f7.1 use of food additives
TRANSCRIPT
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 1
Serbian Enterprise Development Project:
Use of Food Additives
Dr. Lisa MauerAssociate Professor
Department of Food SciencePurdue University
Overview
• Definitions of food additives
• Regulatory information
• Classification of food additives
• Specific categories and uses of food additives
• Organic• Shelf-Life
• Introduction– Definitions and functions
• Food additive categories• Functions of direct food additives• Utilization of food additives• Functions
– Sweeteners– Acidulants– Thickeners and stabilizers– Emulsifiers– Flavors– Colors– Vitamins– Preservatives– Antioxidants– Enzymes
• Government regulations• Organic
Regulations for Use of Food Additives
Definitions of Additives• National Academy of Sciences, Subcommittee
on Food Protection– A substance or mixture of substances, other than a
basic food stuff, which is present in food as a result of any aspect of production, processing, storage, or packaging but not including contaminants that enter foods by chance
• United States Food and Drug Administration– Any substance, the intended use of which results or
may reasonably be expected to result, directly or indirectly, in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food, which is present in food as a result of any aspect of production, processing, storage, or packaging
Regulations
Regulatory Status of Food Ingredients• USA
– Responsible agency: Food and Drug Administration (FDA)• Others: Food Safety Inspection Service (FSIS), United Stated
Department of Agriculture (USDA), National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
• FDA approves use of food additives in USA and sets limits on appropriate usage applications and levels
• Other countries– FAO/WHO Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)
• Judges safety of food ingredients on a worldwide basis• Establishes acceptable daily intakes for specific food additives• Many countries contribute to JECFA activities
– Each country has its own regulations
Regulations
Role of Organizations related to Food Additives
• FCC– Food Chemicals Codex– National academy of sciences directed group that
develops identity specifications, purity specifications, and testing methods
• FEMA GRAS Panel– Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Associations
Generally Recognized as Safe Expert Panel– FEMA is the industry trade association that sponsors
the panel– The panel judges the safety of flavors and extracts– The panel is composed of toxicologists from
universities and independent consulting firms
Regulations
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 2
US: Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act• In the US, the major legislation pertaining to
foods and food ingredients was passed in 1938 and is called the Food, Drug, & Cosmetic Act. Amendments relating to food additives and color additives were passed later.– Food Additive Amendment (1958)
• Approves intentional food chemicals under the following classes:
– Generally recognized as safe (GRAS), in CFR title 21– Prior sanction, excluded from food additives definition– Food additives petition
– Color Additive Amendment (1960)
Regulations
US: Delaney Clause, 1958• A provision of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic
Act, that governs the setting of pesticide residue tolerances in the approval process of food additives, color additives, or new animal drugs. The Delaney Clause bars the Environmental Protection Agency from granting any tolerance for a pesticide residue that has been found to induce cancer in humans or in animals, if it concentrates during processing.
• 21 USC: 348, page 280. Section 409 of the Delaney Clause specified: "No additive shall be deemed to be safe if it is found to induce cancer when ingested by man or animal, or if it is found, after tests which are appropriate for the evaluation of the safety of food additives, to induce cancer in man or animals."
Regulations
US: Specifications for Food Ingredients
• Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)– 21 CFR Part 172: direct food additives– 21 CFR Part 173: secondary direct food additives– 21 CFR Part 175-179: indirect food additives– 21 CFR Part 182: GRAS– 21 CFR Part 184: GRAS– 21 CFR Part 70-82: color additives
• Food Chemicals Codex: National Academy of Sciences– Specifications for identity– Specifications for purity– Test methods
• Company generated specifications
Regulations
FDA CFR Title 21:Regulations
Other FDA Regulations
• Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) Regulations – 21 CFR 110
• Food Labeling– 21 CFR 101
• Recall Guidelines– 21 CFR 7.40
• Nutritional Quality Guidelines– 21 CFR 104
• Nutritional Labeling Guidelines– Nutritional Labeling
and Education Act (NLEA) of 1990
• Fair Packaging and Labeling Act
Regulations
US: Food Definitions and Standards
• Established by FDA and published in 21 CFR 100-169
• Standards of Identity• Standards of Quality• Standards of Fill
Regulations
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 3
Regulations Regulations
Regulations Regulations
Regulations Regulations
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 4
Food/Ingredient Analysis
• Association of Official Analytical Chemists– AOAC Official Methods of Analysis– www.aoac.org
Regulations
AOAC Methods• 45. Vitamins and Other Nutrients
45.1 Chemical Methods45.2 Microbiological Methods45.3 Bioassay Methods45.4 Nutritionally Related Components
• 46. Color Additives46.1 Separation and Identification of Color Additives in Foods, Drugs, and Cosmetics46.2 Intermediates46.3 Subsidiary and Lower SulfonatedDyes46.4 Metals and Other Elements46.5 Halogens46.6 Miscellaneous
• 47. Food Additives: Direct47.1 General Methods47.2 Antioxidants47.3 Chemical Preservatives47.4 Emulsifying Agents47.5 Enzymes47.6 Miscellaneous
• 48. Food Additives: Indirect
• 33. Dairy Products33.1 Sampling33.2 Milk33.3 Cream33.4 Evaporated and Condensed Milk33.5 Dried Milk, Nonfat Dry Milk, and Malted Milk33.6 Butter33.7 Cheese33.8 Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts
• 34. Eggs and Egg Products• 35. Fish and Other Marine Products• 36. Flavors
36.1 General Methods36.2 Vanilla Extract and Its Substitutes36.3 Lemon, Orange, and Lime Extracts, Flavors, and Oils36.4 Almond Extract36.5 Cassia, Cinnamon, and Clove Extracts36.6 Flavor Extracts and Toilet Preparations
• 37. Fruits and Fruit Products
Regulations
Food Additive Regulations in Europe
• European Parliament and Council Directive 89/107/EEC of December 21, 1988– All permitted food additives must be assessed by the
European Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) for their safety against the criteria that are listed in the Annex of the Directive
• Sweeteners: Directive 94/35/EC of June 1994• Food colors: Directive 94/36/EC of June 1994• Food additives other than colors and sweeteners: Directive
95/2/EC of February 1995
Regulations
UK Food Additive RegulationsRegulations
EU: E Numbers
• E numbers are codes for food additivesand are usually found on food labels throughout the European Union. The numbering scheme follows that of the International Numbering System (INS) as determined by the Codex Alimentariuscommittee. Only a subset of the INS additives are approved for use in the European Union, giving rise to the 'E' prefix.
