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Extending Perceived Navigational Risk and Technology Acceptance
Model to Electronic Chart Display and Information System
SHENG-FEI HSU
Center for General Education
National Formosa University
No.64, Wunhua Road, Huwei Township, Yunlin County 632
TAIWAN
YU-WEI HSU
Department of Information Systems and Operations Management,
University of Auckland
12 Grafton Road, Auckland
NEW ZEALAND
Abstract: - Seafarers’ doubting about the electronic chart display and information system is a widespread
problem. To better explain, predict, and increase user acceptance, this research focused on the impact of
navigational risks to address and predict shipmates' computer acceptance by a measure of their intentions,
attitudes, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use. Thus a hypothesized model was proposed to examine
the relationships between the related constructs by comparing experienced shipmates with non-experienced
marine college students. Study verified that the perceived navigational risk had negative effect on perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use, and also indicated its further influence on the perception on technology
acceptance. These results may provide important references for manufacturers and marine college to adjust
further products, or enhance the training course on information literacy and the ability of manipulating modern
navigational information system.
Key-Words: - Electronic chart display and information system (ECDIS), Technology acceptance model
(TAM), Perceived navigational risk, Perceived ease of use, Perceived usefulness, Structure equation modeling.
1 Introduction Following the remarkable technological advance,
people expect that such advancement can improve
current unsatisfied accuracy, efficiency and
effectiveness. Similar expectance also appears in the
marine transportation. While seafarers charted the
seas using sun, moon, and the stars before, modern
shipmates can estimate ship’s position by electronic
chart display and information system (ECDIS).
ECDIS is a computer-based navigation information
system that complies with International Maritime
Organization (IMO) regulations and can be used as
an alternative to paper nautical charts. The ECDIS
installs electronic navigational charts (ENC) and
integrates position information from the global
positioning system (GPS), as well as other
navigational sensors, such as radar and automatic
identification systems (AIS). This complex system
allows not only route recommendations and position
tracking, but also generating audible and/or visual
alarms when the vessel is in proximity to
navigational hazards.
However, for all its capacity, some technical
limitations and navigational risk still exist, these
faults as well as shipmate’s experiences can make
precise ECDIS unable to substitute the conventional
tools, or even just become one of auxiliary
navigational instruments, especially in offshore
sailing. Accordingly, shipmate has to regularly
check ship’s position by the conventional tools, such
as sextant and magnetic compass, to confirm ECDIS
in normal operating condition. Just as previous
researches suggested that the electronic chart should
not be totally relied upon or lead the shipmate into a
false sense on safety and security [1]. Prior study
also advised that over-confidence must not result
from the fact that the ship’s position was
automatically shown on a chart [2]. In other words,
shipmate must be always wary as to how the system
is actually performing in regard to accuracy and
reliability. Unfortunately, although applying ECDIS
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on the ship gradually became an important issue,
there was still no sufficient empirical study to
investigate seafarers’ perception and cognition on
accepting and manipulating these modern
informational systems under the threats of
navigational risk. For filling this gap, this study
focused on examining and predicting the acceptance
of such an advanced navigational instrument under
the potential influence from navigational risk. In
addition, both technology acceptance model (TAM)
and the perception of perceived navigational risk
were used in this research.
The purpose of TAM was to explain and predict
the acceptance of information technology based on
two specific behavioral beliefs: perceived ease of
use (PEOU) and perceived usefulness (PU) [3]. And
perceived navigational risk was applied on probing
the influence of negative uncertainty on shipmate’s
behavior. The ambition of this study was to provide
important references to adjust manufacturers’ future
products, and enhance training course of marine
college on information literacy and the ability of
manipulating modern navigational information
system.
This investigation carried out by comparing
experienced shipmates with marine college students
without practical experience on ship. In addition,
structural equation modeling (SEM), a statistical
technique for testing and estimating causal, was
used to analyze the related data collected by
questionnaire.
