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Reporters with various forms of "fake news"from an 1894 illustration by Frederick BurrOpper

Fake news

Fake news (also known as junk news, pseudo-news, orhoax news)[1][2] is a form of news consisting of deliberatedisinformation or hoaxes spread via traditional news media(print and broadcast) or online social media.[3][4] Digitalnews has brought back and increased the usage of fake news,or yellow journalism.[5] The news is then often reverberatedas misinformation in social media but occasionally finds itsway to the mainstream media as well.[6]

Fake news is written and published usually with the intent tomislead in order to damage an agency, entity, or person,and/or gain financially or politically,[7][8][9] often usingsensationalist, dishonest, or outright fabricated headlines toincrease readership. Similarly, clickbait stories andheadlines earn advertising revenue from this activity.[7]

The relevance of fake news has increased in post-truth politics. For media outlets, the ability to attractviewers to their websites is necessary to generate online advertising revenue. Publishing a story withfalse content that attracts users benefits advertisers and improves ratings. Easy access to onlineadvertisement revenue, increased political polarization and the popularity of social media, primarily theFacebook News Feed,[3] have all been implicated in the spread of fake news,[7][10] which competes withlegitimate news stories. Hostile government actors have also been implicated in generating andpropagating fake news, particularly during elections.[11][12]

Confirmation bias and social media algorithms like those used on Facebook and Twitter further advancethe spread of fake news. Modern impact is felt for example in vaccine hesitancy.[13]

Fake news undermines serious media coverage and makes it more difficult for journalists to coversignificant news stories.[14] An analysis by BuzzFeed found that the top 20 fake news stories about the2016 U.S. presidential election received more engagement on Facebook than the top 20 election storiesfrom 19 major media outlets.[15] Anonymously-hosted fake news websites[3] lacking known publishershave also been criticized, because they make it difficult to prosecute sources of fake news for libel.[16]

The term "lying press"[17][18] is at times used to cast doubt upon legitimate news from an opposingpolitical standpoint. During and after his presidential campaign and election, Donald Trump popularizedthe term "fake news" in this sense, regardless of the truthfulness of the news, when he used it to describethe negative press coverage of himself.[19][20] In part, as a result of Trump's misuse, the term has comeunder increasing criticism, and in October 2018 the British government decided that it will no longer usethe term because it is "a poorly-defined and misleading term that conflates a variety of false information,from genuine error through to foreign interference in democratic processes."[21]

Definition

Contents

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TypesIdentifying

Detecting fake news online

HistoryAncientMedievalEarly modern period19th century20th century

21st centuryOn the InternetResponseUsage of the term by Jair BolsonaroUsage of the term by Donald TrumpCriticism of the term

By countryAustraliaAustriaBelgiumBrazilCanadaChinaColombiaCzech RepublicFinlandFranceGermanyHong KongIndiaIndonesiaIsrael/Palestinian TerritoriesMalaysiaMexicoMyanmarNetherlandsPakistanPhilippinesPolandRussiaSaudi ArabiaSerbiaSingaporeSouth AfricaSouth Korea

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SpainSwedenSyriaTaiwanUkraineUnited KingdomUnited States

See alsoSourcesReferencesFurther reading

Fake news is a neologism[3][22][24] often used to refer to fabricated news. This type of news, found intraditional news, social media[3] or fake news websites, has no basis in fact, but is presented as beingfactually accurate.[25]

Michael Radutzky, a producer of CBS 60 Minutes, said his show considers fake news to be "stories thatare probably false, have enormous traction [popular appeal] in the culture, and are consumed bymillions of people." These stories are not only found in politics, but also in areas like vaccination, stockvalues and nutrition.[26] He did not include news that is "invoked by politicians against the media forstories that they don't like or for comments that they don't like" as fake news. Guy Campanile, also a 60Minutes producer said, "What we are talking about are stories that are fabricated out of thin air. By mostmeasures, deliberately, and by any definition, that's a lie."[27]

The intent and purpose of fake news is important. In some cases, what appears to be fake news may benews satire, which uses exaggeration and introduces non-factual elements that are intended to amuse ormake a point, rather than to deceive. Propaganda can also be fake news.[7] Some researchers havehighlighted that "fake news" may be distinguished not just by the falsity of its content, but also the"character of [its] online circulation and reception".[28]

Claire Wardle of First Draft News identifies seven types of fake news:[29]

1. satire or parody ("no intention to cause harm but has potential to fool")2. false connection ("when headlines, visuals or captions don't support the content")3. misleading content ("misleading use of information to frame an issue or an individual")4. false context ("when genuine content is shared with false contextual information")5. impostor content ("when genuine sources are impersonated" with false, made-up sources)6. manipulated content ("when genuine information or imagery is manipulated to deceive", as with a

"doctored" photo)7. fabricated content ("new content is 100% false, designed to deceive and do harm")

In the context of the United States of America and its election processes in the 2010s, fake newsgenerated considerable controversy and argument, with some commentators defining concern over it asmoral panic or mass hysteria and others worried about damage done to public trust.[30][31][32]

Definition

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In January 2017, the United Kingdom House of Commons commenced a parliamentary inquiry into the"growing phenomenon of fake news".[33]

Some, most notably United States President Donald Trump, have broadened the meaning of "fake news"to include news that was negative of his presidency.[34][35]

In November 2017, Claire Wardle (mentioned above) announced she has rejected the phrase "fake news"and "censors it in conversation", finding it "woefully inadequate" to describe the issues. She now speaksof "information pollution" and distinguishes between three types of problems: 'mis-information', 'dis-information', and 'mal-information':

1. Mis-information: false information disseminated without harmful intent.2. Dis-information: created and shared by people with harmful intent.3. Mal-information: the sharing of "genuine" information with the intent to cause harm.[36]

Author Terry Pratchett, who had a background as a journalist and press officer, was among the first to beconcerned about the spread of fake news on the Internet. In a 1995 interview with Bill Gates, founder ofMicrosoft, he said "Let's say I call myself the Institute for Something-or-other and I decide to promote aspurious treatise saying the Jews were entirely responsible for the second world war and the Holocaustdidn’t happen and it goes out there on the Internet and is available on the same terms as any piece ofhistorical research which has undergone peer review and so on. There’s a kind of parity of esteem ofinformation on the net. It’s all there: there’s no way of finding out whether this stuff has any bottom to itor whether someone has just made it up". Gates was optimistic and disagreed, saying that authorities onthe Net would index and check facts and reputations in a much more sophisticated way than in print. Butit was Pratchett who had "accurately predicted how the internet would propagate and legitimise fakenews".[37]

Here are a few examples of fake news and how they are viewed:

ClickbaitPropagandaSatire/parodySloppy journalismMisleading headingsBiased or slanted news

These are features of fake news and may help to identify and avoid instances of fake news.[38]

The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) published a summary indiagram form (pictured at right) to assist people in recognizing fake news.[39] Its main points are:

1. Consider the source (to understand its mission and purpose)2. Read beyond the headline (to understand the whole story)3. Check the authors (to see if they are real and credible)4. Assess the supporting sources (to ensure they support the claims)

Types

Identifying

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Infographic How to spot fake newspublished by the InternationalFederation of Library Associationsand Institutions

5. Check the date of publication (to see if the story is relevant andup to date)

6. Ask if it is a joke (to determine if it is meant to be satire)7. Review your own biases (to see if they are affecting your

judgment)8. Ask experts (to get confirmation from independent people with

knowledge).

The International Fact-Checking Network (IFCN), launched in 2015,supports international collaborative efforts in fact-checking,provides training, and has published a code of principles.[40] In 2017it introduced an application and vetting process for journalisticorganisations.[41] One of IFCN's verified signatories, theindependent, not-for-profit media journal The Conversation,created a short animation explaining its fact checking process, whichinvolves "extra checks and balances, including blind peer review by asecond academic expert, additional scrutiny and editorialoversight".[42]

Beginning in the 2017 school year, children in Taiwan study a newcurriculum designed to teach critical reading of propaganda and theevaluation of sources. Called "media literacy", the course providestraining in journalism in the new information society.[43]

Fake news has become increasingly prevalent over the last few years, with over 100 incorrect articles andrumors spread incessantly just with regard to the 2016 United States presidential election.[44] These fakenews articles tend to come from satirical news websites or individual websites with an incentive topropagate false information, either as clickbait or to serve a purpose.[44] Since they typically hope tointentionally promote incorrect information, such articles are quite difficult to detect.[45] Whenidentifying a source of information, one must look at many attributes, including but not limited to thecontent of the email and social media engagements.[45] specifically, the language is typically moreinflammatory in fake news than real articles, in part because the purpose is to confuse and generateclicks.[45] Furthermore, modeling techniques such as n-gram encodings and bag of words have served asother linguistic techniques to determine the legitimacy of a news source.[45] On top of that, researchershave determined that visual-based cues also play a factor in categorizing an article, specifically somefeatures can be designed to assess if a picture was legitimate and provides more clarity on the news.[45]

There is also many social context features that can play a role, as well as the model of spreading thenews. Websites such as “Snopes” try to detect this information manually, while certain universities aretrying to build mathematical models to do this themselves.[44]

Detecting fake news online

History

Ancient

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Roman politician and general MarkAntony killed himself because ofmisinformation.[46]

In the 13th century BC, Rameses the Great spread lies andpropaganda portraying the Battle of Kadesh as a stunning victory forthe Egyptians; he depicted scenes of himself smiting his foes duringthe battle on the walls of nearly all his temples. The treaty betweenthe Egyptians and the Hittites, however, reveals that the battle wasactually a stalemate.[47]

During the first century BC, Octavian ran a campaign ofmisinformation against his rival Mark Antony, portraying him as adrunkard, a womanizer, and a mere puppet of the Egyptian queenCleopatra VII.[48] He published a document purporting to be MarkAntony's will, which claimed that Mark Antony, upon his death,wished to be entombed in the mausoleum of the Ptolemaicpharaohs. Although the document may have been forged, it invokedoutrage from the Roman populace.[49] Mark Antony ultimatelykilled himself after his defeat in the Battle of Actium upon hearingfalse rumors propagated by Cleopatra herself claiming that she hadcommitted suicide.[46]

During the second and third centuries AD, false rumors were spreadabout Christians claiming that they engaged in ritual cannibalism and incest.[50][51] In the late thirdcentury AD, the Christian apologist Lactantius invented and exaggerated stories about pagans engagingin acts of immorality and cruelty,[52] while the anti-Christian writer Porphyry invented similar storiesabout Christians.[53]

In 1475, a fake news story in Trent claimed that the Jewish community had murdered a two-and-a-half-year-old Christian infant named Simonino.[54] The story resulted in all the Jews in the city beingarrested and tortured; fifteen of them were burned at the stake.[54] Pope Sixtus IV himself attempted tostamp out the story; however, by that point, it had already spread beyond anyone's control.[54] Stories ofthis kind were known as "blood libel"; they claimed that Jews purposely killed Christians, especiallyChristian children, and used their blood for religious or ritual purposes.[55]

After the invention of the printing press in 1439, publications became widespread but there was nostandard of journalistic ethics to follow. By the 17th century, historians began the practice of citing theirsources in footnotes. In 1610 when Galileo went on trial, the demand for verifiable news increased.[54]

During the 18th century publishers of fake news were fined and banned in the Netherlands; one man,Gerard Lodewijk van der Macht, was banned four times by Dutch authorities—and four times he movedand restarted his press.[56] In the American colonies, Benjamin Franklin wrote fake news aboutmurderous "scalping" Indians working with King George III in an effort to sway public opinion in favorof the American Revolution.[54]

Canards, the successors of the 16th century pasquinade, were sold in Paris on the street for twocenturies, starting in the 17th century. In 1793, Marie Antoinette was executed in part because of popularhatred engendered by a canard on which her face had been printed.[57]

Medieval

Early modern period

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A "lunar animal" said to havebeen discovered by JohnHerschel on the Moon

Joseph Pulitzer and WilliamRandolph Hearst caricatured asthey urged the U.S. into theSpanish–American War.

