exploring the use of indigenous knowledge to mitigate tick
TRANSCRIPT
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Exploring the use of indigenous knowledge to mitigate tick challenges in goats
By
Mbusiseni Vusumuzi Mkwanazi
A dissertation written in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ANIMAL SCIENCE
In the
Department of Animal and Poultry Science
College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science
School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences
University of KwaZulu-Natal
Supervisor
Prof. M. Chimonyo
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DECLARATION
I, Mbusiseni Vusumuzi Mkwanazi, declare that;
1. The research reported in this thesis, except where otherwise indicated,
and is my original research.
2. This thesis does not contain other person’s data, pictures, graphs, or
other information, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced
from other persons.
3. This thesis does not contain other person’s writing, unless specifically
acknowledged as being a sourced from other researchers. Where other
written sources have been quoted, then:
a. Their words had been re-written but the general information attributed
to them has been reference
b. Where their exact words have been used, then their writing has been
placed in italics and inside quotation marks, and referenced.
4. This thesis does not contain text, graphics or tables copied and pasted
from the internet, unless specifically acknowledged, and the source
being detailed in the thesis and in the References sections.
………………………………………….. ……………………………………
Mbusiseni Vusumuzi Mkwanazi Date
Approved as to style and content by:
………………………………………..
Professor Michael Chimonyo
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GENERAL ABSTRACT
Farmers in developing countries with limited access to orthodox veterinary care commonly use
indigenous knowledge. Indigenous knowledge (IK) stems out of peoples ingenuity, credulity
and long insatiable curiosity of the environment and nature that is often passed from one
generation to the next. The broad objective of the study was to investigate the use indigenous
knowledge and practices to control ticks in goats. A qualitative study was conducted to explore
indigenous practices and methods used to control tick infestation in goats from Jozini
Municipality of uMkhanyakude District in South Africa. Data collected included common ticks
and associated tick challenges in goats, effects of ticks in goats, new tick species and diseases
that have developed. Indigenous methods and practices used to control ticks and associated tick
challenges were also captured. Source of knowledge, transference of knowledge to other
community members or household members were also requested. Indigenous people have
substantial knowledge on ticks exemplified by their ability to differentiate between different
tick species. Ticks are traditionally identified using colour patterns and feeding sites. Ticks
cause wounds, skin irritation and limping. Nine medicinal plant species were identified to
control ticks and their associated challenges and four used to treat tick -borne diseases.
A cross-sectional survey was conducted to determine the extent of use of the IK to control tick
infestation in goats. Amblyomma tick species were ranked as the most important amongst the
tick species, followed by Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi ticks. A significant population of
farmers (81 %) depended on the use of tick sprays, whereas others used injections (3 %). Cissus
quadrangularis L. (Inhlashwana) was the most used ethno-veterinary plant to control ticks with
a frequency of (64 %), followed by Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey (Uphehlacwathi) (56
%). There was no association between the use of IK and cattle, sheep, chicken ownership (P >
v
0.05), although, households that kept cattle less than 30 were using IK more than those with
larger herd sizes. The most important purpose of using IK was that it is effective. Farmers older
than 55 years were 2.89 times more likely to influence the extent of use of IK compared to
farmers less than 30 years who were mostly young farmers. The likelihood of having the
presence of herbalist in the particular rangeland was 3.64 times more likely to influence the use
of IK (P < 0.05). To determine the relationship between tick count and coat characteristics,
BCS, FAMACHA score a total of 96 Nguni goats of different ages based on dentition and sex
were used. Weaners had lower tick counts compared to does and bucks. During the hot-dry
season, BCS declined faster as tick count increased (p <0.01), compared to the post rainy
season. The number of ticks increased (p <0.01) in the hot-wet season linearly as BCS increased
whilst, during the cool-dry season, BCS decreased (p <0.01).
The rate of change of BCS was higher in weaners as tick count increases compared to does and
bucks. There was no relationship between BCS, FAMACHA and PCV on weaners (p >0.05).
In the in vitro study aqueous plant extracts were applied at (6, 12 and 18 % (v/v) and compared
to a commercial acaricide, Eraditick (amitraz) positive control and negative control (distilled
water). Extraction solvents used were methanol and acetone. The repellency percentage was
highest at 6 % v/v for acetone, methanol, and control (distilled water) extracts similar to
positive control Amitraz. The acaricidal efficacy of the Gomphocarpus physocarpus at 12 %
v/v of methanol extracts was as good as that of 6 % v/v, however different to that of 18 % v/v
was relatively low. The mortality rate of the positive control reached 100 % after 72 hrs (p <
0.05) post-treatment, though it was similar to that of acetone, methanol, and control across
different concentrations. The 6 % v/v of Cissus quadrangularis for each extract were more
effective (p<0.01) against Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi ticks. Repellency percentage of Cissus
quadrangularis and different extraction solvents declined with time from 30 min to 5 hrs. It
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was concluded to achieve sustainable veterinary care there is a need to integrate the two
knowledge systems into coming up with viable tick control strategies to enhance goat
productivity. Also, it is important that when IK policies are implemented, factors that promote
its utilisation need to be considered including the participation and interaction of IK custodians.
Findings from this study also indicated that tick count increases during hot-wet and hot dry
season in goats and cause substantial decline in BCS. It is crucial, therefore, to put measures to
counteract the drop in BCS, and increase in tick counts with season, if productivity of the goats
is to be improved. Also, ticks can be reduced efficiently in goats using IK, more especially the
use of Cissus quadrangularis.Lin and Gomphocarpus physocarpus at a concentration of 6 %
v/v.
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DEDICATION
To God, from whom all blessings flow
To the Mkwanazi family
Themba Mkwanazi and Khethiwe Veronica Mkwanazi it is so unfortunate that you could not
live long to see the fruits that this thesis would bear in the near future.
We are confident that God is able to orchestrate everything to work toward something
good and beautiful when we love Him and accept His invitation to live according to His plan.
Romans 8: 28 (The Voice)
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The best and worst moments of my Doctoral endeavour have been shared with many
individuals and it gives me great pleasure to convey my heartfelt gratitude to them. First and
foremost, I express my unreserved sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Michael
Chimonyo for his continued support and understanding, especially in moments where the
journey seemed like a mountain to climb, he always offered constructive critics and suggestions
with a positive mode to progress. Words are not adequate to cordially describe my earnest
gratitude to you.
A luta continua
My sincere appreciation also goes to the following organisations and people for their continued
support and contribution.
• I thank the National Research Foundation (NRF) Freestanding, Innovation and Scarce
Skills Masters and Doctoral Scholarships for financial assistance towards my welfare.
• I am grateful to DST-NRF for Centre of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (CIKS) for
funding part of this research during the first year of my PhD programme.
• I acknowledge the farmers, livestock association, animal technicians and state
veterinarian from the Jozini community for their assistance and willingness to
participate and assist during the period of data collection.
• I thank the Bews Herbarium section of the Life Sciences Department at the University
of KwaZulu-Natal, particularly S. P Magwaza and Potgieter C.J. for their assistance
during plant identification and provision of plant voucher specimen.
• Many thanks go to my colleagues: Sithembile Ndlela, Nkanyiso Goodman Majola and
Creswell Mseleku for their assistance during data collection, I am not ashamed to say
these are interesting guys to work with.
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• I thank Sithembile Godide ka Ndlela for her contribution through my academic journey
without your support and love, I would not have made it thus far.
• I acknowledge my fellow academic friends from the Dicipline of Animal and Poultry
Science: Mehluli Moyo and Zwelethu Mfanafuthi Mdletshe for their continued
encouragement, motivation, and for sharing ideas with me as means of beefing up the
standard of this thesis.
• Special thanks goes to the following researchers who have played a huge role in my
academic life through continue encouragement and motivation Dr S.P Ndou
(University of Manitoba) and Dr C.N Ncobela (Agricultural Research Council) and Dr
M. Khanyile (Makhathini Research Station) and Dr T.J Zindove (Fiji National
University).
• Sincerely, I thank my family, particularly my mother (Rose Mbuyisa) for her constant
prayers, support throughout my academic journey and for always believing in me. I also
thank Nozipho Mpungose and Sihalaliso Motha my two beautiful sisters, who provided
support and laughter when times were tough. Not forgetting Mvuselelo Mpungose and
Ntobeko Mpungose.
• I thank my brother Mduduzi “Sompisi” Ntuli for his support, encouragement and for
always ensuring that I was well catered for, from my undergraduate studies until I
obtained this PhD degree.
• A special thank you goes to Sizwe Majozi a brother and a friend for always checking
up on me and pushing me to keep on pressing, your contribution is highly appreciated.
• I thank my spiritual father Apostle S.C Maduna, for his spiritual teachings that
grounded me to be courageous and resilience in my life journey.
• I acknowledge Zama Makhaye for her continued support and friendship, which made
life seem much easier when times were tough.
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• I acknowledge my friends, Sphesihle Siwela, Nelisiwe Msiya, Mawande Blose, Vuyisa
Hlathini, Nomfundo Smonqo Mngadi, Caswel Tshonaphi, Xolani Siyanda Ntuli,
Musawenkosi Namntu for their friendship and encouragement during the course of my
PhD journey.
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THESIS OUTPUTS
Publications: (Accepted)
1. Mkwanazi MV, Ndlela SZ and Chimonyo M (2019). Utilisation of indigenous
knowledge to control tick in goats: A case of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South
Africa. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 10.1007/s11250-019-02145-0.
Publications: (Under review)
2. Mkwanazi MV, Ndlela SZ and Chimonyo M (2017). Exploitation of indigenous
knowledge used to control tick infestation in goats grazing in communal
rangelands. Indilinga: African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems. (Under
review).
3. Mkwanazi MV, Ndlela SZ and Chimonyo M (2018). Contribution of indigenous
knowledge to mitigate the challenges of ticks in goats: A review. Veterinary and
Animal Science. (Under review).
4. Mkwanazi MV, Ndlela SZ and Chimonyo M (2019). Relationship between tick
counts and health-status of Nguni goats. Tropical Animal Health and Production
(Under Review).
5. Mkwanazi MV, Ndlela SZ and Chimonyo M (2019). In vitro repellency and contact
bioassay of aqueous extracts of Cissus quadrangularis and Gomphocarpus
physocarpus plants against Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi ticks. BMC Veterinary
Research (under review)
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CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
1. Mkwanazi MV, Ndlela SZ and Chimonyo M (2019). Utilisation of indigenous
knowledge to control tick in goats: A case of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South
Africa. South African Society of Animal Science (SASAS), 51st SASAS Congress. 10-
12 June 2019. University of Free- State, Bloemfontein.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................... ii
GENERAL ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... iv
DEDICATION ......................................................................................................................... vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... viii
THESIS OUTPUTS .................................................................................................................. xi
CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS ........................................................................................... xii
LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………………...xii
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………........ xix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................. xx
CHAPTER ONE: General Introduction..................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Justification ...................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Hypotheses ....................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 References ........................................................................................................................ 6
CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review ........................................................................................ 8
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Characteristics of goats breeds ......................................................................................... 9
2.3 Role and functions of goats in communal systems ........................................................ 12
2.4 Importance of goats ........................................................................................................ 13
2.4.1 Enhancing food and nutrition security ..................................................................... 13
2.4.2 Generation of household income ............................................................................. 17
2.5 Common ticks affecting goats ........................................................................................ 20
2.6 Effects of ticks in goats .................................................................................................. 22
2.6.1 Physical effects of ticks on goats ............................................................................. 22
2.6.2 Transmission of tick-borne diseases ........................................................................ 23
2.7 Importance of indigenous knowledge to control ticks ................................................... 24
2.7.1 Use of ethno-veterinary remedies to control ticks ................................................... 24
2.7.2 Efficacy and quality of ethno-veterinary remedies .................................................. 29
2.8 Plant parts and preparation methods used ...................................................................... 33
2.9 Routes of administration and dosage levels of plants .................................................... 36
2.10 Summary of the review ................................................................................................ 37
2.11 References .................................................................................................................... 39
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CHAPTER THREE: Exploitation of indigenous knowledge used to control tick infestation in
goats grazing in communal rangelands .................................................................................... 46
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... 46
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 47
3.2 Materials and methods ................................................................................................... 49
3.2.1 Ethical clearance consideration ............................................................................... 49
3.2.2 Study site ................................................................................................................. 50
3.2.3 Study design and key informants selection ............................................................. 50
3.2.4 Collection of indigenous knowledge on ticks and associated challenges ............... 51
3.2.5 Plant collection and identification ........................................................................... 51
3.2.6 Data analyses ........................................................................................................... 52
3.3 Results ............................................................................................................................ 52
3.3.1 Importance of indigenous knowledge in goat production ....................................... 52
3.3.2 Effects of ticks on productivity of goats .................................................................. 53
3.3.3 Indigenous knowledge of tick ecology in goats ...................................................... 53
3.3.4 Indigenous knowledge of tick-borne diseases in goats ........................................... 55
3.3.5 Ethno-veterinary control of ticks and tick related conditions in goats .................... 55
3.3.6 Challenges on the availability of medicinal plants .................................................. 58
3.5 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 60
3.6 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 64
3.7 References ...................................................................................................................... 66
CHAPTER FOUR: Utilisation of indigenous knowledge to control ticks in goats: A case of
KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa ................................................................................... 70
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... 70
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 71
4.2 Materials and methods ................................................................................................... 73
4.2.1 Ethical clearance consideration ............................................................................... 73
4.2.2Study site .................................................................................................................. 73
4.2.3 Sampling of households........................................................................................... 74
4.2.3 Data collection ......................................................................................................... 74
4.2.4 Statistical analyses ................................................................................................... 75
4.3 Results ........................................................................................................................... 76
4.3.1 Household demographics of respondents and use of indigenous knowledge ......... 76
4.3.2 Livestock species ownership and IK use ................................................................. 78
4.3.3 Constraints to goat production ................................................................................. 80
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3.3.4 Reasons for IK use and sources of information ....................................................... 84
3.3.5 Comparison between IK and CK on tick control .................................................... 84
3.3.6 Odds ratio estimates of the extent of use of indigenous knowledge to control ticks
89
4.4 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 92
4.5 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 95
4.6 References ...................................................................................................................... 96
CHAPTER FIVE: Relationship between tick counts and health-status of Nguni goats.......... 99
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... 99
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 100
5.2 Materials and methods ................................................................................................. 101
5.2.1 Study site ............................................................................................................... 101
5.2.2 Goat selection and experimental design ................................................................ 102
5.2.3 Data collection ....................................................................................................... 103
5.2.3.1 Body condition scoring ....................................................................................... 103
5.2.3.2 FAMACHA scoring ........................................................................................... 103
5.2.3.3 Determination of packed cell volume ................................................................. 103
5.2.3.4 Tick counting and determination of hair length ................................................. 105
5.2.3.5 Statistical analyses .............................................................................................. 105
5.3 Results .......................................................................................................................... 107
5.3.1 Body condition scores and tick count .................................................................... 107
5.3.2 FAMACHA and PCV ............................................................................................ 107
5.3.3 Hair length and coat scores .................................................................................... 107
5.3.4 Correlations amongst tick count and physical examination parameters................ 108
5.3.5 Relationship between tick counts and coat score and hair length ......................... 111
5.3.6 Relationship between tick counts and BCS and FAMACHA ............................... 111
5.4 Discussion .................................................................................................................... 114
5.5 Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 118
5.6 References .................................................................................................................... 119
CHAPTER SIX: In vitro repellency and contact bioassay of aqueous extracts of Cissus
quadrangularis and Gomphocarpus physocarpus plants against Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi
ticks ........................................................................................................................................ 122
Abstract .............................................................................................................................. 122
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 123
6.2 Materials and methods ................................................................................................. 125
6.2.1 Study site ............................................................................................................... 125
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6.2.2 Description of plant materials ................................................................................ 125
6.2.2.1 Plant collection and preparation ......................................................................... 125
6.2.2.2. Phytochemical screening ................................................................................... 126
6.2.3 Statistical analyses ................................................................................................. 127
6.3 Results .......................................................................................................................... 128
6.3.1 Qualitative phytochemical screening..................................................................... 128
6.3.2 In vitro repellency bioassay ................................................................................... 131
6.3.3 Contact bio-assay ................................................................................................... 134
6.4 Discussion .................................................................................................................... 137
6.5 Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 141
6.6 References .................................................................................................................... 143
CHAPTER SEVEN: General discussion, conclusions and recommendations ...................... 147
7.1 General discussion........................................................................................................ 147
7.2 Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 153
7.3 Recommendations ........................................................................................................ 154
7.4 References .................................................................................................................... 157
APPENDIX 1: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS . ...................................................................... 159
APPENDIX 2: QUESTIONAIRE SURVEY ........................................................................ 161
APPENDIX 3: HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES ETHICS .................................. 166
APPENDIX 4: ETHICAL CLEARANCE FOR ANIMAL RESEARCH ............................. 167
APPENDIX 5: PUBLICATIONS .......................................................................................... 168
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2. 1 Main characteristics of indigenous goat breeds of AfricaError! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 2. 2 Proximate composition (g/kg) of meat from Boer, Savanna and Angora goats
.................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 2. 3 Chemical composition (%) of goat, cow and sheep milkError! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 2. 4 Ethnoveterinary plants used to control ticks in AfricaError! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 2. 5 Ethnoveterinary plants used to control ticks in Africa (continued) .................Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Table 2. 6 Mortality (%) of adult Amblyomma cohaerens and A. variegatum treated with
different plant preparations ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 2. 7 Tick counts (total and per species) in Small East African (SEA) and Toggenburg
(TB) goat kids treated with a 10% Azadirachta indica vs. untreated kidsError! Bookmark
not defined.
Table 3. 1 Effects of ticks on goat productivity ....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 3. 2 Indigenous methods used to control ticks and conditions related tick problems
.................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 3. 3 Indigenous methods used for control of tick-borne diseasesError! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 4.1 Household demographics of respondents and association with use of indigenous
knowledge ................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 4.2 Livestock herd sizes and association with the use of IKError! Bookmark not
defined.
xviii
Table 4.3 The most frequently mentioned reasons of using indigenous knowledge ........Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Table 4.4 Comparison of indigenous and conventional knowledge on tick control .........Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Table 4.5 Documented indigenous plants used to control ticksError! Bookmark not defined.
Table 4.6 Odds ratio estimates, lower and upper confidence interval (CI) of the extent of use
of IK to control ticks ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 5.1 FAMACHA score description used in the current studyError! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 5.2 LSMEAN of the effect of season, sex and age on PCV, FAMACHA, BCS and tick
count of the Nguni goats .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 5.3 Pearson’s correlation coefficients among body condition score, packed cell volume,
FAMACHA and tick count weight of the Nguni goats ........... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 6.1 Preliminary qualitative phytochemical screening of Cissus quandrangularis and
Gomphocarpus
physocarpus………………………………………………………………………..............
Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 6. 2 Tick repelling activity of Cissus quadrangularis ... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 6. 3 Tick repelling activity of Gomphocarpus physocarpusError! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 6. 4 In vitro tick mortality of C. quadrangularis against ticks 72 hours post treatment
.................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 6. 5 In vitro tick mortality of G. physocarpus against ticks 72 hours post treatment
.................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
xix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Contribution (%) of men and women in goat rearing .......... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 2.2 Examples of African medicinal plants of current interest in tick infestation. 1st row (from
left to right): Lippia javanica, Aloe forex, Cissus quadrangularis L; 2nd row: Capsicum annuum L.,
Colophospermum mopane, Kigelia africana (Lam), Benth; 3rd row: Tagetes minuta L., Albizia amara,
Elephantorrhiza elephantine; 4th row: Ricinus communis, Euphorbia hirta L, Vernonia amygdalina
.............................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 2.3 Characteristics of the plant parts used as ethno-veterinary medicinesError! Bookmark not
defined.
Figure 4.1 Mean rank scores of goat production constraints across the study site (n=300) Error!
Bookmark not defined.
xx
Figure 4.2 Common parasites of goats in the study site ....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4.3 Common tick species of goats in the study site ................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4. 4 Sources of indigenous knowledge in the study site ............ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4. 5 The most common acaricidal plants by frequency of mention (N = 300)Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Figure 5.1 Relationship of seasonal changes between body condition score (a, b), FAMACHA score
and tick count (c, d)…………………………………………………………………………………
Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 5.2 Relationship between body condition score and tick counts between different age groups in
Nguni does and bucks ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 6.1 Different colours used to reflect the presence of phytochemicals………………………
Error! Bookmark not defined.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xxi
IKS Indigenous Knowledge Systems
IK Indigenous Knowledge
CK Conventional knowledge
GDP Gross domestic product
DAFF Department of Agriculture Forest and Fisheries
TBD Tick-borne diseases
SEA Small East Africa
TB Toggenburg
S.E.M Standard error mean
DSI Department of Science and Innovation
HSS Human Social Sciences
GLM General Linear Model
CK Conventional knowledge
BCS Body condition score
PCV Packed cell volume
1
CHAPTER ONE: General Introduction
1.1 Background
The demand for chevon is rising throughout the world especially in developing countries due
to increasing demand of lean meat (Webb, 2014). To meet this demand, there is need to
improve the productivity of goats that is comparatively too low. In Sub-Saharan Africa, goats
contribute enormously to livelihood of the resource-poor households. Goats are peculiar in a
way that they are a source of income and play a fundamental role of facilitating traditional
ceremonies (Mseleku et al., 2019). In addition, goats fulfil multiple roles at a household level
that include provision of meat, manure and skins (Mdletshe et al., 2018) and trade. Skins from
goats are utilized for several purposes such as making of mats, water or grain containers and
drums (Durawo et al., 2017). Importantly, goats assist in eradicating bush encroachment and
maintaining open communities in rangelands since they are more of browsers than grazers.
Improving goat productivity can be a vehicle out of poverty for many resource-limited
households. The most popular goat genotype reared in communal production systems is the
Nguni goat (Bakare and Chimonyo, 2011). The Nguni genotype is small-framed and hardy. It
is adapted to harsh environmental conditions faced in marginal rural communities. Nguni goats
can better utilize the limited and poor-quality feed resources, including fibrous feeds. The
Nguni genotype is also prolific and require low inputs for moderate level of production to reach
maturity (Mahanjana and Cronje, 2000). Despite such worthy attributes, goat producers are
faced with many challenges limiting goat productivity. Goats are often neglected, as research
in ruminants is more oriented on cattle. Goat production in rural communities is highly
vulnerable to climate variability and extremes as they depend on natural pastures for nutrition.
One sustainable strategy to deal with issues of climate involve promoting goats that are
2
vigorous, heat tolerant and adaptable to low levels of management. Goats are much better at
dealing with droughts, vulnerability and a changing environment than cattle.
Ticks are prevalent because of lack of adequate veterinary services (Sanhokwe et al., 2016),
leading to high mortalities, especially where crossbred and fast-growing genotypes are used.
Ticks are hematophagous arthropods belonging to the class Arachnids and are abundant in the
tropical and sub-tropical areas. They require warm temperatures and high humidity for their
metamorphism and development. Ticks attach to the host for sucking blood and cause skin
irritation and anaemia. In addition, ticks directly cause damage to the hide and skin leading to
wounds and predispose goats to bacterial infections. Ticks are also a major transmitting agent
of tick-borne diseases, with heartwater more prevalent in goats. In practice, farmers in
communal areas keep cattle and goats grazing together in mixed rangelands. During dipping
sections, however goats are often ignored, and priority given to cattle.
Several methods have been advocated to control ticks. These include acaricides, grazing
management and genetic approaches (Stear et al., 2007). The use of these control methods,
however, depend on their availability, effectiveness, cost, ease of implementation and
sustainability. Acaricides are expensive and out of reach for many resource-limited farmers
who largely depend on government grant to improve their livelihood. Further, acaricides do
not provide a long-term solution as ticks have developed resistance to some of these acaricides.
Conventional acaricides are also toxic and destructive to the environment (Wall, 2007) when
not used in a safe and appropriate manner. Genetic approaches include the use of resistant
breeds and selective breeding of individual breeds resistant to ticks. One disadvantage of
selective breeding is that, although it is effective and inexpensive, however requires high level
of expertise. Genetic approaches can also lead to uncontrolled mating, thus resulting in
3
undesired genes. Grazing management is cost effective, however, the best way to manage tick
under grazing pastures is to fully understand tick life cycle, common species found in the area
and seasonal occurrence. Farmers do not normally practice rotational grazing because grazing
camps have sparse vegetation or the quality of forage has deteriorated due to climate change,
however, resort to pasture burning, which reduces the available grazing land.
For centuries pastoralists have relied on indigenous knowledge (IK) to manage livestock,
however, the coming of colonial rule in Africa shifted the focus of many individuals to
conventional knowledge. Though a significant proportion of farmers rely on conventional
knowledge (CK), most communities still largely depend on indigenous knowledge (IK) for the
management of their livestock. More so, IK is not in any way considered as an integral part of
the knowledge economy. For example, to preserve indigenous knowledge system, the
Department of Science and Technology of South Africa has developed an indigenous
knowledge system policy that aims to stimulate and strengthen the contribution of IK to social
and economic development. Indigenous knowledge forms the body of applied knowledge that
evolves within a community over time and is passed on orally from one generation to the next
to ensure sustainability (Jacob et al., 2014).
One of the most important elements of IK systems and practices is in livestock veterinary care.
For example, in most rural communities when a goat is infested with ticks a particular plant
would be prepared and rubbed in an infested body part (Kioko et al., 2015; Sanhokwe et al.,
2016). The value of these indigenous plants lies in various chemical substances that produce
physiological action to the infested site. Placing value on such knowledge, could strengthen
cultural diversity and enhance use of IK to ensure sustainable agriculture. It is imperative that
IKS is protected, documented, and modified if need be and then widely disseminated to
4
promote development. The use of indigenous knowledge to control tick infestation in goats is
of importance especially with changing climates. Climate has been changing and communities
have old knowledge of adaptability. This knowledge can be used now by farmers to adapt to
current climatic extremes. There is, however, limited information on the utilization of IK to
control tick infestation in goats.
1.2 Justification
Resource-limited farmers cannot easily access professional veterinary services and products
due to low income levels and poor infrastructure. Goats can be used as a vehicle out of poverty.
It is crucial, therefore, to conduct an in-depth research on tick infestation and indigenous
practices in goats as an attempt to increase the contribution of goats to livelihoods. It is also
important to determine how indigenous people interact with their environment to influence
policies to develop livestock agriculture. It is important to affirm and promote IK to control
tick infestation to achieve sustainable agriculture. Affirming this knowledge, therefore will
benefit community members, farmers and herbalists who rely on IK since it is, less costly and
locally accessible.
Indigenous knowledge could also benefit commercial goat agriculture by providing more
available options to use for controlling ticks. It is important to standardize remedies such that
farmers do not underutilize or overuse the plant material through affirming the IK methods and
practices. Knowledge of indigenous control methods assists animal health technicians to give
advice to complement conventional knowledge methods of tick control to farmers. Researchers
can complement IK with CK as an instrument of transformation and change. The understanding
of IK of tick control methods can also influence policymakers to develop tick control
programmes based on indigenous knowledge systems. It is also important to build a database
5
of information on IK and preserved it for future generations as there is continuing loss of this
knowledge due to colonisation and adaptation to conventional knowledge.
1.3 Objectives
The broad objective of the study was to investigate the use indigenous knowledge and practices
to control tick infestation on goats. The specific objectives were to:
1. Explore indigenous practices and methods used to control tick infestation in goats grazing
in communal rangelands;
2. Determine the extent of use of the indigenous knowledge to control tick infestation in goats;
3. Determine the relationship between tick counts and coat characteristics, body weight, body
condition score, FAMACHA and PCV of goats grazing in communal rangelands; and
4. Assess the acaricidal effects of aqueous extracts of Cissus quadrangularis. Lin and
Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey to control tick infestation in vitro.
1.4 Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested:
1. Farmers in communal areas do not use indigenous practices and control methods to
mitigate against tick infestation.
2. There is no extent of use of indigenous knowledge systems to control tick infestation
in goats.