2 Literature review A shipmate in bridge had three main duties:
navigation, collision avoidance, and ship
management. For completing these jobs efficiently,
ECDIS was designed to reduce the time spent on
navigation by eliminating manual data processing
and providing the shipmate with a display which
aided him/her in quickly evaluating the navigation
picture [2]. Although the IMO also proposed
performance standards for ECDIS [4], navigational
risk still existed and affected shipmate’s perception
and attitude on manipulating this system. The
hazards associated with the use of ECDIS fell into
three categories [1]: Firstly, the equipment itself,
both hardware and software, might suffer potential
virus infection, power outages, or loss of input of
sensory equipment. Secondly, the charts themselves
were at risk from permit expiry, out-of-date charts
being used, updates not applied correctly, excessive
zooming (in the case of Raster charts), inability to
open the next chart required. And thirdly, the
particulars of these risks were unique to each vessel,
crew and equipment, and could only be assessed on
a case-by-case basis.
According to previous research, risk was
described as the likelihood of the hazard occurring,
combined with the severity of the hazardous event
[5]. Cunningham [6] defined risk as “the amount
that would be lost if the consequences of an act were
not favorable”. And Harland et al. stated that risk
was associated with the “change of danger, damage,
loss, injury or any other undesired consequences”
[7]. Perceived risk was introduced in the 1960s, it
has been modeled as both a two-dimensional
construct (i.e., uncertainty and negative
consequences) [8][9]. Based on and developed from
Harland et al’s definition, this study defined
perceived navigational risk on ECDIS as perceived
negative variation of danger, damage, loss, injury or
any other undesired consequences of using ECDIS
on the voyage.
The TAM model was an influential extension of
Fishbein and Ajzen’s theory of reasoned action
(TRA). TAM used TRA as a theoretical basis for
specifying the causal linkages between the two key
features: perceived usefulness and perceived ease of
use, and users’ attitudes, intentions and actual
computer adoption behavior [3]. TAM was
considerably less general than TRA, but it was
readily extended to apply to any type of technology
by two specific variables, perceived usefulness and
perceived ease of use, which were hypothesized to
be fundamental determinants of user acceptance
[10]. The goal of the model was to provide an
explanation of the determinants of computer
acceptance by tracing the impact of external factors
on internal beliefs, attitudes and intentions.
Prior studies explained that external factors were
the connection between the inner belief, attitude,
intention, and controllable behavior [3]. And
previous researches have listed various external
factors for examining different situations [11][12].
In addition, the unified theory of acceptance and use
of technology (UTAUT), proposed by Venkatesh et
al. [13], extended TAM to take into account several
new constructs (Performance Expectancy, Effort
Expectancy, and Social Influence) that bore
significant influence on behavioral intention and
ultimately usage of technologies. However, external
factors in this study was represented by perceived
navigational risk, which was not just a theoretical
term, or a measure of performance or effort. On the
contrary, various risks were never absent on
shipmate’s routine works and always had huge
influences on seafarers’ intention and attitude on
using navigational instruments such as ECDIS.
3 Hypotheses and methodology
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For analyzing how the perceived navigational risk
affected shipmate’s perception and behavioral
intention on using ECDIS, several hypotheses were
proposed for measuring and illustrating the effects
between potential navigational risk and technology
acceptance.
3.1 Hypotheses False information or malfunction on ECDIS might
cause inaccurate ship manoeuvring, or even
disastrous wreckage. Therefore, despite the well-
known benefits of electronic nautical charts over
paper charts, the maritime community has been
rather slow to adopt ECDIS due to the navigational
risk on the limitations of ECDIS, and such
phenomenon also appeared on the shipmates [2].
Further, the application of risk assessment has been
used for a number of years to assist in safety
procedures in various aspects of the running of a
vessel. But, until now, it has not been extended
specifically to ECDIS and all its functions [1].
These negative navigational factors would seriously
increase shipmate’s doubt on ECDIS’s ease of use
and usefulness. Prior researches also indicated that
perceived risk or loss would negatively influence
users’ perceived usefulness and perceived ease of
use [14][15][16]. Then, according to the potential
negative influences from ECDIS and its relationship
with shipmate’s perception on usefulness and ease
of use, the first two hypotheses were proposed:
Hypothesis H1: Perceived navigational risk on
ECDIS had significant negative impact on perceived
usefulness.
