate reciprocal communication, observed by: 1) the reduction of
avoidance mechanisms, namely repetitive and stereotyped play with inanimate objects; 2) an increase in shared
focused attention and shared conventions; and 3) the appearance of symbolic mode of communication like verbal
language [12]. This paper presents the results of this study, as follows. Section 2 presents a review of related works.
Section 3 explains the experimental scenario. Section 4 describes the robot designed to fulfill the requirements of the
experimental scenario. Section 5 presents the experimental methodology Section 6 describes the results obtained, and
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the paper concludes with observations made from the results and finally by outlining future work.
2. MOBILE ROBOTS AND AUTISM
In 1976, the use of a remote controlled robot with a 7 year old boy diagnosed with autism was, we believe, the first
use of mobile robotic devices as a remedial tool for children [13]. In this work, the mobile robot was used to catalyze
communication in the boy, and positive results were reported. The AuRoRA project (Autonomous Robotic platform
as a Remedial tool for children with Autism) [14,15,16,17] is certainly now one of the best-known initiatives within
this subject area. AuRoRA investigates how a robot can become a `toy' that could possibly serve an educational or
therapeutic role for children with autism. They hope to encourage children with autism in coordinated and
synchronized interactions with the environment so as to help them develop and increase their communication and
social interaction skills [14]. Previously, the project conducted experiments with a Labo-1 mobile platform, a robot
with a rectangular body and four wheels, based on the observation that children with autism prefer predictable, stable
environments, and that they have difficulty interpreting facial expressions and other social cues. The AuRoRA
project was attempting to use the robot to bridge the gap between the complex and unpredictable world of human
social behavior and the safe predictable world of simple toys. It was shown that children with autism are capable of
distinguishing between animated and unanimated objects, expressing greater attention, laughter and vocal responses
toward a robotized platform compared with a toy truck of same dimension [14,16,18]. Other experiments conducted
by AuRoRA include a humanoid doll, Robota [19], engaged in interactions with children with autism. Robota has
been deployed in various experiments including the investigation of the possible therapeutic effects of a humanoid
robotic doll to autism therapy. Their approach was based on “the assumption that bodily interaction in imitative
interaction games is normally an important factor in a child's development of social skills and that teaching of such
skills (in a playful and exploratory context but nevertheless from an educational point of view focusing explicitly on
specific types of interactions) could help children with autism in coping with the normal dynamics of social
interactions” [20]. Robota, with its bidirectional communication capability (requests imitation and imitates) has been
used to investigate the effect of a robot's design (appearance) in facilitating and encouraging interaction of children
with autism [21]. In a longitudinal study, Robota was also used with the aim to encourage imitation and social
interaction skills. Different behavioral criteria (including Eye Gaze, Touch, and Imitation) were evaluated based on
the video data of the interactions [10]. Other uses of Robota include the study of joint attention [22] and also being
used as a salient object mediating joint attention between four children [23]. The experimental methodology followed
a case study evaluation using an analysis of interaction informed by conversation analytic principles [24]. Related to
this is the work of Kozima and Yano [25,26], suggesting that an infanoid robot (a humanoid torso designed to have a
youthful appearance) programmed to play ‘contingency-games’ could benefit both children with autism and typically
developing children in learning communication skills. Pioggia et al. [27] developed a robotic head with believable
facial display and explored its use in social skills and emotional therapy for an individual with autism. Finally, work
by Scassellati [28] is investigating the use of robots to help diagnose autism.