3. There are no relationships between tick counts and coat characteristics, body weight,
body condition score, FAMACHA and PCV on goats grazing in communal rangelands;
and
4. The use of medicinal plants has no acaricidal effects against tick infestation in goats
.
6
1.5 References
Bakare A.G and Chimonyo, M (2011). Seasonal variation in time spent foraging by
indigenous goat genotypes in a semi-arid rangeland in South Africa. Livestock Science
135: 251-256.
Durawo, C., Zindove, T. J and Chimonyo, M. (2017). Influence of genotype and
topography on the goat predation challenge under communal production systems. Small
Ruminant Research, 149:115-120.
Jacob M.O, Farah K.O and Wellington, N.E (2014). Indigenous Knowledge: the basis of
Maasai ethno veterinary diagnostic skills. Journal of Human Ecology 1: 43-48.
Kioko J, Baker J, Shannon A, Kiffner C. (2015). Ethno ecological knowledge of ticks and
treatment of tick-borne diseases among Maasai people in Northern Tanzania,
Veterinary World 8(6): 755-762.
Mahanjana, A. M., and Cronje, P. B. (2000). Factors affecting goat production in a
communal farming system in the Eastern Cape region of South Africa. South African
Journal of Animal Science, 30(2), 149-155.
Mdletshe, Z. M., Ndlela, S. Z., Nsahlai, I. V. and Chimonyo, M. (2018). Farmer perceptions
on factors influencing water scarcity for goats in resource-limited communal farming
environments. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 50(7), 1617-1623.
Mseleku, C., Ndlela, S. Z., Mkwanazi, M. V. and Chimonyo, M. (2019). Health status of
non-descript goats travelling long distances to water source. Tropical Animal Health
and Production, 1-5.
Sanhokwe M, Mupangwa, J, Masika, P.J, Maphosa, V and Muchenje, V (2016). Medicinal
plants used to control internal and external parasites in goats. Onderstepoort Journal of
Veterinary Research 1: 1-7.
7
Wall R (2007). Ectoparasites: future challenges in a changing world. Veterinary
Parasitology 1: 62-74.
Webb, E. C. (2014). Goat meat production, composition, and quality. Animal
Frontiers, 4(4), 33-37.
8
CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review
Submitted to Veterinary and Animal Science. Elsevier (Under review)
2.1 Introduction
The use of indigenous knowledge (IK) to control ticks is often the only option available for
most smallholder farmers. To date, approximately 80 % of the world population predominantly
rely on IK for the welfare of their livestock, including goats (FAO, 2005). This is even more
common in developing countries where goats are important for several reasons, foremost being
cultural ceremonies followed by the production of meat and then milk. There is likely to be an
increase in the production of goats in future due to their resilience to extreme climates, therefore
providing a reliable stream of income whereby crops or cattle are affected by climatic extremes.
In cattle, ticks are usually controlled using acaricides. Throughout history, IK has contributed
to the advancement of veterinary care substantially although its value has not been fully
recognized and utilised. Indigenous knowledge is practised because the ethnoveterinary plants
are locally available and user-friendly.
It is less systematic and formalized, usually passed orally from one generation to the next
generation (Veema et al., 2015). Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) approaches are holistic
and based upon interconnections with the respect of the environment. Integrating existing
information on IK used to control ticks and related challenges assists in implementing policies
promoting sustainable goat productivity and health management. Developing IKS creates
opportunities to complement and integrate conventional knowledge with IK. Both systems can
be incorporated into educational and lifelong learning systems. Traditional healers, farmers and
veterinarians can benefit if IK is developed. This review focuses on the contribution of IK to
9
goat veterinary care. The review also identifies possible aspects that require further research to
enhance application of IK to improve goat health.
2.2 Characteristics of goats breeds
There are several goat genotypes dominating the communal production system. For example,
in South Africa these breeds have been identified as Nguni, Xhosa lop eared, the improved
Boer and their crosses (Dube, 2015). The Nguni breed is also predominantly found in Lesotho
and Swaziland. Rumosa Gwaze et al. (2009) reported that, in Zimbabwe, the most common
breed found in communal areas is the Mashona and Matabele goat, though crosses exist. There
is also the Malawi and Landim goats, these breeds are typically found in communal areas of
Malawi and Mozambique, respectively.
The value of these breeds lies in various attributes such as their small frame size (Dziba et al.,
2003), ability to utilize low quality feeds and can walk for long distances in search of water
and feed than cross-breeds. Smaller frame size, for example could be a strength as the land
carrying capacity is expected to change following the increasing human population. This forces
livestock species to be kept on smaller pieces of land. Smaller frame size is convenient by
making herding easier for younger and older members of the communities. Bakare and
Chimonyo (2011) reported the Xhosa lop-eared goats to be large-framed and to have developed
from the improved Boer goat. Chikwanda (2004) described the Matabele goat to be a large-
framed meat goat, their does and bucks have a mature weight ranging from 30 to 40 kg and
from 50 to 55 kg. The Mashona goat has a low mature body weight ranging from 25 to 30 kg
(Nyamangara et al., 1991). The carcass thereof of the Mashona goat range between 9 and 12
kg, however one can get up to 16 kg from the Matebele goat. Mature weights and wither heights
of selected indigenous breeds are presented in Table 2.1. The use of these breeds is mainly
10
attributed to various phenotypic characteristics that help them to survive in the ever-changing
environment. Communal goats are hardy, less susceptible to water scarcity and drought (Dube,
2015) and can produce under low maintenance. Such worth attributes, therefore, place a need
for researchers to engage in programs that will facilitate their improvement as goat could add
value in attaining household food security in many countries in the developing world. Simela
and Merkel (2008) reported that communal goats are prolific and have short generation interval
due to their ability to reach maturity early.
The ability to reach maturity early could be a challenge because females could end up being
pregnant before they reach slaughter weight. If communal goat production is to be improved
and contributes to global market, there is an eminent need to first develop appropriate housing
systems. This will exert greater influence because it will improve management of goats,
reduces mortality because of diseases and improper management. In Southern Africa
indigenous breeds tend to be discriminated and this has led to some facing risk of extinction
such as Xhosa lop-eared genotype. There in a need, therefore, to exploit the various
characteristics possessed by these breeds for the betterment of resource-limited farmers. It is
also important that further research should focus on understanding carcass classification and
grading of local goats to develop market strategies or opportunities for most resource-limited
farmers owning goats.
11
Table 2.1: Main characteristics of indigenous goat breeds of Africa
Breed Location Mature weight, kg Phenotypic characteristics
Male Female
Mashona Zimbabwe 30 25 Height at withers of about 60 cm, horned, short ears, variable coat colour,
short and fine hair
Matabele Zimbabwe 50- 55 39 Bearded, rarely horned, broad, lopped ears, white and cream coat colour
Nguni Swaziland, Lesotho, South
Africa
40 30 Medium –sized ears, horned, variable coat colours
Tswana goats Botswana, Zimbabwe, South
Africa
44 40 Height at withers of 60-75, horned, broad lopped ears, variable coat
colours, lactation length of 180 days on average
Malawi goats Malawi 29 21 Horned, sharp and pointed ears, variable coat colour
Landim goats Mozambique 50 35-40 Horned, medium sized ears, bearded, variable coat colours, short and fine
hair
Source: Rumosa Gwaze et al. (2009)
12
2.3 Role and functions of goats in communal systems
The role of goats to household economy include goat products such as meat and milk. In Sub
Saharan Africa goats provide about 11 % of the total meat output (Rege and Lebbie, 2000).
Milk from goats is considered of good health as it is free of allergens in addition it is rendered
healthy for people who are lactose intolerant. Goat product consumption and sales enhance
economic stability of households. The keeping of goats in rural households provide
opportunities for employment to women and children whose sole purpose is herding of goats.
Countries such as Kenya and Ethiopia make trades through goat skin and hide thus bringing
household income (Lebbie et al., 2004). Farmers also keep goats as a representation of social
status and wealth. Goats provide security against crop failure and economy fluctuations as they
are sold in cases of emergencies to meet household needs. Most of resource-limited farmers
cannot easily afford expensive inorganic fertilizes as they ultimately survive on pension and
government incentives for livelihood and hence goats add value to farm output as they produce
manure for use in crop production. Despite the unreliability of goat contribution to households,
however it is logical that there is still a need for provision of formal education to farmers
through livestock keepers and extension officers in rural communities. There is also a need of
well-organized farmers association who work in organizing the goat sector in communal
production systems considering the role goats play in remote areas.
Even though the number of goats in rural households is large, these resource-limited
households still suffer from food insecurity. For example, South Africa alone an estimated 2.8
million households are vulnerable to food insecurity, with 72 % residing in rural households
(Statistics SA, 2009). In correspondence to countries such as Zimbabwe, 4.2 million people are
13
estimated to be food insecure. In Malawi, poverty is experienced by most rural households
particularly those headed by women. Their contribution to household food security is also
limited by inaccurate records. Research has constantly reported that household food security is
a huge issue of great and one of the biggest growing concerns in most African countries (Lebbie
et al., 2004).
While the world has made effort to alleviate poverty crisis, however Sub Saharan Africa
continues to lag behind. There is a need, therefore, to improve the productivity of goats in
communal production systems in order to combat the challenges of food insecurity in Africa.
Goat improvement is of value because in developing countries four out of five households own
goats. For example, in Mali approximately 95 % of households own goats with an average
flock size of 35 goats per household (Lebbie et al., 2004).
2.4 Importance of goats
Goats play a fundamental role of improving livelihoods, particularly for women and children
through enhancing food and nutrition security and generation of household income.
2.4.1 Enhancing food and nutrition security
The issue of food security continues to be a major challenge in most parts of Africa (Mwaniki
et al., 2006). Food security implies the provision of safe, nutritious, quantitatively, and
qualitatively enough food for all people at all times (FAO, 2001). Food security has three
dimensions namely food availability, accessibility, and adequacy. Food availability refers to
the sufficient quantities of food of appropriate quality supplied through domestic production
and imports (Boon, 2004). On the other hand, accessibility is whereby households and
individuals have access to appropriate foods for a healthy or nutritious diet. For households
and individuals to be food secure, food access should consistently be adequate at all times both
14
in quantity and quality. For example, an estimated 2.8 million households are vulnerable to
food insecurity in South Africa, with 72 % of these residing in rural areas (FAO, 2003; Statistics
SA General Household’s survey, 2009).
Goats play a major function in the three dimensions of food security. They enhance the ability
of households to have access to nutritious meat and milk with low levels of saturated fatty acids
(Ng’ambi et al., 2013). On a global scale goat meat is less consumed compared to beef, chicken,
and pork but undoubtedly goat meat is widely consumed among resource–poor households
(Webb et al., 2005). Chevon provides an acceptable source of protein and essential amino acids
to meet the dietary requirements of the average adult consumers (Table 2.2). One of the
contributions of goat milk to human nutrition is its considerable amounts of calcium and
phosphorus in relation to energy for infants (Jenness, 1980). Goat milk contains about 1.2 g
calcium and 1 g of phosphate similar to those in cow milk (Getaneh et al., 2016). Goat milk
possesses good protein content in comparison with cow and sheep (Table 2.3). Goats increase
the diversity of food supplies in the households (Pollott and Wilson, 2009). Women use milk
from goats for their children who are allergic to cow milk and lactose intolerant as it possesses
10 % less lactose than cow milk (Dekker, 2004). Goat derived foods have high protein quality
to promote growth and prevent stunting, underweight and chronic malnutrition to toddlers and
children. Owing to their greater contribution towards food and nutrition security, efforts to
enhance goat productivity to ensure food availability and access across poor communities is
needed.
15
Table 2.2: Proximate composition (g/kg) of meat from Boer, Savanna and Angora goats
Nutrient (g/kg) Boer goat Savanna goat Angora goat
Moisture 694 698 642
Protein 228 243 291
Fat 105 79 44
Ash 9.5 9.7 10
Sources: Webb et al. (2014); Webb et al. (2005).
16
Table 2.3: Chemical composition (%) of goat, cow and sheep milk
Composition(g/kg)
Goat Cow Sheep
Total solid 139 135 193
Fat 48 48 76
Protein 37 28 55
Lactose 50 45 -
Ash (minerals) 8.5 7.4 -
Source: Devendra and McLeroy (1996)
17
2.4.2 Generation of household income
The rearing of goats in rural production systems provide opportunities for employment to
women and children. Goats provide security against crop failures and economy fluctuations as
they are sold in cases of emergency to meet household income needs (Lebbie et al., 2004).
Goat rearing is the most useful way of women generating earning and income. Women can
invest from sales of goats and products to improve diversity in household consumption as well
as for their children’s education. During periods of difficulties, goats are sold to purchase food
and medicines. Income generated from goats can vary with households depending on the
number of goats sold, size of goats, sex, season, and function. Goat rearing has a potential to
emerge as a good source of attaining income.
There has been a great interest in women and youth empowerment through goat keeping,
prompted by the need of gender equality and unemployment. Most women are socially and
economically disadvantaged and affected by chronic hunger and malnutrition (Tefera et al.,
2007) in Sub-Saharan Africa. Goats are efficient browsers that exploit the veld well, so there
is no little need for supplementary feeding, lower veterinary costs. Most of the plants consumed
during browsing have indigenous medicinal properties. Goats have high reproductive
efficiency compared to cattle with the ability to produce up to two and three kids in one parity.
Men usually migrate to urban areas in search of employment opportunities. Women, therefore,
bear the responsibility for all farm - related work, though they receive little remittances for
their contributions. In a study that targeted the role of improving women through a goat project,
women were able to generate income from goat sales (Tefera et al., 2007). Women were able
to purchase assets and even diversified to raising poultry and cattle production. Women were
able to empower themselves and enhance their ability to provide nutritious food for their
18
households. Involving women in goat production projects also empowers them to develop
entrepreneurial skills. Women participate extensively in various activities having
complementary roles and sharing activities with their male counterparts, and their contribution
is significant than that of men. Figure 2.1 shows the differences between men and women on
daily goat management activities. One may argue that for women, chickens are worth keeping
than goats. The low labour demand for goats makes them also attractive to empower women.
Even though goats are ubiquitous, they are still not fully exploited enough to create
opportunities and contribute to the gross domestic product (GDP) and national economy. In
addition, their productivity is still low and its contribution largely informal compared to other
species such as cattle and sheep. Thus, improving the productivity of goat could be of value to
capacity building of unemployed youths. This include use of indigenous breeds that are
adaptable to local conditions such as drought and water scarcity and require less anthelmintics.
The market is locally available where the youth can sell goats to the community for use
slaughter during cultural ceremonies.
19
Figure 2.1: Contribution (%) of men and women in goat rearing
Source: Rajkumar and Kavithaa (2014)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Co
ntr
ibu
tio
n (
%)
Activities
Men (%) Women (%)
20
2.5 Common ticks affecting goats
Inasmuch as goats possess worth attributes, the issue of diseases and parasites in the developing
countries still constraint goat productivity. Amongst the group of parasites regarded as external
parasites, ticks ranked the most (Sanhokwe et al., 2016). Ticks are usually controlled using
commercial drugs. The latter are expensive, less accessible, and not environmentally friendly
and some of the tick species have developed resistance against acaricides. This has resulted in
one school of thought endorsing the revival of IKS. Indigenous knowledge is easily accessible
and culturally acceptable and locally available. The most widely distributed tick species come
from the genus Amblyomma, Rhipicephalus, Haemaphysalis and Hyalomma (Diyes and
Rajakaruna, 2015). Knowledge on tick diversity, geographic distribution, and infections they
carry, and their zoonotic potential is important for the prevention and their effective control in
goats.
Hyalomma anatalicum anatalicum, Hyalomma marginatum isaaci, Rhipicephalus
haemophysaloides and Haemophysalis bispinosa were the most abundant ticks (Vathsala et al.
2008; Saundararajan et al., 2014; Diyes & Rajakaruna, 2015) in goats. Nyangiwe & Horak
(2007) identified Ambylomma hebraeum, Rhipicephalus microplus, Rhipicephalus
appendiculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi infesting goats. Amblyomma ticks have
visible eyes, long mouth parts and festoons. The Amblyomma tick has a 3- host life cycle and
are the only species known to transmit heartwater in goats, with Bont tick being the common
tick of the genus Amblyomma. Rhipicephalus species are characterized by short mouth parts,
eyes and festoons with male having ventral plates. Rhipicephalus species also called blue ticks
are one host ticks that are regarded as most economically important as they damage the quality
of the hide. The extent of their economic importance has, however, not been clearly
determined.
21
These species are more tolerant to both cold weather and drought conditions apart from
Rhipicephalus microplus thriving in warm and humid conditions (Zeman and Lynen, 2010).
The Rhipicephalus microplus affect cattle but can complete its life cycle on goats (Nyangiwe
and Horak, 2007). While Hyalomma species can be identified by their long mouth parts, visible
eyes as well as festoons and ventral plates in males. Hyalomma use two different host species
to complete its life cycle. Amongst the Rhipicephalus genus, Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi is
the most widespread of all ticks in Africa and has the largest host ranges (Walker et al., 2003).
In conventional knowledge, ticks are described and identified through their festoons, scutum
patterns, location and time of the year and others may also consider the capitulum. Local
people, on the other hand use local names to describe and classify tick species (Kioko et al.,
2015).
Ticks are traditionally recognized by their colour, size, on-host feeding sites and habitat
preference (Wanzala et al., 2012). Farmers relate each tick species with the damage it causes.
Wanzala et al. (2012) reported that local people were familiar with the locations of different
ticks on goats. Although naming of tick species using local vernacular could be challenging
because the names can represent more than one tick species. For example, the brightly coloured
bont tick was described as as kgofa e thamaga by the Setswana people in South Africa simply
referring to a multi coloured tick, however the same people also refer to it as kgofa e tala
referring to the bright yellowish green marking on its outer casing (Brown et al., 2013).
There is a distinction between how conventional knowledge and IK are used to describe ticks.
These two knowledge systems, however, should complement each other for sustainable
veterinary care, especially for the resource limited. For the objective assessment of economic
22
losses caused by ticks in goats, there is a need to identify the ticks and determine their loads
and prevalence. Information on tick loads and prevalence in goats is limited. There is also a
need to assess relationship between tick count and health status to ascertain their impacts on
goats.
2.6 Effects of ticks in goats
The impacts of ticks on goats include physical effects such as skin irritation, damage to the
skin and hide, limping and wound development. Ticks further suck blood from goats and
thereby predisposing them to anaemia. In addition, ticks act as vectors for a variety of tick -
borne diseases.
2.6.1 Physical effects of ticks on goats
Ticks suck blood daily and one female can suck more blood than 30 times of her body weight
during engorgement causing marked losses in body weight (Department of Agriculture
Forestry and Fisheries, 2008). Loss of blood result to stunted growth. Ticks attach themselves
to goats, their mouth parts damage the skin (DAFF, 2008). Wounds later predispose the host
to attacks from blowflies, screwworms, and secondary bacterial infections. In some cases,
wounds occur in the inner part of the hoofs leading to foot rot. When goats are predisposed to
foot rot, they suffer from limping and lameness which reduces their ability to search for feed
and water in rangelands. Consequently, reduced feed intake leads to productivity losses
characterized by reduction in body condition. Haemaphysalis bispora species, usually found
in the ear canal and on the outer surface of the ear cause skin irritation, shaking of the head and
hairless patches (Soundararajan et al., 2014). Information pertaining to the effects of ticks on
growth performance, carcass characteristics and physiological responses in goats is
unavailable.
23
Infestation with Hyalomma marginatum isaaci were found around the anus and vulva causing
oedema and abscess formation at the site of the bite and severe bleeding during tick removal.
The incidence of abscesses was found to be caused by Amblyomma spp, which mainly attach
on the udder, perineum (base of the tail and vulva lips) and inter digital spaces, where most
abscesses were observed. Ticks can allow bacteria to penetrate through the skin, leading to the
development of local abscesses that damage the skin (Tayler, 2006). They damage the hide
through piercing that leaves permanent markings. These markings compromise the value of the
hide when being processed for leather manufacturing. Ticks with longer mouthparts such as
Amblyomma and Hyalomma cause more extensive damage than those with shorter mouthparts
such as Boophilus and Rhipicephalus.
2.6.2 Transmission of tick-borne diseases
Ticks have potential to spread a wide range of infectious vector borne diseases in goats
(Wanzala et al., 2017). Tick-borne diseases (TBD) are diseases, which can spread between
goats from a bite of infected tick (Agricultural Research Council, 1999). Ticks become infected
by feeding on goats that are either having the disease or the parasite in their bloodstream,
making them carriers of the disease. Tick-borne diseases affect goats enormously (Alessandra
and Santo, 2012) with heartwater being the most economically important disease in goats. For
example, in South Africa, a huge number of goat improvement projects have collapsed because
of the heartwater disease (DAFF, 2017). Farmers are, therefore, encouraged by the veterinary
services to sell more of their goats as a control measure. Schwalback et al. (2003) recorded that
Toggenburg kids were more affected by abscesses than the South East African indigenous
breed goats.
24
Studies on tick-borne fever, babesiosis and anaplasmosis are not well characterized in goats as
they are not perceived as important as they are in cattle. Tick-borne fever is not known to occur
in goats, babesiosis is highly susceptible in sheep than in goats. Anaplasmosis in goats is a
subclinical, non-pathogenic, mild febrile disease with little economic importance (Barry and
Van Niekerk, 1990). Ticks and their associated challenges are controlled mainly using
conventional acaricides in cattle with goats often being ignored. The emergence of resistance
and consumers demand for meat products, which are safe has led to one school of thought
proposing use of IK.
2.7 Importance of indigenous knowledge to control ticks
Custodians in possession of the knowledge include herbalists, experts with veterinary
knowledge and pastoralists. Indigenous knowledge custodians have knowledge of the habitat
and life cycles of plants and livestock and various other aspects of other resources (Hoppers,
2002). Indigenous knowledge is not fully exploited and appreciated by government, veterinary
services, and other stakeholders such as policy makers. Indigenous knowledge needs to be
recognised, developed, promoted, and properly documented. Indigenous knowledge of
controlling ticks include use of (1) ethno-veterinary remedies and (2) non-plant materials.
2.7.1 Use of ethno-veterinary remedies to control ticks
Exploring the use of ethno-veterinary remedies has gained popularity in recent decades due to
their local availability and accessibility. Ethno-veterinary practices are common in developing
countries because of various socio-economic challenges, foremost being inadequate veterinary
services. The value of these ethno - veterinary plants lies in various chemical constituents or
substances that either repel or kills ticks. Plants are collected by farmers from bushes, around
the kraal or used as fence to the homestead for ease of access (Magwede et al., 2014; Kuma et
al., 2015). There are number of ethno-veterinary plants that have been recorded that are used
25
to control ticks in goats. In South Africa and Zimbabwe, for example, Lippia javanica
(Burm.f.) Spreng is widely used to get repel of ticks and other ectoparasites. Ticks are sprayed
with crushed leaves mixed with water. Plants such as Cissus grandifolia Warb, Terminalia
brownii Fresen and Aloe volkensii Engl. are widely used to control tick - borne diseases. Many
rural farmers have used plants to control ticks. In some cases, the traditional use has been
confirmed, in other cases, only the traditional use has been documented. Some ethno-veterinary
plants are only available during the rainy season (Kioko et al., 2015). The different extractions
and plant parts used as well as the efficacy where available is listed in Table 2.4 and Table 2.5.
26
Table 2.4: Ethnoveterinary plants used to control ticks in Africa
Scientific name Family Plant part Preparation methods, administration, and dosage
levels
Comments &
precautions
References
Aloe ferox Mill. Asphodelaceae Leaves Leaves are crushed, and the juice is applied to the skin - Sanhokwe et al. (2016)
Elephantorrhiza elephantina
(Burch.) Skeels
Fabaceae Roots Grind the roots and boil in water for 30 minutes until the
water turns red, spray the animal
- Sanhokwe et al. (2016)
Acokanthera oppositifolia
(Lam.) Codd
Apocynaceae Leaves Grind leaves, boil, cool and drench the animals. Dose
with 1 L bottle of adults and 300 ml bottle for kids
- Sanhokwe et al. (2016)
Bulbine latifolia (L.f.)
Spreng
Asphodelaceae Leaves Grind leaves, boil and apply to skin or drench with 1L - Sanhokwe et al. (2016)
Tagetes minuta L. Asteraceae Whole plant Crush and mix with water Safe to use Nyahangare et al. (2015)
Terminalia sericea Burch.
ex DC
Combretaceae Leaves Crush and mix with water, spray the animal Very effective Nyahangare et al. (2015)
Xeroderris stuhlmannii Papilionaceae Barks Crush stems and spread on infested sites Very effective Nyahangare et al. (2015)
Zantedeschia albomaculata Araceae Stem Crush mix with water and drench the animal Very effective Nyahangare et al. (2015)
Ptenocarpus angolensis Papilionoideae Barks, branches Mix with water Safe to use Nyahangare et al. (2015)
Ricinus communis.L Euphorbiaceae Leaves Grind leaves and paste on tick infested site Very effective Nyahangare et al. (2015)
Solanum ponduriforme Solanaceae Fruits Crush fruits and mix with water Handle with care Nyahangare et al. (2015)
Albizia amara.(Roxb.)Boiv. Fabaceae Leaves Crush leaves mix with water and spray Effective Nyahangare et al. (2015)
Bauhinia petersiana
Bolle.
Fabaceae Leaves Crush leaves, mix with water Safe to use Nyahangare et al. (2015)
27
Table 2.5: Ethnoveterinary plants used to control ticks in Africa (continued)
Scientific name Family Plant part Preparation methods, administration and dosage
levels
Comments &
precautions
References
Cissus quadrangularis .L. Vitaceae Stems Crush and mix with water to spray Handle with care, causes
itching
Nyahangare et al. (2015)
Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae Fruits Crush the fruits and mix with soot in water and spray Causes eye irritation Nyahangare et al. (2015)
Ornithogalum sp Alliaceae Roots Crush and mix with water Very effective Nyahangare et al. (2015)
Rotheca eriophylla Lamiaceae Leaves Macerate, soak with water and spray Very effective and safe to
use
Nyahangare et al. (2015)
Colophospermum mopane
(J. Kirk ex Benth.) J.
Léonard
Fabaceae Branches and
twigs
Burn and apply ashes on animal skin Safe to use Nyahangare et al. (2015)
Euphorbia hirta .L. Spurges Herbs The sap is extracted from the fresh plant and smeared in
the infested site
- Opiro et al. (2010)
Solanecio mannii (Hook.f.)
C.Jeffrey
Asteraceae Shrub Leaves are crushed and put in water and decanted, spray
directly on infested areas of the body
- Opiro et al. (2010)
Kigelia africana (Lam),
Benth
Bignonias Bark and fruit The fruit or bark of the plants are pounded using a mortar
and the pounded powder is added to water and sprayed
on affected areas
- Opiro et al. (2010)
Vernonia amygdalina Delile
Compositae/
Asteraceae
Leaves Animal made to drink crushed leaves, soot and water
mixture
Very effective Nyahangare et al. (2015)
28
Figure 2.2. Examples of African medicinal plants of current interest in tick infestation. 1st row
(from left to right): Lippia javanica, Aloe forex, Cissus quadrangularis L; 2nd row: Capsicum
annuum L., Colophospermum mopane, Kigelia africana (Lam), Benth; 3rd row: Tagetes
minuta L., Albizia amara, Elephantorrhiza elephantine; 4th row: Ricinus communis,
Euphorbia hirta L, Vernonia amygdalina
29
2.7.2 Efficacy and quality of ethno-veterinary remedies
The efficacy and quality of ethno-veterinary plant materials used may depend on intrinsic and
external factors. For example, contamination by microbes, chemical agents and other plant
species may compromise the quality, safety, and efficacy. It is evident that farmers are aware
of toxicity of some ethno-veterinary plants and therefore, counteract by adding more water
during herbal preparations and boil or cook the plant material before it can be administered to
the goat. From the list of plants listed in Table 2.4 and Table 2.5, some plants are safe to use.