During the era of slave-owning in the United States, supporters of slavery propagated fake news storiesabout African Americans, whom white people considered to have lower status.[58] Violence occurred inreaction to the spread of some fake news events. In one instance, stories of African Americansspontaneously turning white spread through the south and struck fear into the hearts of many people.[59]

Rumors and anxieties about slave rebellions were common in Virginia from the beginning of the colonialperiod, despite the only major uprising occurring in the 19th century. One particular instance of fakenews regarding revolts occurred in 1730. The serving governor of Virginia at the time, Governor WilliamGooch, reported that a slave rebellion had occurred but was effectively put down – although this neverhappened. After Gooch discovered the falsehood, he ordered slaves found off plantations to be punished,tortured and made prisoners.[60]

One instance of fake news was the Great Moon Hoax of 1835. The NewYork Sun published articles about a real-life astronomer and a made-upcolleague who, according to the hoax, had observed bizarre life on themoon. The fictionalized articles successfully attracted new subscribers,and the penny paper suffered very little backlash after it admitted the nextmonth that the series had been a hoax.[54][61] Such stories were intendedto entertain readers and not to mislead them.[56]

From 1800 to 1810, James Cheetham made use of fictional stories toadvocate politically against Aaron Burr.[62][63] His stories were oftendefamatory and he was frequently sued for libel.[64][65][66]

Yellow journalism peaked in the mid-1890s characterising thesensationalist journalism that arose in the circulation war between JosephPulitzer’s New York World and William Randolph Hearst’s New YorkJournal. Pulitzer and other yellow journalism publishers goaded theUnited States into the Spanish–American War, which was precipitated

when the USS Maine exploded in the harbor of Havana, Cuba.[67]

Fake news became popular and spread quickly in the 1900s. Medialike newspapers, articles, and magazines were in high demandbecause of technology.[68] During the First World War, an exampleof anti-German atrocity propaganda was that of an alleged "GermanCorpse Factory" in which the German battlefield dead were rendereddown for fats used to make nitroglycerine, candles, lubricants,human soap and boot dubbing. Unfounded rumors regarding such afactory circulated in the Allied press starting in 1915, and by 1917 theEnglish-language publication North China Daily News presentedthese allegations as true at a time when Britain was trying toconvince China to join the Allied war effort; this was based on new,allegedly true stories from The Times and The Daily Mail that turned out to be forgeries. These falseallegations became known as such after the war, and in the Second World War Joseph Goebbels used thestory in order to deny the ongoing massacre of Jews as British propaganda. According to JoachimNeander and Randal Marlin, the story also "encouraged later disbelief" when reports about the

19th century

20th century

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Orson Welles explaining to reportersabout his radio drama "War of theWorlds" on Sunday, October 30,1938, the day after the broadcast

Holocaust surfaced after the liberation of Auschwitz and Dachau concentration camps.[69] After Hitlerand the Nazi Party rose to power in Germany in 1933, they established the Reich Ministry of PublicEnlightenment and Propaganda under the control of Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels.[70] TheNazis used both print and broadcast journalism to promote their agendas, either by obtaining ownershipof those media or exerting political influence.[71] Throughout World War II, both the Axis and the Alliesemployed fake news in the form of propaganda to persuade the public at home and in enemycountries.[72][73] The British Political Warfare Executive used radio broadcasts and distributed leaflets todiscourage German troops.[70]

The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace has published that The New York Times printed fakenews "depicting Russia as a socialist paradise."[74] During 1932–1933, The New York Times publishednumerous articles by its Moscow bureau chief, Walter Duranty, who won a Pulitzer prize for a series ofreports about the Soviet Union.

"The War of the Worlds" is a 1938 episode of the American radiodrama anthology series The Mercury Theatre on the Air. Directedand narrated by actor and filmmaker Orson Welles, the episode wasan adaptation of H. G. Wells' novel The War of the Worlds (1898),presented as a series of simulated news bulletins. Although precededby a clear introduction that the show was a drama, it became famousfor allegedly causing mass panic, although the reality of the panic isdisputed as the program had relatively few listeners. Aninvestigation was run by The Federal Communications Commissionto examine the mass hysteria produced by this radio programming;no law was found broken.[75] This event was an example of the earlystages of society's dependency on information from print to radioand other media. Fake news can even be found within this example,the true extent of the "hysteria" from the radio broadcast has alsobeen falsely recorded. The most extreme case and reaction after theradio broadcast was a group of Grover Mill locals attacking a water tower because they falsely identifiedit as an alien.[76]

In the 21st century, the impact of fake news became widespread,[4] as well as the usage of the term. Theopening of the Internet to the people in the 90s was a movement meant to allow them access toinformation. Over time, the Internet has grown to unimaginable heights with tons of information comingin all the time which allows the Internet to be a host for plenty of unwanted, untruthful and misleadinginformation that can be made by anyone.[77][78] Fake news has grown from being sent via emails toattacking social media.[79] Besides referring to made-up stories designed to deceive readers into clickingon links, maximizing traffic and profit, the term has also referred to satirical news, whose purpose is notto mislead but rather to inform viewers and share humorous commentary about real news and themainstream media.[80][81] United States examples of satire (as opposed to fake news) include thetelevision show Saturday Night Live's Weekend Update, The Daily Show, The Colbert Report, The LateShow with Stephen Colbert and The Onion newspaper.[82][83][84]

21st century fake news is often intended to increase the financial profits of the news outlet. In aninterview with NPR, Jestin Coler, former CEO of the fake media conglomerate Disinfomedia, told whowrites fake news articles, who funds these articles, and why fake news creators create and distribute falseinformation. Coler, who has since left his role as a fake news creator, said that his company employed 20

21st century

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to 25 writers at a time and made $10,000 to $30,000 monthly from advertisements. Coler began hiscareer in journalism as a magazine salesman before working as a freelance writer. He said he entered thefake news industry to prove to himself and others just how rapidly fake news can spread.[85]

Disinfomedia is not the only outlet responsible for the distribution of fake news; Facebook users play amajor role in feeding into fake news stories by making sensationalized stories "trend", according toBuzzFeed media editor Craig Silverman, and the individuals behind Google AdSense basically fund fakenews websites and their content.[86] Mark Zuckerberg, CEO of Facebook, said, "I think the idea that fakenews on Facebook influenced the election in any way, I think is a pretty crazy idea" and then a few dayslater he blogged that Facebook was looking for ways to flag fake news stories.[87]

Many online pro-Trump fake news stories are being sourced out of a city of Veles in Macedonia, whereapproximately seven different fake news organizations are employing hundreds of teenagers to rapidlyproduce and plagiarize sensationalist stories for different U.S. based companies and parties.[88]

One fake news writer, Paul Horner, was behind the widespread hoax that he was the graffiti artistBanksy and had been arrested;[89][90] that a man stopped a robbery in a diner by quoting PulpFiction;[91][92] and that he had an "enormous impact" on the 2016 U.S. presidential election, accordingto CBS News.[93] These stories consistently appeared in Google's top news search results, were sharedwidely on Facebook, were taken seriously and shared by third parties such as Trump presidentialcampaign manager Corey Lewandowski, Eric Trump, ABC News and the Fox News Channel.[94][95][96]

Horner later claimed that his work during this period was intended "to make Trump's supporters looklike idiots for sharing my stories".[97]

In a November 2016 interview with The Washington Post, Horner expressed regret for the role his fakenews stories played in the election and surprise at how gullible people were in treating his stories asnews.[91][98][99][100] In February 2017 Horner said, "I truly regret my comment about saying that I thinkDonald Trump is in the White House because of me. I know all I did was attack him and his supportersand got people not to vote for him. When I said that comment it was because I was confused how thisevil got elected President and I thought maybe instead of hurting his campaign, maybe I had helped it.My intention was to get his supporters NOT to vote for him and I know for a fact that I accomplishedthat goal. The far right, a lot of the Bible thumpers and alt-right were going to vote him regardless, but Iknow I swayed so many that were on the fence."[101]

In December 2016, while speaking on Anderson Cooper 360, Horner said that all news is fake news andsaid CNN "spread misinformation", which was one month before Trump leveled the same criticism atthat network.[102][103]

Horner spoke at the European Parliament in March, speaking about fake news and the importance offact checking.[104] According to a 2017 BuzzFeed article, Horner stated that a story of his about a rapefestival in India helped generate over $250,000 in donations to GiveIndia, a site that helps rape victimsin India.[105][106][107] Horner said he dislikes being grouped with people who write fake news solely to bemisleading. "They just write it just to write fake news, like there's no purpose, there's no satire, there'snothing clever. All the stories I wrote were to make Trump's supporters look like idiots for sharing mystories."[97] The Huffington Post called Horner a "Performance Artist".[108] Horner has been referred toas a "hoax artist" by outlets such as the Associated Press and the Chicago Tribune.[109]

Kim LaCapria of the fact checking website Snopes.com has stated that, in America, fake news is abipartisan phenomenon, saying that "[t]here has always been a sincerely held yet erroneous beliefmisinformation is more red than blue in America, and that has never been true."[110] Jeff Green of Trade

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"On Twitter, a network of Trump supporters consumes the largest volume of junk news, and junk news is thelargest proportion of news links they share," the researchers concluded. On Facebook, the skew was evengreater. There, "extreme hard right pages – distinct from Republican pages – share more junk news than all theother audiences put together."[116]

NBC NEWS: "It feels like there's a connection between having an active portion of a party that'sprone to seeking false stories and conspiracies and a president who has famously spreadconspiracies and false claims. In many ways, demographically and ideologically, the president fitsthe profile of the fake news users that you're describing."