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The initiative described in this paper differs from the AuRoRA project. The motivation is to determine how a
robot's motion, communication capabilities, and appearance can engage a child in interaction and once engaged, to
investigate the ability of the robot to initiate and sustain the child's interest and motivation to learn, thus facilitating in
the development of social and communication skills. We achieve this by designing and building custom-made mobile
robots with the unique needs of children diagnosed with autism in mind. Premack [29] advances the hypothesis that
the perception of intentionality in moving elements is innate to humans. An infant divides the world in two classes of
objects, i.e., whether or not it is self-propelled. For self-propelled objects, an infant has the ability to distinguish the
objects that can generate a change in their movements, with or without the assistance of another [30]. In the case of
an autonomous change (excluding cyclic movements such as those associated with a bouncing ball), Premack
suggests that infants perceive intentionality and show preference toward these objects. While adults can identify the
nature of a self-propelled object and associate intentionality to it, for infants what matters is not the object but the
type of movements it generates [31] and its velocity [32,33]. A child is also able to attribute self-propelled
capabilities once having seen the robot intentionally moving, and this association will continue even when the robot
has stopped [29]. Preliminary work [34,35,36] confirms that mobile robots, with their motion capabilities, their
appearances, their sounds and their decision-making capabilities, have the ability to not only engage, but also to hold
the attention of children with autism. This study wants to go one step further and design a mobile robot used
specifically to validate the hypothesis outlined in the introduction.
3. EXPERIMENTAL SCENARIO
Our experimental scenario consists of having a group of children interact with a robotic mobile mediator (animated
object with human-like appearance), and another group interact with a human mediator. The two mediators execute
the similar imitation play patterns involving three levels, namely facial expressions (joy, sadness, angry), body
movements (raise the arms, dance, move forward or backward), familiar actions with objects (to point to the hat and
request that it is given back, to point at the door, to point at the mediator’s picture) or familiar actions without objects
(wave hello or bye-bye, play peek-a-boo). For familiar actions, the mediator executes the actions and names it out
loud using simple words.
Based on the deficits of children with low-functioning autism and of their similarities to 8-9 month old typically
developing children, twenty activity sessions were elaborated, following the same general scenario, i.e.:
• Before entering the experimental room (a square room), the educator explains to the child that a play period is
planned by showing a picture of the mediator. This picture is either put on the door or on the wall inside the
room, depending on the activity session. The child enters the room, and 12 seconds later the educator directs the
child to the chair placed in the center. The child’s favorite toy is placed at its feet. The educator then sits on the
other chair placed near the door. A panel is placed in the room so that the mediator can hide behind it.
• Execute an activity session. Each activity session involves the three levels of imitation (facial expressions, body
movements and familiar actions). They are organized in increasing complexity (initially focussing more on facial
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expressions and then progress onto body movements and familiar actions) to facilitate the child’s familiarization
with the mediator’s action. The activity sessions are composed of the imitative play patterns during which the
mediator asks the child to imitate the play. The twenty imitative play patterns are composed as follows (identified
by their session identification numbers): 1) 2) express happiness twice, and then anger once (after colliding with
a chair, indicating ‘no’ by nodding); 3) smile and then express happiness, twice; 4) 5) 6) say hello twice, and then
dance twice; 7) move both arms and then express happiness; 8) move both arms, and then say hello; 9) move
forward and then move backward, twice; 10) say hello twice and move forward; 11) say hello, move forward and
move backward; 12) 13) say hello, point to the hat and ask for the hat back, twice; 14) say hello, move backward,
point to the photo of the mediator; 15) say hello twice, move backward, point the photo of the mediator; 16) 17)
say hello, and express sadness twice after colliding with the panel; 18) say hello, ask the child to point the photo
of the mediator twice; 19) say hello, ask to point the photo of the mediator and play peek-a-boo twice hiding
behind the panel; 20) say hello, ask to point the photo of the mediator and play peek-a-boo four times. Imitative
play patterns in an activity session are executed in sequence, each one followed by a 12 sec observation period.
The reason why some actions are repeated twice in play patterns is to let the child integrate better the sequence of
actions in the play, in hope of getting him or her to react more. At the beginning of the activity session, the
mediator is either hiding behind the panel (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 16, 17) or close to the child’s chair (being at a two arms
length distance for patterns 1, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13; or at one arm length distance for patterns 14, 15, 18, 19 20).
• At the end of each session, the mediator points the door and says “Door” to indicate to the child that the activity
is ending. The mediator then waves and says “Bye bye”, and goes behind the panel. When the educator goes
toward the child to leave the room, the robot exits from behind the panel, waves and says “Bye bye”, and again
goes back behind the panel.