Safe to use implies that there is no harm that can happen to the person or animal using the plant.
Other plants need to be handled with care, implying that necessary precautions should be
considered when using the plant. For example, some plants can potentially be harmful to the
eyes and skin.
Acokanthera oppositifolia (Lam.) Codd is rendered toxic because of the manifestation of
cardiac glycoside it contains, hence during its preparations the plant extract is diluted to reduce
the harmful toxicity (Sanhokwe et al., 2016). Aloe ferox Mill is widely used in Africa, its
popularity arises from the laxative effect it has because of the presence of glycoside aloin (Eloff
and McGaw, 2014). Aloe ferox Mill possesses insect repellent properties and may also treat
anaplasmosis and heartwater. In constract, Moyo and Masika (2009) reported no significant
effects of Aloe ferox Mill on ticks. The use of Aloe volkensii subsp. Volkensii is due to its
biologically active ingredients that produces a physiological action against anaplasmosis
(Kioko et al., 2015).
Elephantorrhiza elephantina (Burch.) Skeels is used to control ticks in goats and can also treat
heartwater (Luseba and Van de Merwe, 2006), the plant possesses antibiotic properties and
relieves inflammation (Cocks, 2006) and has purgative effects. Babesiosis can lead to a multi
30
system organ failure, including liver damage. Masika and Afolayan (2003) reported that
Heteromorpha arborescens (Spreng.) Cham. & Schltdl contains two vital antimicrobial
compounds falcarindiol and asaricin that enable the plant to have pharmacological and
antimicrobial properties. Rumex lanceolatus Thunb that controls heartwater, contain
glycosides of chrysophanol that has laxative effect in its roots (Van Wyk et al., 1997; Masika
and Afolayan, 2003). Other plant species such as Pelargonium reniforme Curtis and
Eucomis punctata L'Hér are used in combination and are mixed with other substances such as
potassium permanganate and river salt to enhance the effectiveness of the extract. Drimia
delagoensis (Baker) Jessop is phytochemically distinguished by the presence of the cardian
glycosides bufadienolides that upon enzymatic hydrolysis produces medicinally important
bufadienolide proscillaridine. The antibacterial activity of the crude extract of Drimia
delagoensis (Baker) Jessop is moderate to relatively low though the plant is still largely used
in ethno - veterinary medicine (Mokwala, 2007). The use of Cissus quadrangularis L. to control
ticks is attributed to its inflammatory and antimicrobial effects. Cissus quadrangularis L. is
reported to have fungicidal and anti-pyretic properties.
Regassa et al. (2000) tested the efficacy of different plant preparations (Table 2.6) and reported
that Ficus brachypoda plant killed 72 % of A.cohaerans ticks and Ficus obovalifolia was able
to kill all of A. variegatum. Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng has successfully been used to
control ticks and contains multiple classes of phytochemicals including alkaloid and flavoids.
The plant possesses a wide range of pharmacological activities, which include anti-microbial
and pesticidal effects (Maroyi et al., 2012). Table 2.6 highlights the potential acaricidal efficacy
of ethno -veterinary remedies on mortality rate of adult ticks. Table 2.7 compares the efficacy
of 10 % Azadirachta indica vs. untreated kids (control) between Small East African (SEA) and
Toggenburg (TB) goat kids.
31
Table 2.6: Mortality (%) of adult Amblyomma cohaerens and A. variegatum treated with
different plant preparations
Percentage mortality in adult ticks
Plant preparation A. cohaerens A. variegatum
Ficus brachypoda (Miq.) Miq. 71.5 No ticks
Capsicum annuum L
5.5 No ticks
Ficus obovalifolia 68.0 100
Solanum incanum L.
11.5 0
Control 0 0
Source: Regassa et al. (2000)
32
Table 2.7: Tick counts (total and per species) in Small East African (SEA) and
Toggenburg (TB) goat kids treated with a 10% Azadirachta indica vs. untreated kids
10% Neem Control
Tick species
SEA
TB SEA TB
A. hebraeum 6.3a 17.6b 46.5c 72.5d
H. truncatum 4.8a 27.3b 39.3c 79.3d
R. evertsi 9.0a 35.0b 57.0c 92.0d
Source: Schwalback et al. (2003);
a,b,c,d Means with different superscripts within rows differ significantly (P < 0.01)
SEA- South East African goat; TB – Toggenburg breed
33
Magono et al. (2011) reported a repellency index of 100 % from hexane extracts of Lippia
javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng on Hyalomma ticks. Similarly, Madzimure et al. (2011) reported
that 10 and 20 % w/v of leaf extracts of Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng was effective in
controlling Amblyomma sp, Boophilus, Hyalomma and Rhipicephalus and was as good as
Amitraz based acaricide tickburster that is commercially used to control ticks. Schwalback et
al. (2003) reported a decrease in tick numbers in goat kids treated with Azadirachta indica
(Table 2.6). The use of Azadirachta indica extract disrupts mating and oviposition of exposed
insects and inhibits the hatching of their eggs and failure to moult (1993). The detrimental
effects on growth performance, behaviour and meat quality of most herbal extracts are not yet
clearly understood.
2.8 Plant parts and preparation methods used
The most common plant parts utilised during preparations are roots, leaves, barks, fruits and
young shoots and flowers (Kuma et al., 2015; Mashebe et al., 2015) though the use of leaves
usually takes precedence (Kioko et al., 2015; Sanhokwe et al., 2016; Kerario et al. 2018). For
example, Opiro et al. (2010) reported that 54 % of the respondents used leaves (Figure 2.3). In
another study, 30 % of farmers preferred to use leaves than barks and roots (Kioko et al., 2015).
The leaves (29 %) were most widely used by farmers in comparison to barks (13 %), root (13
%), seed (12 %) and whole plant (10 %) (Panda and Mishra, 2016). Similar findings were
reported by Maroyi et al. (2012) with most used plant part being leaves (51 %), bark (16 %),
roots (13 %) and fruits (10 %).
34
Figure 2.3: Characteristics of the plant parts used as ethno-veterinary medicines
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Leaves Roots Fruits Whole plant Bark Sap Seed Others
Pla
nt
spe
cie
s (%
)
Plant part used
Opiro et al. (2010)
Maroyi et al. (2012)
Koiko et al. (2015)
Pinda & Mishra (2016)
35
During remedy preparation, farmers exploit different plant parts and preparation methods
(Kuma et al., 2015). Infusions, concoctions, decoctions and crushing. Infusion is the process
whereby the plant material is soaked in water and left for some time to allow the active
ingredient to infuse to water and form a mixture. Decoctions is a process whereby the plant
materials are boiled with water (Kuma et al., 2015). Concoctions is a process whereby plant
ingredients are mixed to form a mixture. Sanhokwe et al. (2016) reported that decoction was
the most widely used preparation method when controlling external parasites in goats. The
study reported that approximately 60 % of farmers used decoction, whereas 40 % use infusion
to prepare the plants. High preference of decoctions could be because since the process involves
boiling, farmers would be trying to ensure that the plants do not become toxic to the body of
the goat. The process of decoction, extracts water soluble polar compounds and the high
temperature applied during boiling reduces the toxicity of the thermolabile compounds in
ethno-veterinary plants that can be poisonous to goats (Djoueche et al., 2011).
Crushing and squeezing are the main forms of preparation (Kuma et al., 2015). Mashed or
crushed method entails that plant materials are stirred in water to make concoction. Plant
materials are also ground into powder while others are freshly mashed to form paste that will
be pasted into infested site. Farmers infuse the plant extracts to obtain juices after squeezing
freshly leaves, twigs or bark. These juices are obtained by pressing the sap of the plant part.
Farmers use different parts of the plant depending on the plant or tree used. For example, Aloe
ferox Mill and Cissus quadrangularis L. their active ingredients are found from leaves whereas
plants like Ornithogalum sp roots are the main the source of the active ingredient.
36
The use of different plant parts during preparations could be attributed to seasonal effect as
plants growth vary with season and this variation can hinder the growth of some plants during
the cold-dry season. Utilization of leaves is also abundant in most parts of the world due to the
belief that leaf harvesting reduces loss of the plants from natural products and it does not
destroy the whole plant (Wanzala et al., 2012). High use of leaves could be because leaves are
usually the one containing the active compounds (Kioko et al., 2015). The use of roots in herbal
remedy preparation is not advisable as this possibly destroy the whole plant. It is, thus
important to determine factors that contribute to the preferred method of preparations so that
necessary recommendations can be made.
2.9 Routes of administration and dosage levels of plants
Medication is administered differently and under different dosage levels, common
administration route includes oral, nasal and smoke bath treatments (Kuma et al., 2015).
Usually the medication is administered using cups, and water or drink bottles. Farmers use
between one and two litres of oral solution (Kioko et al., 2015). These standards are based on
experience and oral teachings from the elderly people. The preference of using oral
administration could be due to ease of handling of goats. The method does not require
sophisticated operation or machines. Other plants species, for example Euphorbia hirta L.
involves extraction of the sap from the plant which is then smeared directly on tick infested
site (Opiro et al., 2010). Bulbine latifolia are prepared and orally administered to the goats. In
most cases the route of administration to control of ticks are oral, spraying and pasting the
medication on the infested site. Dosage levels vary, because some of the plants have a strong
bitter taste and only administered in small dosages.
37
Whilst others are rendered too strong and only given in small quantities. Indigenous people
adjust dosages according to the size of the goats (Gakuubi and Wanzala, 2017). Indigenous
knowledge, therefore, play a huge role in veterinary care of goats. There is, however, not much
information about IK and control of TBD’s in goats. Farmers, however, use various ethno-
veterinary plants to treat for TBD’s. The rapid interest in the use of IK to mitigate challenges
of resistance and high cost of acaricides necessitate that research should be further conducted
to ascertain the dosage levels. It should also focus on how farmers correlate age, sex and body
condition of goat with the disease itself and medication applied. Consequently, could also
include the severity of the disease. Farmers usually define diseases using clinical signs and
sometimes diseases exhibit differential diagnosis and that may affect the accuracy of dosages
when administering medication and thus affecting the efficacy of the herbal remedy.
2.10 Summary of the review
Despite their importance, goats have been neglected in terms of appropriate development
strategies and suitable marketing infrastructure for their products. This has led to goats
contributing less to the economy particularly in Southern Africa. Goats have a better hedge
than cattle in coping with climate extremes challenges. Goat are considered hardy; however,
their productivity is still hindered by diseases and parasites. Tick control is not usually
practiced in goats. Farmers do not depend on IK for only human health care, but IK constitute
a very important part of livelihoods where it is employed to mitigate day to day challenges.
Progressive exposure to conventional knowledge presents a threat of disappearance to such
rich indigenous knowledge.
The use indigenous knowledge could be useful to achieving sustainable plant-based remedies
or could otherwise be used in complimentarily with conventional knowledge to enhance
38
veterinary care. More importantly in the face whereby the development of resistance towards
acaricides is increasing and public concerns for safe and nutritious meat. Farmers do not dip
goats as there are no available goat dipping systems. With the rapid environmental, social,
economic and political changes occurring in many developing countries comes the danger that
the IK will be overwhelmed and lost forever. Younger generations are acquiring different
values and lifestyles as a result of exposure to global and national influences. Traditional
communication networks are breaking down, meaning that elders are dying without passing
their knowledge on to children. Henceforth, there need to identify, document and preserve IK.
39
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46
CHAPTER THREE: Indigenous knowledge used to control tick infestation in goats
grazing in communal rangelands
Indilinga Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (Under review)
ABSTRACT
Amongst ectoparasites, ticks and their associated diseases remain the major constraint to the
improvement of goat productivity. Indigenous knowledge (IK) plays a crucial role to combat
the challenges of ticks and associated diseases. The objective of the study was to identify
indigenous knowledge used to control ticks and associated challenges. A total of 39 farmers of
both gender with the age group of > 65 years old were selected using a snowball sampling
procedure. Participants were selected based on their personal experience of using indigenous
knowledge. Face-to-face interviews were conducted in IsiZulu vernacular and later translated
to English. Indigenous people have substantial knowledge on ticks exemplified by their ability
to differentiate between different tick species. Three tick species were identified, and these
were Amblyomma, Hyalomma and Rhipicephalus. Ticks are traditionally identified using
colour patterns and feeding sites. Ticks cause wounds, skin irritation and limping. Nine
medicinal plant species were identified to control ticks and their associated challenges and four
used to treat tick -borne diseases. The medication is prepared using different plant parts, though
the use of leaves was the most prominent in the study area, followed by barks. Ticks are also
controlled by using traditional practices such as thorns, scissors and pasture burning.
Conducting surveys, having workshops and interviews were identified as the most useful that
can be used to ensure that IK is not lost but conserved for future generations. For sustainable
veterinary care there is a need to integrate the two knowledge systems into coming up with
viable tick control strategies to enhance goat productivity.
Keywords: Animal diseases, heartwater, plant identifications, skin damage, treatment, wounds
47
3.1 Introduction
The production and consumption of chevon has been increasing in the past decade (DAFF,
2015), though its consumption is largely informal. This is mainly because majority of goats
marketed are sold by private transactions in the informal market to be slaughtered for religious
or traditional purposes and also lack of well-developed formal market. The rise of chevon
consumption is attributed to the demand of lean meat (Sanon et al., 2008) amongst consumers.
It contains less fat, and higher levels of protein and iron in comparison with beef, pork, and
mutton and broiler meat. Chevon contains between 50 and 60 % lower in fat compared to beef
(DAFF, 2012). Goats have a potential to mitigate the deficiency of animal protein and combat
the challenges of household food insecurity faced in the tropics and subtropics. The human
population density in the sub-tropics and tropics is increasing. An expected population growth
of 1 billion of this increase will occur in Africa (Thornton et al., 2009; Nardone et al., 2010).
Demand of livestock products will, eventually increase significantly to feed the growing human
population. High quality products such as goat meat that reduce incidence of diseases of
civilisation will also be in high demand.
The production of goats is also expected to increase because of several drivers of change in the
livestock production sector. One of which is the unforeseeable drastic effect of climate change.
Thus, addressing the issues of climate change involve rearing of animals that are robust and
adaptable to changing extreme conditions such as severe drought and water scarcity issues
(Rust & Rust, 2013) faced in the world. Goats are, therefore, more appropriate under such
environments or set up. Goats are inexpensive to raise and are, thus, a viable option for
resource-limited households. Their high fecundity and relatively small space requirements and
exceptional ability to produce under marginal environments such as mountainous and degraded
lands are other attributes. About 70 % of the world resource-limited population depend on goats
48
for sustainability (Nyahangare et al., 2015). The importance of goats is even higher in drier
agro ecological zones where crop production is unreliable due to low and poorly distributed
rainfall patterns coupled with droughts. Goats are also able to feed on grasses, bushes, shrubs,
tree leaves and crop residues which would otherwise go to waste.
Although, goats are suitable under marginal lands, their productivity is still low owing to
several constraints such as infectious diseases and parasites (Rumosa Gwaze et al., 2009).
Communal production systems are characterized by poor management and low productivity.
Farmers in communal production systems hardly use drugs to treat goats, consequently,
diseases and ectoparasites are rife and major threats to goat production. Surveys have indicated
that ticks are one of the constraints to goat productivity (Sanhokwe et al. 2016). The influence
of ticks on goats is also exacerbated by the mistaken perceptions that goats are resistant to
diseases. Ticks cause substantial losses such as diseases, reduced productivity through high
mortalities and they are economically the most important ectoparasites of goats. Ticks suck
blood, damage the quality of the skin and hides and introduce toxins (Mtshali et al., 2004).
The most common methods used to control ticks are commercial acaricides. However, in
developing countries, the supply of acaricides are inconsistently available or not available at
all. Goats owned by resource-limited farmers are reared on communal rangelands where they
browse extensively under nomadic conditions in mixed pastures with cattle. However, during
dipping of cattle, goats are often ignored yet these species graze together. Many resource-
limited farmers in developing countries cannot afford acaricides and depend extensively on
indigenous practices and methods. Indigenous knowledge is critical in goat health and it
enhances cost-effective management of ticks. Though such knowledge is valuable, however
government veterinary services are an impediment to the development and use of IK as they
49
disregard them unapproved and based on mythology. As a result, farmers are exposed to
modern veterinary services leading to infrequent application due to failure to purchase the
acaricides and at times under dosing, thus contributing to the development of resistance of ticks
to acaricides.
Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants is, however, important because it is easily accessible
and locally available. It is important to promote and preserve IK since there is continual loss
of the knowledge as farmers adopt conventional knowledge. This study, therefore, when
applied will ideally assist through the use of these indigenous practices and methods to
eradicate ticks in goats, thereby enhancing global food security through provision of healthy
chevon. This information can be used to design cost effective control programmes, which are
locally available and affordable to farmers. Indigenous knowledge could be useful because it
controls even parasites that have developed resistant to acaricides. The objective of the study
was to explore indigenous knowledge use to control ticks.
3.2 Materials and methods
3.2.1 Ethical clearance consideration
The respondents’ rights, religions, culture and dignity were respected. The respondents were
assured that no confidential information would be disclosed, and they had a right to stop the
interview whenever they did not feel comfortable.
The experimental procedures were performed according to the ethical guidelines specified by
the Certification of Authorization to Experiment on Living Humans provided by the UKZN
Social Sciences – Humanities & Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee (Reference No:
HSS/0852/017).
50
3.2.2 Study site
The study was conducted at Jozini municipality of uMkhanyakude district in the KwaZulu-
Natal Province of South Africa. Jozini municipality lies 27º 24' 06.9' S; 32º 11' 48.6 E, and
covers about 3 082 km2, with an altitude ranging from 80 to 1900 m above sea level.
Jozini experiences subtropical climate, with an average annual rainfall of 600 mm. Although
the area receives rainfall throughout the year, most rains are received between January and
March, with the months of June and July being dry and cool. Highest mean monthly
temperature is recorded in January (30°C) and lowest in July (11°C). The average daily
maximum and minimum temperatures at Jozini are 20 ºC and 10 ºC, respectively. The
vegetation type of the area is mainly coastal sand-veld, bush-veld and foothill wooded
grasslands (Morgenthal et al., 2006; Gush, 2008). Agricultural practices of the people in this
district include production of field crops, vegetables and extensively raising livestock.
3.2.3 Study design and key informants selection
Eight communities were visited across the Jozini Area. In each community, scheduled meetings
with local authorities such as chiefs and local headmen was arranged to gain access to
communities. Data was collected from 39 elderly participants of both genders with the age
group of > 65 years old that were selected based on their personal experience on indigenous
knowledge systems (IKS) to control ticks.
A snowball sampling method was used to identify the study participants. The sampling
technique involved approaching participants with extensive knowledge on the use of medicinal
plants in goats. People in turn direct to other potential respondents.
51
3.2.4 Collection of indigenous knowledge on ticks
The respondents were visited on their homesteads. Face-to-face personal interviews were used
to communicate with farmers to collect data on practices and methods used to control tick
infestation and other associated challenges in goats. The interviews were guided by the
checklist of questions (Appendix 1). A tape recorder was used during the discussions. The
interviews were administered in the local vernacular isiZulu. Verbal probes were used where
necessary to collect more knowledge from the respondents. The respondents could further
elaborate their knowledge in depth. Data collection included common ticks and associated tick
challenges in goats, effects of ticks in goats, new tick species and diseases that has developed.
Indigenous methods and practices used to control ticks and associated tick challenges were also
captured.
The data included (1) Local names of the plants (2) part of the plant used (3) condition of the
plant (4) method of preparation and dosage. The occurrence and effects of climate change and
distribution of plants to goat production were discussed. Farmers were requested to suggest
methods to improve IK and conservation. Source of knowledge, transference of knowledge to
other community members or household members were also requested.
3.2.5 Plant collection and identification
Following personal interviews with the selected key respondents, 13 plant specimens were
identified and collected. During collection of plant parts, leaves and bark were collected to
ensure that the plant continues to grow. The specimens were harvested, prepared, packaged
and stored according to the herbarium rules and regulations. Plants specimens were then
pressed and transported to the University of KwaZulu-Natal for botanical identification. For
52
each plant species collected, a voucher specimen was prepared by The Bews Herbarium of the
University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. .
3.2.6 Data analyses
Audio recordings were translated from local vernacular isiZulu into English. Information such
as respondent body language and facial expressions were considered when transcribing the
data. The data were coded and categorised according to the themes that were discovered from
the participants.
3.3 Results
3.3.1 Importance of indigenous knowledge in goat production
Traditional people have a strong culture with customs and practices manifested in their own
beliefs and tradition of indigenous system of goat keeping and management. Indigenous
knowledge has existed for decades and is acquired from different sources. Foremost being
forefathers through practical training and oral communication during gatherings, where
farmers engage about livestock challenges, respectively. Information is also sourced from
herbalists as well as elders in the neighbourhood. Use of IK is attributed to its effectiveness
and local availability. Inability to purchase conventional acaricides due to shortage of funds is
another reason for the abundant use of IK.
Indigenous people have a strong belief in IK, hence the idea of knowing that IK is working
enables farmers to use it more often. Indigenous knowledge presents a quick solution, hence
the famers prefer to use it. It is crucial that IK is conserved and that every individual is educated
with the knowledge because it is part of the local tradition a way of life to indigenous people.
53
Medicinal plants can be planted in a protected environment in the community and authorisation
can be given by the chiefs and local authorities. Surveys, workshops and interviews with
knowledgeable people should be conducted so that this information can be stored for future
generations.
3.3.2 Effects of ticks on productivity of goats
Ticks cause higher morbidity and mortalities in goats, especially to kids and weaners. Table
3.1 shows the effects of ticks on goats productivity. Ticks cause wounds, skin damage and
irritation, limping, body condition loss and destroy udders in goats. Ticks are also vectors of
tick-borne diseases with heartwater being the most common economically important disease in
the study area.
3.3.3 Indigenous knowledge of tick ecology in goats
The indigenous people appear to be well acquitted with the ecological knowledge of ticks and
their predisposing factors. Ticks are described by colour patterns, size, and the predilection
sites. Ticks are in different parts of the goat body such as ears, reproductive organ, legs, and
neck. Traditional names are used to name tick species that are observed. These are ikhalane
elinkone (Amblyomma), iqhashimba (Hyalomma) and onombeva (Rhipicephalus). Amblyomma
is found in between the horns. Hyalomma is a blackish tick with a huge stomach and is also
referred as ikhalane lenja denoting that it exists in dogs. When this tick is full it falls of from
the goat and thus giving the impression that it is not harmful. It is difficult to see Rhipicephalus
due to their small size and they are normally found in under the tail, ears in their nymph stage
and in between the hoofs of goats. Rhipicephalus are highly prevalent in the study area.
54
Table 3.1: Effects of ticks on goat productivity
Condition Description
Wounds Amblyomma with long mouth parts gouge through the goat skin until it develops
a wound. The wound deepens, and flies lay eggs that hatch and develops to
maggots. If left untreated, it develops to an abscess. Normally this occurs when
ticks are handpicked because when the long mouth part is removed, thus leaving
a wound. The best way of removing ticks is to cut it using a scissor because it cuts
the body off and then the mouth part loses a grip and falls off. Wounds also arise
whereby the goat would be rubbing itself to the tree or any form of material to
remove the tick and the object injures the goat and leaves a wound.
Limping Ticks attaches between the hoofs and cause wounds. The hoofs sometimes rot and
eventually the goat starts limping, thereby being unable to walk. This is only
noticeable when the goat no longer goes to the mountain or communal grazing
areas like others.
Skin irritation This is characterized by irritability of the goat that is due to poison from the tick,
therefore the goat will counteract it by scratching itself against trees and poles.
Destroyed teats Ticks surround the udder in large numbers and damage the teats in does. The teat
can get swollen and become reddish thereby depriving kids the opportunity to
suckle.
Loss of body
condition
Ticks suck blood and deny the goat from nutrients. This subsequently leads to a
loss of body condition when the goat is thin, it becomes vulnerable to diseases.
55
3.3.4 Indigenous knowledge of tick-borne diseases in goats
Symptoms are used to describe the naming of tick-borne diseases. When a goat has
Amblyomma spp it immediately suffers from a disease called heartwater which is referred as
ume or usekela or uqhasha in traditional name. The term usekela emanates from the symptom
that a goat exhibit whereby it spins in a circle because the tick carrying bacterial species that
cause heartwater, will be in the goat head making it to act crazy. Heartwater is prevalent in kids
< 3 months of age. Uqhasha emanates from convulsion where a bacterial pathogen that is
produced by the vector Amblyomma tick is moving in the head of the goat and it begins to circle
around.
Even though there was failure to link diseases such as anaplasmosis, babesiosis and tick-borne
fever with the causative tick species, however, it was apparent that these diseases are often
noticed in goats through their symptoms. Umkhuhlane emanates from the slimy mucous around
the nose that the goats will exhibit. Goats will also lie down, become weak, shiver and show
signs of cold. The appearance of red urine is one of the major symptoms that is linked with
babesiosis in goats, hence the naming of the diseases amanzi abomvu meaning red water or
liquid. Anaplasmosis is associated with the pale mucous membrane and fresh grass in the spring
during rainy season. Some believe the disease originate from the morning dew. Hence, one
way that experts use to circumvent the diseases is to keep goats inside the kraal until the
morning dews disappears.
3.3.5 Ethno-veterinary control of ticks and tick related conditions in goats
Indigenous knowledge of local environments gained over many generations has enabled
indigenous people to identify and select plants they consider effective in the control of ticks
56
and associated challenges. Indigenous knowledge on tick control was not widely shared among
communities. Extension officers and veterinarians do not recommend or promote IK and
practices because of the lack of scientific approval and recognition. It is, however, apparent
that ticks and conditions related to ticks are controlled by a variety of ethno veterinary remedies
and traditional methods. Ethno veterinary remedies are used in a complementary and integrated
way, depending upon the level of tick infestation and the damage caused. Goats are treated
when the signs of the diseases are visible and when ticks are observed.
Nine plant species belonging to eight families were identified to control ticks and related tick
challenges. Six medicinal plants are used as tick repellents from goats namely,
Cissus quadrangularis Lin, Stapelia gigantea N.E. Br., Portulaca pilosa L, Gomphocarpus
physocarpus E.Mey. Achyranthes aspera L. and Maytenus acuminata (L.f.) Loes. Table 3.2
shows methods of preparation and dosages used. In addition, four plant species were identified
to treat tick wounds Cissus quadrangularis Lin, Aloe marlothii A.Berger,
Drimia altissima (L.f.) Ker Gawl and Spirostachys africana Sond. Other plant species are
broad spectrum, for example Cissus quadrangularis Lin, which is used to control ticks can also
be effectively used to wounds. The medication is prepared using different plant parts, though
the use of leaves was the most prominent in the study area, followed by barks. Cissus
quadrangularis Lin mixture is smeared on the wound this removes maggot development.
Leaves from Aloe marlothii are applied on the wounds. The juicy liquid of Aloe marlothii
A.Berger is then applied topically on the wounds in order to get rid of maggot development.
Drimia altissima (L.f.) Ker Gawl is another plant that is used to treat tick wounds. The wound
is, however, cleaned first before the prepared mixture is applied.