NYHAN: "It's worrisome if fake news websites further weaken the norm against false and misleadinginformation in our politics, which unfortunately has eroded. But it's also important to put the content providedby fake news websites in perspective. People got vastly more misinformation from Donald Trump than they didfrom fake news websites – full stop."[118]

Desk agrees the phenomenon affects both sides. Green's company found that affluent and well-educatedpersons in their 40s and 50s are the primary consumers of fake news. He told Scott Pelley of 60 Minutesthat this audience tends to live in an "echo chamber" and that these are the people who vote.[111]

In 2014, the Russian Government used disinformation via networks such as RT to create a counter-narrative after Russian-backed Ukrainian rebels shot down Malaysia Airlines Flight 17.[112] In 2016,NATO claimed it had seen a significant rise in Russian propaganda and fake news stories since theinvasion of Crimea in 2014.[113] Fake news stories originating from Russian government officials werealso circulated internationally by Reuters news agency and published in the most popular news websitesin the United States.[114]

A 2018 study at Oxford University[115] found that Trump's supporters consumed the "largest volume of'junk news' on Facebook and Twitter":

In 2018,[117] researchers from Princeton University, Dartmouth College and the University of Exeterexamined the consumption of fake news during the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign. Their findingsshowed that Trump supporters and older Americans (over 60) were far more likely to consume fakenews than Clinton supporters. Those most likely to visit fake news websites were the 10% of Americanswho consumed the most conservative information. There was a very large difference (800%) in theconsumption of fake news stories as related to total news consumption between Trump supporters(6.2%) and Clinton supporters (0.8%).[117][118]

The study also showed that fake pro-Trump and fake pro-Clinton news stories were read by theirsupporters, but with a significant difference: Trump supporters consumed far more (40%) than Clintonsupporters (15%). Facebook was by far the key "gateway" website where these fake stories were spreadand which led people to then go to the fake news websites. Fact checks of fake news were rarely seen byconsumers,[117][118] with none of those who saw a fake news story being reached by a related factcheck.[119]

Brendan Nyhan, one of the researchers, emphatically stated in an interview on NBC News: "People gotvastly more misinformation from Donald Trump than they did from fake news websites – full stop."[118]

A 2019 study by researchers at Princeton and New York University found that a person's likelihood ofsharing fake-news articles correlated more strongly with age than it did education, sex, or political views.11% of users older than 65 shared an article consistent with the study's definition of fake news. Just 3%

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The roots of "fake news" from UNESCO's WorldTrends Report[122]

of users ages 18 to 29 did the same.[120]

Another issue in mainstream media is the usage of the filter bubble, a "bubble" that has been createdthat gives the viewer, on social media platforms, a specific piece of the information knowing they will likeit. Thus creating fake news and biased news because only half the story is being shared, the portion theviewer liked. "In 1996, Nicolas Negroponte predicted a world where information technologies becomeincreasingly customizable."[121]

The term "fake news" gained importance with theelectoral context in Western Europe and NorthAmerica. It is determined by fraudulent content innews format and its velocity.[123] According toBounegru, Gray, Venturini and Mauri, fake news iswhen a deliberate lie "is picked up by dozens of otherblogs, retransmitted by hundreds of websites, cross-posted over thousands of social media accounts andread by hundreds of thousands" that it then effectivelybecomes "fake news".[124] On January 10, 2019 FoxNation ran a documentary called Black Eye: DanRather and the Birth of Fake News.

The evolving nature of online business modelsencourages the production of information that is "click-worthy" and independent of its accuracy.[125]

The nature of trust depends on the assumptions thatnon-institutional forms of communication are freerfrom power and more able to report information that mainstream media are perceived as unable orunwilling to reveal. Declines in confidence in much traditional media[126] and expert knowledge[127]

have created fertile grounds for alternative, and often obscure sources of information to appear asauthoritative and credible. This ultimately leaves users confused about basic facts.[128]

Internet companies with threatened credibility tend to develop new responses to limit fake news andreduce financial incentives for its proliferation.[129][130]

When the Internet was first made accessible for public use in the 1990s, its main purpose was for theseeking and accessing of information.[131] As fake news was introduced to the Internet, this made itdifficult for some people to find truthful information. The impact of fake news has become a worldwidephenomenon.[132] Fake news is often spread through the use of fake news websites, which, in order togain credibility, specialize in creating attention-grabbing news, which often impersonate well-knownnews sources.[133][134][135] Jestin Coler, who said he does it for "fun",[27] has indicated that he earnedUS$10,000 per month from advertising on his fake news websites.[111] In 2017, the inventor of the WorldWide Web, Tim Berners-Lee claimed that fake news was one of the three most significant new disturbing

On the Internet

The roots of fake news

In websites

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Internet trends that must first be resolved, if the Internet is to be capable of truly "serving humanity."The other two new disturbing trends that Berners-Lee described as threatening the Internet were therecent surge in the use of the Internet by governments for both citizen-surveillance purposes, and forcyber-warfare purposes.[136] Research has shown that fake news hurts social media and online basedoutlets far worse than traditional print and TV outlets. After a survey was conducted, it was found that58% of people had less trust in social media news stories as opposed to 24% of people in mainstreammedia after learning about fake news.[137]

Although most fake news websites are to design to either persuade people or make money from ads whiledrawing more people to their site from persuading people of fake news, some recent websites such ashttp://fakenews.com claim they have been designed to amuse people by creating news that is obviouslyso ridiculously fake that simply amuses people instead of trying to convince them of somethinguntrue.[138]

Fake news has the tendency to become viral among the public. With the presence of social mediaplatforms like Twitter, it becomes easier for false information to diffuse quickly. Research has found thatfalse political information tends to spread “3 times” faster than other false news.[139] On Twitter, falsetweets have a much higher chance of being retweeted than truthful tweets. More so, it is humans who areresponsible in disseminating false news and information as opposed to bots and click-farms. Thetendency for humans to spread false information has to do with human behavior; according to research,humans are attracted to events and information that are surprising and new, and, as a result, causeshigh-arousal in the brain.[140][141] This ultimately leads humans to retweet or share false information,which are usually characterized with clickbait and eye-catching titles. This prevents people fromstopping to verify the information. As a result, massive online communities form around a piece of falsenews without any prior fact checking or verification of the veracity of the information.

Fake news has gained lots of popularity with various media outlets and platforms. Researchers at PewResearch Center discovered that over 60% of Americans access news through social media compared totraditional newspaper and magazines.[142] With the popularity of social media, individuals can easilyaccess fake news or similar content. One study looks at the number of fake news articles being accessedby viewers in 2016 and found that each individual was exposed to at least one or more fake news articlesdaily. As a result, fake news is omnipresent among the viewer population and results in its ability tospread across the internet.

In the mid 1990s, Nicolas Negroponte anticipated a world where news through technology becomeprogressively personalized. In his 1996 book Being Digital he predicted a digital life where newsconsumption becomes an extremely personalized experience and newspapers adapted content to readerpreferences. This prediction has since been reflected in news and social media feeds of modern day.[143]

Bots have the potential to increase the spread of fake news, as they use algorithms to decide what articlesand information specific users like, without taking into account the authenticity of an article. Bots mass-produce and spread articles, regardless of the credibility of the sources, allowing them to play an

How fake news spreads and goes viral

Popularity of fake news

Bots on social media

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Intentionally deceptive photoshopped image of Hillary Clinton over a 1977 photo of Peoples Temple cult leader JimJones.

essential role in the mass spread of fake news, as bots are capable of creating fake accounts andpersonalities on the web that are then gaining followers, recognition, and authority. Additionally, almost30% of the spam and content spread on the Internet originates from these software bots.[144]

In the 21st century, the capacity to mislead was enhanced by the widespread use of social media. Forexample, one 21st century website that enabled fake news' proliferation was the Facebooknewsfeed.[145][146] In late 2016 fake news gained notoriety following the uptick in news content by thismeans,[10][147] and its prevalence on the micro-blogging site Twitter.[147] In the United States, 62% ofAmericans use social media to receive news.[148] Many people use their Facebook news feed to get news,despite Facebook not being considered a news site.[149] According to Craig McClain, over 66% ofFacebook users obtain news from the site.[150] This, in combination with increased political polarizationand filter bubbles, led to a tendency for readers to mainly read headlines.[151]

Numerous individuals and news outlets have stated that fake news may have influenced the outcome ofthe 2016 American Presidential Election.[152][153] Fake news saw higher sharing on Facebook thanlegitimate news stories,[154][155][156] which analysts explained was because fake news often panders toexpectations or is otherwise more exciting than legitimate news.[157][155] Facebook itself initially deniedthis characterization.[146][158] A Pew Research poll conducted in December 2016 found that 64% of U.S.adults believed completely made-up news had caused "a great deal of confusion" about the basic facts ofcurrent events, while 24% claimed it had caused "some confusion" and 11% said it had caused "not muchor no confusion".[159] Additionally, 23% of those polled admitted they had personally shared fake news,whether knowingly or not. Researchers from Stanford assessed that only 8% of readers of fake newsrecalled and believed in the content they were reading, though the same share of readers also recalledand believed in "placebos" – stories they did not actually read, but that were produced by the authors ofthe study. In comparison, over 50% of the participants recalled reading and believed in true newsstories.[25]

By August 2017 Facebook stopped using the term "fake news" and used "false news" in its place instead.Will Oremus of Slate wrote that because supporters of U.S. President Donald Trump had redefined theword "fake news" to refer to mainstream media opposed to them, "it makes sense for Facebook—andothers—to cede the term to the right-wing trolls who have claimed it as their own."[160]

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Research from Northwestern University concluded that 30% of all fake news traffic, as opposed to only8% of real news traffic, could be linked back to Facebook. The research concluded fake news consumersdo not exist in a filter bubble; many of them also consume real news from established news sources. Thefake news audience is only 10 percent of the real news audience, and most fake news consumers spent arelatively similar amount of time on fake news compared with real news consumers—with the exceptionof Drudge Report readers, who spent more than 11 times longer reading the website than other users.[161]

In the wake of western events, China's Ren Xianling of the Cyberspace Administration of Chinasuggested a "reward and punish" system be implemented to avoid fake news.[162]

In Internet slang, a troll is a person who sows discord on the Internet by starting arguments or upsettingpeople, by posting inflammatory, extraneous, or off-topic messages in an online community (such as anewsgroup, forum, chat room, or blog) with the intent of provoking readers into an emotional responseor off-topic discussion, often for the troll's amusement. Internet trolls also feed on attention.[163]

The idea of internet trolls gained popularity in the 1990s, though its meaning shifted in 2011. Whereas itonce denoted provocation, it is a term now widely used to signify the abuse and misuse of the Internet.Trolling comes in various forms, and can be dissected into abuse trolling, entertainment trolling,classical trolling, flame trolling, anonymous trolling, and kudos trolling. It is closely linked to fake news,as internet trolls are now largely interpreted as perpetrators of false information, information that canoften be passed along unwittingly by reporters and the public alike.[164][165]

When interacting with each other, trolls often share misleading information that contributes to the fakenews circulated on sites like Twitter and Facebook.[166] In the 2016 American election, Russia paid over1,000 internet trolls to circulate fake news and disinformation about Hillary Clinton; they also createdsocial media accounts that resembled voters in important swing states, spreading influential politicalstandpoints.[167] In February 2019, Glenn Greenwald wrote that a cybersecurity company NewKnowledge "was caught just six weeks ago engaging in a massive scam to create fictitious Russian trollaccounts on Facebook and Twitter in order to claim that the Kremlin was working to defeat DemocraticSenate nominee Doug Jones in Alabama."[168]

During the 2016 United States presidential election, the creation and coverage of fake news increasedsubstantially.[169] This resulted in a widespread response to combat the spread of fakenews.[170][171][172][173] The volume and reluctance of fake news websites to respond to fact-checkingorganizations has posed a problem to inhibiting the spread of fake news through fact checking alone.[174]

In an effort to reduce the effects of fake news, fact-checking websites, including Snopes.com andFactCheck.org, have posted guides to spotting and avoiding fake news websites.[171][175] New criticalreadings of media events and news with an emphasis on literalism and logic have also emerged.[176]

Social media sites and search engines, such as Facebook and Google, received criticism for facilitatingthe spread of fake news. Both of these corporations have taken measures to explicitly prevent the spreadof fake news; critics, however, believe more action is needed.[173]

After the 2016 American election and the run-up to the German election, Facebook began labeling andwarning of inaccurate news[177][178] and partnered with independent fact-checkers to label inaccuratenews, warning readers before sharing it.[177][178] After a story is flagged as disputed, it will be reviewedby the third-party fact-checkers. Then, if it has been proven to be a fake news story, the post cannot be