In all of the activities, if the child imitates correctly the mediator’s activity, the mediator smiles and raises both its
arms and says “Happy!”.
4. TITO THE ROBOT MEDIATOR
Designing a mobile robot that can implement such activity sessions is a challenge, even if teleoperation (i.e.,
Wizard-of-Oz experimental settings) is used to navigate the robot and respond to the child's interaction. The four
major design considerations in designing such a robot are: (1) Overall Requirements - The robot should be able to
fulfill all the abilities required in the activity session; (2) Longevity Study - The robot should be able to correctly
function for a period of approximately two months; (3) Operator - The robot is to be operated by non-robotic experts;
(4) Experimental Analysis – Identifying the data that will be analyzed during evaluation can influence the design, the
choice of sensors and the capabilities of the robot.
Tito is the robot we developed to address these specifications, and is shown in Figure 1. Tito is 28 inches tall and is
colored red, yellow, and blue. Its clothes are washable and made of soft material. Tito has wheels to move, but its
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structure shows two feet and two legs to emulate a humanoid shape. It has two arms that can move up and down
rapidly, a head that can rotate (making a ‘no’ gesture) and rise up (expressing surprise for making the peek-a-boo
gesture), a mouth (using light emitting diodes, for smiling), two eyes, a nose, hair (made from fiber optic cable that
can be illuminated) and a hat. Also, since we were interested in measuring eye gaze toward Tito, a small wireless
microphone-camera device was installed in one eye of the robot. Different parts of Tito's body can also be
illuminated, and it is able to sense if it is being shaken or if it has flipped over. Tito is sufficiently robust to sustain
rough interplay situations, and it is heavy enough so that it is difficult for a child to lift. It can sustain autonomous
action for approximately 1 hour before needing to be recharged. Tito was built in less than 6 months using modular
distributed subsystems previously designed or used on other robots (e.g., energy monitoring, locomotion control,
remote operation, sensing) [37], and a sound-generating device similar to the ones used on the RoboToys and Roball
[34,36]. The materials used to develop Tito cost approximately 2500 $CAD.
Fig. 1.Tito.
Tito generates vocal requests through pre-recorded messages, using a masculine voice with intonations that can be
interrogative, neutral or cheerful. Tito has a vocabulary of 25 words, which are used either in isolation or with
gestures and illuminated parts. The use of pre-recorded messages facilitates the use of appropriate voice intonations,
for which children with autism are more sensitive to than simply the use of words [38]. A wireless remote control
(using a Playstation video game controller) is used for teleoperation, and an on-board microcontroller enables pre-
programmed sequences of behaviors (motion and vocal messages) for Tito. Examples of pre-programmed behaviors
with vocal responses are: raising its left arm and saying “Hello!”; moving the left arm up and down three times whilst
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saying “Bye bye”; pointing at an object whilst saying what the object is; making its hat fall and saying “Give hat”;
playing hide-and-seek and saying “Search Tito” or “Tito search”, and once found saying “Peek-a-boo!”; expressing
happiness by raising both arms, illuminating its mouth and saying “Happy!”; smiling whilst illuminating a body part;
raising one arm and saying “Arm”; moving forward or backward and saying “Forward” or “Backward”; singing and
rotating on the spot by alternatively raising each arm; or rotating its head and saying “No”. Tito also emits a sound
when it starts the execution of an experimental scenario, allowing synchronization of video data recorded with an
external camera. Tito’s activation button is hidden at the bottom of the robot so that the child is not tempted to play
with it. The timing between the interactions of the child (from sensory data and according to the experimental
scenarios) is recorded and stored internally on-board Tito.
5. EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
Our methodology consists of conducting an exploratory study following a single case protocol [39]. More
specifically, an ABA / AB’A model is adopted, where A represents the baseline level of children with autism with
the presence of the experimenter. The sample of children with autism is divided into two groups: one group paired
with the robot mediator (B), and the other with the human mediator (B’). Adopting a single case protocol for this
study is appropriate when considering the research hypothesis, i.e., studying the effect of a change in an individual
and to establish links between variables [40].