57
Table 3.2: Indigenous plants and methods used to control ticks
Scientific name Family name Local name Voucher No Parts used, preparation, dosage, and effectiveness Conditions
Cissus quadrangularis.Lin Vitaceae Inhlashwana NU0068142
Crush fresh leaves and smear the paste in the wound, oral
administration 1× day adults goats, ½ = kids, very effective
Wounds
Aloe marlothii A.Berger Asphodelaceae Inhlaba NU0068166
Crush the leaves and collect the juice apply on the wound, very
effective
Wounds
Cissus quadrangularis.Lin Vitaceae Inhlashwana NU0068142
Fresh leaves grind and mix together and apply on the body parts of
the goat, in 30 minutes time tick will be falling off, every effective
Ticks
Stapelia gigantea N.E.Br. Apocynaceae Uzililo Yet to be
identified
Crush fresh leaves and apply paste topically on the skin, moderately
effective
Ticks
Portulaca pilosa L Portulacaceae Ushisizwe Yet to be
identified
Crush fresh leaves and topically apply paste on the goat skin, after 1
day, very effective
Ticks
Gomphocarpus physocarpus
E. Mey
Apocynaceae Phehlachwathi NU0068162
Crush fresh leaves and topically apply paste on the goat skin where
there are ticks, after 1-2 hours tick would be falling, very effective
Ticks
Drimia altissima (L.f.) Ker
Gawl
Asparagaceae Umahlanganisa Yet to be
identified
Crush fresh leaves or roots and apply treat on the wound, very
effective
Wounds
Spirostachys africana Sond Europhorbiaceae Umthombothi NU0068154
Crush fresh leaves or roots and apply the paste on the wound, very
effective
Wounds
Achyranthes aspera L. Celastraceae Isinamane NU0068139
Crush fresh leaves and feed solution to goats, effective Ticks
58
Aloe marlothii A.Berger plant is used to cure anaplasmosis, only two medicinal plants are used
to treat goats against heartwater Boophane disticha and Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims. Table
3.3 shows methods of preparation and dosages used. The Boophone disticha (L.f.) Herb. is
administered orally to kill the Ehrlichia ruminantium bacterium spp that causes heartwater.
Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims is widely used to treat heartwater in the study area. Ticks are
also controlled using traditional practices. Ticks are poked with thorns to avoid hand picking
because it creates wounds. Other methods include the cutting of ticks with a scissor and pasture
burning. Scissors are used to remove ticks in their nymph stages. The cutting is done on the
stomach so that it will not be able to feed, during cutting mouth parts are not gauged because
such can lead to wound development. The practice of burning pastures to control ticks is now
limited because it reduces the available grazing land.
3.3.6 Challenges on the availability of medicinal plants
The change in the climate especially lower rainfall patterns have limited the availability of
several medicinal plants that are being utilised to make remedies for ticks and TBD. For
example, plant remedies such as Croton sylvaticus Hochst.(Ugibeleweni),
Leonotis leonurus (L.) R.Br. (Umhlahlampethu), Erythrophleum lasianthum Corbishley
(Umkhwango), Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims (Umfusamvu) are found in far areas. The
medicinal plants used to prepare remedies are now scarce. The scarcity of plants is also
exacerbated by increasing human population, overharvesting and deforestation and effects of
droughts. The increase in the number of human populations using IK has two limitations to
medicinal plants. Firstly, the number of homestaeads in the area is increasing and they remove
important plants during preparation of shelters. Secondly, as the number of indigenous people
who uses IK increases, some of the people harvest plants inappropriately whereby one uproots
a big chuck of the plant which then destroys the whole plant.
59
Table 3.3: Indigenous plants and methods used for control of tick-borne diseases
Scientific name Family name Local name Voucher No Parts used, preparation, dosage, and effectiveness Disease
Boophone disticha (L.f.) Herb. Amaryllidaceae Ingcotho NU0068143 Fresh crushed leaves mixed, add water to form a
solution and drench ¼ cup to kids, every effective
Heartwater
Erythrophleum lasianthum Corbishley Fabaceae Umkhwango NU0068159 Dry bark and fresh leaves are used, add water and mix,
feed solution to goats, very effective
Anaplasmosis
Aloe marlothii A.Berger Asphodelaceae Inhlaba NU0068166 Crush the leaves and collect the juice oral
administration 1 cup/goat, very effective
Anaplasmosis
Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims Pittosporaceae Umfusamvu NU0068132 Boil fresh bark and wait for it to cool and feed goat 0.5
L 1×day for 2-3 days, very effective
Heartwater
60
3.5 Discussion
Indigenous knowledge or practices contributes to the veterinary management of goats and the
use of IK is gaining more popularity. About 80 % of farmers living in Africa depend on
indigenous knowledge (Luseba et al., 2013) or practices for their livelihood. Indigenous people
do not reveal the knowledge effortlessly as it is a source of their livelihood (Luseba and Van
de Werde, 2006). In some communities, IK forms the fundamental strategy of mitigation
against challenges. The value of IK and its unquestionable contribution to goats veterinary care
has been neglected (Kofi -Tsekpo and Kioy, 1998), a large population in communal areas rely
on IK to control and treat their goats infested with ticks and associated tick problems.
Indigenous knowledge is normally transferred through mouth - to - mouth oral conversations.
This has, however, led to a vast of IK remaining unrecorded and promoted, hence the need for
the current study.
Farmers can identify different tick species in their goats using colour patterns (Brown et al.,
2013; Kioko et al., 2015). Perhaps the most striking finding is that most of the IK experts did
not directly connect ticks with the spread of specific tick-borne diseases. While they were
convinced that ticks are harmful, and most knew the symptoms of the diseases that scientists
associate with ticks, they explained these diseases in different ways, which were contrary to
scientific evidence. For example, Horak et al. (2018) showed that Hyalomma species are not
present in the study area as farmers suggested. In areas where it occurs, goat infestation is very
low; less than two ticks per goat. Secondly, Hyalomma infesting dogs are not common in the
study area (Horak et al., 2018) suggesting that although farmers have knowledge on ticks,
however, they often confuse different tick species. The abundance of ticks in the hot-wet season
could probably be due to that the availability or activity of ticks increases during this season
and lulls in the cool-dry season. Ticks require warm or higher temperatures for their life cycle
61
to increase (Suss et al., 2007). Lower cool-dry season temperatures reduce egg production,
prolong hatching and incubation periods for tick development. Ticks and the pathogens they
carry have a development threshold controlled by ambient temperature, hence above this
threshold temperature development is shortened, this could explain why there is less tick
population during the cool-dry season. After the rain, farmers have other farm activities such
as crop production, hence unable to make close observations to their goats. Increase in the tick
population can also be influenced by climate change as warmer or higher temperatures and
increased humidity creates ideal environment for ticks to multiply. High infestation of ticks in
the study area could be due to that during the cool-dry season, where water and feed resources
are deficient, goats travel far to mountains and valleys where ticks are abundant.
The observation that experts showed awareness or could identify the challenges associated with
ticks and tick-borne diseases during discussion suggest that these challenges are evident in the
study area. Consequently, it is likely that due to farmer’s reliance on goats for survival and
strong cultural attachment, they still have a fair knowledge of ticks and tick-borne diseases.
Heartwater is an economically important disease of goats and the symptoms mentioned by IK
experts could relate with the literature. The finding that experts identified tick borne fever in
the study area is triggering because the disease is not known to occur in goats. The finding that
red urine is one of the major symptoms that is linked with babesiosis in goats was found
contrary to the literature because red urine due to Babesia in goats has not been reported (Ringo
et al., 2018) in the study area. The use of red urine to diagnose red water has been mainly
correlated with cattle (Masika et al., 1997). In addition, anaplasmosis in goats is a subclinical
and non-pathogenic disease of little economic importance (Barry & Van Niekerk 1990).
Infected animals show few clinical signs of the disease. Consequently, therefore the correlated
62
symptoms such as slimy mucous around the nose, lie down, become weak and shivering of the
goats form part of a range of signs by which heartwater can be identified.
The limited plant availability because of lower rainfalls could mean that different plant species
respond differently to climate change (Keutgen et al., 1997). Some plant species will still be
available in the same place, however adapt to new climatic conditions through selection.
Seemingly, other plant species will move to greater latitudes or altitudes. This could be the case
with regards to some medicinal plants such as Croton sylvaticus, Pittosporum viridiflorum and
Erythrophleum lisanthum that are now found in far areas. Croton sylvaticus, was reported to
be found in mountains, where the climate is still moist. This could be attributed to that due to
climate change some plants will migrate to higher areas until there are no further places to
inhabit.
Nine plant species were identified to be common that farmers use to control ticks and related
challenges. These plants are from different families Vitaceae, Asphodelaceae, Apocynaceae,
Portulacaceae, Apocynaceae, Asparagaceae, Europhorbiaceae and Celastraceae. Other plant
species such as Cissus quadrangularis from Vitaceae which in this case used to control ticks
and treat wounds. Similarly, Aloe marlothii is used to treat anaplasmosis and tick wounds. This
is indicative of the possible broad-spectrum nature of these plants against the causative agent.
Plants from the genus Aloe have been successfully used throughout the world due to their
biologically active ingredients (Foster et al., 2011). Cissus quadrangularis is popularly
renowned for its antiseptic properties and treatment of wounds (Nyahangare et al., 2015).
Cissus quadrangularis has many biological activities, including anti-oxidant, anti-bacterial and
anti-inflammatory activity. Drimia altissima plant is known to have various biological
activities such as anti-oxidant, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory activity, anti-fungal and
63
cytotoxic effects. In addition, the plant has been reported to have insecticidal activities with
properties including L-azatidine-2-carboxilic acid and bufadienolides, scillirosidin and
proscillaridin A (Bozorgi et al., 2017). The effects against ticks from other plants including
Stapelia gigantea, Portulaca sp and Achyranthes aspera have not been reported anywhere in
literature, however, farmers indicated that their leaves are excellent tick repellents.
These four plants Boophane disticha, Erythrophleum lisanthum and Pittosprum viridiflorum.
Boophane disticha was identified to treat goats against TBD’s and have intensive usage in the
traditional medicinal practices of indigenous people around the world. For example, Boophane
disticha has been widely used in cattle to treat babesiosis (Nair et al., 2014), however in this
study it is used against heartwater, probably due to its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory
properties (Nair et al., 2014). Pittosporum viridiflorum is reported to repel ticks (Wanzala et
al., 2012; Nyabayo et al., 2015) and to have acaricidal properties against larvae of
Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. In this study, however, it is reported to treat heartwater. In
addition, multiple properties including wound healing, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and
low toxicity have been found in Pittosporum viridiflorum.
Leaves and barks are common plant parts used to prepare remedies, seemingly, Maroyi et al.
(2012) found that the most used plant part were leaves (51 %), bark (16 %), roots (13 %) and
fruits (10 %). High use of leaves could possibly be due to strong seasonality of rainfall that
hinders the growth of many plant species during the dry season. Leaves are also readily
available. The fundamental IK is that leaf harvesting does not inhibit the growth or survival of
the whole plant species (Tolossa et al., 2013) as compared to roots, which is another possible
reason for their greater usage in remedy preparations. It is also possible that during active
growth of plants most phytochecmicals produced get stored in the leaves as a defense
64
mechanism of plants hence their greater concentration in leaves than roots. The most common
preparation method used is crushing and boiling the plant in water. This could possibly be due
to that crushing and boiling allows time for the active compound to infuse to the water (Tamiru
et al., 2013) through detaching the chemicals and making the solution potent.
Despite the utilization of these medicinal plants, however majority are threatened by
anthropogenic disturbances (Kuma et al., 2015). Extensive use is the most common threats to
most of the medicinal plants. The most serious issues or threats with regards to extracting
medicinal plants is habitat degradation and over harvesting. As a result of over harvesting, for
example, many of these plant species with fewer exceptions are now harvested from the wild
habitat. In addition, the plant materials are being lost due to lack of systematic conservation,
hence the need of conserving the erosion of the remaining plant species. Proper conservation
strategies for plants that are widely used such as Aloe marlothii and Cissus quadrangularis
should be done.
3.6 Conclusions
The high dependence on ethno-veterinary remedies and indigenous methods on ticks and their
associated challenges highlight the need to support IK in goat veterinary care. Tick borne
diseases, especially heartwater was considered by IK expert to be a major tick-borne disease
of economic importance. Heartwater is more of a recent introduction to the area, and this might
explain why experts had a more scientifically informed understanding of the disease, gleaned
from veterinarians and animal health technicians. Training of farmers and ensuring the
availability of appropriate information enabling farmers to obtain good understanding of the
TBD prevalence in their area, is an important task that should be undertaken. There is a need,
therefore, for governments to work in collaboration with IK experts to identify and standardize
65
indigenous practices in wider use for effective control of ticks and diseases. To develop
appropriate training programmes, it is necessary to quantify the idenfitied IK and practices
among rural communities.
66
3.7 References
Bozorgi M., Amin G., Shekarchi M and Rahimi R. (2017). Traditional medical uses of Drimia
species in terms of phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology. Journal of
Traditional Chinese Medicine 37(1): 124- 139.
Brown K., Ainslie A and Beinart W. (2013). Animal disease and the limits of local knowledge:
dealing with ticks and tick-borne disease in South Africa. Journal of the Royal
Anthropology Institute 19: 319-337.
Barry D.M and Van Niekerk C.N. (1990). Anaplasmosis in improved Boer goats in South
Africa artificially infected with Anaplasma ovis. Small Ruminant Research 3: 191-197.
Foster M., Hunter L., and Samman S. (2011). Evaluation of the nutritional and metabolic
effects of Aloe Vera. In: Benzie IFF, Wachtel-Galor S. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular
and Clinical Aspects. Second Ed, United States: CRC Press. pp. 37-54.
Gush M (2008). Measurement of water use by Jatropha curcas L. using the heat pulse velocity
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CHAPTER FOUR: Utilisation of indigenous knowledge to control ticks in goats: A case
of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa
Tropical Animal Health Production (see Appendix 4)
ABSTRACT
Local indigenous knowledge (IK) informs decision-making about fundamental aspects of life.
The objective of the current study was to explore the extent of utilisation of indigenous
knowledge to control ticks in goats. There was an association (P < 0.05) between the use of IK
and gender, with males using IK (77 %) more than females. The association between age
distribution and IK use was (P < 0.05), however farmers above the age of 50 years were using
IK more than all group ages. Farmers ranked the purposes of using IK differently (P < 0.05).
Ectoparasites were ranked as the most important constraint limiting goat productivity. Ticks
were ranked as the most important external parasites. Amblyomma tick species were ranked as
the most important amongst the tick species, followed by Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi ticks.
A significant population of farmers (81 %) dependent on the use of tick sprays, whereas others
used injections (3 %). Cissus quadrangularis L. (Inhlashwana) was singled out as the most
used ethno-veterinary plant to control ticks with a frequency of (64 %), followed by
Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey (Uphehlacwathi) (56 %). The probability of keeping goats
in wet rangelands (P < 0.05) was 3.04 times more likely to influence the extent of IK use
compared to their contemporaries in the dry rangeland. Male farmers keeping goats (P < 0.01)
were 2.95 times more likely to influence the extent of use of IK than females. The type of
rangeland, gender, age, residing on farm and also having the herbalist in the locality were the
most common factors that influenced the extent of IK utilisation.
Keywords: Diseases, ethno-veterinary remedies, sustainability, parasites
71
4.1 Introduction
It is expected that temperatures will increase in Southern Africa due to climate change by the
year 2050 (Dzama and Marandure, 2016). Livestock agriculture will be severely affected.
Many countries in Southern Africa in 2015 were declared national drought disasters in the same
year. In South Africa, eight out of nine provinces were declared partial drought emergencies.
During this period, massive livestock failures occurred with about 643 000 cattle death
recorded, thus creating opportunities for goat production (Dzama and Marandure, 2016). Goats
are likely to take precedence as an alternative to cattle due to their adaptive characteristics to
hot and dry environments. Goats play a fundamental role in the livelihoods of households. They
support food security (Mdletshe et al., 2018; Mseleku et al., 2019) and enable easier access to
cash flows. Goats possess the ability to use low quality forages and browse more efficiently.
Goats have minimal input requirements, thus making them a species of choice for resource–
limited households, who are mostly governed by women (Durawo et al., 2017). Goats have
small body sizes, which enable easier handling to women. In the tropics and sub-tropics, goat
farmers are faced with many challenges of diseases, gastrointestinal and external parasites that
limit goat productivity. Amongst external parasites, ticks rank first (Nyahangare et al., 2015;
Sanhokwe et al., 2016). Ticks reduce fertility, cause skin irritation and suck blood. Ticks also
transmit tick-borne diseases with heartwater being severely debilitating in goats. Ticks have
developed resistance against ectoparasiticides, which also have negative environmental
impacts (Adenubi et al., 2016).
Indigenous knowledge (IK) can be broadly defined as the knowledge that a community gains
over generations to achieve stable livelihoods. For centuries, communities have relied on IK
for sustainable veterinary care. The IK, however, remains suppressed and not promoted to
72
improve livelihoods of the resource-poor farmers. The young generation associate the
knowledge with witchcraft and backwardness. Hence, it is difficult for them to share the
knowledge with the younger generation. Opportunities for complementing conventional
knowledge with IK are great. To date, the control of ticks in cattle relies on the repeated and
often infrequent use of acaricides and pour on. Goats, are however, less prioritized yet in natural
rangelands these two species graze together and some tick species, though found in cattle,
complete their life cycle on goats e.g. Rhipicephalus microplus (Nyangiwe and Horak, 2007).
There are no dipping systems for goats. There is a need to understand the extent of utilisation
of IK amongst goat keepers. The use of IK is sustainable and practically sound because it is
locally available, easy to produce and process. Indigenous knowledge used, however, differ
with regions, ethnic groups, agro ecological zones, socioeconomic status and cultural values.
These differences, therefore, should be understood prior to initiation of sustainable
development of IK.
The Department of Science and Technology (DST) in South Africa has developed an
indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) policy, which aims to stimulate and strengthen the
contribution of IK to social and economic development. The use of IK reduces the development
of resistance because there is usually a mixture of different active ingredients with differing
mechanisms of action (Habeeb et al., 2010). Investigating the extent of utilization of IK
provides a productive context for activities designed to help the communities. The findings
from the study to establish cost effective, user friendly and sustainable control strategies for
ticks. After exploring and identifying the indigenous methods and practices in Chapter 3, it is
important to quantify the extent of use of these IK methods within communities. The objective
of the current study was to determine factors influencing the extent of use of IK to control ticks.
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It was hypothesized that the extent of use of IK is influenced by the socioeconomic and cultural
status of the household.
4.2 Materials and methods
4.2.1 Ethical clearance consideration
The rights, religions, culture, and dignity of respondents were respected. The respondents were
assured that no confidential information would be disclosed, and they had a right to stop the
interview whenever they did not feel comfortable.
The experimental procedures were performed according to the written ethical guidelines
specified by the Certification of Authorization to Experiment on Living Humans provided by
the Social Sciences – Humanities & Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee (Reference
No: HSS/0852/017).
4.2.2 Study site
The study was conducted at Jozini municipality of uMkhanyakude district in the KwaZulu-
Natal province of South Africa. Jozini municipality, located 27º 24' 06.9' S; 32º 11' 48.6 E, and
covers about 3 082 km2, with an altitude ranging from 80 to 1900 m above sea level. Jozini
experiences subtropical climate, with an average annual rainfall of 600 mm. Although the area
receives rainfall throughout the year, most rains are received between January and March, with
the months of June and July being dry and cool.
The highest mean monthly temperature is recorded in January (30°C) and lowest in July
(11°C). The average daily maximum and minimum temperatures at Jozini 20 ºC and 10 ºC,
74
respectively. The vegetation type in the area is mainly coastal sand-veld, bush-veld and foothill
wooded grasslands (Morgenthal et al., 2006). Common agricultural practices in the district
include production of field crops, vegetables and raising livestock extensively.
4.2.3 Sampling of households
A list of farmers that kept goats from Jozini community were compiled with the assistance
from extension officers and community livestock keepers. Eight communities were visited
across the Jozini area namely: Biva, Nyawushane, Mkhonjeni, Gedleza, Mkhayane,
Makhonyeni, MaMfene and Madonela. The communities were classified according to wet and
dry rangelands. The communities were randomly selected amongst communities active in goat
production. In each community, scheduled meetings with chiefs and local headmen were
arranged to gain access to communities.
The selection of households was based on the willingness of farmers to participate in the study.
A structured questionnaire was administered to 300 households who kept goats. Enumerators
were obtained from the local villages to ensure that farmers are comfortable to co-operate
during the study. The questionnaire was pre-tested for accuracy and clarity of questions.
4.2.4 Data collection
Data were collected through interviews using structured questionnaires. Questionnaires were
administered in the local vernacular isiZulu. Data collected included household demographics,
goat production constraints, health status of goat and indigenous practices and methods used
by farmers to control and treat tick infestations. Reasons of using IK, source of knowledge and
preservation of IK were also captured. In addition, farmers were requested to define the terms
75
effective, readily available, affordability and easier to use as they are consistently in the field
of IK.
4.2.5 Statistical analyses
All data were analysed using SAS (2013) software. The PROC FREQ of SAS procedure for
chi-square was used to compute the association between household demographics, livestock
herd sizes and indigenous knowledge use. Mean rank scores for the reasons of using IK, goat
production constraints, common parasites and common tick species in the study site were
determined using general linear model (GLM). An ordinal logistic regression (PROC
LOGISTIC) was used to predict the odds ratios of the extent of use of IK to control ticks. The
variables fitted in the logit model included gender of the household farmer, age, educational
status, rangeland type, livestock training, employment status, presence of herbalist in the area.
The following logit model used was:
Ln [P/1-P] =β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3+…βtXt+ ε
Where: P is the probability of group using indigenous knowledge;
[P 1−P] is the odds of the group using indigenous knowledge;
β0 is the intercept;
β1…βt are the regression coefficients of predictors;
X1…Xt are the predictor variables;
ε is the random residual error
When computed for each predictor (β1…βt), the odds ratio for group using indigenous
knowledge.
76
4.3 Results
4.3.1 Household demographics of respondents and use of indigenous knowledge
The association between household characteristics and socio-economic status of farmers with
IK are shown in Table 4.1. There was an association (P < 0.05) between the use of IK and
gender, men using IK were (77 %) more than women not using IK to control ticks in goats.
The association between the use of IK and residing on farm was (P < 0.05). Farmers residing
on farm used IK more than farmers not residing on farm amongst the households. There was
an association (P < 0.05) between livestock training and IK use. Farmers that received livestock
training were less likely to use IK than their counterparts who did not received livestock
training.
There was a significant association between age distribution and IK use (P < 0.05), however
farmers aged above 50 years were using IK more than all group ages. The association between
IK use and educational status was not significant (P > 0.05), however those who had attended
tertiary level were less likely to use IK to control ticks. There was a significant association
between IK use and sources of income (P <0.05). Households receiving government grant
(38%) were using IK more.
77
Table 4.1: Household demographics of respondents and association with use of indigenous
knowledge
Profiles IK use χ2 P value
Gender (%)
Men 76.6 4.96 0.02
Women 23.4
Residence on farm (%) 87.4 1.71 0.04
Livestock training (%) 19.0 0.09 0.02
Age distribution (%)
< 30 6.6
31-50 38.7 3.89 0.01
>50 54.8
Educational status (%)
Not educated 39.4
Primary level 34.2 1.25 0.74
Secondary level 24.9
Tertiary level 1.2
Sources of income (%)
Government grant 37.9
Sales 25.6
Crops 16.3 4.48 0.05
Salary 12.8
Goat products 5.47
Others 2.46
NS: not significant (P > 0.05); significant at *P < 0.05 and highly significant at **P < 0.01
78
4.3.2 Livestock species ownership and IK use
Most households owned different types of livestock species, which consisted mainly of cattle,
goats, sheep, chickens and pigs. The goat flock composition was similar, therefore it was not
included in the analysis, and it consisted of kids, weaners, does and bucks. Table 4.2 shows the
association between livestock ownership and IK use. There was no association between the use
of IK and cattle, sheep, chicken ownership (P > 0.05), although, households that kept cattle
less than 30 were using IK more than those with larger herd sizes. `The association between
IK use and goat ownership was significant (P > 0.05). Households owning more than 30 goats
were using IK more than those with less flock sizes.
79
Table 4.2: Livestock herd sizes and association with the use of IK
Livestock species IK use χ2 P value
Cattle ownership
< 30 76.4
30- 50 14.0 1.81 0.40
>50 4.06
Sheep ownership
< 30 76.8
30-45 14.2 6.88 0.07
45-50 0.79
Goat ownership
< 20 3.51
20-30 9.47
> 30 81.4 9.13 0.01
Chicken ownership
< 30 61.3
30-45 24.9
45-50 1.98 1.66 0.65
> 50 6.32
NS: not significant (P > 0.05); significant at *P < 0.05 and highly significant at **P < 0.01
80
4.3.3 Constraints to goat production
Mean rank scores of goat production constraints in the study site are shown in Figure 4.1.
Ectoparasites were ranked as the highest constraint limiting goat productivity. Diseases were
ranked the second followed by the gastrointestinal parasites ranking the third. Feed shortages
were ranked the sixth, with inbreeding ranking the last. The most common parasites
constraining to goat productivity are shown in Figure 4.2. Farmers ranked ticks as the most
important common parasites affecting goat productivity. Tapeworms were ranked the second
and roundworms third affecting goats (Figure 4.2). Liver fluke was ranked the fourth amongst
the constraints. Figure 4.3 shows the most important tick species in the study site. Amblyomma
tick species were ranked as the most important amongst the tick species, followed by
Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi ticks and Rhipicephalus appendiculatus in that chronological
order.
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Figure 4.1: Mean rank scores of goat production constraints across the study site (n=300)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7M
ean
ran
k sc
ore
s
Goat constraint
82
Figure 4.2: Common parasites of goats in the study site
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
tick
s
lice
flie
s
mit
es
tapew
orm
roundw
orm
livef
luke
Mea
n r
an
k s
core
s
Parasites
83
Figure 4.3: Common tick species of goats in the study site
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Amblyomma R.appendiculitus R. evertsi evertsi
Me
an r
ank
sco
res
Tick species
84
4.3.4 Reasons for IK use and sources of information
Table 4.3 shows the ranking of major reasons of using IK. As expected, farmers ranked the
purposes of using IK differently (P < 0.05). Farmers were asked to define the reasons of using
IK according to their level of understanding. The most important purpose of using IK was that
it is effective. Farmers ranked readily available the second, with easier to use ranking the third.
Affordability was ranked the last amongst the reasons of using IK. Figure 4.3 shows the sources
of IK. A significant percentage (49 %) of respondents reported grandfathers to be highest
source of IK. About (40 %) of farmers reported to source the IK from the herbalists a paltry,
with 3 % reporting to source the knowledge from extension services.
4.3.5 Comparison between IK and CK on tick control
Table 4.4 shows the comparison between indigenous and conventional knowledge on tick
control. Farmers used both IK and conventional knowledge to control ticks. Of those who use
conventional acaricides a significant population of farmers (81 %) dependent on the use of tick
sprays, when others used injections (3 %). Other farmers dependent on the use of IK where
ethno-veterinary plants are employed to control ticks. The majority of farmers used Cissus
quadrangularis L. (Inhlashwana) (61 %) and Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey
(Uphehlacwathi) (38 %) in the control of ticks (Table 4.4). In addition, other farmers used
Maytenus acuminata (L.f.) Loes (Ingwavuma) (22 %), Stapelia gigantea N.E. Br. (Uzililo) (7
%) and Portulaca pilosa L.(Ushisizwe) (4 %). Table 4.5 shows the documented indigenous
plants used to control ticks.
85
Table 4.3: The most frequently mentioned reasons of using indigenous knowledge
Reasons Definition of terms according to respondents Frequency (%)
Effective Effective describes the efficacy of the IK method use to
repel or kill ticks and also heal wounds after tick
removal
86
Easier to use Effortless and does not require a manual for
instructions
84
Readily available Refers to the availability of the IK methods amongst the
farmers
84
Affordability Affordability refers to not expensive as farmers harvest
plants from the nearest forest or around homestead to
make remedies
73
86
Figure 4.4: Sources of indigenous knowledge in the study site
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
GrandFathers Farmers Herbalists Relatives Personalexperience
Extensionservices
Fre
qu
en
cy (
%)
Sources of Indigenous knowledge
87
Table 4.4: Comparison of indigenous and conventional knowledge on tick control
Methods Acaricide used % of farmers using the
method
Conventional acaricides Spraying 81
Injection 3
Indigenous knowledge Cissus quadrangularis L. 61
Gomphocarpus physocarpus E.