Internet trolls

Response

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Donald Trump, a common user ofthe term

turned into an ad or promoted.[179] Artificial intelligence is one of the more recent technologies beingdeveloped in the United States and Europe to recognize and eliminate fake news through algorithms.[172]

In 2017, Facebook targeted 30,000 accounts related to the spread of misinformation regarding theFrench presidential election.[180]

In March 2018, Google launched Google News Initiative (GNI) to fight the spread of fake news. Itlaunched GNI under the belief that quality journalism and identifying truth online is crucial. GNI hasthree goals: “to elevate and strengthen quality journalism, evolve business models to drive sustainablegrowth and empower news organizations through technological innovation.”[181] To achieve the firstgoal, Google created the Disinfo Lab, which combats the spread of fake news during crucial times such aselections or breaking news. The company is also working to adjust its systems to display moretrustworthy content during times of breaking news. To make it easier for users to subscribe to mediapublishers, Google created Subscribe with Google. Additionally, they have created a dashboard, NewsConsumer Insights that allows news organizations to better understand their audiences using data andanalytics. Google will spend $300 million through 2021 on these efforts, among others, to combat fakenews.[181]

President of Brazil, Jair Bolsonaro has claimed that he will not allow his government to use any of its 1.8billion reais (US$487 million) media budget on purchases from fake news media.[182] The BBC reportedthat Bolsonaro's campaign declared media associating his campaign to the "extreme right" werethemselves fake news.[183]

President Trump has claimed that the mainstream American mediaregularly reports fake news. His usage of the term has increaseddistrust of the American media globally, particularly in Russia. Hisclaims have given credibility to the stories in the Russian media thatlabel American news, especially news about atrocities committed bythe Syrian regime against its own people, where it was quoted that"munitions at the air base had as much to do with chemical weaponsas the test tube in the hands of Colin Powell had to do with weaponsof mass destruction in Iraq", as just more fake American news.[184]

Trump has carried on a war against the mainstream media, oftenattacking it as "fake news" and the "enemy of thepeople."[185][186][187][188][189]

According to Jeff Hemsley, a Syracuse University professor who studies social media, Trump uses thisterm for any news that is not favorable to him or which he simply dislikes.[190] Trump provided a widelycited[191][19][192][193] example of this interpretation in a tweet on May 9, 2018:

Donald J. Trump Twitter@realDonaldTrump

The Fake News is working overtime. Just reported that, despite the tremendoussuccess we are having with the economy & all things else, 91% of the Network Newsabout me is negative (Fake). Why do we work so hard in working with the media when

Usage of the term by Jair Bolsonaro

Usage of the term by Donald Trump

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"FOX News and the planetary system of right-wing news sites that would orbit it and, later, Breitbart, wereparticularly adept at weaponizing such arguments and exploiting the increasingly partisan fervor animating theRepublican base: They accused the media establishment of “liberal bias,” and substituted their own right-wingviews as “fair and balanced” – a redefinition of terms that was a harbinger of Trump’s hijacking of “fake news” torefer not to alt-right conspiracy theories and Russian troll posts, but to real news that he perceived asinconvenient or a threat to himself."[196]

it is corrupt? Take away credentials?

May 9, 2018[194]

Chris Cillizza described the tweet on CNN as an "accidental" revelation about Trump's "'fake news'attacks", and wrote: "The point can be summed up in these two words from Trump: 'negative (Fake).' ToTrump, those words mean the same thing. Negative news coverage is fake news. Fake news is negativenews coverage."[191] Other writers made similar comments about the tweet. Dara Lind wrote in Vox: "It'snice of Trump to admit, explicitly, what many skeptics have suspected all along: When he complainsabout 'fake news,' he doesn't actually mean 'news that is untrue'; he means news that is personallyinconvenient to Donald Trump."[19] Jonathan Chait wrote in New York magazine: "Trump admits hecalls all negative news 'fake'.": "In a tweet this morning, Trump casually opened a window into thesource code for his method of identifying liberal media bias. Anything that's negative is, by definition,fake."[192] Philip Bump wrote in The Washington Post: "The important thing in that tweet....is that hemakes explicit his view of what constitutes fake news. It's negative news. Negative. (Fake.)"[193] In aninterview with Lesley Stahl, before the cameras were turned on, Trump explained why he attacks thepress: "You know why I do it? I do it to discredit you all and demean you all so that when you writenegative stories about me no one will believe you."[195]

Author and literary critic Michiko Kakutani has described developments in the right-wing media andwebsites:

In September 2018, National Public Radio noted that Trump has expanded his use of the terms "fake"and "phony" to "an increasingly wide variety of things he doesn't like": "The range of things Trump isdeclaring fake is growing too. Last month he tweeted about "fake books," "the fake dossier," "fake CNN,"and he added a new claim – that Google search results are "RIGGED" to mostly show only negativestories about him." They graphed his expanding use in columns labeled: "Fake news", "Fake (other) and"Phony".[197]

Because of the manner in which Trump has co-opted the term, Washington Post media columnistMargaret Sullivan has warned fellow journalists that "It's time to retire the tainted term 'fake news'.Though the term hasn't been around long, its meaning already is lost."[190] By late 2018, the term "fakenews" had become verboten and U.S. journalists, including the Poynter Institute were asking forapologies and for product retirements from companies using the term.[198][199][200]

In October 2018, the British government decided that the term "fake news" will no longer be used inofficial documents because it is "a poorly-defined and misleading term that conflates a variety of falseinformation, from genuine error through to foreign interference in democratic processes." This followeda recommendation by the House of Commons' Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee to avoid theterm.[21]

Criticism of the term

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A well-known case of fabricated news in Australia happened in 2009 when a report Deception DetectionAcross Australian Populations of a "Levitt Institute" was widely cited on news websites across thecountry, claiming that Sydney was the most naive city, despite the fact that the report itself contained aclue: amidst the mathematical gibberish, there was a statement: "These results were completely made upto be fictitious material through a process of modified truth and credibility nodes."[201] The AustralianParliament initiated investigation into "fake news" regarding issues surrounding fake news that occurredduring the 2016 United States election. The inquiry looked at several major areas in Australia to findaudiences most vulnerable to fake news, by considering the impact on traditional journalism, and byevaluating the liability of online advertisers and by regulating the spreading the hoaxes. This act ofparliament is meant to combat the threat of social media power on spreading fake news as concludednegative results to the public.[202]

Politicians in Austria dealt with the impact of fake news and its spread on social media after the 2016presidential campaign in the country. In December 2016, a court in Austria issued an injunction onFacebook Europe, mandating it block negative postings related to Eva Glawischnig-Piesczek, AustrianGreen Party Chairwoman. According to The Washington Post the postings to Facebook about her"appeared to have been spread via a fake profile" and directed derogatory epithets towards the Austrianpolitician.[203] The derogatory postings were likely created by the identical fake profile that hadpreviously been utilized to attack Alexander van der Bellen, who won the election for President ofAustria.[203]

In 2006, French-speaking broadcaster RTBF showed a fictional breaking special news report thatBelgium's Flemish Region had proclaimed independence. Staged footage of the royal family evacuatingand the Belgian flag being lowered from a pole were made to add credence to the report. It wasn't until30 minutes into the report that a sign stating "Fiction" appeared on screen. The RTBF journalist thatcreated the hoax said the purpose was to demonstrate the magnitude of the country's situation and if apartition of Belgium was to really happen.[204]

Brazil faced increasing influence from fake news after the 2014 re-election of President Dilma Rousseffand Rousseff's subsequent impeachment in August 2016. BBC Brazil reported in April 2016 that in theweek surrounding one of the impeachment votes, three out of the five most-shared articles on Facebookin Brazil were fake. In 2015, reporter Tai Nalon resigned from her position at Brazilian newspaper Folhade S Paulo in order to start the first fact-checking website in Brazil, called Aos Fatos (To The Facts).Nalon told The Guardian there was a great deal of fake news, and hesitated to compare the problem tothat experienced in the U.S.[205] In fact, Brazil also have problems with fake news and according to asurvey have a greater number of people that believe fake news influenced the outcome of their elections(69%) than the United States (47%).[137]

By country

Australia

Austria

Belgium

Brazil

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In the wake of the uptick in Amazon fires of 2019, it became clear that many of the forest fire photos thatwent viral were fake news.[206][207] Emmanuel Macron, president of France, tweeted picture taken by aphotographer who died in 2003, for example.[208][209][207][210]

Fake news online was brought to the attention of Canadian politicians in November 2016, as theydebated helping assist local newspapers. Member of Parliament for Vancouver Centre Hedy Fryspecifically discussed fake news as an example of ways in which publishers on the Internet are lessaccountable than print media. Discussion in parliament contrasted increase of fake news online withdownsizing of Canadian newspapers and the impact for democracy in Canada. Representatives fromFacebook Canada attended the meeting and told members of Parliament they felt it was their duty toassist individuals gather data online.[211]

In January 2017, the Conservative leadership campaign of Kellie Leitch admitted to spreading fake news,including false claims that Justin Trudeau was financing Hamas. The campaign manager claimed hespread the news in order to provoke negative reactions so that he could determine those who "aren't realConservatives".[212]

Fake news during the 2016 U.S. election spread to China. Articles popularized within the United Stateswere translated into Chinese and spread within China.[205] The government of China used the growingproblem of fake news as a rationale for increasing Internet censorship in China in November 2016.[213]

China then published an editorial in its Communist Party newspaper The Global Times called: "WesternMedia's Crusade Against Facebook", and criticized "unpredictable" political problems posed by freedomsenjoyed by users of Twitter, Google, and Facebook. China government leaders meeting in Wuzhen at thethird World Internet Conference in November 2016 said fake news in the U.S. election justified addingmore curbs to free and open use of the Internet. China Deputy Minister Ren Xianliang, official at theCyberspace Administration of China, said increasing online participation led to "harmful information"and fraud.[214] Kam Chow Wong, a former Hong Kong law enforcement official and criminal justiceprofessor at Xavier University, praised attempts in the U.S. to patrol social media.[215] The Wall StreetJournal noted China's themes of Internet censorship became more relevant at the World InternetConference due to the outgrowth of fake news.[216]

The issue of fake news in the 2016 United States election gave the Chinese Government a reason tofurther criticize Western democracy and press freedom. The Chinese government accused Westernmedia organisations of bias, in a move apparently inspired by President Trump.[217]

In March 2017, the People's Daily, a newspaper run by the ruling Communist Party of China, denouncednews coverage of the torture of Chinese lawyer and human rights advocate Xie Yang, claiming it to befake news.[217] The newspaper published a Twitter post declaring that "Foreign media reports that policetortured a detained lawyer is FAKE NEWS, fabricated to tarnish China's image". The state-ownedXinhua News Agency claimed that "the stories were essentially fake news". The Chinese governmentoften accused Western news organizations of being biased and dishonest.[218]

The Chinese government also claimed that there were people who posed as journalists who spreadnegative information on social media in order to extort payment from their victims to stop doing so.David Bandurski of University of Hong Kong's China Media Project said that this issue continued to

Canada

China

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worsen.[219]

Taiwan's leaders, including President Tsai Ing-wen and Premier William Lai, accused China's troll armyof spreading "fake news" via social media to support candidates more sympathetic to Beijing ahead of the2018 Taiwanese local elections.[220][221][222]

In the fall of 2016, Whatsapp spread fake news that impacted votes critical to Colombian history.[223]