The children that participated in the trials are all diagnosed with low-functioning autism. They show a deficit in
imitation, also a severe delay in receptive and expressive language and have a sensori-motor interest that interferes
with the development of their communication skills. They can, however, have very different stereotyped repetitive
play patterns and interests. To ensure homogeneity of the population and a valid baseline level, the following
measures were taken. Children selected were diagnosed with autism as specified by the ADOS-G (Autism Diagnostic
Observation Schedule-Generic) module 1, showing severe disorders in receptive and expressive language skills and
deficits in symbolic games. Children reactions were observed and evaluated for 10 pre-determined actions of the
experimenter, using a pre-determined set of criteria. A third criterion is the result of the imitation tool PEP-R (Psycho
Educational Profile Review) [41]. These measures, supported also by the comments gathered from the educators
regularly working with the children, provided an appropriate baseline level for the composition of the sample group.
Selection of the children was done following a reasoned non-probabilistic sampling, based on the experimenter’s
judgment and in accordance to the subjects’ character [40]. All children were part of the same intervention group
from the Centre de réadaptation le Florès, Laurentides Québec. From the nine possible children around 5 years of age
available in this group, eight parents provided their consent, two were disqualified because they were able to talk
(few words), with one of them receiving private specialized care. Two others were also removed from the sample
because they attended the school only once a week. Therefore, the sample consisted of a homogeneous group of four
children addressing all criteria, 3 boys and 1 girl. Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of the participants according
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to these selection criteria. Two of them were paired with the robot mediator (identified using labels R1 and R2 for
anonymous identification), and the other two children were paired with the human mediator (labeled E1 and E2).
Based on the similarities between the participants’ characteristics, child R1 is to be compared with child E1, and
child R2 with child E2. The overall average age is 5 years and 1 month old.
Table 1 – Population group for the trials.
Participants R1 R2 E1 E2
Age (years :months) 4 :4 5 :1 5 :5 5 :0
Communication Non-verbal Pre-verbal Non-verbal Pre-verbal
Stimulation Visual and vestibular
stimulation
Visual stimulation Visual, audible and
tactile stimulation
Visual, vestibular
and audible
stimulation
Mannerism Yes No Yes No
Imitation (PEP-R,
over 16 items)
Success = 0
Emerging = 2
Success = 5
Emerging = 6
Success = 0
Emerging = 1
Success = 4
Emerging = 5
Stimulation
(hours/week)
15 14 13.5 6
The trials were conducted in a 4.5 m 3.3 m room with a window, a chair and a toy familiar to the child placed in
the center of the room, the imitating agent (either Tito for children R1 and R2, or the experimenter playing the role of
the human mediator for children E1 and E2), the educator’s chair placed next to the door, a panel, a video camera and
a helper. The experimenter has previous clinical experience with children with autism, is 1.56 m tall and knelt during
the activity sessions. The experimenter was not known by the children prior to the trials, but they did meet a couple
of times before executing the experimental scenario.
Before executing the experimental scenario, trials were conducted with three children not part of the selected
sample of children with autism, to assess the feasibility of the experimental methodology, the validity of the
evaluation sheets, correct operation of the robot and the potential reactions from children. This enabled us to make
adjustments to the experimental scenario. For instance, the introductory phase before an activity session (explained in
Section 3) was derived from observations made in these pre-experimental trials. The time interval for each action in
an imitative play pattern was readjusted from 20 seconds (based on [42]) to 12 seconds, after observing that children
showed disinterest after this length of time. These pre-experimental trials also revealed the importance of conducting
a session that allowed the child to become familiar with the robot mediator prior to the actual experimental trials,
limiting therefore the novelty effects. This familiarization session consists of six steps: 1) the robot is off and located
in a corner of the room; 2) the robot is activated (with some illuminated parts) but remains immobile; 3) the robot is
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activated and then proceeds to move around following the wall, without going too close to the child; 4) the robot
moves toward the child without touching and 5) touching; 6) the robot moves its arm and emits vocal messages. To
progress from one step to the other, the child had to show self-initiated interest toward Tito by going toward it and
touching it. These steps were repeated until no sign of distress or discomfort were observed. Note that when Tito was
used as the imitating agent, the experimenter remained in a corner of the room, teleoperating the robot according to
the experimental scenarios. The educator’s role during the trials is to provide assistance depending on the action in
the imitative play patterns and the child’s behavior (e.g., put the robot’s hat back if the child did not comply to the
request before 12 seconds or if he or she is having difficulties putting the hat back on).