Mey
38
Maytenus acuminata (L.f.) Loes 22
Stapelia gigantea N.E. Br. 7
Portulaca pilosa L. 4
88
Table 4.5: Documented indigenous plants used to control ticks
Scientific name Vernacular name Family Plant part Voucher number
Cissus
quadrangularis. Lin
Inhlashwana Vitaceae Leaves NU0068142
Stapelia gigantea Uzililo Apocynaceae Leaves Yet to be identified
Gomphocarpus
physocarpus E. Mey
Inhlashwana Apocynaceae Leaves Yet to be identified
Portulaca pilosa L Ushisizwe Portulacaceae Leaves NU0068139
Maytenus acuminata
(L.f.) Loes
Ingwavuma Celastraceae Leaves Yet to be identified
89
Figure 4.5 shows the most common acaricidal plants by frequency of mention. Six important
ethno-veterinary plants were reported to be used to control ticks. Cissus quadrangularis
(Inhlashwana) was singled out as the most use ethno-veterinary plant to control ticks with a
frequency of (64 %), followed by Gomphocarpus physocarpus (Uphehlacwathi) (56 %) and
Maytenus acuminata (Ingwavuma) (45 %) and Stapelia gigantea (Uzililo) (44 %) having
almost similar frequency.
4.3.6 Odds ratio estimates of the extent of use of indigenous knowledge to control ticks
The odds ratio estimates for the extent of use of IK are depicted in Table 4.6. The probability
of keeping goats in wet rangelands (P < 0.05) was 3.04 times more likely to influence the extent
of IK use compared to their contemporaries in the dry rangeland. Male farmers keeping goats
(P < 0.01) were 2.95 times more likely to influence the extent use of IK than females. Farmers
residing on farm were 1.24 times more likely to influence the use of IK when compared to
farmers that were not residing on farm (P < 0.05). Farmers that are not formally educated (P >
0.05) were 1.22 times more likely to influence the extent of use of IK when compared to the
formally educated farmers.
Farmers older than 55 years were 2.89 more likely to influence the extent of use of IK compared
to farmers less 30 years who were mostly young farmers. The likelihood of having the presence
of herbalist in the particular rangeland was 3.64 more likely to influence the use of IK (P <
0.05). Farmers that did not receive formal livestock training were 1.39 more likely to influence
the extent of IK use than those that received training. Unemployment was 1.4 more likely to
influence IK use (P >0.05).
90
Figure 4.5: The most common acaricidal plants by frequency of mention (N = 300)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Cissus quadrangularisL.
Stapelia gigantea Portulaca pilosa Gomphocarpusphysocarpus. E Mey
Maytenus acuminata
Fre
qu
en
cy o
f m
en
tio
n (
%)
Plant species
91
Table 4.6: Odds ratio estimates, lower and upper confidence interval (CI) of the extent of use of IK to control ticks
Higher odds ratio estimates indicate greater difference in occurrence between levels of predictors
a If the upper confidence interval > 1—significantly different; if the upper confidence interval < 1—not significantly (ns) different
Predictor Odds ratio Lower CI Upper CI P value
Production rangeland type (wet vs dry) 3.044 1.093 8.477 *
Gender of the farmer (men vs women) 2.946 1.0805 8.590 ***
Education (uneducated vs educated) 1.219 0.268 1.912 ns
Residing on farm (yes vs no) 1.242 0.457 3.372 ***
Training (yes vs no) 0.716 0.338 4.402 ns
Age ( > 55 vs < 30 years) 2.897 0.321 6.502 *
Member of farmers association (yes vs no) 1.601 0.599 4.279 ns
Employment status (unemployed vs. employed) 1.450 0.521 4.032 ns
Herbalist in the area (yes vs no) 3.639 1.107 11.962 *
92
4.4 Discussion
Despite the damage caused by ticks on goat productivity, little, if any effort, has been made to
control ticks. Due to scarcity of veterinary services in many developing countries, farmers
depend on IK to control ticks in goats (Byaruhanga et al., 2015). Adequate understanding of
the extent of use of IK can assist in the development of local people through their participation
and interaction in developmental programmes. The observed association between IK use and
gender, with a larger percentage of men using IK, could be influenced by that men are
traditional heads of households and usually make decisions about livestock veterinary care
including goats. Another probable explanation could be that men are usually responsible for
herding of livestock from a younger age. As a result, they grow up making it their responsibility
to manage goats (Tariq et al., 2014). In most rural households, culture prohibits women from
entering the kraals, making it difficult for them to meaningfully contribute to livestock
management.
The observed finding that most users of IK were residing on farm could possibly indicate that
such farmers could be possessing more knowledge than those who stay in urban centres,
consequently spending more time ensuring that their goats are in good health. The finding that
farmers that received formal livestock training were less likely to use IK was expected since
extension services promote the use of commercial acaricides. The observed common use of IK
among the elderly farmers could also be a reflection of poverty, high cost of acaricides and the
shunning of IK by the youth (Sanhokwe et al., 2016). There is need for extension officers,
non–governmental organisations and policymakers to involve IK custodians in goat
development programmes. Communal areas of sub-Saharan Africa are characterised with high
levels of poverty and unemployment (Chimonyo et al., 2005; Mdletshe et al., 2018).
93
The perception that farmers ranked effectiveness of IK as the major reason for using it is
contrary to Gumbochuma et al. (2013) who reported that farmers perceive the efficacy of
indigenous practices to be low. Another important reason for using IK is that it is readily
available. Since most of the IK rest within the elders within a community, it makes it convenient
to access. Herbalists do not, however, readily divulge their knowledge unless they are
remunerated. Extension services were the least important source of IK, which agrees with
Nyahangare et al. (2015).
The ranking of ticks as the most problematic parasite could be because goats are hardly dipped
in rural communities. There is a need to identify common ticks, their prevalence and loads in
goats on communal rangelands to formulate and implement appropriate tick control strategies.
The higher ranking of tapeworms could be due to poorly managed grazing rangelands in
communal areas with higher rates of parasitic infestations. The long hours that goats spend in
grazing rangelands increases the risk of exposure to infestation. The finding that Amblyomma
were the most important tick species could be because of the hot, dry bush environments (Moyo
and Masika, 2009). A large proportion of goats have been found to be infested with adult
Amblyomma and R. evertsi evertsi. Since goats are rarely dipped, they become a reservoir of
different tick species. It is, therefore, paramount to include goats in any tick control
programmes. The finding that farmers used conventional methods to control ticks more that IK
methods could have been propelled by that extension officers have attended tertiary
institutions, where they despise IK as being based on mythology.
The high odds for the production rangeland to influence the extent of use of IK could be due
to varying vegetation type, climatic conditions and plant availability between the grazing
rangelands. Rangeland type contributes to plant diversity and availability and subsequently
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plant utilisation. It is possible that farmers still have a strong cultural attachment to their beliefs,
values and indigenous practices. On the other hand, it can be hypothesised that these
differences can be influenced by the presence of herbalists and diviners within the areas to
share the knowledge with goat farmers.
The finding that gender influenced the extent of use of IK with the odds ratio estimates in
favour of men was expected. In rural households, women are not permitted to enter livestock
kraals, therefore men become dominant in IK utilisation. Men have more experience because
of multiple interactions with other men during gatherings at livestock associations and dipping
stations. Women hardly participate in such meetings. Most of the times, women are not allowed
to go out of homes, they look after the children and perform household chores (Amsalu et al.,
2017). Such paternal structures need to be considered in designing sustainable goat
management programmes.
The likelihood that age of farmers influences the extent of use of IK with the odds ratio in
favour of farmers above 55 years of age is not surprising. The elderly farmers value IK because
of its sustainability. They are also highly esteemed by the community due to their experience
of using IK (Amsalu et al., 2017). The higher odds ratio estimates in favour of herbalists to
influence the extent of use of IK suggest that they are an invaluable source of knowledge to
treat their goats (Luseba and Tshisikhawe 2013). The majority of herbalists pass their
knowledge to the elders, sons and daughters in that order (Amsalu et al., 2017). It is important
that IK is preserved and conserved before it disappears (Luseba and Van der Merwe, 2006).
The finding that level of formal education could influence the extent of use of IK with the odds
ratio in favour of the uneducated farmers reinforces the view that Western education suppresses
IK. Therefore, farmers with low formal education rely on IK as part of their daily lives.
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4.5 Conclusions
The study precisely documented the factors that influence the extent of use of indigenous
knowledge amongst the farmers. Production rangeland, gender, age and residing on farm and
having the herbalist in the area were some of the factors that influence the extent of utilisation
of IK. The use of IK has proved efficient as far as combating challenges is concerned. It is
essential that when IK policies are implemented, factors that promote its utilisation are
considered including the participation and interaction of IK custodians. To improve goat
productivity, it is important to establish if there exists a relationship between tick counts, coat
characteristics and health status of goats.
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4.6 References
Adenubi O.T., Fasina, F.O., McGaw, L. J., Eloff, J.N and Naidoo, V. (2016). Plant extracts to
control ticks of veterinary and medical importance: A review. South African Journal
of Botany 105: 178–193.
AmsaluN., Bezie, Y., Fentahun G, Alemayehu, A and Amsalu. G. (2017). Use and
Conservation of Medicinal Plants by Indigenous People of Gozamin Wereda, East
Gojjam Zone of Amhara Region, Ethiopia: An Ethnobotanical Approach. Evidence-
Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2973513.
Byaruhanga C., Gakunga, J.N., Olinga, S., Egayu, G., Boma, P and Aleper. D. (2015).
Ethnoveterinary practices in the control of helminthosis and ticks of livestock amongst
pastoralists in Karamoja Region, Uganda. Veterinary Parasitology 195: 183-186.
Durawo C., Zindove, T.J and Chimonyo, M. (2017). Influence of genotype and topography on
the goat predation challenge under communal production systems. Small Ruminant
Research 149: 115–120.
Dzama K and Marandure, T. (2016). Drought in Southern Africa points to urgent need for
climate change plans. The Conversation. [email protected].
Gumbochuma G., Hamandishe, V. R., Nyahangare, E.T., Imbayarwo-Chikosi., V.E
andNcube, S. (2013). Ethnoveterinary practices for poultry and cattle in Zimbabwe: a
case study of Takavarasha village. Scientific Journal of Animal Science 2(12): 355-
359.
Habeeb S.M. (2010). Ethno-veterinary and medical knowledge of crude plant extracts and its
methods of application (traditional and modern) for tick control. World Applied
Sciences Journal 11: 1047-1054.
97
Luseba D andTshisikhawe, M.P. (2013). Medicinal plants used in the treatment of livestock
diseases in Vhembe region, Limpopo province, South Africa. Journal of Medicinal
Plants Research 7 (10): 593-601.
Luseba D andVan der Merwe, D. (2006). Ethnoveterinary medicine practices among Tsonga
speaking people of South Africa. Onderstepoort Journal Veterinary Research 73: 115-
122.
Moyo B andMasika, P.J. (2009). Tick control methods used by resource-limited farmers and
the effect of ticks on cattle in rural areas of the Eastern Cape Province. South Africa.
Tropical Animal Health and Production 41(4): 517–523.
Mdletshe Z. M., Ndlela, S. Z., Nsahlai, I. V and Chimonyo, M. (2018). Farmer perceptions
on factors influencing water scarcity for goats in resource-limited communal farming
environments. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 50(7), 1617-1623.
Morgenthal T.L., Kellner, K., van Rensburg, L., Newby, T.S and van der Merwe, J.P.A.
(2006). Vegetation and habitat types of the UMkhanyakude Node, South African
Journal of Botany 72: 1–10.
Mseleku C., Ndlela, S.Z, Mkwanazi, M.V and Chimonyo, M. (2019). Health status of non-
descript goats travelling long distances to water source. Tropical Animal Health and
Production. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-019-02094-8.
Nyahangare E.T., Mvumi, B.M and Mutibvu, T. (2015). Ethnoveterinary plants and practices
used for ecto parasites control in semi-arid smallholder farming of Zimbabwe. Journal
of Ethnobiology & Ethnomedicine 11: 2-16.
Nyangiwe N and Horak, I.G. (2007). Goats as alternative hosts of cattle ticks. Onderstepoort
Journal of Veterinary Research 74: 1–7.
Rumosa Gwaze F., Chimonyo, M and Dzama, K. (2009a). Communal goat production in
Southern Africa: a review, Tropical Animal Health and Production 4: 1157–1168.
98
Sanhokwe M., Mupangwa, J., Masika, P.J., Maphosa, V and Muchenje, V. (2016). Medicinal
plants used to control internal and external parasites in goats. Onderstepoort Journal
of Veterinary Research 1: 1-7.
SAS (2013). SAS/STAT Software Release 9.3. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North Carolina, USA.
Tariq A., Mussarat, S., Adam, M, AbdElsalam, N.M., Ullah, R and Latif Khan, A. (2014).
Ethno veterinary study of medicinal plants in a Tribal Society of Sulaiman Range. The
Scientific World Journal. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/127526.
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CHAPTER FIVE: Relationship between tick counts and health-status of Nguni goats
Tropical Animal Health and Production (Under Review)
Abstract
The objective of the current study was to determine the relationship between tick count and
coat characteristics, BCS, FAMACHA score in non-descript goats in Nguni goats. A total of
96 Nguni goats of different ages based on dentition and sex were used in the study. The goats
were weighed, body conditioned, assigned FAMACHA scores, had blood collected for packed
cell volume (PCV). Coat scores, hair length and tick counts were estimated. The effect of
season on BCS was significant (p < 0.01). Weaners had lower tick counts compared to does
and bucks. During the hot-dry season, BCS declined faster as tick count increased (p <0.01),
compared to the post rainy season. The number of ticks increased (p <0.01) in the hot-wet
season linearly as BCS increased whilst, during the cool-dry season, BCS decreased (p <0.01).
The rate of change of BCS was higher in weaners as tick count increases compared to does and
bucks. There was no relationship between BCS, FAMACHA and PCV on weaners. Body
condition score was positively correlated (p <0.05) to PCV, however it was negatively
correlated to FAMACHA score (-0.29) and tick count (-0.02). Tick count was negatively
correlated to BCS and PCV (p > 0.05). There was a linear relationship between hair length and
tick count (p < 0.05). The increase in hair length resulted in a linear increase in tick count.
Findings from this study indicate that tick count increased during hot-wet and hot dry season.
Hair length maybe one of the important mechanisms of adaptability to ticks goats. It is, thus
crucial to put measures to counteract the drop in BCS, and increase in tick counts with season,
if productivity of the goats is to be improved.
.Keywords: coat score, communal rangelands, hair length, tick resistance
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5.1 Introduction
In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), goats account for 30 % of ruminant livestock and are estimated
to produce about 17 % of meat and 12 % of milk (Mpendulo et al., 2017). Attributes that make
them attractive and more popular in the face of climate changes include their ability to utilise
a wide range of fibrous forages and browse efficiently ability to thrive water shortages
(Mseleku et al., 2019), high reproductive rates and shortened generation intervals. Goats
survive under harsh environmental conditions including drought and degraded marginal lands.
The Nguni goat that have been under natural selection pressure is popular, particularly in the
SADC region. These goats are exposed to varying levels of mites, flies, lice and ticks
(Sanhokwe et al., 2016). Amongst these groups of parasites, ticks are the most detrimental with
a potential to spread a variety of tick-borne diseases, dehydration and anaemia to goats.
Unless they are controlled, ticks increase mortality rates. High tick infestation has catastrophic
effects on goat productivity and is exacerbated by the increased development of resistance to
acaricides and increase in tick-infested grazing territories coupled with unavailability of
dipping systems for goats. Nguni goats are known to be tolerance to ticks, however, their
mechanism of adaptability has not been elucidated. Evidence suggests that tolerance to ticks
is related to favourable coat characteristics such as hair length and coat scores. Livestock with
shorter hairs and smoother coats appear to have lower tick counts compared to those with long
hairs and woollier coats (Martinez et al., 2006). No research has been done to relate these
characteristics in Nguni goats. Research conducted to improve goat productivity has only been
limited to nutrition, water security (Mdletshe et al., 2018; Mseleku et al., 2019), predation
(Durawo et al., 2017) and gastrointestinal parasites (Rumosa Gwaze et al., 2012). Little, if any
knowledge is available on tick infestation in goats. There is a need to establish relationships
between tick counts and goat health to fathom the mechanism of their adaptability.
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Understanding coat characteristics is important in selection for tick tolerant goats and hence
provide an effective and sustainable strategies of controlling ticks. To assess the mechanism of
adaptability to ticks, it is important to conduct tick counts on naturally infested goats, assess
coat characteristics of the goats. Packed cell volume (PCV) contribute to the detection of
changes in health status that may not be visible during physical examination but affect goat
health (Tibbo et al., 2004).
In Chapter 4 ticks were ranked as the biggest challenge to goat productivity, however, no work
has been done to relate tick count and health status of goats. It is thus, crucial to determine how
tick counts, coat characteristics, BCS, FAMACHA and PCV in goats are related. It is also
important to assess whether these relationships differ with seasons. The objective of the study
was, therefore, to determine the relationships between tick counts and coat characteristics,
BCS, FAMACHA score in Nguni goats. It was hypothesized that there is no relationship
between tick counts and coat characteristics, body condition score, FAMACHA and PCV in
goats.
5.2 Materials and methods
5.2.1 Study site
The study was conducted at Jozini Municipality of uMkhanyakude district in the KwaZulu-
Natal Province of South Africa. The study was in compliance with the standards required by
the Animal Ethics Committee of the University of KwaZulu-Natal (Reference No:
AREC/043/017). Jozini municipality lies 27º 24' 06.9' S; 32º 11' 48.6 E, and covers about 3
082 km2, with an altitude ranging from 80 to 1900 m above sea level. Jozini experiences
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subtropical climate, with an average annual rainfall of 600 mm. Most rains are received
between January and March, with the months of June and July being dry and cool.
Highest mean monthly temperature is recorded in January (30°C) and lowest in July (11°C).
Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures at Jozini are 20 ºC and 10 ºC,
respectively. The vegetation types of the area are mainly coastal sand-veld, bushveld and
foothill wooded grasslands (Morgenthal et al., 2006). Agricultural practices in the district
include production of field crops e.g. vegetables and raising livestock extensively.
5.2.2 Goat selection and experimental design
A list of farmers keeping goats in the community was compiled with the assistance from the
extension officers, livestock association chairperson and youth representatives. A total of 96
goats of different ages based on dentition and sex were used in the study. The goats were ear-
tagged for easy identification at the beginning of the trial and grazed on natural pasture
throughout the study during the post rainy season to hot wet season. All the goats were
clinically healthy throughout the study period.
Samples were collected four times so that the effect of the season could be evident from May
2017 to February 2019. Forty -eight (48) goats that were grazing on naturally infested
rangelands were divided into three categories (weaners > 3 months old, does > 1-year-old and
bucks > 1-year-old). Grazing rangelands are often characterized with coastal sand-veld,
bushveld and foothill wooded grasslands and poor herbage quality. Goats were treated for ticks
a month prior the commencement of the trial using Eraditick (Amitraz 12.5 % w/v) and
thereafter all ticks were removed in each season to allow re infestation. Ticks were counted
and recorded for each season, age and sex. Goats were selected based on the willingness of
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owners to participate in the study and assurance of availability of goats throughout the study
period. During the trial, goats were not subjected to any or did not receive acaricidal treatment
to enable natural tick infestation.
5.2.3 Data collection
5.2.3.1 Body condition scoring
For each goat, body condition score (BCS) were determined after blood collection was carried
out in each season to avoid any potential discrepancies. Visual assessment of body condition
score was done using a five-point scale (Gerhart et al., 1996). Body condition score was done
by one person throughout the duration of the study to prevent inter-observer discrepancy.
5.2.3.2 FAMACHA scoring
The FAMACHA scores were determined by opening the lower eyelid of the goat and
comparing the colour of the conjunctivae with five different scores on a chart where score
number 1 indicated a non-anaemic goat whilst a 5 indicated a severely anaemic goat according
to Kaplan et al. (2004). One veterinarian and a farm worker with more than 20 years’
experience were responsible for eye scoring. Allocation of FAMACHA scores is as shown in
Table 5.1.
5.2.3.3 Determination of packed cell volume
For the determination of packed cell volume (PCV) blood were collected in Vacutainer® blood
tubes containing ethylene diaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) anti-coagulant. Goats were restraint
in the pens during blood collection. Blood samples were collected between 0800h and 1000h,
once in the cool-dry, hot-dry, hot-wet and post-rainy season. The sampling were adjusted
104
around this times to avoid diurnal variations in blood parameters. The blood were transferred
into micro-haematocrit tubes and centrifuged in a micro-haematocrit centrifuge at a relative
centrifuge force of 0.169 g for three minutes. Readings of the PCV were performed on the
Micro-haematocrit Reader Scale.
Table 5.1: FAMACHA score description used in the current study
Score Description
1 Optimal: Red colour non-anaemic
2 Acceptable: Red-pink colour non-anaemic
3 Borderline: Pink mildly anaemic
4 Dangerous: Pink-white anaemic
5 Fatal: Porcelain white severely anaemic
Source: Kaplan et al. (2004)
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5.2.3.4 Tick counting and determination of hair length
One trained enumerator carefully examined the goat which was restrained in a crush pen,
identifying and recording all visible engorged adult ticks on the skin of the goats. The ticks
were not removed from the skin of the goats during the process of enumeration. Hair samples
were collected from the skin of the mid-side area using a shaving stick adapted in such a way
that all hairs within a 200 mm2 area could be plucked out.
The samples were stored in plastic bottles with screw-on caps and sent to the laboratory for the
measurement of hair length. Hair length (mm) were taken as the average length of the 10
longest hairs of the sample, according to Machado et al. (2010). The coat of each animal were
scored using a 1–5 scale based on the level of smoothness of the coat, with 1: excessively
smooth, 2: fairly smooth, 3: long coat, 4: woolly, and 5: excessively woolly coat (Taylor et al.,
1995).
5.2.3.5 Statistical analyses
For the analyses of body condition score (BCS), FAMACHA and PCV PROC UNIVARIATE
(SAS, 2016) was used to check data for normality. Logarithmic transformation was used to
normalize data for coat scores, hair lengths and tick counts. The effect of season, age and sex
on body conditions score and FAMACHA and tick counts were analysed using PROC GLM
(SAS, 2008). Comparison of means was done using the PDIFF procedure (SAS, 2003). After
establishing that there no interactions among sex, age and season. A t-test was used to compare
the gradient of the graphs. The following statistical model was used to analyse data:
Yijk = μ + mi + Sj + Lk + 𝜀𝑖𝑘𝑗+ (M × S)ij + (M+L)ik + (S×L)jk + (M×S×L)ijk + 𝜀𝑖𝑘𝑗
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Where Yijk = Body weight, BCS, FAMACHA score, tick count and PCV measurements on
each goat;
μ = overall mean;
mi = effect of the ith season (hot wet, post rainy, cold dry, hot dry);
Sj = is effect of the sex of animal (male, female);
Lk = is effect of age of the goat (weaner > 3 months old, doe < year old, buck > 1 year old);
(M × S)ij = is the interaction between season and sex;
(M+L)ik = is the interaction between season and age;
(M×S×L)ijk = is the interaction between season, sex and age;
𝜀𝑖𝑘𝑗 = is the residual error
PROC CORR (SAS, 2008) was used to determine the correlations between body condition
score, FAMACHA, tick counts and PCV. The PROC REG (SAS, 2016) procedure was used to
determine the relationship between tick count and BCS, FAMACHA and coat characteristics.
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5.3 Results
5.3.1 Body condition scores and tick count
Table 5.2 shows the effects season, age and sex on body condition score, FAMACHA, PCV
and tick count. Both sex and age did not affect BCS. There was, however a significant effect
of season on BCS (p< 0.01). Body condition score was similar during the post-rainy, cool-dry
and hot-dry season, however BCS was lower in the hot-wet season (Table 5.2). Tick counts
were not affected by sex of goat. There was a significant effect of age on tick count (p< 0.05).
Weaners had lower tick counts compared to does and bucks. Season, however did have a (p <
0.01) on tick counts. There was higher tick counts during the hot-wet season compared to post
rainy, cool-dry and hot-dry season.
5.3.2 FAMACHA and PCV
Sex of goat had no effect on FAMACHA, however, there was a significant effect of age on
FAMACHA (p <0.05). Weaners had reduced FAMACHA score, while bucks and does had
higher FAMACHA score. The effect of season was significant for FAMACHA (p < 0.01).
During the hot wet and hot dry season goats had higher FAMACHA score, whereas during the
post-rainy and cool-dry season goats had reduced FAMACHA score. Age had a significant
effect on PCV (p <0.01). Does and bucks had similar PCV, while weaners had similar PCV
with does.
5.3.3 Hair length and coat scores
Sex of goat and season had no effect on hair length and coat scores (p > 0.05). Hair length was,
however, affected by age of goats (p <0.01). Weaners and does had similar hair length
compared to bucks. The effect of season and goat sex was not significant for coat scores. Coat
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scores was, however influenced by age (p <0.01). Bucks had higher coat scores than does and
weaners.
5.3.4 Correlations amongst tick count and physical examination parameters
Correlation coefficients among BCS, packed cell volume, FAMACHA and tick count are
shown in Table 5.3. There was a positive correlation between BCS (p < 0.05) and packed cell
volume (p <0.01) and not correlated to FAMACHA score. Body condition score was positively
correlated (p <0.05) to PCV, however negatively correlated to FAMACHA score (-0.29) and
tick count (-0.02), respectively. Packed cell volume was negatively correlated to FAMACHA
and tick count (p > 0.05). FAMACHA score was negatively correlated to BCS and PCV (Table
5.3). Tick count was negatively correlated (p < 0.05) to body weight. Tick count was negatively
correlated to BCS (p <0.05). There was also a negative correlation between tick count and PCV
(p < 0.05), respectively. Tick count was, however, negatively correlated to coat score (p >
0.05). There was a positive correlation between hair length and tick count.
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Table 5.2: LSMEAN of the effect of season, sex and age on PCV, FAMACHA, BCS and
tick count of the Nguni goats
abc Within a column, values with different superscripts differ (P<0.05), Significance level: ** P <0.01; * P
<0.05; NS not significant (P >0.05); Abbreviations: BCS: body condition scoring
Parameter PCV FAMACHA BCS Tick count Hair length Coat scores
Age
Weaners 25.4b 2.03a 2.85a 5.79a 1.62b 0.28b
Does 26.7ab 3.12b 3.00a 10.86b 1.63b 0.32b
Bucks 27.2a 3.04b 3.02a 11.3b 1.75a 0.42a
S.E.M 0.65 0.08 0.06 1.1 0.01 0.01
Sex
Male 26.6 3.00 2.94 10.4 1.66 0.32
Female 25.9 3.01 2.93 9.18 1.65 0.35
S.E.M 0.56 0.07 0.05 0.94 0.01 0.01
Season
Post-rainy 26.5 2.73a 3.01a 7.17a 1.77 0.33
Cool-dry 26.3 2.65a 3.02a 5.80a 1.64 0.32
Hot-dry 26.0 3.30b 2.95a 6.89a 1.65 0.31
Hot-wet 25.9 3.37b 2.73b 13.97b 1.67 0.33
S.E.M 0.62 0.08 0.05 1.06 0.01 0.01
Significance
Sex ns ns ns ns ns ns
Season ns *** *** *** ns ns
Age * * ns * *** ***
Age × sex ns ns ns ns ns ns
Age × season ns ns ns ns ns ns
Sex × season ns ns ns ns ns ns
Age × Season× Sex ns ns ns ns ns ns
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Table 5.3: Pearson’s correlation coefficients among body condition score, packed cell
volume, FAMACHA and tick count weight of the Nguni goats
Significance level: ** P <0.01; * P <0.05; NS not significant (P >0.05)
Abbreviations: BCS: body condition scoring, PCV: Packed cell volume
Parameter BCS PCV FAMACHA Tick count Hair length Coat score
BCS 0.11* -0.29*** -0.02* 0.08ns 0.07ns
PCV -0.08ns -0.10ns -0.10ns 0.04ns
FAMACHA 0.06ns -0.03ns 0.003ns
Tick count 0.05ns -0.05ns
Hair length 0.100ns
Coat score
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5.3.5 Relationship between tick counts and coat score and hair length
There was a linear relationship (p <0.05) between tick count and coat score. As the coat score
increased, tick count increased in a linearly function. Similarly, there was a linear relationship
between hair length and tick count (p < 0.05). The increase in hair length resulted in a linear
increase in tick count.