One of the lies spreading rapidly through WhatsApp was that Colombian citizens would receive lesspension so former guerrilla fighters would get money.[223] The misinformation initially began in aquestion to whether Whatsapp users approved of the peace accord deal between the nationalgovernment and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) or did not. The peace accordwould end 5 decades of war between paramilitary groups (rebel forces) and the Colombian governmentthat resulted in millions of deaths and displaced citizens throughout the country. A powerful influence ofvotes was the "no" campaign, the "no" campaign was to convince citizens of Colombia to not accept thepeace accord because it would be letting the rebel group off "too easily."[224] Uribe, former president ofColombia and of the democratico party, led the "no" campaign. Santos, president in 2016 took liberalapproaches during his presidency. Santos won a Nobel Peace Prize in 2016 because of his efforts towardsa peace accord with rebel forces.[225] In addition, Uribe naturally had opposing views than ofSantos.[225][223] Furthermore, other news spread through whatsapp were easily misinterpreted by thepublic, including that Santo's scheme was to turn Colombia under harsh rule like Cuba and chaos likeVenezuela (under Hugo Chavez), though the logistics were never explained.[223] In an interview of JuanCarlos Vélez, the "no" campaign manager, he says their strategy was that "We discovered the viral powerof social networks." [223] In addition, the yes campaign also took part in spreading fake news throughwhatsapp. For instance, a photoshopped image of a democratico senator Everth Bustamante spreadabout of him holding a sign reading "I don't want guirrellas in congress" to show hypocrisy. This wouldbe seen as hypocritical because he was a former left wing M-19 guierrilla.[223] The "no" campaignstrongly influenced votes throughout Colombia, Yes votes strong in areas with highest number of victimsand no votes in areas influenced by Uribe. In result, there were 50.2 percent of no votes compared to49.8 percent of yes votes.[224] The result of the fake news throughout Whatsapp included changes withinWhatsApp by Journalist, Juanita Leon, who invented the Whatsapp "lie detector" in January 2017 tofight fake news within the app.[223] Although the accord was eventually signed, the WhatsApp incidentfurther prolonged the accord and brought controversial views among citizens.

Fake news outlets in the Czech Republic redistribute news in Czech and English originally produced byRussian sources. Czech president Miloš Zeman has been supporting media outlets accused of spreadingfake news.[226]

The Centre Against Terrorism and Hybrid Threats (CTHH) is unit of the Ministry of the Interior of theCzech Republic primarily aimed at countering disinformation, fake news, hoaxes and foreignpropaganda. The CTHH started operations on January 1, 2017. The CTHH has been criticized by CzechPresident Miloš Zeman, who said: "We don't need censorship. We don't need thought police. We don'tneed a new agency for press and information as long as we want to live in a free and democraticsociety."[227]

Colombia

Czech Republic

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In 2017 media activists started a website Konspiratori.cz maintaining a list of conspiracy and fake newsoutlets in Czech.[228]

Officials from 11 countries met in Helsinki in November 2016 and planned the formation of a center tocombat disinformation cyber-warfare, which includes the spread of fake news on social media. Thecenter is planned to be located in Helsinki and combine efforts from 10 countries, including Sweden,Germany, Finland and the U.S. Prime Minister of Finland Juha Sipilä planned to address the topic of thecenter in Spring 2017 with a motion before Parliament.

Deputy Secretary of State for EU Affairs Jori Arvonen said cyber-warfare, such as hybrid cyber-warfareintrusions into Finland from Russia and the Islamic State, became an increased problem in 2016.Arvonen cited examples including online fake news, disinformation, and the little green men troops ofthe Ukrainian crisis.[229]

During the 10-year period preceding 2016, France was witness to an increase in popularity of far-rightalternative news sources called the fachosphere ("facho" referring to fascist); known as the extreme righton the Internet.[205] According to sociologist Antoine Bevort, citing data from Alexa Internet rankings,the most consulted political websites in France in 2016 included Égalité et Réconciliation, FrançoisDesouche, and Les Moutons Enragés.[230][231] These sites increased skepticism towards mainstreammedia from both left and right perspectives.

In September 2016, the country faced controversy regarding fake websites providing false informationabout abortion. The National Assembly moved forward with intentions to ban such fake sites. LaurenceRossignol, women's minister for France, informed parliament though the fake sites look neutral, inactuality their intentions were specifically targeted to give women fake information.

France saw an uptick in amounts of disinformation and propaganda, primarily in the midst of electioncycles. A study looking at the diffusion of political news during the 2017 presidential election cyclesuggests that one in four links shared in social media comes from sources that actively contest traditionalmedia narratives.[232] Facebook corporate deleted 30,000 Facebook accounts in France associated withfake political information.[233]

In April 2017, Emmanuel Macron's presidential campaign was attacked by the fake news articles morethan the campaigns of conservative candidate Marine Le Pen and socialist candidate .[234] One of thefake articles even announced that Marine Le Pen won the presidency before the people of France hadeven voted.[233] Macron's professional and private emails, as well as memos, contracts and accountingdocuments were posted on a file sharing website. The leaked documents were mixed with fake ones insocial media in an attempt to sway the upcoming presidential election.[235] Macron said he wouldcombat fake news of the sort that had been spread during his election campaign.[236]

Initially, the leak was attributed to APT28, a group tied to Russias GRU military intelligencedirectorate.[237] However, the head of the French cyber-security agency, ANSSI, later said that there wasno evidence that the hack leading to the leaks had anything to do with Russia, saying that the attack was

Finland

France

2017 presidential election

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so simple, that "we can imagine that it was a person who did this alone. They could be in anycountry."[238]

German Chancellor Angela Merkel lamented the problem of fraudulent news reports in a November2016 speech, days after announcing her campaign for a fourth term as leader of her country. In a speechto the German parliament, Merkel was critical of such fake sites, saying they harmed political discussion.Merkel called attention to the need of government to deal with Internet trolls, bots, and fake newswebsites. She warned that such fraudulent news websites were a force increasing the power of populistextremism. Merkel called fraudulent news a growing phenomenon that might need to be regulated in thefuture. Germany's foreign intelligence agency Federal Intelligence Service Chief, Bruno Kahl, warned ofthe potential for cyberattacks by Russia in the 2017 German election. He said the cyberattacks wouldtake the form of the intentional spread of disinformation. Kahl said the goal is to increase chaos inpolitical debates. Germany's domestic intelligence agency Federal Office for the Protection of theConstitution Chief, Hans-Georg Maassen, said sabotage by Russian intelligence was a present threat toGerman information security.[239] German government officials and security experts later said there wasno Russian interference during the 2017 German federal election.[240] The German term Lügenpresse,or lying press, has been used since the 19th century and specifically during World War One as a strategyto attack news spread by political opponents from the 19th and 20th century.[241]

The award-winning German journalist Claas Relotius resigned from Der Spiegel in 2018 after admittingnumerous instances of journalistic fraud.[242]

During the 2019 Hong Kong anti-extradition bill protests, the Chinese government has been accused forusing fake news to spread misinformation regarding the protests. It includes describing protests as"riots", and "radicals" seeking independence for the city. Due to the online censorship in China, citizensinside mainland China could not read news reports from some media outlets.[243][244] It was also foundby Facebook, Twitter and YouTube that misinformation was spread with fake accounts andadvertisements by state-backed media. Large amount of accounts were suspended.[245]

Dot Dot News, a pro-Beijing online media located in Hong Kong, has been banned by Facebook given ithas been distributing fake news and hate speech.[246][247]。

Fake news in India has led to episodes of violence between castes and religions, interfering with publicpolicies. It often spreads through the smartphone instant messenger WhatsApp,[248] which had 200million monthly active users in the country as of February 2017.[249]

On November 8, 2016, India established a 2,000-rupee currency bill on the same day as the Indian 500and 1,000 rupee note demonetisation. Fake news went viral over WhatsApp that the note came equippedwith spying technology that tracked bills 120 meters below the earth. Finance Minister Arun Jaitleyrefuted the falsities, but not before they had spread to the country's mainstream news outlets.[250] Later,in May 2017, seven people were lynched as rumor of child abductions spread through WhatsApp in avillage.[248]

Germany

Hong Kong

India

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Prabhakar Kumar of the Indian media research agency CMS, told The Guardian that India was hitharder by fake news because the country lacked media policy for verification. Law enforcement officersin India arrested individuals with charges of creating fictitious articles, predominantly if there waslikelihood the articles inflamed societal conflict.

There have been multiple instances of pictures from Syrian and Iraqi civil war being passed off as to befrom Kashmir conflict to fuel unrest to back insurgencies.[251][252][253]

In April 2018, the Information and Broadcasting Ministry said the government would cancel theaccreditation of journalists found to be sharing fake news, but this was quickly retracted after criticismthat this was an attack on freedom of the press.[254]

In June 2018, mobs murdered a governmental employee, Sukanta Chakraborty, who was fighting againstfalse news and rumours, and two other unrelated people. More people were severely injured. The localgovernment temporarily shut down mobile Internet and texting services.[255]

Indian ministry of information and broadcasting in November 2019, planned to set up a FACT checkingmodule to counter the circulation of fake news by continuous monitoring of online news sources andpublicly visible social media posts. Module will work on the four principles of Find, Assess, Create andTarget (FACT) and will initially be ran by information service officers.[256]

Recently, Indonesia has seen an increase in the amount of fake news circulating social media. Theproblem first arose during their 2014 presidential election, where the eventual-winning candidate JokoWidodo became a target of a smear campaign by Prabowo Subianto's supporters which falsely claimedhe was the child of Indonesian Communist Party members, of Chinese descent, and a Christian.[257]

Unlike the 2016 U.S. presidential election, where the sharing of fake news resulted in increased social-media engagement than real news, inflaming ethnic and political tensions could be potentially deadly inIndonesia, with its recent incidences of domestic terrorism, and its long and bloody history of anti-communist, anti-Christian and anti-Chinese pogroms cultivated by Suharto's U.S.-backed right-wingdictatorship which ran the country for thirty-some years.[257] Suharto was also Prabowo's father in-lawfor the last 15 years of the regime. The government, watchdog groups, and even religious organizationshave taken steps to prevent its spreading, such as blocking certain websites and creating fact-check apps.The largest Islamic mass organization in Indonesia, Nahdlatul Ulama, has created an anti-fake newscampaign called #TurnBackHoax, while other Islamic groups have defined such propagation astantamount to a sin.[257] While the government currently views criminal punishment as its last resort,officials are working hard to guarantee law enforcement will respect the freedom of expression.

The fake news campaign rose again in the 2019 presidential election, which involved the same sidescompeting last time out. For years, most fake news circulated in Indonesia are related to alleged Chineseimperialism (including Sinicization), communization, and Christianization. It was made worse by the2016–17 Jakarta protests led by Islamic fundamentalist groups such as the Islamic Defenders Front(FPI) which successfully imprisoned Jakarta Governor Basuki Tjahaja Purnama, who happens to be aChinese-Christian.

Indonesia

Israel/Palestinian Territories

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In 1996, people had been killed in the Western Wall Tunnel riots in reaction to fake news accounts.[258]

An Egyptian newspaper reported on Israeli spy sharks trained to eat Arab bathers in the Red Sea, anexample of an Israel-related animal conspiracy theory.[259] The Israeli state has been accused ofspreading propaganda in the USA.[260] In April 2018, Palestinian-Israeli football team Bnei Sakhninthreatened to sue Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu for libel, after he claimed fans booedduring a minute of silence for Israeli flash-flood victims.

In a social media post, Netanyahu blasted various Israeli news critical of him, as fake news includingChannel 2, Channel 10, Haaretz and Ynet the same day US President Trump decried "fake news".