Hypothesis H2: Perceived navigational risk on
ECDIS had significant negative impact on perceived
ease of use.
In TAM, perceived usefulness reflected task-
related productivity, performance, and effectiveness.
And perceived ease of use referred to the degree to
which the user expected the target system to be free
from effort [10]. Many studies have validated TAM
in a wide variety of applications of information
technology, and claimed that perceived usefulness
and perceived ease of use increased the intention
and willingness to access data through adequate
informational system, such as e-commerce through
the website, e-service in B2C, as well as online
game [14][15][16]. An ECDIS was a computer-
based navigation information system that complied
with International Maritime Organization (IMO)
regulations and could be used as an alternative to
paper nautical charts. Then, applying TAM to the
manipulation of ECDIS, authors would like to infer
that shipmate’s concepts of both perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use on using
ECDIS would affect their behavioral intention and
attitude. And further, previous researches also
discussed and provided evidences that perceived
ease of use indicated direct relationship on
perceived usefulness [17][18][19]. Accordingly,
perceived ease of use on ECDIS would encourage
shipmate use it to promote efficacy. Therefore,
another three hypotheses were posited:
Hypothesis H3: Perceived usefulness on ECDIS
had significant positive impact on individual attitude
toward using ECDIS.
Hypothesis H4: Perceived ease of use on ECDIS
had significant positive impact on individual attitude
toward using ECDIS.
Hypothesis H5: Perceived ease of use on ECDIS
had significant positive impact on individual
perceived usefulness on ECDIS.
Moreover, previous study also showed that, in
TAM, both perceived usefulness and attitude toward
using indicated direct relationship on behavioral
intention [3]. Referring to such description and
observing shipmate’s training, as well as related
practical experience on ship’s bridge, it was found
that the attitude toward using ECDIS and the
perceived usefulness on this system had relationship
with the behavioral intention. Then, the final two
hypotheses were proposed:
Hypothesis H6: Shipmate’s attitude toward using
ECDIS had significant positive impact on
shipmate’s behavioral intention.
Hypothesis H7: Perceived usefulness on ECDIS
had significant positive impact on shipmate’s
behavioral intention.
3.2 Samples and data collection For testing these hypotheses, a convenience sample
of 144 participants was recruited from the
department of navigation at the university in
southern Taiwan. The participants were divided into
two distinct parts by their practical navigation
experience. 64 of them were marine college students
without practical navigation experience, the mean
age of these students was 20, and fifty six of them
were male. Then, other 80 participants were
experienced shipmates, their mean age was 24, and
forty seven of them were male. Shipmates’ data
collection carried out while they joined a short-term
training on vacation. Such division would be helpful
to identify how the perceived navigational risk
influenced perception of technology acceptance on
ECDIS. Survey was administered in class, and for
insuring that the programmed questionnaire worked
as intended, a pretest of the questionnaire on a
convenience sample of 17 undergraduate students
conducted prior to fielding the full-scale survey, that
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was used to assess its logical consistency, ease of
understanding, sequence of items and contextual
relevance. It led to several minor modifications of
the wording and the item sequence.
3.3 Model and data analysis According to the hypotheses mentioned above, five
variables of construct appeared to comprise this
research model. And for measuring the variables of
construct, the questionnaire consisted of 25 items,
which were designed to ask individuals to agree or
disagree with statements using a Likert’s scale
ranged from 1 = “strongly disagree”, through 3 =
“neutral”, to 5 = “strongly agree”. In this
questionnaire, the items used to measure perceived
usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude toward
using, and behavioral intention to use were adapted
from Davis’s research (1989). And the items used to
measure perceived navigational risk were taken
from Weintrit and Staawicki’s study [1].