5.3.6 Relationship between tick counts and BCS and FAMACHA
Figure 5.1 shows seasonal relationship between body condition score, FAMACHA and tick
count. During the hot-dry season, BCS declined faster as the tick counts increased (p <0.01),
compared to post rainy season. In the hot-wet season as the number of ticks increased (p <0.01)
there was a linear increase in BCS. Whilst, during the cool-dry season BCS decreased linearly
(p <0.01) with the increase in the number of ticks. There was a positive linear increase in
FAMACHA scores as the number of ticks increased (p<0.01) across the seasons. The rate of
decline in FAMACHA was, however, more severe in the cool-dry season and hot-wet season.
Figure 5.2 shows the relationship between BCS and tick in different classes of non-descript
does and bucks. The relationship between BCS and tick count on weaners was not significant
(p > 0.05). The rate of change of BCS was higher in weaners as tick counts increased compared
to does and bucks. The BCS of bucks and does declined at a similar rate as the tick counts
increased (p < 0.01).
112
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 5.1: Relationship of seasonal changes between body condition score (a, b), FAMACHA score and tick count (c, d)
y = -1.0732x + 6.9558R² = 0.8289; P <0.01
y = -0.3x + 3.5895R² = 0.1651; P <0.01
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
0 1 2 3 4 5
BC
S (1
-5)
Tick count
Hot dry season
Postrainy season
y = -1.5x + 7.8636R² = 0.9758; P<0.01y = 1.8261x - 2.6035
R² = 0.9255; P <0.01
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
0 1 2 3 4 5
BC
S
Tick count
Cool dry season
Hot wet season
y = 0.9951x + 2.5381R² = 0.9967
y = 0.2038x + 1.7764R² = 0.1288
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
0 1 2 3 4 5
FAM
AC
HA
sco
re
Tick count
Cool dry season
Post rainy seson
y = 1.0404x - 0.0579R² = 0.8273
y = 0.2601x + 3.689R² = 0.4078
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
0 1 2 3 4 5
FAM
AC
HA
scr
oe
Tick count
Hot dry seasonHot wet season
113
Figure 5.2: Relationship between body condition score and tick counts between different
age groups in Nguni does and bucks
y = -0.1181x + 3.4423R² = 0.0268; P< 0.01
y = -0.2818x + 3.536R² = 0.1475; P<0.01
y = -0.2375x + 1.6429R² = 0.1798; P<0.01
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5
BC
S
Tick count
Buck Doe Weaner
114
5.4 Discussion
Due to the role of goats in providing household food security, it is of paramount importance to
establish if there exists a relationship between BCS, FAMACHA, tick counts, coat
characteristics on goats. Non-descript goats appear to have developed tolerance to ticks,
although the mechanism for is not yet established. The adaptability to tick is related to coat
characteristics such as hair length and coat score (Verissimo et al., 2002) and can be ranked
through the use of tick counting. Body condition score, FAMACHA and PCV are good
indicators of the overall health status of the herd or flock (Tibbo et al., 2004). Resource-limited
farmers are rarely in possession of scales for weighing of goats, it is imperative, therefore that
research focuses on the applicability of BCS as a health status indicator in the communal goats.
Ticks suck blood, leading to anaemia. Anaemia occurs as a result of tick sucking more blood
than the goat can replace. The use of FAMACHA to assess the state of anaemia in goats could
be an integrated approach to assist farmers to reduce tick infestation in resource-limited
communities.
The observation that BCS was not affected by sex and age is difficult to explain, however it
was anticipated that age would affect BCS for weaners largely because resource-limited
farmers usually do not allow weaners to go to the pastures where there is plane of nutrition,
compared to what is available near the homesteads. Farmers rather keep them around the
homestead to protect them from predators (Durawo et al., 2017), however at the same time fail
to offer feed supplement to them. The finding that BCS was affected by season with the lower
BCS during the hot-wet season was not expected due to that during the hot-wet season there is
high availability and abundance of forage from the pasture (Alamer, 2006). Whereas, the
similar BCS during post-rainy, cool-dry and hot-dry season could be attributed to poor grazing
rangelands. The finding that sex did not affect tick count were not surprising because tick
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infests all classes of goats, regardless of their sex. The observation that weaners had lower tick
counts compared to does and bucks could be due to that younger goats have a lower ratio of
accessible surface to body volume than older animals, thus decreasing the attachment
frequency per unit area. The high number of tick count experienced during the hot-wet season
could be due to wet environmental conditions are favourable or conducive for the development,
survival and translocation of ticks during the hot-wet season. Henceforth, there is a steady
build-up of adult ticks in grazing rangelands resulting in peak tick load being recorded in the
hot-wet season.
The reduced FAMACHA score in weaners was expected due to poor immunity status. Whilst,
the observation that bucks and does had higher FAMACHA score could be attributed to higher
tick count that suck blood thereby predisposing goats to anaemia. Observed high FAMACHA
score during the hot-wet and hot-dry season is not surprising because during these seasons
goats are highly infested with both ticks and gastro-intestinal parasites compared to post-rainy
and cool-dry season. The observation that season did not affect PCV agrees with finding by
Rumosa Gwaze et al. (2012). Similar PCV values shown by weaners and does in the current
study at higher altitudes of between 80 and 1900 m above sea level could provide evidence of
adaptation of these non-descript goats to low atmospheric oxygen (Tibbo et al., 2004).
Climbing of mountains by adapted goats, as they search for feed, might not have had any
consequential effects on the physiology of the goats. Whereas, similar PCV values between
does and bucks could be a result of various physiological factors. For example, during oestrous
does are usually restless and excited condition, where splenic contraction may increase the
erythrocyte values.
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The observation that sex and season had no effect on hair length and coat scores is difficult to
explain. Literature regarding the effect of age, sex and season on coat characteristics in goats
is scarcely, however, studies conducted in cattle show that hair length increases each month
and are longer during the colder months (Katiyatiya and Muchenje, 2017). The findings that
bucks had higher hair length, while those of weaners and does were similar could be influenced
by changes in months and seasons. Katiyatiya et al. (2015) reported that during winter season,
animal have longer hairs so as to create a microclimate for warmth. The observation that bucks
had higher coat scores than does and weaners could be due to farmers associating long hairs
with buck fertility. Farmers may need to cull goats with long hairs first to avoid high burden
of tick infestation.
The observed positive correlation between BCS and PCV is in agreement with Rumosa Gwaze
et al. (2012). The negative correlation between BCS and tick count and FAMACHA could
probably be influenced by the increase in tick count, suggesting that as the number of ticks
increases, ticks are likely to be sucking more blood, thus predisposing goat to anaemic
conditions. High tick infestation entails a decrease in red blood cells due to the blood-sucking
nature of ticks. The observation that tick count was negatively correlated to BCS indicates that
ticks have a debilitating consequences on body reserves, which is then manifested in the loss
of body condition. The positive correlation between hair length and tick count could
presumably due to the need of shorter hair in certain months for shielding from solar radiation
during hot months and hot-dry season as well as long hair for protection from cold weather
during cold month and cool-dry season (Katiyatiya et al., 2015).
Coat type is an important aspect of heat tolerant and it influences heat loss from skin. The
observed linear relationship between tick count and coat score indicate that as the coat becomes
117
more woollier the goats are likely to have more tick because they are able to hibernate in
secluded body parts and proliferate in quantities. Goats with smoother coats tend to have less
ticks as smoother coat exposes ticks to harmful effects of solar radiation from the sun more
than those ticks found on woolly coated goats. This phenomenon could also be ascribed to the
smooth coat presumably producing more sebum, which possibly makes it unpleasant for ticks
to attach willingly. This finding could also suggest that coat score is an important determinant
of tick counts on non-descript goats. Similar observations were made earlier (Martinez et al.,
2006; Machado et al., 2010). The positive linear relationship between hair length and tick count
suggest that hair length has a role in tick susceptibility in goats. Shorter hairs tend to have lower
tick counts compared to those with long hairs, for the reason that long hairs create favourable
conditions for tick survival. The observed decline in BCS as the tick count increases during the
post rainy and hot dry season could be ascribe to that during post rainy season feed quality us
high in the pastures. Tick attachment is rife in the grazing rangelands, as a result goats are
likely to have high tick infestation sucking blood, thus reducing BCS.
Despite the increase in tick count goats were grazing in better quality rangeland thus increase
feed intake of highly digestible feed either young grass or new leaves and twigs of browse.
Therefore, the linear increase in BCS during hot-wet season and tick count increases could be
due to goat being able to browse nutritious leaves and twigs during hot-wet season. Warm
temperatures are one of the prerequisite for ticks to proliferate. The decrease in BCS in cool-
dry season with increase in tick count is not surprising because this part of the year is
accustomed to low forages, so when ticks attach during the hot-wet season their effects is
clearly visible during this season. Hence, it is important that when interventions are made to
control ticks in goats, seasonal fluctuations should be considered. The decline in BCS in the
cool-dry season as tick count increases was not expected presumably because during this
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season ticks shelter in leafy areas and become dormant until hot-dry season due to unfavourable
weather colder conditions. The decline in BCS during this season could be related to scarcity
and low quality forage availability. FAMACHA score system has been modelled as an on farm
tool to monitor anaemia (Norton et al., 2017). The observation that FAMACHA score
increased as tick count increases could provide a substantial reasoning to develop tick control
strategies. The degree of tick infestation is influenced by body surface area, therefore weaners
having less surface area compared to does and bucks, this could explain why there was no
relationship between BCS and tick count in weaners.
The observation that BCS declined faster in bucks than does could be linked to skin sensitivity
and high grooming behaviour in bucks. Bucks and does have higher body surface temperature
compared to weaners. As the surface temperature of the goat increases, so tick infestation rates
also increases. It is also possible that the faster decline in BCS in bucks than does could
influence by the differences in feeding behaviour between bucks and does. Although, further
research still need to be done to ascertain such claims. It is, thus important that tick control
prioritise bucks and does because there is high possibility that once ticks are matured they are
likely to spread to weaners. Tick could also pass during mating between bucks and does in the
rangelands, since in some households they do not control, subsequently bucks are likely to be
reservoirs of ticks.
5.5 Conclusions
Body condition score, FAMACHA, packed cell volume and tick count of goats are linked and
determine goat productivity. The study has shown that season and age are important factors
that contribute to reduce BCS and increased tick count in Nguni goats. Coat score and hair
length can effectively be used for selection and rearing of goats with smoother coats to reduce
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tick count and subsequently improve productivity and profitability of goats on communal
rangelands. If a goat flock is infested with ticks, measures need to put in place to include goats
in dipping programmes, and priority should be given to bucks and does. In pursuance of least
cost and accessible methods to control ticks, there is need to assess the acaricidal efficacy of
ethno-veterinary plants for affirmation.
5.6 References
Alamer, M. (2006). Physiological responses of Saudi Arabia indigenous goats to water
deprivation. Small Ruminant Research, 63(1-2), 100-109.
Durawo C., Zindove, T. J. and Chimonyo, M. (2017). Influence of genotype and topography
on the goat predation challenge under communal production systems. Small Ruminant
Research, 149: 115-120.
Rumosa-Gwaze F. R., Chimonyo, M and Dzama, K. (2012). Nutritionally-related blood
metabolites and faecal egg counts in indigenous Nguni goats of South Africa. South
African Journal of Animal Science, 40(5), 480-483.
Kaplan R.M., Burke, J.M., Terrill, T.H., Miller, J.E., Getz, W.R., Mobini, S., Valencia, E.,
Williams, M., Williamson, L.H., Larsen, M and Vatta, A.F (2004). Validation of the
FAMACHA eye colour chart for detecting clinical anaemia on sheep and goat farms in
the southern United States. Veterinary Parasitology 123: 105–120.
Katiyatiya C. F and Muchenje, V (2017). Hair coat characteristics and thermophysiological
stress response of Nguni and Boran cows raised under hot environmental
conditions. International Journal of Biometeorology 61(12): 2183-2194.
Katiyatiya C. L. F., Muchenje, V andMushunje, A (2015). Seasonal variation in coat
characteristics, tick loads, cortisol levels, some physiological parameters and
120
temperature humidity index on Nguni cows raised in low-and high-input
farms. International Journal of Biometeorology 59(6):733-743.
Machado M.A., Azevedo, A.L.S., Teodoro, R.L., Pires, M.A., Peixoto, M.G.C.D., Freitas,
C.D., Prata, M.C.A., Furlong, J., Silva, M.V.G.B.D., Guimaraes, S.E.F., Regitano,
L.C.A., Coutinho, L.L., Gasparin, G and Verneque, R.S (2010). Genome wide scans
for quantitative trait loci affecting tick resistance in cattle (Bos Taurus × Bos indicus).
BMC Genomics 11:280-289.
MartinezM.L., Machado, M.A., Nascimento, C.S., Silva, M.V.G.B., Teodoro, R.L., Furlong,
J., Prata, M.C.A., Campos, A.L., Guimarães, M.F.M., Azevedo, A.L.S., Pires, M.F.A
andVerneque, R.S (2006). Association of BoLA-DRB3.2 alleles with tick (Boophilus
microplus) resistance in cattle. Genetics and Molecular Research 5: 513–524.
Mdletshe Z. M., Ndlela, S. Z., Nsahlai, I. V and Chimonyo, M. (2018). Farmer perceptions on
factors influencing water scarcity for goats in resource-limited communal farming
environments. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 50(7): 1617-1623.
Mseleku C., Ndlela, S.Z, Mkwanazi, M.V and Chimonyo, M (2019). Health status of non-
descript goats travelling long distances to water source. Tropical Animal Health
and Production, DOI: 10.1007/s11250-019-02094-8.
Mpendulo C.T., Chimonyo, M and Zindove, T.J. (2017). Influence of water restriction and
salinity on feed intake and growth performance of Nguni does. Small Ruminant
Research 149: 112–114.
Notter D. R., Burke, J. M., Miller, J. E and Morgan, J. L. M. (2017). Association between
FAMACHA scores and fecal egg counts in Katahdin lambs. Journal of Animal
Science 95(3): 1118-1123.
121
Sanhokwe M., Mupangwa, J., Masika, P. J., Maphosa, V and Muchenje, V. (2016). Medicinal
plants used to control internal and external parasites in goats. Onderstepoort Journal of
Veterinary Research 83(1): 1-7.
Taylor G. J., Swanepoel, F. J. C and Bishop, J. (1995). Factors influencing coat type in
Bonsmara cattle. In Proceedings of the 34th Annual congress on Advanced and
applications of the animal science in South Africa, Bloemfontein, South Africa (p. 69).
Tibbo M., Jibril, Y., Woldemeskel, M., Dawo, F., Aragaw, K., Rege and J.E.O (2004).
Hematological profiles in three Ethiopian indigenous goat breeds. International
Journal of Applied Research of Veterinary Medicine 2: 297-308.
Verissimo C.J., Nicolau, C.V.L., Cardidoso, V.L and Pinheiro, M.G (2002). Hair coat
characteristics and tick infestation on GYR (Zebu) and cross bred (Holstein x GYR)
Cattle, Archivos de Zootechia 51, 389–392.
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CHAPTER SIX: In vitro repellency and contact bioassay of aqueous extracts of Cissus
quadrangularis and Gomphocarpus physocarpus plants against Rhipicephalus evertsi
evertsi ticks
BMC Veterinary Research (Under review)
Abstract
The objective of the study was to assess the ethnoveterinary properties of Cissus
quandrangularis. Lin and Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey to control ticks. Aqueous plant
extracts were applied at 6, 12 and 18 % (v/v) and compared to a commercial acaricide, Eraditick
(amitraz) the positive control and distilled water (negative control). Extraction solvents used
were methanol and acetone. The plant extracts were incubated with adult ticks of Rhipicephalus
evertsi evertsi and tick repellency and mortality were recorded. The 6 % v/v of Cissus
quadrangularis for each extract were more effective (p<0.01) against Rhipicephalus evertsi
evertsi ticks. The repellency percentage was highest at 6 % v/v for acetone, methanol and
control extracts similar to Amitraz. The acaricidal efficacy of the Gomphocarpus
physocarpus at 12 % v/v of methanol extracts was similar to 6 % v/v. The mortality rate of
Amitraz reached 100 % after 72 h (p < 0.05) post-treatment. The use of acetone and methanol
extracts resulted in similar tick mortality at 12 and 18 % v/v at 24 h post-treatment. The
methanol extract of Gomphocarpus physocarpus at 6 % v/v reached up to 100 % mortality at
72 hours similar to Amitraz. The bioassays indicated that there was a high efficacy from the
lowest concentrations (6 % v/v) of Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey and Cissus
quadrangularis. Lin plant extracts, which was similar to Amitraz that suggesting that 6 % v/v
could be sufficient for controlling ticks because less plant material is required.
Keywords: Acaricidal efficacy, bioactive compound, phytochemistry, tick mortality
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6.1 Introduction
Ticks are prominent due to low veterinary services and lack of appropriate dipping systems for
goats. The increasing temperatures and humidity in most parts of Southern Africa coupled
with the abundance of wildlife that are main reservoirs of ticks create ideal conditions for tick
proliferation (Schwalbach et al., 2003) and survival. Ticks cause anaemia, body condition loss,
damage to skin and hides. Damages to teats and testes is also prevalent (Rocha et al., 1990)
and they transmit pathogenic viruses, rickettsia and protozoal diseases endemic to most parts
of Southern Africa, particularly ehrlichiosis (Moyo and Masika, 2009). The frequent use of
acaricides to control ticks and inadequate flock management has led to the development of tick
resistance to many acaricidal drugs. The use of plant-derived remedies that have repellency
and acaricidal activities can be a sustainable alternative to address the challenge of acaricide
use.
Plant-derived infusions, concoctions and ointments to livestock has been reported to repel and
kill certain mites, mange, tsetse flies and ticks (Wanzala et al., 2005). There is, however,
paucity of information on the use of these ethnoveterinary plants to control ticks in goats.
Cissus quadrangularis is one of the commonly used plants to repel ticks among the resource-
limited farmers. Gomphocarpus physocarpus (Apocynaceae) is a small, upright and
occasionally-branched shrub, which usually grows to 0.5 to 2 m tall. It occasionally reaches up
to 2.5 m in height. Despite the widespread and value of these plants for medicinal purposes,
little information is available about their acaricidal properties. These plants produce secondary
compounds that can be toxic (Frenandez –Ruvalcaba et al., 1999) and repellent to ticks.
Studies have been conducted to determine the efficacy of plant species such as Aloe forex and
Acokanthera oppositifolia (Lam.) Codd (Moyo and Masika, 2009; Sanhokwe et al., 2016) in
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controlling ticks, however, the acaricidal and repellency properties of Cissus quadrangularis
and Gomphocarpus physocarpus need to be determined. The concentration of 30 and 50 %
Aloe forex acetone extracts was effective in causing Rhipicephalus decoloratus and
Amblyomma hebraeum tick mortality (Sanhokwe et al., 2016). Methanol extract (50 %) of A.
oppositifolia and acetone extract (50 %) of A. ferox had the highest repellency activity. While,
Moyo et al. (2009) reported that A. ferox showed no tick repellency at 20 and 40 %
concentration using water as a solvent.
In Chapter 4, farmers identified Cissus quadrangularis Lin. and Gomphocarpus physocarpus
E. Mey as the most commonly utilised and available plants to repel ticks in the study site.
Increasing the concentration of the extract could lead to some active plant components being
washed away, thus diminishing the efficacy of plant material. In current study, therefore, 6 %
v/v was used as the lowest concentration so that less plant material could be used whilst 18 %
v/v used as the highest concentration to allow the active components of the plant material not
to be wiped away due to effect of extracts. Ideally resource-limited farmers use water as a
natural solvent to prepare the remedies, however, extracting with water means that you need
more plant material to increase the potency of the plant material.
The number of active compounds extracted depend on the solvent and method of extraction
used. Thus, it is important to compare different extraction solvents such as methanol and
acetone on the efficacy of Cissus quadrangularis Lin. and Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey.
It could be cheaper and easier to use than conventional acaricides (Wanzala et al., 2005;
Madzimure et al., 2011). It is important to standardise the methods of preparation so as to
disseminate to other farmers without the knowledge. Ethno-veterinary plants with acaricidal
activities have a major potential because they are easily biodegradable, user-friendly, and less
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toxic to the environment and meat products. Survey results reported earlier in (Chapter 4)
indicate that ticks are a major challenge to goat productivity. Chapter 5 established that tick
load reduces BCS and causes anaemia, and there are indigenous methods and practices that
could be utilised to repel and lead to death of ticks. The objective of the current study was,
therefore to determine the in vitro repellency and contact bioassay of aqueous extracts of Cissus
quadrangularis Lin. and Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey plants against ticks. The study
hypothesised that the use of plant extracts has no acaricidal effects against tick infestation.
6.2 Materials and methods
6.2.1 Study site
The study was conducted in the Animal and Poultry Science laboratory, University of
KwaZulu-Natal. The study complied with the standards required by the Animal Research
Ethics Committee of the University of KwaZulu-Natal (Reference Number: AREC/043/017).
6.2.2 Description of plant materials
6.2.2.1 Plant collection and preparation
Fresh leaves of Cissus quadrangularis and Gomphocarpus physocarpus used by farmers to
control tick infestation were collected in the bushes of Jozini area. Plant specimens were
authenticated at the Bews Herbarium, Department of Botany, University of KwaZulu-Natal.
The voucher specimens were as follows: Cissus quadrangularis Lin (NU0068142) and
Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey (NU0083347). Plants used were the most used plants by
farmers in the study site and based on a survey result from Chapter 4. The plant materials were
126
thoroughly washed using distilled water and shaken to remove debris and tip off extra water
droplets. Plant materials were macerated using an electric blender.
The prepared mixture was stored at room temperature overnight for 24 h before use and later
strained using a muslin cloth. The concentration percentages of aqueous extract were
determined to obtain a 6, 12 and 18 % (v/v) extract. The treatments were calculated to provide
a wide range of dosages that farmers normally use as described in Chapter 4. Eraditick 125
(Amitraz 12.5 % w/v) is a registered commercial, non-systematic organophosphate insecticide
used by farmers to control external parasites in the study area. It was used as a reference
(positive control). It is effective against ticks, lice and mange. Acetone and methanol solvents
were used to make these different concentrations. Water was used as a negative control. The
resulting extracts were stored in capped bottles in the refrigerator between 4 and 8 °C until use.
6.2.2.2. Phytochemical screening
Phytochemical screening of C. quadrangularis and G. physocarpus were carried out to assess
the qualitative chemical composition of crude extracts. The plants were tested for the presence
of tannins, alkaloids, saponin, flavoids and steroids. When testing for tannins 10 mg of each
plant extract was dissolved in 45 % of ethanol in test tubes. Test tubes were then boiled for 5
minutes and 1 ml of ferric chloride solution added to each. The appearance of greenish to black
colour indicated the presence of tannins in the extract. During the test of alkaloids the plant
extract was mixed in 1 % v/v, then warmed and filtered.
The filtrate was treated with Mayers reagent (Mercuric chloride + Potassium iodide in water).
The presence of alkaloids was shown by the formation of yellow coloured precipitates. During
the test of saponin about 10 mg of each plant extract was diluted with 20 ml of distilled water
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in test tubes. Test tubes were hand-shaken for 15 minutes. Formation of a foam on the top part
of a test tube indicated the presence of saponin. When testing for the presence of flavoids 10
mg of each plant extract was added in test tubes, and few drops of NaOH was added on each
tube. The appearance of a yellowish colour showed the presence of flavonoids. In addition,
when testing for steroids about 10 mg of each extract was added in test tubes, and 1 ml of
concentrated H2SO4 added by the side wall of the test tube. The appearance of dark-reddish
green colour indicated the presence of steroids in the plant extract.
6.2.3 Statistical analyses
For the analyses of tick repellency and mortality PROC UNIVARIATE (SAS, 2016) was used
to check data for normality. The collected data on repellency and contact bioassay were
analysed using PROC GLM procedure (SAS, 2016). In each case, the ticks were used as an
experimental unit. Turkey test was used to compare differences between treatment means.
Differences among the least square means were considered significant at p < 0.05. The
statistical model used was:
Yijkl = µ+ Ck + Rj +(C × R)kj+ Ɛijkl
Where; Yijkl - is the response variable due to treatment (mortality and repellency);
μ - is the overall mean common to all observations;
Ck- is the effect due to concentration;
Rj - is the effect due to aqueous extracts;
(C × R)ikj - is the interaction between concentration and extract;
Ɛijkl – is the residual error;
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6.3 Results
6.3.1 Qualitative phytochemical screening
Phytochemical screening of both C. quadrangularis and G. physocarpus are shown in Table
6.1. Screening of methanol, acetone and water extracts of Gomphocarpus physocarpus
revealed the presence of saponins, alkaloids, steroids, flavoids and tannins. The presence of
these phytochemicals differ with the extraction medium used. Alkaloids, phenolic, tannins and
steroids were highly present when extracted with methanol, while saponins became highly
present when using water extracts. Extraction using acetone revealed the presence of flavoids,
steroids and phenolic and tannins (Table 6.1).
Highly present means that the particular colour that is supposed to reveal the presence of
phytochemical in a plant is strong (Figure 6.1). While moderately present means that the
phytochemical are not that strongly present. Low means that the presence of phytochemicals
is there but in low amounts as reflected by the presence of light colour. If the colour that is
supposed to appear, however is not there it is reflected as absent.
Screening of Cissus quadrangularis on the other hand revealed the presence of saponins,
alkaloids, steroids, flavoids and tannins. In the methanoic extracts, alkaloids were highly
present, while in the acetone the presence of alkaloids were moderately present. The water
extract had low alkaloids present. Polyphenolic compounds were highly present in all extracts.
Flavoids were highly present in the acetone and methanol extract, while in water it was
moderately present. In the acetone and water extract the saponin were low while moderately
present for methanol. Extraction using acetone and water revealed the presence of low steroids.
In the methanol extracts steroids were moderately present.
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Table 6.1: Preliminary qualitative phytochemical screening of Cissus quandrangularis
and Gomphocarpus physocarpus
Plant name Extraction
medium Alkaloids Phenolic
+Tannins Saponins Flavoids Steroids
G. physocarpus Acetone ++ +++ ++ +++ +++
Methanol +++ +++ ++ +++ +++
Cold H20 + ++ +++ + +
C. quandrangularis Acetone ++ +++ + +++ +
Methanol +++ +++ ++ +++ ++
Cold H20 + +++ + ++ +
Note: +++: Highly present, ++: moderately present, +: low, -: absent
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Figure 6.1: Shows different colours used to reflect the present of phytochemicals
Moderately present
Absent
Low
Highly present
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6. 3.2 In vitro repellency bioassay
Tick repelling activity of C. quadrangularis. Lin at different concentrations are shown in Table
7.2. In vitro assay showed that both plants have positive acaricidal activity against ticks using
different aqueous extracts. Repellency percentage of Cissus quadrangularis and different
extraction solvents declined with time from 30 min to 5 hrs (Table 7.2). The 6 % v/v of Cissus
quadrangularis for each extract were more effective (p<0.01) against Rhipicephalus evertsi
evertsi ticks. The repellency percentage when extracting with acetone, methanol and control
were similar at 12 % v/v. The repellency percentage of methanol reached up to 100 %
for Cissus quadrangularis at 6 % v/v. For the 18 %, v/v concentration the repellency
percentage was very low (44 %) compared to 6 and 12 % v/v.