The Palestinian Islamist political organization, Hamas published a political program in 2017 intended toease its position on Israel. Among other things, this charter accepted the borders of the Palestinian statecirca the Six-Day War of 1967.[261] Although this document is an advancement from their previous 1988charter, which called for the destruction of the State of ‘’’Israel’’’, it still does not recognize Israel aslegitimate independent nation.[261] In a video, Prime Minister of Israel, Benjamin Netanyahu respondedto the coverage of this event by news outlets such as Al Jazeera, CNN, New York Times and TheGuardian, calling their reporting fake news.[262] He specifically disagreed with the notion that Hamashad accepted the state of Israel within their new charter, and called this "a complete distortion of thetruth.” Instead he said, “The new Hamas document says Israel has no right to exist.” In a later speech,addressed to his supporters, Netanyahu responded to allegations against him: “The fake news industry isat its peak... Look, for example, how they cover with unlimited enthusiasm, every week, the left-wingdemonstration. The same demonstrations whose goal is to apply improper pressure on law enforcementauthorities so they will file an indictment at any price.” Observers likened his blanketed use of the term,‘fake news’, for describing left-wing media to Donald Trump, and his similar statements during the 2016election cycle.[263]

In a most recent studies conducted by Yifat Media Check Ltd. and Hamashrokit (“The Whistle” fact-checking NGO), they found that over 70% of statements made by Israeli political leaders were notaccurate.[264]

In April 2018, Malaysia implemented the Anti-Fake News Bill 2018, a controversial law that deemedpublishing and circulating misleading information as a crime punishable by up to six years in prisonand/or fines of up to 500,000 ringgit.[265] At implementation, the country's prime minister was NajibRazak, whose associates were connected to the mishandling of at least $3.5 billion by a United StatesDepartment of Justice report.[266][265] Of that sum of money, $731 million was deposited into bankaccounts controlled by Razak.[265][266] The convergence between the fake news law and Razak'sconnection to scandal was made clear by the Malaysian minister of communications and multimedia,Salleh Said Keruak, who said that tying Razak to a specific dollar amount could be a prosecutableoffense.[267] In the 2018 Malaysian general election, Najib Razak lost his seat as prime minister toMahatir Mohammad, who vowed to abolish the fake news law in his campaign, as the law was used totarget him.[268][269] After winning the election, the newly elected prime minister Mohammad has said,“Even though we support freedom of press and freedom of speech, there are limits."[268][269] As ofMay 2018, Mohammad has supported amending the law, rather than a full abolition.[269]

Paul Bernal, a lecturer in information and technology, fears that the fake news epidemic is a “Trojanhorse” for countries like Malaysia to “control uncomfortable stories.” [270] The vagueness of this lawmeans that satirists, opinion writers, and journalists who make errors could face persecution. The law

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also makes it illegal to share fake news stories. In one instance, a Danish man and Malaysian citizen werearrested for posting false news stories online and were sentenced to serve a month in jail.[271]

In 2015, BBC News reported on fake stories, using unrelated photographs and fraudulent captions,shared online in support of the Rohingya.[272] Fake news negatively affected individuals in Myanmar,leading to a rise in violence against Muslims in the country. Online participation surged from onepercent to 20 percent of Myanmar's total populace from 2014 to 2016. Fake stories from Facebook werereprinted in paper periodicals called Facebook and The Internet. False reporting related to practitionersof Islam in the country was directly correlated with increased attacks on Muslims in Myanmar. BuzzFeedjournalist Sheera Frenkel reported fake news fictitiously stated believers in Islam acted out in violence atBuddhist locations. She documented a direct relationship between the fake news and violence againstMuslim people. Frenkel noted countries that were relatively newer to Internet exposure were morevulnerable to the problems of fake news and fraud.

In March 2018, the European Union’s East StratCom Team compiled a list dubbed a “hall of shame” ofarticles with suspected Kremlin attempts to influence political decisions.[273] However, controversyarose when three Dutch media outlets claimed they had been wrongfully singled out because of quotesattributed to people with non-mainstream views.[273] The news outlets included [1]Post Online,GeenStijl, and De Gelderlander.[273] All three were flagged for publishing articles critical of Ukrainianpolicies, and none received any forewarning or opportunity to appeal beforehand.[273] This incident hascontributed to the growing issue of what defines news as fake, and how freedoms of press and speech canbe protected during attempts to curb to spread of false news.

Khawaja Muhammad Asif, the Minister of Defence of Pakistan, threatened to nuke Israel on Twitter aftera false story claiming that Avigdor Lieberman, the Israeli Ministry of Defense, said "If Pakistan sendground troops into Syria on any pretext, we will destroy this country with a nuclear attack."[274][275]

Fake news has been problematic in the Philippines where social media has played a much greater role inpolitical influence. Following the 2016 Philippine election, Senator Francis Pangilinan filed that there bean inquiry of conduct of social media platforms that allowed for the spreading of fake news.[276]

Pangilinan called for penalties for social media platforms that provided the public with false informationabout his ideas. The news that came out was meant to discredit the opposing party and used social mediaas an outlet to bring propaganda into the mainstream media.[277] According to media analysts,developing countries such as the Philippines, with the generally new access to social media anddemocracy, feel the problem of fake news to a larger extent.[278] Facebook is one of the largest platformsbeing an open website, that works as a booster to sway the opinion of the public due to manufactured

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stories. While Facebook provides free media sources, it does not provide its users with the access to factchecking websites.[279] Because of this, government authorities call for a tool that will filter out "fakenews" to secure the integrity of cyberspace in the Philippines.[276] Rappler, a social news network in thePhilippines, investigated online networks of Rodrigo Duterte supporters and discovered that theyinclude fake news, fake accounts, bots and trolls, which Rappler thinks are being used to silence dissent.The creation of fake news, and fake news accounts on social media has been a danger to the politicalhealth of the country. According to Kate Lamble and Megha Mohan of BBC news, "What we're seeing onsocial media again is manufactured reality... They also create a very real chilling effect against normalpeople, against journalists (who) are the first targets, and they attack in very personal ways with deaththreats and rape threats." Journalists are often risking their lives in publishing articles that contest fakenews in the Philippines.[280]

The 2016 Filipino election was influenced, in large part, by false information propagated by fake newsoutlets. By New York Times contributor Miguel Syjuco's account, President Rodrigo Duterte benefitedfrom a disproportionate amount of complimentary fake news compared to his opponents. The pro-Duterte propaganda spread across Filipino social media include fake endorsements from prominentpublic figures like Pope Francis and Angela Merkel.[281] Duterte's own campaign was responsible for aportion of the misinformation spread during the election; according to a study from Oxford University'sComputational Propaganda Research Program, Duterte's campaign paid an estimated $200,000 fordedicated trolls to undermine dissenters and disseminate misinformation in 2016.[282]

An incident was the accusation made by Justice Secretary Vitaliano Aguirre II regarding 2017 MarawiCrisis in which he tagged various opposition senators and other people as masterminds of the attackbased on a photo shared through social media and other blog sites which produces fake news.[283]

Another government official, Communications Assistant Secretary Margaux "Mocha" Uson has beenaccused of spreading fake news.[284][285]

The prevalence of fake news in the Philippines have pushed lawmakers to file laws to combat it, likecriminalizing its dissemination.[286][287] The Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines stronglyopposes the spread of fake news as a sin, and published a list of fake news websites.[288][289]

Polish historian Jerzy Targalski noted fake news websites had infiltrated Poland through anti-establishment and right-wing sources that copied content from Russia Today. Targalski observed thereexisted about 20 specific fake news websites in Poland that spread Russian disinformation in the form offake news. One example cited was fake news that Ukraine announced the Polish city of Przemyśl asoccupied Polish land.[290]

Poland's anti-EU Law and Justice (PiS) government has been accused of spreading "illiberaldisinformation" to undermine public confidence in the European Union.[291] Maria Snegovaya ofColumbia University said: "The true origins of this phenomenon are local. The policies of Fidesz and Lawand Justice have a lot in common with Putin's own policies."[291]

Some mainstream outlets were long accused of fabricating half-true or outright false information. One ofpopular TV stations, TVN, in 2010 attributed to Jarosław Kaczyński (then an opposition leader) wordsthat "there will be times, when true Poles will come to the power".[292] However, Kaczyński has neveruttered those words in the commented speech.

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In March 2019, Russia passed a new bill to ban websites from spreading false information.[293] Inaddition to tackling fake news, the new legislation specifically punishes any sources or websites forpublishing materials that insult the state, the symbol of the government or other political figures.[294]

For repeated offenders, they would receive a 15-day jail sentence.

According to the Global News, Saudi Arabia's state-owned television spread fake news about Canada. InAugust 2018, Canada's Global News reported that state-owned television Al Arabiya, "has suggestedthat Canada is the worst country in the world for women, that it has the highest suicide rate and that ittreats its Indigenous people the way Myanmar treats the Rohingya – a Muslim minority massacred anddriven out of Myanmar en masse last year."[295]

In October 2018, Twitter has suspended a number of bot accounts that appeared to be spreading pro-Saudi rhetoric about the disappearance of Saudi opposition journalist Jamal Khashoggi.[296][297]

According to Newsweek, Saudi Arabia's Office of Public Prosecution tweeted that "producing rumors orfake news [that Saudi Arabia's government was involved in the disappearance of Khashoggi] that wouldaffect the public order or public security or sending or resending it via social media or any technicalmeans" is punishable "by five years and a fine of 3 million riyals".[298]

Iranian-backed Twitter accounts spread sensational fake news and rumours about Saudi Arabia.[299]

On August 1, 2019, Facebook identified hundreds of accounts that were running a covert network onbehalf of government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to spread fake news and attack regional rivals. Thesocial media giant removed more than 350 accounts, pages and groups with nearly 1.4 millionfollowers.[300] Along with Facebook, these accounts were involved in “coordinated inauthentic behavior”on Instagram as well. According to a FB blog post, the network was running two different politicalagendas, one on behalf of Saudi Arabia and the other for the United Arab Emirates and Egypt.[301]

In 2018, International Research & Exchanges Board described the situation in the media in Serbia as theworst in recent history, and that Media Sustainability Index dropped because the most polarized mediain almost 20 years, an increase in fake news and editorial pressure on media.[302] According to Serbianinvestigative journalism portal Crime and Corruption Reporting Network, more than 700 fake newswere published on the front pages of pro-government tabloids during 2018.[303][304] Many of them wereabout alleged attacks on the president Aleksandar Vučić and attempts of coups, as well as messages ofsupport to him by Vladimir Putin.[304] The best-selling newspaper in Serbia is the pro-governmenttabloid Informer, which most often presents Vučić as a powerful person under constant attack, and alsohas anti-European content and pro-war rhetoric.[305][306][307] Since Vučić's party came to power, Serbiahas seen a surge of internet trolls and pages on social networks praising the government and attackingits critics, free media and the opposition in general.[308] That includes a handful of dedicated employeesrun fake accounts, but also the Facebook page associated with a Serbian franchise of the far-rightBreitbart News website, which has a disputed accuracy.[309][308]

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Singapore criminalizes the propagation of fake news. Under existing law, "Any person who transmits orcauses to be transmitted a message which he knows to be false or fabricated shall be guilty of anoffense".[310]