Perceived navigational risk (PNR) would
discourage shipmates from transacting and relying
on ECDIS. Based upon the work of previous
research [1], three items were used to measure the
level of PNR of the participants: (v1) human error,
(v2) external barrier, (v3) internal obstacle. And
perceived ease of use (EOU) referred to the degree
to which a person believed that using a particular
system would be free of effort. The measurements
of EOU construct stressed on how easy and simple
participants felt ECDIS. Based upon Davis’s
research in TAM [3][10][17], six questionnaire
items were adopted to indicate the level of perceived
ease of use: (v4) operability, (v5) simplicity, (v6)
mental effort, (v7) understandability, (V8)
cumulative effort, (V9) cognitive valuation.
Perceived usefulness (U) referred to the degree to
which a person believed that using a particular
system, such as ECDIS, would enhance his/her job
performance. For measuring U, seven items were
adopted from prior studies in TAM [3][10][17]:
(v10) quality improvement, (v11) controllability,
(v12) time to accomplish task, (v13) supporting
critical aspects of job, (v14) productivity, (v15)
performance improvement, and (v16) diversity at
work. Moreover, attitude toward using indicated a
psychological tendency that was expressed by
evaluating a particular system with some degree of
favor or disfavor [20]. In this research, students’
attitude toward using ECDIS (ATT) would reveal
their perception to this system. Based on prior
research about measuring the construct of ATT, four
items were used in this questionnaire to survey
participants’ attitude toward using ECDIS [20]:
(v17) pleasantness, (v18) goodness, (v19) value,
(v20) enjoyment. Then, behavioral intention (BI)
reflected the extent to which person purposed to use
a particular system, such as ECDIS on the bridge of
a ship. According to the literature about the
measurement of the construct of BI [20][21], five
questions were used to assess participants’
behavioral intention on ECDIS: (v21) expectance,
(v22) desirability, (v23) comparative advantage,
(v24) personal opinion, and (v25) whole evaluation.
In addition, the structure equation modeling
(SEM) was used as a main tool in the following
measuring procedure. But before SEM conducting,
the factor loading of questionnaire items were
evaluated and exhibited in Table 1. It was found that
all the score of factor loading ranged from 0.53 to
0.92, well above the common acceptance levels of
0.50 [22]. And the KMO test of constructs ranged
from 0.894 to 0.613, greater than recommended
accepting values 0.50 [23] (Table 1).
Table 1. KMO value of constructs of junior shipmates and non-experienced students KMO value (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure)
Junior shipmates Non-experienced students
Perceived navigational risk .674 .739
Perceived usefulness .894 .796
Perceived ease of use .838 .778
Attitude toward using ECDIS .837 .814
Behavioral intention .850 .613
3.4 Reliability and validity The adequacy of the measurement model was
evaluated on the criteria of reliability, convergent
validity, and disconfirmation validity. Reliability was
the extent to which varying approaches to construct
measurement yield the same results [24] and was
examined using the composite reliability values. As
listed in Table 2 and Table 3, all of these values were
greater than 0.8, well above the common acceptance
levels of 0.60 [25]. And convergent validity was
evaluated for the measurement scales by average
variance extracted (AVE), that should exceed the
variance due to measurement error for that construct
(i.e. AVE should exceed 0.50). [26]. In addition,
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discriminant validity was used to assess the extent to
which a concept and its indicators differed from
another concept and its indicators [27]. Discriminant
validity was evaluated using the criteria
recommended by Fornell and Larcker [26] : the
square root of the AVE should exceed the correlation
shared between the construct and other constructs in
the model. In this research, Table 2 and Table 3
showed convergent validity and discrimant validity.
It was found that the convergent validity and
discriminant validity on BI in Table 2 were a little
shade below the desired threshold value (AVE=0.43,
AVE1/2
=0.66). However, according to prior study,
low validity coefficient didn’t necessarily mean that
the measuring instrument and/or criterion were
invalid [28], and same measuring instrument in Table
3 showed high validity coefficient. Therefore, the
result on BI in Table 2 was still valid for further
analysis.