When using Gomphocarpus physocarpus plant the efficacy decreased with time (p <0.01) from
30 min to 5 hrs, respectively (Table 6.2). The repellency percentage was highest at 6 % v/v for
acetone, methanol and control extracts similar to positive control Amitraz. The methanol
extracts of Gomphocarpus physocarpus at 6 % v/v produced repellency percentage similar to
that of 12 % v/v. The repellency percentage of positive control decreased with time from 30
min to five hours. The acaricidal efficacy of the Gomphocarpus physocarpus at 12 % v/v of
methanol extracts was as good as that of 6 % v/v, however different to that of 18 % v/v which
was relatively low (11 %). The methanoic extracts of Gomphocarpus physocarpus were so
effective that it’s reached up to 100 % repellency at 6 % v/v from 30 min to 1 hr. There was
lower repellency activity from acetone and methanol at 18 % v/v. Acaricidal efficacy at 12 %
v/v for the control treatment was similar to that of 18 % v/v (p > 0.05), respectively. The
efficacy of the control was the same (p <0.01) for Gomphocarpus physocarpus across all the
concentrations from 3- 5 hours post-treatment.
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Table 6.2: Tick repelling activity of Cissus quadrangularis
Treatment Conc Number of ticks repelled post treatment (hours)
Cissus quandrangularis 0.5 1 2 3 4 5
Acetone 6 94a 88a 66a 49a 22a 11ab
12 55ab 55ab 49ab 44a 0.0b 0.0a
18 22b 27c 27b 22b 11ab -0.0a
Standard.error 11.1 11.1 16.0 17.3 9.07 3.21
Methanol
6 100a 83a 83a 61a 27 22a
12 66a 49b 44b 38b 11 16a
18 44c 11c 22c 33b 16 5.5b
Standard.error 10.1 15.0 10.6 9.07 10.6 10.6
Distilled water
6 77a 55a 55a 27a 16 11a
12 66a 33b 5.6b 16b 18 5.6a
18 27b 22b 5.6b 16b 5.6 11a
Standard.error 18.98 21.3 17.6 12.8 9.06 5.56
Positive control (Amitraz) 6 94a 88a 83a 38b 22b 5.56b
Standard.error 5.56 5.56 16.6 11.1 5.53 5.56
abcWithin a column, values with different superscripts differ (p < 0.05), Values are Least square means,
Conc (%) - (Concentration)
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Table 6.3: Tick repelling activity of Gomphocarpus physocarpus
Treatment Conc Number of ticks repelled post treatment (hours)
Gomphocarpus
physocarpus
0.5 1 2 3 4 5
Acetone 6 88a 55a 38b 33a 16a 22a
12 44b 22b 22b 16b 22b 11b
18 16c 18c 22b 13b 22b 5.6b
Standard.error 16.3 12.4 12.4 10.1 4.52 7.84
Methanol
6 100a 100a 83a 16a 16a 0.0a
12 61a 38a 55a 11b 11b 11b
18 22b 11b 11b 5.6c -0.c 5.6c
Standard.error 14.3 15.4 15.4 9.06 6.41 7.17
Distilled water
6 88a 94a 83a 27a 11a 0.0a
12 33b 33b 22b 22a 22a 16b
18 16b 22b 22b 11a 5.6a -0.0a
Standard.error 10.4 7.17 10.6 7.84 7.84 3.94
Positive control (Amitraz) 6 97a 94a 83a 30b 33b 25b
Standard.error 2.78 11.7 6.20 2.78 2.78 3.94
abcWithin a column, values with different superscripts differ (p < 0.05), Values are Least square means,
Conc (%) - (Concentration)
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6.3.3 Contact bio-assay
Table 6.4 shows the in vitro mortality of Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi ticks against Cissus
quadrangularis.Lin 72 hours post-treatment. The acaricidal efficacy of Cissus
quadrangularis increased with an increase in incubation period (Table 6.4). The mortality rate
of the control, acetone was similar (p <0.05) between 6, 12 and 18 % v/v at 24 h. The methanoic
extracts produced similar efficacy with the control at 4 h post-treatment across the different
concentrations (p < 0.05). The mortality rate of the positive control reached 100 % after 72 hrs
(p < 0.05) post-treatment, even though it was similar to that of acetone, methanol and control
across different concentrations.
Table 6.5 shows the in vitro mortality rate of Gomphocarpus physocarpus against ticks. Tick
mortality at 6 % v/v for acetone, methanol and control at 24 h post-treatment were similar to
that of positive control (p <0.05). The use of acetone and methanol extracts resulted in similar
tick mortality at 12 and 18 % v/v at 24 h post-treatment. There was a similar tick mortality rate
across the methanol, control and positive control at different concentrations (p < 0.05). The
methanol extract of Gomphocarpus physocarpus at 6 % v/v reached up to 100 % mortality at
72 hours similar to the positive control.
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Table 6.4: In vitro tick mortality of C. quadrangularis against ticks 72 hours post
treatment
abcWithin a column, values with different superscripts differ (p < 0.05)
Treatment Conc Tick mortality (hours)
Cissus. quadrangularis 24 48 72
Acetone 6 30a 40a 66
12 46a 70b 70
18 46a 53ab 83
Standard.error 12.3 7.69 10.8
Methanol
6 63a 66 66
12 43b 56 60
18 43b 46 53
Standard.error 20.3 22.11 20.9
Control
6 50 83 83
12 66 76 70
18 43 70 76
Standard.error 15.9 6.38 10.4
Positive control 6 73a 93a 100a
Standard.error 15.3 5.77 -
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Table 6.5: In vitro tick mortality of Gomphocarpus physocarpus against ticks 72 hours post
treatment
abcWithin a column, values with different superscripts differ (p < 0.05)
Treatment Conc Tick mortality (hours)
Gomphocarpus physocarpus 24 48 72
Acetone 6 90a 90a 66a
12 36b 43b 63a
18 40b 36b 53a
Standard.error 12.3 12.3 26.0
Methanol
6 80a 56 100
12 16b 83 86
18 23b 73 93
Standard.error 9.22 15.9 19.7
Control
6 76a 93 70
12 45b 50 66
18 30b 50 63
Standard.error 13.3 18.9 27.6
Positive control 6 96a 93a 100a
Standard.error 3.33 3.33 -
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6.4 Discussion
Farmers in resource-limited areas use plant extracts to control parasites, including ticks. The
use of repellent acaricides against ticks constitute an important prophylactic component of tick
management strategy. The same applies to the contact acaricides, which are chemical agents
meant to kill ticks and are toxic through contact action. In vitro techniques are preferred over
in vivo methods due to their low cost, simplicity and rapid turnover (Markus and Ernst, 2005).
Cissus quadrangularis and Gomphocarpus physocarpus have bioactive substances such as
flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, steroids and phenolic that possesses acaricidal properties
against ticks than commercial chemicals. The search for alternative methods to control
parasites including ticks envisages the importance of determining the efficacy of these plant
remedies as it gives the dense understanding of the quality of the plants. In chapter 3 farmers
reported the repellency to be time dependent, with 30 minutes being the shortest duration of
effectiveness whilst others reported that after one to two hours. In the current study, therefore
time was increased to five hours for repellent and 72 hours for mortality.
The aqueous extracts of both Cissus quadrangularis. Lin and Gomphocarpus physocarpus E.
Mey plants were acaricidal against Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi ticks, though the pattern was
not anticipated. It was expected that the highest acaricidal efficacy percentage would be from
the highest aqueous extracts, however, the lowest concentration (6 % v/v) for both studied plant
materials were most effective. Such findings are similar to Madzimure et al. (2013) who
reported the highest efficacy ratio from the lowest concentration of (5 % w/v). A probable
explanation for these findings could be that the extraction process with both methanol and
acetone contribute to the efficacy of the plant because they produce a more potent extract,
which is similar to the control. Similar repellency percentage at 6 and 12 % v/v for Cissus
quadrangularis. Lin could probably be influenced by the similar polarity of methanol and
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acetone (Fouche et al., 2017). The high presence of alkaloids, tannins and flavoids in the
methanol extract of Cissus quadrangularis could have contributed to the repellency. Tannins
have been reported to bind the glycoprotein of the tick cuticle and lead to mortality (Bauri et
al., 2015). Zenebe et al. (2017) reported that the phytochemical screening of Cissus
quadrangularis.Lin using methanol extract showed the presence of flavonoids and phenols.
The observation that the methanol extract of Gomphocarpus E.May and Cissus
quandrangularis. Lin the repellency percentage could reach 100 % at a shorter duration may
be attributed to the ability of methanol to attract and also compromise the movement of ticks
(Fouche et al., 2017) efficiently. This findings are corroborated by Santhoshkumar et al. (2012)
who found that the aqueous extract of C. quadrangularis (stem) had acaricidal activity against
Rhipicephalus (B.) microplus. Also, the finding that extracting using 12 % v/v Cissus
quadrangularis. Lin at 1 hour was as good as that of 6 % v/v using methanol extract could be
influenced by the presence of compounds such as β-sitosterol (1), (22E)-3-β-hydroxycycloart-
22-en-24-one, uvaol, daucosterol, methyl-3,4-dihydroxybenzoate, emodin, 4-hydroxyphenyl-
O-β-D-glucopyranoside, aloin B and rutin isolated from the methanol extract (Asfour, Ibrahim
& Mohamed 2015). Luseba et al. (2007) and Zenebe et al. (2017) reported that the methanol
extracts of stems of Cissus quadrangularis.Lin has shown to have antimicrobial activity. The
moderate levels of alkaloids in the methanol extracts, which has the ability to affects the
permeability of the cell membranes of ticks and cause vacuolization and disintegration (Bauri
et al., 2015).
The finding that methanol extracts of Gomphocarpus physocarpus at 6 % v/v produced
repellency percentage similar to that of 12 % v/v could probably be influenced by the increase
in polarity as the concentration increases. The observation that methanol extract of
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Gomphocarpus physocarpus was able to extract a wide range of phytochemicals such as
alkaloids, phenolic compounds, flavoids and asteroids could have contributed to the high
solubility of methanol. These secondary metabolites are considered as the chemical
components responsible for wide acaricidal activities for several ethnoveterinary plants
(Debella, 2002; Bauri et al., 2015).
Delayed repellency activity observed from all extracts including positive control from 4-5
hours post-treatment could mean that as the time of application increases the polarity of the
extracts decreases, which might indicate that a lower concentration and shortened duration (6
% v/v) provides the maximum activity for both Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey and Cissus
quadrangularis .Lin plants and is adequate to control ticks. The similar efficacy of the positive
control amitraz and 6 % Cissus quadrangularis. Lin and Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey
after 30 min, 1 hour and 2 hours are difficult to explain. These findings, however corroborate
that of Benavides et al. (2001) in which a 5 % soapy aqueous seed extract of Azadirachta
indica controlled Boophilus microplus tick as effectively as an amitraz-based acaricide. The
observed similar repellency for the control treatment at 12 and 18 % v/v for Gomphocarpus
physocarpus from 3-5 hours post treatment could probably be due to the extraction medium
used as different mediums yield different results demonstrating the same strength as the
positive control.
It is, however not precisely clear why the repellency efficacy at 18 % v/v from acetone and
methanol was lower for Gomphocarpus physocarpus. It is possible that at a higher
concentration of the extract the acaricidal properties of the plants were washed way such that
they become less effective against ticks. These findings are corroborated by Adamu et al.
(2012) who reported that at higher dilutions the test extracts are moderately effective. The
140
observed acaricidal efficacy of both Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey and Cissus
quadrangularis. Lin aqueous extract at different concentrations increased with an increase in
the incubation period for tick mortality rate are contrary to Abdel- Shafy and Zayed (2002)
who was of the view that mortality increases with an increase in the relative concentration of
the product.
The observed dose-dependent response across all extracts and concentrations for Cissus
quadrangularis is similar to Madzimure et al. (2013) who reported a dose-dependent response
to acaricidal treatments from 24- 72 hours on tick mortality. The dose-dependent response of
Cissus quadrangularis. Lin shows that the duration of the treatments can influence the efficacy
of the material. The similar mortality rate at 6, 12 and 18 % v/v concentrations when extracted
with water and acetone at 24 hrs could suggest that the main factors that influence the efficacy
is the duration of exposure to the test material and concentration. Even though it was not
expected for acetone to produce such high mortality due to its reported low efficiency of
solvation (Thouri et al., 2017). Adult ticks have a protective cuticle layer that is meant to
protect the tick from dehydration and other physical and chemical effects.
The cuticle is important in the reproduction process as a site of pheromone production
(Nyahangare et al., 2016). Therefore, acetone and methanol extract being exceptionally good
solvents to active components of plants, they can dissolve the cuticle layer of ticks thus causing
mortality. This could, in part, explain the high mortality rate observed, which was similar to
the positive control (100 %), when extracted with acetone, methanol and control across
different concentrations after 72 hours post treatment. Even though it was expected that the
control will yield positive results because it is regarded as a safe universal solvent for preparing
traditional remedies. It is also worth noting that several authors have raised concerns pertaining
141
to the usage of water as a solvent because of high polarity. The observation that at 6 % v/v the
mortality rate of Gomphocarpus physocarpus due to acetone, methanol and control at 24 hours
was similar to the positive control could be influenced by high active compounds extracted.
Even though the high mortality rate at 6 % v/v of methanol extract is contrary to Sanhokwe et
al. (2016) who reported the highest mortality rate of 89 % using 50 % methanol extract of A.
oppositifolia.
The observation that acetone and methanoic extract of Gomphocarpus physocarpus produced
similar tick mortality rate at 12 and 18 % v/v at 24 hrs post treatment was unexpected. A
plausible explanation for these findings could be due to the number of active compounds
extracted that depend on the solvent and method of extraction used. Nyahangare et al. (2016)
reported a low larvae mortality after 24 hours in the methanol extracts. The similar mortality
rate of Gomphocarpus physocarpus at 6 % v/v with positive control at 72 hours could be
influenced by the presence of hydroxyl (-OH) on the methanol formula (CH3OH), which
contains a greater negative charge than the methane structure, thus making it every effective
solvent. Although organic solvents are known for their superiority for extraction of bioactive
ingredients, nonetheless in the search of least cost animal health products the use of organic
solvents is limited by affordability. Henceforth, it could be of interest to explore the use of
different alcohols that are most frequently used as liquor in rural retail outlets.
6.5 Conclusions
The repellency of Cissus quadrangularis. Lin at 6 % v/v was good as a positive control Amitraz
for all extracts. The efficacy of Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey at 6 % v/v for acetone,
methanol and distilled water was similar to Amitraz. Even though methanol resulted in a
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similar efficacy between 6 and 12 % v/v for repellency. At higher concentration (18 % v/v) the
acaricidal plant treatments reduced low tick populations than expected, thus the 6 %
concentration is sufficient for recommendations to farmers because less plant material is
required. Whilst Cissus quadrangularis produced similar tick mortality between 6, 12 and 18
% v/v at 24 h. There was a similar tick mortality rate across the methanol, control and positive
control at different concentrations for Gomphocarpus physocarpus. These findings
corroborates that Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey and Cissus quadrangularis. Lin are
effective in controlling tick populations, however, it would be of interest to further laboratory
experiments to determine whether the plant extracts can reduce tick feeding, moulting and
fecundity.
143
6.6 References
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treat helminth infections in ethnoveterinary medicine have excellent antifungal
activities. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 12(1): 146- 213.
Abdel-Shafy S and Zayed, A. A. (2002). In vitro acaricidal effect of plant extract of neem seed
oil (Azadirachta indica) on egg, immature, and adult stages of Hyalomma anatolicum
excavatum (Ixodoidea: Ixodidae). Veterinary Parasitology 106(1): 89-96.
Asfour H. Z., Ibrahim, S. R and Mohamed, G. A. (2015). Antimicrobial activity of extracts and
compounds isolated from Cassia italica aerial parts. International Journal of
Phytopharmacy 6(2): 95-100.
Bauri R. K., Tigga, M. N and Kullu, S. S. (2015). A review on use of medicinal plants to control
parasites. Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources (IJNPR) [Formerly
Natural Product Radiance (NPR)] 6(4): 268-277.
Benavides E., Hernández, G., Romero, N., Castro, A and Rodrígues, B. (2001). Preliminary
evaluation of Neem (Azadirachta indica) extracts as an alternative for cattle tick,
Boophilus microplus control. Rev Colomb Entomol, 27(1-2): 1-8.
Debella A. (2002). Manual for phytochemical screening of medicinal plants. Ethiopian Health
and Nutrition Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 35-47.
Fouche G., Sakong, B. M., Adenubi, O. T., Dzoyem, J. P., Naidoo, V., Leboho, T and Eloff, J.
N. (2017). Investigation of the acaricidal activity of the acetone and ethanol extracts of
12 South African plants against the adult ticks of Rhipicephalus turanicus. The
Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research84(1).https://doi.org/
10.4102/ojvr.v84i1.1523.
Frenandez-Ruvalcaba M., Cruz-Vazquez, C., Solano-Vergara, J. and Garcia-Vazquez, Z. 1999.
Anti-tick effects of Stylosanthes humils and Stylosanthes hamate on plots
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experimentally infested with Boophilus microplus larvae in Morelos, Mexico.
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Luseba D and Van der Merwe D (2006). Ethno veterinary medicine practices among Tsonga
speaking people of South Africa. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 73(2):
115–122.
Luseba D., Elgorashi, E. E., Ntloedibe, D. T and Van Staden, J. (2007). Antibacterial, anti-
inflammatory and mutagenic effects of some medicinal plants used in South Africa for
the treatment of wounds and retained placenta in livestock. South African Journal of
Botany 73(3): 378-383.
Madzimure J., Nyahangare, E. T., Hamudikuwanda, H., Hove, T., Stevenson, P. C., Belmain,
S. R and Mvumi, B. M. (2011). Acaricidal efficacy against cattle ticks and acute oral
toxicity of Lippia javanica (Burm F.) Spreng. Tropical Animal Health and Production,
43(2): 481-489.
Madzimure J., Nyahangare, E. T., Hamudikuwanda, H., Hove, T., Belmain, S. R., Stevenson,
P. C and Mvumi, B. M. (2013). Efficacy of Strychnos spinosa (Lam.) and Solanum
incanum L. aqueous fruit extracts against cattle ticks. Tropical Animal Health and
Production, 45(6), 1341-1347.
Markus S and M. Ernst (2005). Medicinal Plants in Tropical Countries, Georg Thieme Verlag,
Rudigerstrasse, Germany.
Mkwanazi M.V, Ndlela, S.Z and Chimonyo, M (2019). Utilisation of indigenous knowledge
to control tick in goats: A case of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Tropical
Animal Health Production. 10.1007/s11250-019-02145-0.
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Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Tropical Animal Health and Production 41(7):
1569-1576.
Nyahangare E. T., Mvumi, B. M and Maramba, T. (2016). Acute oral mammalian toxicity and
effect of solvents on efficacy of Maerua edulis (Gilg. & Ben.) de Wolf against
Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus Koch, 1844 (Acarina: Ixodidae), Tick Larvae.
BioMed research international. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/7078029.
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Agricultural Systems 37: 53-75.
Santhoshkumar T., Rahuman, A. A., Bagavan, A., Marimuthu, S., Jayaseelan, C., Kirthi, A. V.
and Velayutham, K. (2012). Evaluation of stem aqueous extract and synthesized silver
nanoparticles using Cissus quadrangularis against Hippobosca maculata and
Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus. Experimental Parasitology 132(2): 156-165.
Sanhokwe M., Mupangwa, J, Masika, P.J, Maphosa, V and Muchenje, V (2016). Medicinal
plants used to control internal and external parasites in goats. Onderstepoort Journal of
Veterinary Research 1: 1-7.
Schwalbach L.MJ, Greyling, J.P.C and David, M (2003). The efficacy of a 10% aqueous Neem
(Azadirachta indica) seed extract for tick control in Small East African and Toggenburg
female goat kids in Tanzania. South African Journal of Animal Science 33 (2): 83-88.
Thouri A., Chahdoura, H., El Arem, A., Hichri, A. O., Hassin, R. B and Achour, L. (2017). Effect
of solvents extraction on phytochemical components and biological activities of Tunisian
date seeds (var. Korkobbi and Arechti). BMC Complementary and Alternative
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Wanzala W., Zessin, K. H., Kyule, N. M., Baumann, M. P. O., Mathia, E and Hassanali, A.
(2005). Ethnoveterinary medicine: a critical review of its evolution, perception,
understanding and the way forward. http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/6887.
Zenebe S., Feyera, T and Assefa, S. (2017). In vitro anthelmintic activity of crude extracts of
aerial parts of Cissus quadrangularis L. and leaves of Schinus molle L. against
Haemonchus contortus. BioMed research international.
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CHAPTER SEVEN: General discussion, conclusions and recommendations
7.1 General discussion
The main hypothesis tested was that resource-limited farmers do not use indigenous knowledge
to control tick in goats. Goats in communal production systems are highly infested with ticks,
due to lack of dipping systems and if available priority is given to cattle. Research reports that
majority of cattle ticks complete their life cycle in goats, hence the need to control their ticks.
It is also important to establish relationships between tick counts and body weight, body
condition score, FAMACHA and PCV on goats to quantify the impact ticks have on goats. In
the past several methods that have been advocated to control ticks such as genetic approaches,
where tick resistant breeds are used, use of commercial acaricides and pasture management.
Amongst these methods, farmers commonly depend on the utilisation of acaricides, which have
subsequently reached a momentum.
The development of resistance towards acaricides integrated with consumers demands for safe
meat products has led to one school of thought exploring the use of indigenous knowledge.
Indigenous knowledge is defined as the knowledge that local communities gain over
generations of living in a particular environment. This knowledge include the use of
technologies, practices and beliefs that enable stable livelihoods. Indigenous knowledge is
transferred orally through successive generations and varies between localities. Also, the
scientific affirmation of the IK uses may increase the range of methods available for tick control
and this may reduce the burden substantially placed on commercial acaricides that have
developed resistance.
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In Chapter 3, an interview was conducted to identify, and document indigenous knowledge
practices and methods used to control ticks in goats. Local people have a strong culture with
customs and practices manifested in their own beliefs and tradition of the indigenous system
of goat keeping and management. The knowledge has enabled farmers to identify and select
plants considered to be effective in the control of ticks and associated challenges. Nine plant
species belonging to 8 families were identified to control ticks and related tick challenges. Six
medicinal plants are used as tick repellents from goats namely, Cissus quadrangularis L. ,
Stapelia gigantea N.E.Br., Portulaca pilosa L., Gomphocarpus physocarpus E.Mey, and
Achyranthes aspera L. and Maytenus acuminata (L.f.) Loes. Also, four plant species were
identified to treat tick wounds Cissus quadrangularis L, Aloe marlothii A.Berger, Drimia
altissima (L.f.) Ker Gawl and Spirostachys africana Sond. Aloe marlothii is used to treat
anaplasmosis and tick wounds. This is indicative of the possible broad-spectrum nature of these
plants against the causative agent. Plants from the genus Aloe have been successfully used
throughout the world due to their biologically active ingredients (Foster et al., 2011). Cissus
quadrangularis is popularly renowned for its antiseptic properties and treatment of wounds
(Nyahangare et al., 2015).
Cissus quadrangularis has many biological activities, including anti-oxidant, anti-bacterial and
anti-inflammatory activity. Drimia altissima plant is known to have various biological
activities such as anti-oxidant, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory activity, anti-fungal and
cytotoxic effects. In addition, the plant has been reported to have insecticidal activities with
properties including L-azatidine-2-carboxilic acid and bufadienolides, scillirosidin and
proscillaridin A (Bozorgi et al., 2017). The plant remedies are essentially prepared using
different plant parts, although the use of leaves is prominent followed by barks. High use of
leaves could possibly be due to strong seasonality of rainfall that hinders the growth of many
149
plant species during the dry season. Farmers also identified other traditional practices, which
included cutting of ticks, pasture burning. Scissors are used to remove ticks in their nymph
stages. The cutting is done on the stomach so that the tick would not be able to feed, however,
the mouthparts are not gauged because such lead to wound development. The hypothesis that
farmers do not use indigenous knowledge and practices to control ticks in goats is rejected
based on the findings that farmers were able to share IK methods and practices used to control
ticks.
Since farmers had identified various indigenous methods and practices used to control ticks, as
reported in Chapter 4, therefore a questionnaire survey was conducted to quantify the extent of
use of indigenous knowledge to control ticks. Farmers, as expected, ranked the purposes of
using IK differently, the most important purpose of using IK was based on its effectiveness,
followed by readily available, easier to use and affordability in that chronological order.
Keeping of goats in wet rangelands was reported to influence the extent of use of IK. Amongst
gender, male farmers keeping goats were found to be more likely to influence the extent of use
of IK than females. Uneducated farmers were more likely to use IK compared to those that are
educated. Those who attended tertiary level were less likely to use IK to control ticks. Farmers
older than 55 years were more likely to influence the use of IK compared to farmers less than
30 years who were mostly younger farmers. The elderly farmers value IK because of its
sustainability. They are also highly esteemed by the community due to their experience of using
IK (Amsalu et al., 2017). The higher odds ratio estimates in favour of herbalists to influence
the extent of use of IK suggest that they are an invaluable source of knowledge to treat their
goats (Luseba & Tshisikhawe 2013). The majority of herbalists pass their knowledge to the
elders, sons and daughters in that order (Amsalu et al., 2017). Amongst other factors that
influenced the extent of use of IK were unemployment, presence of herbalist in the area and
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not receiving livestock training. Such findings suggest that it is essential that when IK policies
are implemented, components that promote the use of IK need to be considered. These could
also mean involving people with such as herbalists who IK custodians. The hypothesis tested
that there is no extent of the use of indigenous knowledge to control tick infestation in goats is
rejected as farmers could identify factors the influence the extent of dependence on IK to
control ticks.
After establishing the factors that influence the extent of use of IK use to control ticks amongst
the farmers, in Chapter 5 relationship between tick counts and health status of goats was
determined to assess how tick counts, coat characteristics, BCS, FAMACHA and PCV are
related and whether these relationships differ with seasons. There was a significant effect of
season on BCS. Body condition score was similar during the post rainy, cool dry and hot dry
season, although BCS was lower in the hot wet season. Tick counts were not affected by sex
of goat. The effect of season was significant for FAMACHA. During the hot wet and hot dry
season goats had higher FAMACHA score, whereas during the post-rainy and cool-dry season
goats had reduced FAMACHA score. Weaners and does had similar hair length compared to
bucks. Body condition score was positively correlated to PCV, however negatively correlated
to FAMACHA score and tick count, respectively. Tick count was, however, negatively
correlated to coat score. A linear relationship between tick count and coat score and hair length
was observed. During the hot-dry season, BCS declined faster as the tick counts increased,
compared to post rainy season. In the hot-wet season as the number of ticks increased there
was a linear increase in BCS. There was a positive linear increase in FAMACHA scores as the
number of ticks increased across the seasons. The rate of decline in FAMACHA was, however,
more severe in the cool-dry season and hot-wet season. The rate of change of BCS was higher
in weaners as tick counts increased compared to does and bucks. The BCS of bucks and does
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declined at a similar rate as the tick counts increased. Knowledge regarding the effect of age,
sex and season on coat characteristics in goats is scarcely, however, studies conducted in cattle
show that hair length increases each month and are longer during the colder months (Katiyatiya
and Muchenje, 2017). The observation that sex and season had no effect on hair length and
coat scores was difficult to explain. The positive correlation between BCS and PCV is in
agreement with Rumosa Gwaze et al. (2012).