On 18 March 2015, a doctored screenshot of Prime Minister's Office website claiming the demise of theLee Kuan Yew went viral, and several international news agencies such as CNN and China CentralTelevision initially reported it as news, until corrected by the Prime Minister's Office. The image wascreated by a student to demonstrate to his classmates how fake news could be easily created andpropagated.[311] In 2017, Singaporean news website Mothership.sg was criticized by the Ministry ofEducation (MOE) for propagating remarks falsely attributed to a MOE official.[312] In addition, Ministerof Law K Shanmugam also singled out online news website The States Times Review as an example of asource of fake news, as it once claimed a near-zero turnout at the state funeral of President S. R.Nathan.[313]

Following these incidents, Shanmugam stated that the existing legalization is limited and ineffective[314]

and indicated that the government intends to introduce legislation to combat fake news in 2018.[315] In2017, the Ministry of Communications and Information set up Factually, a website intended to debunkfalse rumors regarding issues of public interest such as the environment, housing and transport,[316]

while in 2018, the Parliament of Singapore formed a Select Committee to consider new legislation totackle fake news.[317]

Furthermore, the Singapore government has introduced draft legislation with regards to Fake News inApril 2019, which is called the Protection From Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Bill.[318] Thislegislation is intended to regulate websites that spread misinformation, and combat fake news. Inaddition, this bill is supported by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong’s People’s Action Party, which has asuper majority in Parliament.[319] However, critics also point out that this bill could introducegovernment’s self censorship and increase government’s control over social media.[320]

Activist platform The Online Citizen regarded legislation against fake news as an attempt by thegovernment to curb the free flow of information so that only information approved by the government isdisseminated to the public.[321] In an online essay, activist and historian Thum Ping Tjin denied thatfake news was a problem in Singapore, and accused the People's Action Party government as the onlymajor source of fake news, claiming that detentions made without trial during Operation Coldstore andOperation Spectrum were based on fake news for party political gain.[322]

Facebook and Google have opposed the introduction of new laws to combat fake news, claiming thatexisting legislation is adequate to address the problem and that an effective way of combatingmisinformation is through educating citizens on how to distinguish reliable from unreliableinformation.[323]

A wide range of South African media sources have reported fake news as a growing problem and tool toboth increase distrust in the media, discredit political opponents, and divert attention fromcorruption.[324] Media outlets owned by the Gupta family have been noted by other South African mediaorganisations such as The Huffington Post (South Africa), Sunday Times, Radio 702, and City Press for

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targeting them.[325] Individuals targeted include Finance Minister Pravin Gordhan who was seen asblocking Gupta attempts at state capture with accusations levelled against Gordhan of promoting statecapture for "white monopoly capital".[326][327]

The African National Congress (ANC) was taken to court by Sihle Bolani for unpaid work she did duringthe election on the ANC's behalf. In court papers Bolani stated that the ANC used her to launch and run acovert R50 million fake news and disinformation campaign during the 2016 municipal elections with theintention of discrediting opposition parties.[328][329][330]

South Korean journalists and media experts lament political hostility between South and North Koreawhich distorts Media coverage of North Korea[331] and North Korea has attributed erroneous reportingto South Korea and United States with being critical to media organization Chosun Ilbo[332] while alsoAmerican journalist Barbara Demick had made similar criticisms on media coverage of North.[332]

On November 27, 2018, prosecutors raided the house of Gyeonggi Province governor Lee Jae-myungamid suspicions that his wife used a pseudonymous Twitter handle to spread fake news about PresidentMoon Jae-in and other political rivals of her husband.[333][334]

Fake news in Spain has become much more prevalent in the 2010s, but has been prominent throughoutSpain's history. The United States government published a fake article in regards to the purchase of thePhilippines from Spain, which they had already purchased.[335] Despite this, the topic of fake news hastraditionally not been given much attention to in Spain, until the newspaper El País launched the newblog dedicated strictly to truthful news entitled "Hechos"; which literally translates to "fact" in Spanish.David Alandete, the managing editor of El País, stated how many people misinterpret fake news as realbecause the sites "have similar names, typography, layouts and are deliberately confusing"(Southern).[336] Alandete made it the new mission of El País "to respond to fake news" (Scott).[337]

María Ramírez of Univision Communications has stated that much of the political fake news circulatingin Spain is due to the lack of investigative journalism on the topics. Most recently El País has created afact-checking position for five employees, to try and debunk the fake news released.[336]

The Swedish Security Service issued a report in 2015 identifying propaganda from Russia infiltratingSweden with the objective to amplify pro-Russian propaganda and inflame societal conflicts. TheSwedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB), part of the Ministry of Defence of Sweden, identified fakenews reports targeting Sweden in 2016 that originated from Russia. Swedish Civil Contingencies Agencyofficial Mikael Tofvesson stated a pattern emerged where views critical of Sweden were constantlyrepeated. The Local identified these tactics as a form of psychological warfare. The newspaper reportedthe MSB identified Russia Today and Sputnik News as significant fake news purveyors. As a result ofgrowth in this propaganda in Sweden, the MSB planned to hire six additional security officials to fightback against the campaign of fraudulent information.[338]

According to the Oxford Internet Institute, eight of the top 10 “junk news” sources during the 2018Swedish general election campaign were Swedish, and “Russian sources comprised less than 1% of thetotal number of URLs shared in the data sample.”[339]

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In February 2017, Amnesty International reported that up to 13,000 people had been hanged in a Syrianprison as part of an “extermination” campaign. Syrian president Bashar al-Assad questioned thecredibility of Amnesty International and called the report "fake news" fabricated to undermine thegovernment. "You can forge anything these days – we are living in a fake news era.” [340]

Russia ran a disinformation campaign during the Syrian Civil War to discredit the humanitarian rescueorganisation White Helmets, and to discredit reports and images of children and other civilian bombingvictims. This was done to weaken criticism of Russia's involvement in the war.[341] The United Nationsand international chemical inspectors found Bashar al-Assad responsible for use of chemicalweapons,[342] which was called "fake news" by Russia. Russia promoted various contradictory claimsthat no chemicals were present, or attributing the chemical attacks to other countries orgroups.[343][344][345][346][347]

In a report in December 2015 by The China Post, a fake video shared online showed people a light showpurportedly made at the Shihmen Reservoir. The Northern Region Water Resources Office confirmedthere was no light show at the reservoir and the event had been fabricated. The fraud led to an increasein tourist visits to the actual attraction.

According to the news updated paper from the Time World in regards the global threat to free speech,the Taiwanese government has reformed its policy on education and it will include "media literacy" asone part of school curriculum for the students. It will be included to develop the critical thinking skillsneeded while using social media. Further, the work of media literacy will also include the skills needed toanalyze propaganda and sources, so the student can clarify what is fake news.[348]

Since the Euromaidan and the beginning of the Ukrainian crisis in 2014, the Ukrainian media circulatedseveral fake news stories and misleading images, including a dead rebel photograph with a Photoshop-painted tattoo which allegedly indicated that he belonged to Russian Special Forces,[349] a video gamescreenshot disguised as a satellite image ostensibly showing the shelling of the Ukrainian border fromRussia,[350] and the threat of a Russian nuclear attack against the Ukrainian troops.[351] The recurringtheme of these fake news was that Russia was solely to blame for the crisis and the war in Donbass.[351]

In 2015 the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe published a report criticizing Russiandisinformation campaigns to disrupt relations between Europe and Ukraine after ouster of ViktorYanukovych. According to Deutsche Welle, similar tactics were used by fake news websites during the USelections. A website, StopFake (http://www.StopFake.org) was created by Ukrainian activists in 2014 todebunk fake news in Ukraine, including media portrayal of the Ukrainian crisis.[352]

On May 29, 2018, the Ukrainian media and state officials announced that the Russian journalist ArkadyBabchenko was assassinated in his apartment in Kiev. Later, Babchenko appeared to be alive, and theSecurity Service of Ukraine claimed that the staged assassination was needed to arrest a person whoallegedly was planning a real assassination. Alexander Baunov, writing for Carnegie.ru, mentioned thatthe staged assassination of Babchenko was the first instance of fake news delivered directly by thehighest officials of a state.[353]

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Under King Edward I of England (r. 1272–1307) "'a statute was passed which made it a grave offence todevise or tell any false news of prelates, dukes, earls, barons, or nobles of the realm.'"[354]

In 1702 Queen Anne of England issued a proclamation "for restraining the spreading false news, andprinting and publishing of irreligious and seditious papers and libels".[355]

On December 8, 2016, Chief of the Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) Alex Younger delivered a speech tojournalists at the MI6 headquarters where he called fake news and propaganda damaging to democracy.Younger said the mission of MI6 was to combat propaganda and fake news in order to deliver to hisgovernment a strategic advantage in the information-warfare arena, and to assist other nations includingEurope. He called such methods of fake-news propaganda online a "fundamental threat to oursovereignty". Younger said all nations that hold democratic values should feel the same worry over fakenews.[356]

However, definitions of "fake news" have been controversial in the UK, with political satire being seen asa key element of British humour.[357] Dr Claire Wardle advised some UK Members of Parliament againstusing the term in certain circumstances "when describing the complexity of information disorder", as theterm "fake news" is "woefully inadequate":

Neither the words 'fake' nor 'news' effectively capture this polluted information ecosystem.Much of the content used as examples in debates on this topic are not fake, they are genuinebut used out of context or manipulated. Similarly, to understand the entire ecosystem ofpolluted information, we need to consider far more than content that mimics 'news'.[358]

In 2017 the then British Defence Secretary Sir Michael Fallon falsely claimed that the number of Russiantroops taking part in Zapad 2017 exercise could reach 100,000.[359]

Fake news became a global subject and was widely introduced to billions as a prominent issue, especiallydue to the 2016 U.S. presidential election.[4][360][361][362][363][364][365][367] Numerous politicalcommentators and journalists wrote and stated in media that 2016 was the year of fake news and as aresult nothing will ever be the same in politics and cyber security.[368] Due to the increase in fake newsin 2016, it became much harder to distinguish what was real and what was fake in 2017. Donald Trumptweeted or retweeted posts about "fake news" or "fake media" 176 times as of Dec. 20, 2017, according toan online archive of all of Trump's tweets.[369] Governmental bodies in the U.S. and Europe startedlooking at contingencies and regulations to combat fake news specially when as part of a coordinatedintelligence campaign by hostile foreign governments.[370][371] Online tech giants Facebook and Googlestarted putting in place means to combat fake news in 2016 as a result of the phenomenon becomingglobally known.[372][373] Google Trends shows that the term "fake news" gained traction in onlinesearches in October 2016.[374]

Professor Philip N. Howard of the Oxford Internet Institute at the University of Oxford studied webtraffic in the United States prior to the election. He found that about one half of all news on Twitterdirected at Michigan was junk or fake, and the other half came from actual professional newssources.[111]

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60 Minutes producers saidPresident Trump uses the phrase"fake news" to mean, "I take offensewith what you said."[27]

According to BuzzFeed, during the last three months of the presidential campaign, of the top twenty fakeelection-related articles on Facebook, seventeen were anti-Clinton or pro-Trump. Facebook usersinteracted with them more often than with stories from genuine news outlets.[87]

Debate over the impact of fake news in the election, and whether or not it significantly impacted theelection of the Republican candidate Donald Trump, whom the most shared fake stories favored,[117][118]

led researchers from Stanford to study the impact of fake news shared on social media, where 62% ofU.S. adults get their news from. They assessed that 8% of readers of fake news recalled and believed inthe content they were reading, though the same share of readers also recalled and believed in "placebos"— stories they did not actually read, but that were produced by the authors of the study. In comparison,over 50% of the participants recalled reading and believed in true news stories. The authors do notassess the final impact of these numbers on the election, but seek to "offer theoretical and empiricalbackground" for the debate.[25]