Each child was exposed a total of 22 times to its paired mediator, at a rate of three times per week over seven
weeks and a maximum of two times per day (with a 15 minutes free play time in between). All the activity sessions
were recorded. The baseline level (A), conducted in the first and the 22nd exposure, consisted of the mediator
carrying out the following actions: say hello, express happiness, point and give back the hat, point to the mediator,
show the door to exit and say goodbye. The other twenty sessions (B/B’) were conducted by carrying out the activity
sessions following the experimental scenario described in Section 3. Each activity session is repeated twice during a
trial.
6. RESULTS
To analyze what happened during the trials, twenty-one evaluation sheets (i.e, one for the A and twenty for the
B/B’) were created, i.e., one for each activity session plus one for the baseline level. Each evaluation sheet lists the
child’s expressions or reactions observed according to the mediator’s imitative play patterns. These expressions or
reactions and the terminology were set according to the work of Camaioni and Aureli [43] and observations made
during the pre-experimental sessions. The following four categories of variables (i.e., expressions or reactions) are
observed during a session:
• Shared focused attention (4 variables): visual contact / eye gaze directed toward the mediator for longer
than 3 sec. [43], physical proximity (moving closer to two arm length distance from the mediator, with visual
contact), imitation of facial expressions (happiness, anger, sadness) or imitation of gestures that is not
directed toward the mediator. Shared focused attention here does not include joint visual attention, which
would involve having the child direct attention to an object that the mediator is looking at. Shared focused
attention means that the child shows an interest in the mediator’s eyes or body movements, or is responding
to having seen the mediator’s facial expressions or gestures by imitating them.
• Shared conventions (4 variables): imitation of facial expressions, gestures, actions and words, all directed
toward the mediator, with the purpose of sharing and communicating with the mediator. Shared conventions
occur when both the mediator and the child refer to a common point of interest through conventional means,
such as imitation of facial expressions, gestures, actions and words.
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• Absence of sharing (7 variables): no visual contact or visual contact lasting less than 3 sec., leave the
communication area, avoid the mediator, repetitive sensori-motor play with their favorite toy, mannerisms,
ritual, aggression.
• Other phenomenon (4 variables): imitation of noise made by the mediator moving (e.g., motor noise with
Tito), imitation of words or gestures out of context, or any other behavior not listed in the previous
categories.
Dichotomic coding (presence or absence) of these variables was done over 12 sec. windowing, by two coders (98%
fidelity, based on data from the pre-experimental sessions) looking at the video footage of the sessions. If the child
exhibited both sharing and absence of sharing in the same 12 sec. window, the presence of reciprocal communication
was prioritized. This data was used to conduct chronological series analysis with cross-section multiple regression
analysis between mediators (with ** p < 0.05). The results do not reveal significant variances between the baseline
sessions (A, one conducted at the beginning of the experimental scenario and one conducted at the end of the
experimental scenario). Therefore, analysis focuses on the child’s behavior in relation to the activity session and the
child’s mediator, for which significant influences appeared. The results are presented in the following sections.
6.1 Shared focused attention
Figure 2 illustrates the chronological analysis for the shared focused attention variables. The proportion of sharing
is calculated by summing the number of occurrences of shared focused attention variables and dividing it with the
number of variables planned for the activity session. Non-verbal participants (R1 and E1) demonstrated less shared
focused attention than pre-verbal children (R2 and E2). Also, children paired with the robot mediator demonstrated
more shared focused attention than the ones paired with the human mediator.
Fig. 2.Chronological series analysis for shared focused attention variables.