The negative correlation between BCS and tick count and FAMACHA could probably be
influenced by the increase in tick count, suggesting that as the number of ticks increases, ticks
are likely to be sucking more blood, thus predisposing goat to anaemic conditions. Warm
temperatures are one of the prerequisite for ticks to proliferate. The decrease in BCS in cool-
dry season with increase in tick count is not surprising because this part of the year is
accustomed to low forages, so when ticks attach during the hot-wet season their effects is
clearly visible during this season. Hence, it is important that when interventions are made to
control ticks in goats, seasonal fluctuations should be considered. The decline is BCS in the
cool-dry season as tick count increases was not expected presumably because during this
season ticks shelter in leafy areas and become dormant until hot-dry season due to unfavourable
weather colder conditions. The hypothesis that there is no relationship between tick counts and
coat characteristics, body condition score, FAMACHA and PCV in goats is, therefore, rejected
as there were significant relationships between tick counts and BCS and FAMACHA, which
were largely influenced by season.
As one of the key important objectives of the current study from Chapter 4, two plant species
that farmers consistently used to control ticks were identified, which were Cissus
quadrangularis and Gomphocarpus physocarpus. Therefore, in chapter 6 aqueous extracts of
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Cissus quadrangularis and Gomphocarpus physocarpus plants were tested for their acaricidal
efficacy in vitro against Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi ticks. The in vitro repellency and contact
bioassay revealed that both plants possess repellent and acaricidal activities. The tick repellent
results showed that 6 % v/v of Cissus quadrangularis for each extraction solvents were more
effective against Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi ticks. Tick repellency percentage of acetone,
methanol and control were similar at 12 % v/v. Even though the repellency percentage of
methanol reached up to 100 % for Cissus quadrangularis at 6 % v/v. In the 18 %, v/v
concentration the repellency percentage was very low compared to 6 and 12 % v/v.
The use of Gomphocarpus physocarpus resulted in tick repellency percentage that was higher
at 6 % v/v for acetone, methanol and control extracts similar to the positive control Amitraz.
The methanol extracts of Gomphocarpus physocarpus at 6 % v/v produced repellency
percentage similar to that of 12 % v/v. The acaricidal efficacy of the Gomphocarpus
physocarpus at 12 % v/v of methanol extracts was as good as that of 6 % v/v for positive
control, however different to that of 18 % v/v was relatively low. The acaricidal efficacy
of Cissus quadrangularis increased with an increase in incubation period. The mortality rate
of the control, acetone was similar between 6, 12 and 18 % v/v at 24hrs. The methanoic extracts
produced similar efficacy with the control at 4 hrs post-treatment across the different
concentrations. Tick mortality at 6 % v/v for acetone, methanol, and control at 24 hrs post-
treatment were similar to that of positive control. The use of acetone and methanol extracts
resulted in similar tick mortality at 12 and 18 % v/v at 24 hrs post-treatment. The methanol
extract of Gomphocarpus physocarpus at 6 % v/v reached up to 100 % mortality at 72 hours
similar to the positive control. It was expected that the highest acaricidal efficacy percentage
would be from the highest aqueous extracts, however, the lowest concentration (6 % v/v) for
both studied plant materials were most effective. Such findings were similar to Madzimure et
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al. (2013) who reported the highest efficacy ratio from the lowest concentration of (5 %
w/v).This results were attributed to the extraction process with both methanol and acetone
contribute to the efficacy of the plant because they produce a more potent extract, which is
similar to the control.
Whilst he observation that the methanol extract of Gomphocarpus E.May and Cissus
quandrangularis. Lin the repellency percentage could reach 100 % at a shorter duration may
be attributed to the ability of methanol to attract and compromise the movement of ticks
(Fouche et al., 2017) efficiently. The similar efficacy of the positive control amitraz and 6 %
Cissus quadrangularis. Lin and Gomphocarpus physocarpus E. Mey after 30 min, 1 hour and
2 hours are difficult to explain. These findings, however, corroborate that of Benavides et al.
(2001) in which a 5 % soapy aqueous seed extract of Azadirachta indica controlled Boophilus
microplus tick as effectively as an amitraz-based acaricide. The dose-dependent response
across all extracts and concentrations for Cissus quadrangularis is similar to Madzimure et al.
(2013) who reported a dose-dependent response to acaricidal treatments from 24- 72 hours on
tick mortality. The study had hypothesised that the use of plant aqueous extracts has no
acaricidal effects against tick infestation in goats. The outcomes of the study suggest that the
hypothesis to be rejected based on the findings obtained.
7.2 Conclusions
Resource-limited farmers use indigenous knowledge to control ticks and were familiar with
different tick species and their effects on goat productivity. While farmers were convinced that
ticks are harmful, and most knew the symptoms of the diseases that scientists associate with
ticks, however farmers explained these diseases in different ways, which were contrary to
154
scientific evidence suggesting the need of formal trainings to farmers on some aspects of
animal health from extension services. Tick borne diseases, especially heartwater was
considered by IK expert to be a major disease of economic importance. To improve the
productivity of goats, tick control strategies should be implemented in communal areas. The
study has also showed that season and age are important factors that contribute to reduce BCS
and increased tick count in Nguni goats.
Coat score and hair length can effectively be used for selection and rearing of goats with
smoother coats to reduce tick count and subsequently improve productivity and profitability in
goats on communal rangelands. The high dependence on ethno veterinary remedies and
indigenous methods on ticks and their associated challenges highlight the need to support IK
in goat veterinary care. Cissus quadrangularis was singled out as the most use ethno-veterinary
plant to control ticks with a frequency of (64 %), followed by Gomphocarpus physocarpus (56
%). The acaricidal plant treatments reduced low tick populations than expected, but the 6 %
v/v treatments for both repellency and mortality of ticks were as good as a commercial
acaricide. Thus the 6 % concentration is sufficient for recommendations to farmers because
less plant material is required.
7.3 Recommendations
Despite the advent of acaricides to control ticks, however, resource-limited farmers still
continually use IK for various merits including availability and ease of preparation. Farmers
do not readily sell their goats to purchase anything perceive or regarded as not important. For
example, a farmer rarely sell a goat in order to buy medicines for other livestock since their
goal is to increase flock herd size. They rather use indigenous knowledge, which is always
155
readily available. Other farmers use IK because of the value attached to the practice of IK.
Opportunities for complementing the two knowledge systems to enhance livestock veterinary
care are great.
Before this can take place there is a need of government department to work in collaboration
with IK experts to identify and standardize indigenous practices in wider use for effective
control of ticks and diseases. In practical terminology efforts, which promote plant
conservation should be instigated for sustainability. Plants can be conserved by being planted
in home gardens and schools. Policies pertaining plant harvesting can be implemented, permit
authorizing plant harvest could be endorsed from authorities in the local areas and garden
keepers. Programs that encourage farmers to preserve or conserve IK should be developed, and
research should continue to identify active or toxic compounds from these ethno-veterinary
plants used for credibility purposes. In the meantime, while research continues to explore and
affirm IK it is pertinent that government should develop dip tanks for goats in communal areas.
Such observation points out to the need of further research whose findings would be used for
advocacy for the development of IK and goat production in communal areas. Indigenous
knowledge is a new yet old area of academic interest. Majority of the people view it from a
perspective of doubt, even local scientists because many of them are trained in western
paradigm, thus only accept scientifically validated results. To promote a holistic approach of
complementing the two knowledge systems into livestock veterinary care, collaborations of
veterinary scientists, animal health technicians, parasitologists, herbalists and diviners and
researchers is necessary. Further research should explore implementation strategies of IK to
conventional veterinary livestock care. Possible aspects that need further research include:
156
1. Seasonal tick loads and prevalence in goats grazing in the low –input farming areas.
2. Identify and document ethnoveterinary remedies used to control heartwater in goats.
3. In vitro acaricidal properties Cissus quadrangularis and Gomphocarpus physocarpus
plants against larvae, nymph, and egg of Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi ticks.
4. In vivo acaricidal properties of Cissus quadrangularis and Gomphocarpus physocarpus
plants against Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi ticks.
5. Isolation of active compounds of Cissus quadrangularis and Gomphocarpus
physocarpus plants from aqueous extracts.
6. Use of Indigenous knowledge in the veterinary livestock care in commercial production
systems of South Africa: A case study of KwaZulu-Natal, Province.
7. What are the views and understanding of farmers owners, veterinarian, extension
officers and farmer workers on the use of indigenous knowledge, and how IKS can be
integrated to support conventional knowledge? A qualitative study.
8. How can indigenous knowledge systems be mobilised to enhance the veterinary
livestock care: A qualitative study?
157
7.4 References
Amsalu, N., Bezie, Y., Fentahun G, Alemayehu, A., Amsalu, G. (2017). Use and Conservation
of Medicinal Plants by Indigenous People of Gozamin Wereda, East Gojjam Zone of
Amhara Region, Ethiopia: An Ethnobotanical Approach. Evidence-Based
Complementary and Alternative Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2973513.
Benavides, E., Hernández, G., Romero, N., Castro, A., & Rodrígues, B. (2001). Preliminary
evaluation of Neem (Azadirachta indica) extracts as an alternative for cattle tick,
Boophilus microplus control. Revista colombiana de entomología, 27(1-2), 1-8.
Bozorgi, M., Amin, G., Shekarchi, M., & Rahimi, R. (2017). Traditional medical uses of
Drimia species in terms of phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology. Journal of
Traditional Chinese Medicine, 37(1), 124-139.
Foster M, Hunter L, and Samman S. (2011). Evaluation of the nutritional and metabolic effects
of Aloe Vera. In: Benzie IFF, Wachtel-Galor S. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and
Clinical Aspects. Second Ed, United States: CRC Press. pp. 37-54.
Fouche, G., Sakong, B. M., Adenubi, O. T., Dzoyem, J. P., Naidoo, V., Leboho, T and Eloff,
J. N. (2017). Investigation of the acaricidal activity of the acetone and ethanol extracts
of 12 South African plants against the adult ticks of Rhipicephalus turanicus. The
Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research, 84(1). https://doi.org/
10.4102/ojvr.v84i1.1523.
Katiyatiya, C. F., & Muchenje, V (2017). Hair coat characteristics and thermophysiological
stress response of Nguni and Boran cows raised under hot environmental
conditions. International Journal of Biometeorology 61(12): 2183-2194.
158
Luseba, D., Tshisikhawe, M.P., 2013. Medicinal plants used in the treatment of livestock
diseases in Vhembe region, Limpopo province, South Africa. Journal of Medicinal
Plants Research 7 (10): 593-601.
Madzimure, J., Nyahangare, E. T., Hamudikuwanda, H., Hove, T., Belmain, S. R., Stevenson,
P. C., & Mvumi, B. M. (2013). Efficacy of Strychnos spinosa (Lam.) and Solanum
incanum L. aqueous fruit extracts against cattle ticks. Tropical Animal Health and
Production, 45(6), 1341-1347.
Nyahangare, E.T, Mvumi, B.M and Mutibvu, T. (2015). Ethno veterinary plants and practices
used for ecto parasites control in semi-arid smallholder farming of Zimbabwe. Journal
of Ethnobiology & Ethnomedicine.11:30.
Rumosa Gwaze, F. R., Chimonyo, M., & Dzama, K. (2012). Nutritionally-related blood
metabolites and faecal egg counts in indigenous Nguni goats of South Africa. South
African Journal of Animal Science 40(5): 480-483.
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APPENDIX 1: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
SECTION A: TICKS AND TICK-BORNE DISEASES
1. What are different types of ticks affecting goats? Iluphi uhlobo lwemikhaza olilimaza izimbuzi
zakho?
2. Are there new tick species that have developed over the change of time? Ingabe lukhona yini
uhlobo olusha oseluvelile lwemikhaza ngokushitsha kwesikhathi?
3. What are different types of tick-borne diseases affecting goats? Iluphi uhlobo lwezifo ezidalwa
imikhaza oluhlupha izimbuzi zakho?
4. Are there new tick-borne diseases that have developed over the change of time? Ingabe lukhona
uhlobo olusha oseluvelile lwezifo ngokushitsha kwesikhathi?
SECTION B: PREDISPOSING FACTORS
5. Are ticks and tick-borne diseases different with age? Ingabe imikhaza kanye nezifo zemikhaza
kuhlukile yini ngeminyaka?
6. Are ticks and tick-borne diseases different with sex? Ingabe imikhaza kanye nezifo zemikhaza
kuhlukile yini ngobulili?
7. Is the prevalence of ticks and tick-borne diseases different environment?
8. Are there any differences in ticks and tick-borne diseases with body weight? Ingabe imikhaza
kanye nezifo zemikhaza kuhlukile yini ngesisindo somzimba?
9. Are there differences in ticks and tick-borne diseases with nutrition? Ingabe imikhaza kanye
nezifo zemikhaza kuhlukile yini ngesimo zokuthola ukudla?
SECTION C: EFFECTS OF TICKS AND TICK-BORNE DISEASES IN GOATS
10. What are the effects of ticks? (Ngabe imikhaza yenzani ezimbuzini zakho)
11. What are the effects of tick-borne diseases in goats? (Ngabe izifo ezidalwa imikhaza zenzani
ezimbuzini?
12. Do the effects change with season? (Ngabe lezizinto ezenziwa imikhaza kanye nezifo
kuyashitsha yini ngenkathi?
SECTION D: PREVENTION
13. How do you prevent ticks? Uzivikela kanjani izimbuzi zakho emikhazeni?
14. How do you prevent diseases caused by ticks? Uzivikela kanjani izimbuzi kuzifo ezidalwa
amakhizane?
SECTION E: CONTROL & TREATMENT
160
15. Do you use indigenous methods or practices to control ticks/ Ingabe uyazisebenzisa yini
izindlela zesintu/ zomdabu ukulwisana nemikhaza?
16. Do you use indigenous methods or practices to control tick borne diseases/ Ingabe
uyazisebenzisa yini izindlela zesintu/ zomdabu ukulwisana nezifo ezidalwa imikhaza
ezimbuzini?
17. State the indigenous methods or practices used to control ticks and tick-borne diseases in goats/
Yisho izindlela zesintu ozisebenzisayo ukuvikela izimbuzi zakho emikhazeni kanye nakuzifo
ezidalwa imikhaza.
a. Local name of the plant/ Igama lomuthi ngesiZulu
b. Part of the plant / Ingxenye yomuthi
c. Condition of the plant (dry/fresh)/ isimo somuthi (owomile/omanzi)
d. Method of preparation/indlela owuxuba ngayo
e. Mode of application/ uzipha kangaka nani izimbuzi zakho noma uzigcoba kangaka nani
f. Dosage uziphuzisa kangaka nani izimbuzi zakho?
g. What are signs of toxicity/iziphi izinkomba zika phoyizeni ezibonakalayo ezimbuzini?
h. Why do you use this methods? Ingani usebenzisa lezi zindlela zokwelapha na?
i. What is the source of knowledge? Ingabe lolulwazi lokwelapha ulithola kuphi na?
j. Does everyone in the household know this knowledge? Ingabe wonke umuntu ekhaya
uyalwazi yini lolulwazi?
18. How has climate variability affected these methods or practices/ Ingabe ukushitsha kwesimo
seZulu kuku thikamezile yini ukusebenza kwalezi zindlela zokwelapha?
a. Are the plants scarce/ Ingabe izinga lemithi lencane na?
b. Why do you think the plants are scarce/Ucabanga ukuthi yini edala ukuthi imithi
ibencane na?
19. What should be done to conserve our indigenous knowledge and natural resources? Ikuphi
ocabana ukuthi mele kwenziwe ukuvikela ulwazi lweSintu?
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APPENDIX 2: QUESTIONAIRE SURVEY
Objective: Farmer perceptions on the extent of use of indigenous knowledge to control nematodes, ticks and tick-
borne diseases in goats and chickens
Questionnaire Number……Village name………………………Numerator name………………..Ward
Number……
SECTION A: Household demography
A1. Sex of household: 1. M □ 2. F □
A2. Marital status: 1. Married □ 2. Single □ 3. Divorced □ 4. Widowed □
A3. Age: 1. 18-30 □ 2. 31-50 □ 3. >50 □
A4. Is the head of the household resident on the farm? 1. Yes □ 2. No □
A5. Highest education level: 1. No formal education □ 2. Grade 1-7 □ 3. Grade 8-12 □ 4. Tertiary □
A6. Have you ever received any training on livestock production? 1. Yes □ 2. No □
A7. What are major sources of income? 1. Crops □ 2. Livestock sales □ 3. Livestock products □ 4. Salary □
5. Government grant □ 6. Other □, specify ……….
A8. Types of livestock species kept
Cattle Goats Sheep Chickens Pigs Other
(specify)
Number
Rank
A10. What is the reason of using indigenous knowledge?
1. Effectiveness □ 2. Availability □ 3. Affordability □ 4. Quick solution □ 5. Works the same as
conventional ways □ 6. Other □, specify ……….
A11. What is the source of indigenous knowledge?
1. Oral tradition from the family □ 2. Other farmers □ 3. Local elders □ 4. Own experience □ 5.
Myths □ 6. Other □, specify ……….
A12. Do agricultural institutions promote and support the use of indigenous knowledge to treat animal diseases?
1. Yes □ 2. No □
A13. Which groups within the community uses traditional knowledge more?
1. Males □ 2. Females □ 3. Wealthy □ 4. Poor □ 5. Young □ 6. Educated □ 7. Non-educated □ 8. Other
□, specify ……….
A14. Do you see yourself using indigenous knowledge in future?
1. Yes □ 2. No □
A15. Which method would you recommend for preservation of indigenous knowledge?
1. Workshop □ 2. Educate young generation □ 3. Include in syllabus at school □ 4. Other □, specify
…
SECTION B: Goat production
B1. Why do you keep goats? (Please tick the first column for the purpose and the second column for ranking)
Meat Milk Manure Skin Sales Investment Traditional
ceremonies
Gifts
Tick
Rank
B2. Are you part of any farmer’s association? 1. Yes □ 2. No □
B3. Who is the owner of goats? 1. Father □ 2. Mother □ 3. Children □ 4. Other □, specify ……….
B4. Who takes decisions about goat management?
1. Owner □ 2. Shepherd □ 3. Children □ 4. Other □, specify ……….
B5. What goat production system do you use?
1. Extensive □ 2. Semi-intensive □ 3. Intensive □ 4. Tethering □ 5. Integrated livestock/crop system
□ 6. Other □, specify ……….
B6. How has climate change affected the quality of vegetation?
1. Dry □ 2. Species composition □ 3. No change □
B7. Do you practice supplementary feeding during periods of feed shortage?
1. Yes □ 2. No □
B8. What form of housing do you have for your goats?
1. Kraal □ 2. Stall/Shed □ 3. Yard □ 4. None □
162
B9. What are the challenges facing goat production?
Challenge Feed
shortage
Diseases Ecto-
parasites
Internal
parasites
Inbreeding Theft Water
scarcity
Tick
Rank
B10. What is the composition of your goat flock?
Kids Weaners Does Bucks
Male
Female
B11. What do you look for when selecting bucks?
Scrotal
circumference
Libido Body
conformation
Vigour Scrotal
palpation
Body
condition
Health
status
Tick
Rank
B12. How do you select does?
Condition Body condition Vigour Mothering ability Prolificacy
Tick
Rank
B13. How do you manage kids before weaning?
1. Let them go with mothers to the field □ 2. Leave them in the goat house □ 3. Leave them in the yard □
4. Other □, specify ……….
B14. When do you wean kids?
1. Rainy season □ 2. Hot-dry season □ 3. Cool-dry season □ 4. Post-rainy season □
B15. Are housed kids provided with water when mothers are being herded?
1. Yes □ 2. No □
B16. How do productivity differ between past years and now?
Production parameters Increased Decreased No change
Conception rate
Age at first kidding
Kidding rate
Kidding interval
Kid mortality rate
Goat mortality rate
SECTION C: Goat health
C1. What causes kid mortality?
1. Lack of colostrum □ 2. No milk produced by lactating does □ 3. Predators (Jackals) □ 4. Feed
shortage □ 5. Diseases □ 6. Other □ (specify) ……….
C2. How do you assess health challenges in goats?
1. Loss of body weight □ 2. Breathing difficulties □ 3. Not standing/playing □ 4. Not eating □ 5.
Scratching □ 6. Diarrhoea □ 7. Tearing eyes □ 8. Limping □ 9. Abdominal swelling □ 10. Rash □ 11.
Coughing/sneezing □ 12. Circling □ 14. Skin coat rises □ Other □, specify ……….
C3. What types of parasites are prevalent in this farm? (Can tick more than one)
Ticks Lice Flies Mites Tapeworm Roundworm Liver
fluke
Tick
Rank
C4. Who identifies parasites?
1. Household head □ 2. Shepherd □ 3. Other □, specify ……….
C5. What are different types of gastrointestinal parasites affecting your goats?
1. Roundworms □ 2. Tapeworms □ 3. Coccidia □ 4. Other □, specify ……….
C6. How do you identify a goat that has a problem with gastrointestinal parasites?
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Symptoms Bottle jaw Anaemia Diarrhoea Enlarged abdomen Rough hair coat Sneezing
Tick
Rank
C7. How has the change in rainfall patterns affected the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasite?
1. Increase □ 2. Decrease □ 3. No change □
C8. How has the change in temperature patterns affected the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasite?
1. Increase □ 2. Decrease □ 3. No change □
C9. What do you use to treat gastrointestinal parasites?
1. Antihelmintics □ 2. Traditional medicine □ 3. Other □ (specify) ……….
C10. What is the effect of season on tick prevalence?
Ticks Rainy
season
Hot-dry
season
Cool-dry
season
Post-rainy
season
Rank
Bont tick
Brown ear tick
Red tick
Other (specify) ……….
C11. How has change in rainfall pattern affected tick distribution?
1. Decrease □ 2. Increase □ 3. No change □
C12. How has increase in temperature affected the tick distribution?
1. Decrease □ 2. Increase □ 3. No change □
C13. What are different types of tick-borne diseases affecting goats?
1. Heart water □ 2. Tick-borne fever □ 3. Anaplasmosis □ 4. Babesiosis □ 5. Other □, specify ……….
C14. Do you prevent tick-borne diseases in goats?
1. Yes □ 2. No □
C15. What traditional medicines do you use to control gastrointestinal parasites?
1. Nhlashwana □ 2. Hlunguhlungu □ 3. Phehlecwathi □ 4. Umnala □ 5. Umganu □ 6. Inhlaba □ 7.
Ukhoshokhoshwana □ 8. Icena □ 9. Isibiba samandiya □ 10. Umdladlathi □ 11. Uvovovo (umgxamu) □ 12.
Halibhomu □ 13. Ikhambi lesisu □ 14. Ibozana □ 15. Ugebeleweni □ 16. Umqathongo □ 17. Iskhuvethe □
18. Umhuluka □ 19. Isihlenama □ 20. Undonga zibomvana □ 21. Umababaza □ 22. Inkalane □ 23. Umqalothi
□ 24. Umfusamvu □ 25. Ubhoqobhoqo □ 26. Uphongo □ 27. Umkhanyakude □ 28. Umkhuhlu □ 29.
Inkomankomana □ 30. Umtshovane □ 31. Umvunguza □ 32. Other □, specify ……….
C16. How do ticks and tick-borne diseases affect goats?
Symptoms Loss of
condition
Skin
damage
Circling Anaemia Wounds Limping Red
urine
Tick
Rank
C17. What do you use to treat ticks and tick –borne diseases?
1. Scissors □ 2. Thorns □ 3. Grease oil □ 4. Jays fluid □ 5. Gashing □ 5. Cut the ears □ 5. Burn
incense □ 6. Other □, specify ……….
C18. What are challenges you have experienced with acaricides?
1. Not killing ticks □ 2. Expensive □ 3. Other □, specify ……….
C19. Do you follow the instructions when using acaricides?
1. Yes □ 2. No □
C20. What are traditional medicines that you use to control ticks and tick -borne diseases?
1. Nhlashwana □ 2. Uzililo □ 3. Ushisizwe □ 4. Phehlacwathi □ 5. Inhlaba □ 6. Ingcotho □ 7. Umkhwango
□ 8. Umdladlazo + Upelepele □ 9. Umahlanganisa □ 10. Umfusamvu □ 11. Umhlahlampethu □ 12. Other
□, specify ……….
SECTION D: Chicken health
D1. Why do you keep chickens? (Please tick the first column for the purpose and the second column for ranking)
Purpose Meat Eggs Manure Income Traditional
ceremonies
Tick
164
Rank
D2. What chicken production system do you use?
1. Extensive □ 2. Semi-intensive □ 3. Intensive □ 4. Other □, specify ……….
D3. What are the challenges facing chicken production?
Challenges Nematodes Diseases Mortality Low egg
production
Rank
D4. What is the chicken flock size and composition?
Range Hens Chicks Cocks
≤ 10
10 - 30
30 – 50
50+
D5. What method do you use to feed chickens?
1. Broadcast □ 2. Local made feeders □ 3. Commercial feeders □ 4. Other □, specify ……….
D6. How often do you clean chicken houses?
1. Once a week □ 2. Once a season □ 3. Once a year □ 4. When remembered □ 5. None □ 6. Other
□, specify ……….
D7. What are problematic parasites in your chickens?
1. Internal parasites □ 2. Ecto-parasites □
D8. How do you diagnose chickens with nematodes?
1. Diarrhoea □ 2. Loss of body weight □ 3. Low egg production □ 4. Anaemia □ 5. Feather drop □ 6.
Reduced appetite □ 7. Coughing □ 8. Saliva excretion □ 9. Swollen comb □ 10. Closed eyes □ 11. Dirty
cloacal region □ 12. Increased thirst 13. Head nodding down 14 Other □, specify ……….
D9. How do you select cocks for mating?
1. Health □ Colour □ Size □ Other □, specify ……….
D10. Do you use traditional medicines to treat nematodes or parasites in chickens?
1. Yes □ 2. No □
D11. If yes, how long have you been using medicinal herbs to treat nematodes in chickens?
1. < 5 years □ 2. 5 – 10 years □ 3. >10 years □
D12. Which medicinal plants do you use to treat nematodes in chickens?
1. Isithezi □ 2. Umnala □ 3. Icena □ 4. Inhlashwana □ 5. Inhlaba □ 6. Umdlandlatho □ 7. Umthombothi □
8. Umhlonhlo □ 9. Ulilo □ 10. Umgwadla □ 11. Uhalibhomu □ 12. Ikhambi lesisu □ 13. Umtshovane □ 14.
Umgxamo □ 15. Amasethole □ 16. Isibiba samakula □ 17. Umanyazini □ 18. Isnemfu □ 19. Ushibhoshi □
20. Other □, specify ……….
D13. Which type of chickens flock is mostly affected by nematodes?
1. Chicks □ 2. Hens □ 3. Cockerels □
SECTION E: Climate change
E1. What are the sources of water for goats?
1. Dam/Pond □ 2. River □ 3. Borehole □ 4. Water well □ 5. Spring □ 6. Tap □ 7. Rainwater □ 8. Grey
water □ 9. Wetlands □ 10. Other □, specify ……….
E2. How does the number of water sources for goats differ in the past years and now?
Dam/Pond River Borehole Water
well
Spring Tap Rainwater Grey
water
Past
years
Increase
Decrease
Present
years
Increase
decrease
E3. Comparing temperatures in the past years and now, how do they differ? Rainy season Hot-dry season Cool-dry season Post-rainy season
Decreased
Increased
No change
165
E5. For how long can goats live without water?
1. 2 – 3 days 2. 4 – 7 days 3. 7 - 10 days 4. >10 days □ 5. Other □, specify ………. E6. If water is not available at all, do you supply water to goats?
1. Yes 2. No
E7. How frequent is water being supplied to goats?
1. Freely available 2. Once a day 3. Once in two days 4. Once in 3 days 5. Once a week 6. Other ,
specify ……….
E8. How frequent are the incidents of water sources drying out?
1. Twice a year 2. Once a year 3. Once in 3 years □ 4. Once in 10 years □ 5. Other □, specify
………
E9. How much distance (km) is covered by goats to drinking water sources?
1. Short (<1km) 2. Moderate (1km) 3. Long (>1km)
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APPENDIX 3: HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES ETHICS
167
APPENDIX 4: ETHICAL CLEARANCE FOR ANIMAL RESEARCH
168
APPENDIX 5: PUBLICATIONS