Table 2. Reliability, validity, and correlation analysis for non-experienced students
CR AVE AVE1/2
PNR U EOU ATT BI
PNR 0.88 0.71 0.84 1
U 0.95 0.71 0.84 -.462**
1
EOU 0.89 0.60 0.76 -.480**
.477**
1
ATT 0.91 0.71 0.84 -.550**
.567**
.400**
1
BI 0.80 0.43 0.66 -.599**
.726**
.347**
.618**
1
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Legend: PNR= Perceived navigational risk, EOU= Perceived ease of use, U= Perceived
usefulness, ATT= Attitude toward using ECDIS, BI= Behavioral intention.
1. Composite reliability (CR) =(∑Li)2/(∑(Li)
2 + ∑Var(Ei))
2. Average variance extracted (AVE) =∑Li2/(∑Li
2 + ∑Var(Ei))
Table 3. Reliability, validity, and correlation analysis for junior shipmates.
CR AVE AVE1/2
PNR U EOU ATT BI
PNR 0.84 0.64 0.80 1
U 0.90 0.60 0.77 -.241* 1
EOU 0.94 0.71 0.84 -.190 .438**
1
ATT 0.93 0.77 0.88 -.162 .593**
.532**
1
BI 0.91 0.68 0.82 -.268* .621
** .466
** .682
** 1
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Legend: PNR= Perceived navigational risk, EOU= Perceived ease of use, U= Perceived
usefulness, ATT= Attitude toward using ECDIS, BI= Behavioral intention.
4 Result and final models The goodness of fit of a statistical model described
how well it fitted a set of observations. Measures of
goodness of fit typically summarized the discrepancy
between observed values and the values expected
under the model in question. In this study, the type of
tests for each of the measures and the corresponding
results for the developed models, as well as the
relevant fit statistics were presented in Table 4.
Research showed that both of these two research
models were adequate fit to the data. The final model
of students without practical experience on board
indicated that Chi-square value x2=1153.915, p<.001,
RMSEA=.082, CMIN/DF=4.306, CFI=.889. And the
model of junior shipmates, as shown in Table 4,
revealed that the Chi-square value x2=474.730,
p<.001, RMSEA=.079, CMIN/DF=1.771, CFI=.902
(Table 4). Although several fit indices on both
models were a shade below the desired threshold
value, according to commonly cited criteria for
evaluating structural models [29], these two models
were moderately good fit.
Model for the students without practical
experience on board indicated (Fig. 1) that perceived
navigational risk (PNR) had direct negative effect on
perceived ease of use (EOU) (β=-0.45, p=.001<.05)
and perceived usefulness (U) (β=-0.42, p=.002<.05).
Therefore, when non-experienced students’
perceived navigational risk scored high, the scores of
perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use were
lower. In addition, perceived ease of use had direct
positive effect on perceived usefulness (β=0.33,
p=.012<.05), it meant that when perceived ease of
use scores were high, perceived usefulness scores
were high also. Further, although non-experienced
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students’ perceived ease of use showed an
insignificant direct positive effect on attitude toward
using ECDIS (ATT) (β= 0.16, p=.157>.05), their
perceived usefulness had direct positive effect on
attitude toward using ECDIS (β=0.54, p=.000<.001),
that indicated when perceived usefulness scores were
high, attitude toward using ECDIS were also high.
Moreover, both perceived usefulness and attitude
toward using ECDIS had significant direct positive
effect on behavioral intention (BI) (β=0.72,
p=.000<.001, and β=0.22, p=.001<.005). It revealed
that when perceived usefulness and attitude toward
using ECDIS got high scores, behavioral intention
scores were also high. Finally, SEM showed that,
while including indirect effect, perceived
navigational risk had negative total casual effect on
both attitude toward using ECDIS (β=-0.30,
p=.000<.001) and behavioral intention (β=-0.28,
p=.000<.001) respectively.