Analyzing the results for the robot mediator reveals a statistically significant higher proportion in shared focused
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attention, in comparison to the human mediator trials, for only two of the four variables (visual contact: standardized
regression coefficient =0.35**; physical proximity: =0.40**), while a smaller proportion is observed for
undirected gesture ( =-0.28**). This means that children paired with the robot exhibited more visual contact and
proximity with their mediator compared to the children paired with the experimenter, and demonstrated less gestures
that were not directed toward the robot mediator compared to the children paired with the human mediator.
Fig. 3.Occurrences of shared focused attention variables in relation to the imitative play patterns.
To further analyze this observation, we examined more closely the sessions during which children paired with the
robot mediator (R1 and R2) performed better that the children paired with the human mediator (E1 and E2) (i.e.,
sessions 1, 4, 11 to 14, 16 and 17). Figure 3 shows which imitative play patterns initiated such increases in shared
focused attention. R1 and R2 were more interested by the expression of happiness and sadness by Tito compared to
the same expression by the experimenter. This was displayed by visual contact, physical proximity and laughter
(when sadness was expressed). For actions with objects (like pointing and giving back the hat), R1 and R2 made
more visual contact and moved toward the robot, while E1 and E2 preferred to engage into a repetitive play routine
with the hat. For actions without objects, even though all children showed interest in imitative play (such as saying
hello and goodbye), R1 and R2 had more eye gaze directed toward the robot and they also moved closer to the robot.
When comparing children with the same language level (R1 with E1, and R2 with E2), we observe that children
paired with the robot mediator exhibited more shared focused attention, mostly in activities involving facial
expressions, actions with objects and actions without objects. Also, because of their severe deficits, non-verbal
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children displayed less shared focused attention than pre-verbal children in all activities.
6.2 Shared conventions
Figure 4 illustrates the chronological analysis for shared convention variables. Again, non-verbal participants (R1
and E1) demonstrated less shared conventions than pre-verbal children (R2 and E2). Only one of the four variables
shows statistically significant results, with a decrease in the imitation of words ( =-0.44**). This indicates that
pairing a child with autism with the robot mediator had a negative influence on the imitation of words. For the other
variables, even though they revealed to be not statistically significant, they indicate that pairing a child with the robot
mediator led to an increase in facial expression (mostly happiness, for R2 compared to E2) but a decrease in the
imitation of gestures and actions. This is understandable considering Tito’s limited physical capabilities.
0
0,01
0,02
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0 22 44 66 88
Exposures
Pro
port
ion
of
share
d
con
ven
tion
s
R1 E1 E2R2
Fig. 4.Chronological series analysis for shared convention variables.
Figure 5 illustrates the number of imitations exhibited for shared conventions in relation to the mediator’s imitative
play patterns. Shared conventions such as imitation of body movements and of familiar actions are higher with the
two children paired with the human mediator (E1 and E2). The two children paired with the robot mediator (R1, R2)
imitate facial expressions more than the children paired with the human mediator (E1, E2). Imitation of words mostly
appeared only for one participant (E2), who started to imitate saying “Bye bye” at the end of the sessions, even
initiating saying these words before the human mediator, two times in context and one time out of context. E2 also
imitated facial expression (smiling), some gestures (raising an arm) and some actions (hello and goodbye gestures),
but non-related to objects (contrary to R2).
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Fig. 5.Occurrences of imitation in relation to shared convention variables.
6.3 Absence of sharing
In accordance with Figure 2 and Figure 4, periods when there was an absence of sharing were observed more with
non-verbal children (R1 and E1) compared to pre-verbal children (R2 and E2). Two variables showed statistically
significant influences, mainly that the children paired with the robot mediator (R1 and R2) left the communication
area ( = 0.38*) and initiated rituals ( = 0.17*) more compared to the children paired with the human mediator.
Leaving the communication area may be surprising because, as described in Section 6.1, R1 and R2 showed
increased proximity with the mediator. However, R1 and R2 also presented less absence of sharing than E1 and E2
(but statistically non-significant: no visual contact =-0.32; repetitive sensori-motor play =-0.03).