In the United States in the run-up to the 2016 presidential election,fake news was particularly prevalent and spread rapidly over socialmedia by "bots", according to researchers at the Oxford InternetInstitute.[375][376] In a speech shortly after the election, formerDemocratic candidate Hillary Clinton warned of the "real-worldconsequences" of fake news.[377] Shortly thereafter, in the earlyweeks of his presidency, U.S. president Donald Trump frequentlyused the term "fake news" to refer to traditional news media,singling out CNN.[378] Linguist George Lakoff says this createsconfusion about the phrase's meaning.[379] According to CBS 60Minutes, President Trump may use the term fake news to describeany news, however legitimate or responsible, with which he maydisagree.[111]

After Republican Colorado state senator Ray Scott used the term as a reference to a column in the GrandJunction Daily Sentinel, the newspaper's publisher threatened a defamation lawsuit.[380][381]

In December 2016, an armed North Carolina man, Edgar Maddison Welch, traveled to Washington,D.C., and opened fire at the Comet Ping Pong pizzeria, driven by a fake online news story known as thePizzagate conspiracy theory, which accused the pizzeria of hosting a pedophile ring run by DemocraticParty leaders.[382] These stories tend to go viral quickly. Social media systems, such as Facebook, play alarge role in the broadcasting of fake news. These systems show users content that reflects their interestsand history, leading to fake and misleading news. Following a plea agreement with prosecutors, Welchpleaded guilty to the federal charge of interstate transport of firearms and a District of Columbia chargeof assault with a dangerous weapon. Welch was sentenced to four years in prison on June 22, 2017 andagreed to pay $5,744.33 for damages to the restaurant.[383]

A situation study by The New York Times shows how a tweet by a person with no more than 40 followerswent viral and was shared 16,000 times on Twitter.[384] The tweet concluded that protesters were paidto be bussed to Trump demonstrations and protest. A Twitter user then posted a photograph of twobuses outside a building, claiming that those were the Anti-Trump protesters. The tweet immediatelywent viral on both Twitter and Facebook. Fake news can easily spread due to the speed and accessibilityof modern communications technology.

A CNN investigation examined exactly how fake news can start to trend.[386] There are "bots" used byfake news publishers that make their articles appear more popular than they are. This makes it morelikely for people to discover them. "Bots are fake social media accounts that are programmed to

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During a joint news conference,Trump said he was "very proud" tohear Brazilian president JairBolsonaro use the term "fakenews".[385]

automatically 'like' or retweet a particular message."[387]

An investigation by The Michigan Daily in October 2019 intostatewide networks of conservative-leaning, pseudo local news sites,published by Locality Labs and the Metric Media Foundation,revealed connections between the operation and Dan Proft, theLiberty Principles PAC, and the Nexstar Media Group. Metric Mediais reportedly planning on creating more sites across the nation inwhat critics have dubbed a disinformation campaign that may beattempting to influence 2020 elections.[388]

Fraudulent stories during the 2016 U.S. presidential electionincluded a viral post popularized on Facebook that Pope Francis hadendorsed Trump, and another that actor Denzel Washington "backsTrump in the most epic way possible".[389][390] Trump's son andcampaign surrogate Eric Trump, top national security adviserMichael Flynn, and then-campaign managers Kellyanne Conway and Corey Lewandowski shared fakenews stories during the campaign.[391][392][393][394]

Starting in July 2017, President Trump's 2020 presidential campaign launched Real News Update, anonline news program posted on Facebook. The series reports on Trump's accomplishments as presidentof the United States and claims to highlight "real news" as opposed to alleged "fake news". Lara Trumpintroduced one video by saying "If you are tired of all the fake news out there...we are going to bring younothing but the facts" and "I bet you haven't heard about all the accomplishments the president had thisweek, because there's so much fake news out there".[395] The show has been labelled as"propaganda".[396]

In January 2018, it was reported that a Gallup-Knight Foundation survey found that 17% of Democratsand 42% of Republicans "consider accurate news stories that cast a politician or political group in anegative light to always be 'fake news.'"[397] A June 2018 poll by Axios and Survey Monkey found that72% of Americans believe "traditional news outlets knowingly report false or misleading stories at leastsometimes," with 92% of Republican and Republican-leaning independents and 53% of Democratsbelieving this.[398]

A series of fabricated stories in Europe’s largest weekly magazine, Der Spiegel, prompted U.S.ambassador to Germany Richard Grenell to call for an independent investigation.[399][400] Grenell wrotethat "These fake news stories largely focus on U.S. policies and certain segments of the Americanpeople."[401]

AlarmismAlternative facts – Expression associated with political misinformation established in 2017Chequebook journalism – The controversial practice of news reporters paying sources for theirinformationClickbaitPolitical biasCitizen journalismClimate change denial – unwarranted denial of the scientific consensus on climate change

See also

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This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY SA 3.0 IGO Licensestatement (http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=261065&set=005B2A1A4F_2_135&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1): World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report2017/2018 (http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0026/002610/261065e.pdf), 202, University of Oxford,UNESCO.

Confirmation bias – Tendency of people to favor information that confirms or strengthens their beliefsor hypothesesConspiracy theory – An explanation of an event or situation that unnecessarily invokes a conspiracyDemoralization (warfare)Fearmongering – Deliberate use of fear-based tacticsInformation qualityInternet meme – A concept that spreads from person to person via the InternetJournalism ethics and standards – Principles of ethics and of good practice in journalismLying press, also known as Lügenpresse – A pejorative political term used largely by Germanpolitical movements for the press when it is believed not to have the quest for truth at the heart of itscoverageMedia bias – Bias or perceived bias of journalists and news producers within the mass media in theselection of events and stories that are reported and how they are coveredMedia coverage of North KoreaMuckrakerPseudohistory – Pseudoscholarship that attempts to distort or misrepresent the historical recordTabloid journalismTruthiness

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94. Donald J. Trump [@realDonaldTrump] (May 9, 2018). "The Fake News is working overtime. Justreported that, despite the tremendous success we are having with the economy & all things else,91% of the Network News about me is negative (Fake). Why do we work so hard in working with themedia when it is corrupt? Take away credentials?" (https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/994179864436596736) (Tweet) – via Twitter.

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88. Dominick Sokotoff; Katherina Sourine. "Pseudo local news sites reveal nationally expandingnetwork" (https://www.michigandaily.com/section/community-affairs/pseudo-local-news-sites-michigan-reveal-nationally-expanding-network). The Michigan Daily. Retrieved November 8, 2019.

89. Alyssa Newcomb (November 15, 2016). "Facebook, Google Crack Down on Fake News Advertising"(http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/facebook-google-crack-down-fake-news-advertising-n684101). NBC News. Retrieved March 29, 2017.

90. Schaede, Sydney (October 24, 2016). "Did the Pope Endorse Trump?" (http://www.factcheck.org/2016/10/did-the-pope-endorse-trump/). FactCheck.org. Retrieved March 29, 2017.

91. Tapper, Jake (November 17, 2016). "Fake news stories thriving on social media – Phony newsstories are thriving on social media, so much so President Obama addressed it. CNN's Jake Tapperreports" (http://edition.cnn.com/videos/politics/2016/11/17/fake-news-social-media-tapper-dnt-lead.cnn). CNN. Retrieved March 29, 2017.

92. Dewey, Caitlin (November 17, 2016). "Facebook fake-news writer: 'I think Donald Trump is in theWhite House because of me' " (https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/2016/11/17/facebook-fake-news-writer-i-think-donald-trump-is-in-the-white-house-because-of-me/). TheWashington Post. Retrieved March 29, 2017.

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AP Not Real News (https://apnews.com/NotRealNews) weekly roundup of the most popular, butcompletely untrue, headlines of the week.NYPR On The Media (https://www.wnycstudios.org/shows/otm) weekly media criticism and analysis."Inside a Fake News Sausage Factory: 'This Is All About Income' " (https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/25/world/europe/fake-news-donald-trump-hillary-clinton-georgia.html) The New York TimesNovember 25, 2016An online journal for Paul Horner and all of his hoaxes and fake news over the past 20 years (https://web.archive.org/web/20170426081655/http://newsexaminer.net/paul-horner-news/paul-horner-news-internet-news-satirist-writer-news-examiner/)Elizabeth Schumacher (January 4, 2018). "Fake news 'casts wide net but has little effect' " (http://www.dw.com/en/fake-news-casts-wide-net-but-has-little-effect/a-42029486). Deutsche Welle.Bounegru, Liliana; Gray, Jonathan; Venturini, Tommaso; Mauri, Michele (January 8, 2018). A FieldGuide to "Fake News" and Other Information Disorders (http://fakenews.publicdatalab.org/).Amsterdam: Public Data Lab. An open access guide exploring the use of digital methods to studyfalse viral news, political memes, trolling practices and their social life online.Young, Kevin (2017). Bunk: The Rise of Hoaxes, Humbug, Plagiarists, Phonies, Post-Facts, andFake News. Graywolf Press. ISBN 978-1555977917.

93. Drum, Kevin (November 17, 2016). "Meet Ret. General Michael Flynn, the Most Gullible Guy in theArmy" (https://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2016/11/meet-ret-general-michael-flynn-most-gullible-guy-army). Mother Jones blog. Retrieved March 29, 2017.

94. Masnick, Mike (October 14, 2016). "Donald Trump's Son & Campaign Manager Both TweetObviously Fake Story" (https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20161013/23470435795/donald-trumps-son-campaign-manager-both-tweet-obviously-fake-story.shtml). Techdirt. Retrieved March 29, 2017.

95. Sophia Tesfaye (August 2, 2017). "Trump's daughter-in-law pushes his propaganda: Lara Trumplaunches "real news" show to praise the president" (http://www.salon.com/2017/08/02/trumps-daughter-in-law-pushes-his-propaganda-lara-trump-launches-real-news-show-to-praise-the-president/).Salon. Retrieved August 2, 2017.

96. Blake, Aaron. "Trump TV accused of broadcasting state propaganda after 'real news' segmentdebuted" (https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/donald-trump-tv-real-news-state-propaganda-kayleigh-mcenany-broadcasting-fake-misinformation-a7882046.html). The Independent.Retrieved August 13, 2017.

97. Wemple, Erik. "Study: 42 percent of Republicans believe accurate — but negative — stories qualifyas 'fake news' " (https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/erik-wemple/wp/2018/01/16/study-42-percent-of-republicans-believe-accurate-but-negative-stories-qualify-as-fake-news/). The Washington Post.Retrieved January 18, 2018.

98. "92% of Republicans think media intentionally reports fake news" (https://www.axios.com/trump-effect-92-percent-republicans-media-fake-news-9c1bbf70-0054-41dd-b506-0869bb10f08c.html). Axios.Retrieved June 27, 2018.

99. "Der Spiegel 'fake news' reporter could face charges" (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-46666389). BBC News. December 23, 2018.

00. Connolly, Kate; Le Blond, Josie (December 23, 2018). "Der Spiegel takes the blame for scandal ofreporter who faked stories" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/dec/23/anti-america-bias-der-spiegel-scandal-relotius). The Guardian.

01. "Der Spiegel to press charges against reporter who made up article about Fergus Falls, Minnesota"(http://www.startribune.com/der-spiegel-to-press-charges-against-reporter-who-made-up-article-about-fergus-falls-minnesota/503414652/). Star Tribune. December 24, 2018.

Further reading

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