Table 4. Fit indices for junior shipmates and non-experienced students
Fit indices Junior shipmates Non-experenced students Recommended value
X2 474.730 (p=.000) 1153.915 (p=.000)
X2/df 1.771 4.306 < 5 (Wheaton et al., 1977)
RMR .050 .074 < .10 (Cole D. A., 1987)
RMSEA .079 .082 < .08 (Gefen et al. 2000)
AGFI .903 .899 > .90 (Hair et al., 1998)
NFI .910 .858 > .90 (Hayduk, 1987;
Bentler and Bonett, 1980)
CFI .902 .889 > .90 (Hayduk, 1987;
Bentler and Bonett 1980)
Legend: PNR= Perceived navigational risk, EOU= Perceived ease of use, U= Perceived usefulness, ATT=
Attitude toward using ECDIS, BI= Behavioral intention.
Fig. 1. Model for non experienced students
Fig. 2 presented the model for junior shipmates, it
revealed that perceived navigational risk had
significant direct negative effect on both perceived
ease of use (β=-0.28, p=.047<.05) and perceived
usefulness (β=-0.32, p=.024<.05) respectively,
indicating that when perceived navigational risk
scored higher, the scores of both perceived ease of
use and perceived usefulness became lower.
Meanwhile, perceived ease of use had direct positive
effect on perceived usefulness, β=0.33, p=.009<.05,
it meant that when perceived ease of use scored high,
perceived usefulness scores were high also.
Moreover, both perceived ease of use and perceived
usefulness showed direct positive effect on attitude
toward using ECDIS, the former (β=0.33,
p=.003<.05) and the latter (β=.51, p=.000<.001). It
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indicated that when the scores of both perceived ease
of use and perceived usefulness were high, attitude
toward using ECDIS scored high also. In addition,
both perceived usefulness and attitude toward using
ECDIS had a direct positive effect on behavioral
intention (β=0.25, p=.048<.05 and β=0.58,
p=.000<.001). Finally, analysis also revealed that,
while including indirect effect, perceived
navigational risk had significant negative total casual
effects on both attitude toward using ECDIS (β=-
0.38, p=.000<.001) and BI (β=-0.49, p=.000<.001)
respectively.
Legend: PNR= Perceived navigational risk, EOU= Perceived ease of use, U= Perceived
usefulness, ATT= Attitude toward using ECDIS, BI= Behavioral intention.
Fig. 2. Model for junior shipmates
5 Discussion and implication The goal of this study was to empirically extend
current understanding about how the perceived
navigational risk affected technology acceptance for
participants with/without practical experience on
board, and TAM was the main theory applied on this
research. Authors in this paper postulated that
ECDIS usage was determined by behavioral
intention which was viewed as being jointly
determined by user’s attitude toward using ECDIS
and perceived usefulness. According to the TAM [3],
the relationship between attitude and behavioral
intention implied that people formed intentions to
perform behaviors toward which they had positive
affect. And the relationship between perceived
usefulness and behavioral intention was based the
idea that people formed intentions toward behaviors
they believed would increase their job performance.
In this research, both models for different
participants showed that the attitude toward using
ECDIS and perceived usefulness had significant
positive effect on behavioral intention. But analysis
in SEM revealed some differences: For non-practical
experienced students, perceived usefulness on
ECDIS formed more intentions toward behavior
(β=0.72) than attitude did (β=0.22); Then on the
contrary, for those shipmates, attitude presented
more intentions (β=0.58) to perform behavior than
perceived usefulness did (β=0.25).
Further, according to TAM, attitude was jointly
determined by perceived usefulness and perceived
ease of use. As discussed on prior study [3], TAM
posited that perceived usefulness had a direct effect
on attitude over and above behavioral intention,
Davis et al. illustrated that positively valued
outcomes often increased one’s affect toward the
means to achieving those outcomes [3]. And
previous research also contained empirical evidence
consistent with a link between attitude and perceived
ease of use [10][30]. In addition, Bandura proposed
that the easier a system was to interact with, the
greater should be the user's sense of efficacy [31]. In
this study, the model for shipmates showed that both
perceived usefulness (β=0.51) and perceived ease of
use (β=0.33) had significant direct effect on the
attitude toward using ECDIS. But for the non-
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practical experienced students, although perceived
usefulness indicated significant direct effect on the
attitude toward using ECDIS, the causal relationship
between perceived ease of use and the attitude
toward using ECDIS was insignificant.