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6.4 Discussion and other observations
The results indicate that non-verbal children demonstrate less interest and participation than pre-verbal children.
However, children exposed to the robotic mediator showed reduced repetitive plays with inanimate objects of interest
(their favorite toy), and no repetitive or stereotyped behavior toward the robot. These reduced behaviors can be
explained by the interest children have for the sensory properties of the robot (movements, colors, lights). Their
attention is focused on the robot rather than on the inanimate object. These results are the ones reported in [14,18]
indicating increased attention directed by children with autism towards a robot compared to an object such as a toy
truck. The trials also revealed that children exposed to the robot mediator demonstrated more visual contact and
proximity compared to children paired with the human mediator. This confirms the hypothesis that shared focused
attention is facilitated by the appealing characteristics and predictability of the robot. In fact, when the robot
expressed emotions of joy and sadness or made simple actions, children with autism reacted to the voice intonation,
the lights that represented emotions and the simple slow motion of the robot, by looking and moving toward the
robot. Tito was designed to facilitate comprehension of these interaction cues by children with autism.
For shared conventions however, the results do not confirm that interactions increased with the robot mediator.
Smaller occurrence of imitation by the children paired with the robot can be explained by many factors. First, having
two non-verbal children with very low-functioning autism does not allow us to observe use of words or imitation to
communicate. Nadel [7,8] indicates that this form of communication needs some cognitive and meta-cognitive
abilities that appear after 18 months old, such as the capacities to attribute intentions to the imitator and to understand
incitation to imitate. These abilities were not observed with the non-verbal children with autism (R1 and E1).
Looking at the pre-verbal children (R2 and E2), the child paired with the robot (R2) presented less shared
conventions in general than the child paired with human. This observation is explained by the difficulty in
understanding communication intent from gestures, actions and words made by Tito. Tito was not used to imitate the
child after the child imitated it, making the imitative plays unidirectional. Tito also lacked reciprocity compared to a
human being. The use of a different robot like Robota [11] has shown better performance in responding to the child’s
gestures. The pre-verbal child with autism exposed to the human mediator (E2) showed better imitation in familiar
actions and words (waving and saying goodbye), but used it as a means of getting out of the room and ending the
interaction.
On the other hand, in the study, the imitation of facial expression of joy (smiling) appears more with children
exposed to Tito than with children exposed to the experimenter. The results are explained by the simplicity to
comprehend the expression of the robot (illuminated smile). Smiling is the first indicator of communication named
by Spitz [44]. Tito’s capabilities were therefore sufficient to allow the pre-verbal child with autism (R2) to develop
this first form of communication. The pre-verbal child with autism exposed to Tito also showed better imitation of
actions with objects (giving back the hat to the robot, pointing toward the door) and sustained interactions with the
robot. Emergent interactions were noted with the pre-verbal child with autism paired with the robot. They were
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observed through the imitation of gestures (handing back the hat, pointing at the door, waving good bye) and
imitation of motor noises at the same rhythm as the robot (more specifically when the robot was waving).
Furthermore, the child reproduced the same posture as the robot (e.g., by kneeling).
The Ricard and Gouin-Décarie familiarization process [45] was observed in the trials with children exposed to
robot mediator, by sharing attention to get interaction (proximity, smiling, visual contact). In general, children with
low-functioning autism do not initiate interaction appropriately. They often use adults as objects to satisfy their
primary needs, and they can be avoidant or overbearing. Further analysis of video footage revealed that the robot
appears to be an interesting way in helping children initiate contact, something that typically developing children can
do when meeting strangers. Children firstly created a distance with the robot, allowing them to initiate interactions
such as eye contact and smiles. Then children moved closer to the robot, enabling them to continue interacting with
the robot. Even when the robot hid behind the panel, children enthusiastically sought the robot. Despite at times the
children displaying ritual behavior and at times also leaving the communication area, which can be associated to an
avoidance behavior, they did so as part of such familiarization process. This pattern was not observed with the
children paired to the human mediator, nor did behavior associated with a Ricard and Gouin-Décarie familiarization
process.
Finally, another interesting observation is that children eventually made the discovery that Tito was teleoperated,
which generated enthusiastic interactions between the child and the experimenter. This concurs with Robins et al.'s
[11] observation that a robotic device reveals to be an interesting intermediate between the child and an educator.
II. CONCLUSION
The goal of this work is to address the research hypothesis that an animated object like a robot, more predictable
and less complex in its interacting modalities compared with a human, can make a child with autism demonstrate a
reduction in the use of avoidance mechanisms, namely repetitive and stereotyped play patterns with inanimate
objects, increase in shared focused attention and shared conventions; and facilitate the appearance of symbolic modes
of communication like verbal language. The results confirm only parts of the research hypothesis. Children paired
with the robot mediator showed increased shared focused attention (visual contact, physical proximity) than the
children paired with the human mediator in all types of imitation play patterns including facial expressions, body
movements, familiar actions with objects and familiar actions without objects. This validates that Tito the robot has
appealing characteristics for interacting with children with autism. However, forms of shared conventions such as
imitation of body movements and of familiar actions are higher with the two children paired with the human. This
may be explained by with the children with low-functioning autism having more difficulty in understanding the
communication intent from the limited motion capabilities of the robot.
Even though conducting an exploratory study following a single case protocol has known limitations such as the
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difficulty to generalize results [39], it revealed to be a valuable experience in terms of validating the use of a custom-
designed mobile robot as a pedagogical tool for children with autism. Throughout the sessions, Tito was easy to use
and required no maintenance during the experiments. In addition, no session had to be interrupted because a child
felt uneasy in the presence of the mediator, or behaved inappropriately. The study gives insight into the processes
needed for decreasing children’s anguish and increasing their attention to learn or to see forms of communication
emerge. The results are very encouraging and support the continuation of work on this research question. As such we
plan to repeat these trials with a greater number of subjects and consolidate these conclusions. The role of the robot is
not to replace human educators but rather to assist them in helping a child acquire social and communication skills
that can later be exploited in social interaction with people. To do so, future work will also involve a typically
developing child serving as a model for understanding the communication intents of the robot to help children with
autism develop interaction skills.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the CRDI Le Florès, Laurentides, for their collaboration with this work. Thanks
also to Tamie Salter for her helpful comments on this manuscript.
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Audrey Duquette received her bachelor’s degree (’02) in psychoeducation and she has completed her Master’s degree (’05) in psychoeducation at the Université de Sherbrooke.
Her research interests cover interventions using play, imitation and mobile robot for children with autism to improve their communication and social interaction.
Since 2004, she is working at Ste-Justine Hospital as a psychoeducator performing assessments and follow-up of children between the ages of 0 to 5 years old, mainly with pervasive development
disorders and autism. Audrey Duquette is a member of OCCOPPQ (Ordre des conseillères et conseillers en orientation et psychoéducatrices et psychoéducateurs du Québec).
François Michaud (M’90) received his bachelor’s degree (’92), Master’s degree (‘93) and Ph.D. degree (‘96) in electrical engineering from the Université de Sherbrooke, Québec Canada. After completing postdoctoral work at Brandeis University, Waltham MA (’97), he became a faculty member in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Engineering of the Université de Sherbrooke, and founded LABORIUS, a research laboratory working on designing intelligent autonomous systems that can assist humans in living environments. His research interests are in architectural methodologies for intelligent decision-making, design of autonomous mobile
robotics, social robotics, robot for children with autism, robot learning and intelligent systems. Prof. Michaud is the Canada Research Chairholder in Autonomous Mobile Robots and Intelligent Systems. He is a member of IEEE, AAAI and OIQ (Ordre des ingénieurs du Québec). In 2003 he received the Young Engineer Achievement Award from the Canadian Council of Professional Engineers.
Henri Mercier received his Master’s in psychoeducation and his Ph.D. in clinical sciences from the Université de Montréal, Québec Canada. He is a retired Professor from the Department of Psycho-Education of the Université de Sherbrooke and a psychotherapist. His research interest focusses on the integration of children with Pervasive Developmental Disorders and the manifestation of depression in children.