In addition, improvements in perceived ease of
use, as described in TAM, might also be instrumental
and contributing to increase performance. Effort
saved due to improved perceived ease of use might
be redeployed, enabling a person to accomplish more
work for the same effort [3]. To a certain extent that
increased perceived ease of use contributed to
improved performance. Accordingly, perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use were viewed as
distinct but related constructs, empirical associations
between variables similar to perceived usefulness
and perceived ease of use have been observed in
prior research [32]. Such associations were identified
as well in this study. It found that perceived ease of
use had significant direct effect on perceived
usefulness on both two models.
Moreover, TAM also posited that both perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use could be
affected be external variables. Several investigators
have found that the characteristics of a system or the
environment involved had a direct effect on U as
well as perceived ease of use. In this research, the
potential navigational risk from human error,
external interference outside of the ECDIS, and
internal obstacle of ECDIS were included in the
construct of perceived navigational risk. These items
were measured to present perceived navigational
risk’s influence on perceived usefulness and
perceived ease of use. This study showed that no
matter which model, perceived navigational risk
presented significant negative effort on perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use. To a
navigational information system such as ECDIS, any
fault or defect of this system probably threatened
ship’s safety, or even caused serious damage.
Therefore, any doubtfulness or suspicion about the
usability, accuracy, or validity on ECDIS would
decrease user’s perceivability on ECDIS’s usefulness
and ease of use. Even so, difference still existed
between these two models: it showed that, for
experienced shipmates, perceived navigational risk
had less negative effect on perceived ease of use and
perceived ease of use while compared with non-
experienced students. Obviously, the experienced
shipmates were less affected by the perceived
navigational risk.
Navigating with ECDIS is fundamentally
different from navigating with paper charts, the
former is a system which integrates several different
functions into one computerized system, and is
designed to improve the accuracy and efficacy of
navigation, as well as ship’s safety. Unfortunately,
the nightmare-like navigational risk has serious
negative influence on shipmate’s confidence and
reliability on ECDIS, even they often use
conventional tools, such as sextant or radar, to verify
ECDIS’s normal condition or correct its inaccuracy
and error. Although this research showed that
perceived navigational risk had negative influence on
perceived usefulness and ease of use, it is still a
crucial trend for shipmates to apply information
technology and related computerized system to
promoting their efficacy and accuracy on navigation.
Therefore, for efficient pushing the transition from
conventional tools to modern navigational
information system, besides manufacturer’s
promoting the accuracy of ECDIS and standardizing
ECDIS update procedures, this study provides
worthy reference for training center and marine
college to improve the training course by inheriting
experience and expertise from excellent master or
senior shipmates, and enhancing the teaching of
information literacy as well as navigation-related
information technology.
However, there were some limitations in this
study. Firstly, the respondents were college students
and junior shipmates, their limited experience could
not fully recognize all the potential risk. Secondly,
the perceived navigational risk on ECDIS might be
affected due to participants’ insufficient proficiency
on manipulating this integrated system, but such
influence was not measured in this study. And third,
the well-trained senior seafarers might have quite
different comprehension on the relationships
between potential navigational risk and technology
acceptance, but unfortunately, they were not included
in this research.
6 Conclusion The official proposal to develop e-navigation was
submitted to the Maritime Safety Committee of IMO
in December 2005 as a strategic vision for the
utilization of existing and new navigational tools, in
particular electronic ones, in a holistic and systematic
manner. But while the authority and maritime
transport community focused on integrating and
developing modern technological instrument for
promoting the efficacy and effectiveness on
navigation, users’ subjective and psychological
predispositions should not be ignored. The objective
of this study was to discover how the perceived
navigational risk affected the technology acceptance
and its differences. The results not only verified the
most parts of hypotheses proposed in this research
and released that the user’s experience would modify
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E-ISSN: 2224-3402 196 Issue 6, Volume 9, June 2012
the influences of perceived navigational risk on
TAM model, but also provided important references
for manufacturers and marine college to adjust their
products, or enhance the training course in order to
upgrade seafarers’ information literacy, as well as the
ability of manipulating modern navigational
information system.
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