Regulations
Wikipedia.com
EU: E Numbers• In the European common market, E numbers are given to additives
as they are approved.• E-numbers are numerical designations which have been developed
within the European Community (EC) for declaration of foodstuff additives. There are a number of sources for lists of E-numbers on the Internet, including:– http://www.elc-eu.org/approved.htm
http://www.fst.rdg.ac.uk/foodlaw/additive.htmhttp://www.eurunion.org/legislat/Foodstuffs/ENumbers.htm
• The UK Food Standards Agency publishes a listing of E numbers split into major additive categories (colours, preservatives, etc.). Copies are available on the Internet in pdf format at: http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/elist_numbers.pdf
• The numbering system is being adapted for international use by the Codex Alimentarius Commission who are developing an International Numbering System (INS). This largely uses the same numbers (but without the E).
Regulations
Wikipedia.com
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 5
E NumbersRegulations
Wikipedia.com
E NumbersRegulations
Wikipedia.com
E NumbersRegulations
Wikipedia.com
Food Additive Regulations in Japan
• The Food Chemistry Division of the Ministry of Health and Welfare (MHW) has jurisdiction over food additives through the Food Sanitation Law that was enacted in January 1948
• Kohetisho = the Japanese Codex of Food Additives
Regulations
Regulations
How other countries regulate food additives
• www.faia.org.uk (United Kingdom)• www.foodlaw.rdg.ac.uk/uk/reg-ni.htm (Northern
Ireland)• www.foodstandards.gov/uk/scotland/regulations
(Scotland)• www.foodstandards.gov.au (Australia, New
Zealand)• www.inspection.gc.ca/english/reg/rege.shtml
(Canada)• Many others…
Regulations
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 6
Classification of Additives
Classification of Additives: US Regulatory Status
1. GRAS ingredientsExempt from regulation because their extensive
use has produced no known harmful effects2. Prior sanctioned substances
Approved by FDA or USDA prior to 1958 Food Additives Amendment
3. Approved food additivesDirect and indirect additives
Classifications
Classifications
FDA website
Classification of Additives:Direct, Secondary Direct, Indirect
1. Direct• Substances intentionally added to food to achieve a specific
purpose and remain in the food as consumed• Most are direct, aspartame in diet beverages
2. Secondary direct• Substances added to foods for a specific purpose but which
are removed from the final product before consumption• Propellant gases in pressurized foods
3. Indirect• Become part of the food in trace amounts as the result of
packaging, handling, or storage practices. Have no function in the finished product
• Packaging migrants, VCM from plastics…
Classifications
Classification of Additives:By use of food ingredient
1. To improve or maintain nutritional value• Nutritional additives, fat substitutes
2. To maintain palatability and wholesomeness• Antimicrobial agents, antioxidants, anti-browning agents
3. To enhance appeal of foods• Flavors, sweeteners, colorants, texturing agents (emulsifiers,
stabilizers, water holding or binding agents, dough conditioners, bulking agents)
4. To provide leavening or control pH• Leavening agents, acidulants, pH control agents
5. To aid in the processing of foods• Enzymes, non-enzymatic catalysts, antifoaming agents,
propellants and gases, lubricants, chelating agents, solvents
Classifications
Classification of Additives:By Technical Effect
1. Processing Additives– Substances used at the industrial level to facilitate
the processing, storage, handling, or packaging of foods, and in general are not functionally active in the final food product, although they may, using good manufacturing practices, remain in the final product at low concentrations.
2. Final Product Additives– Substances that are intentional constituents of the
final food product and generally remain functionally active following processing.
Classifications
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 7
Types of Processing Additives• Aerating and foaming
agents• Antifoam agents• Catalysts (including
enzymes)• Clarifying and flocculating
agents• Color control agents• Freezing and cooling
agents• Malting and fermenting
aids• Material handling aids
• Oxidizing-reducing agents
• pH control and modification agents
• Release and antistickagents
• Sanitizing and fumigating agents
• Separation and filtration aids
• Solvents, carriers, and encapsulating agents
• Washing and surface removal agents
Classifications
Types of Final Product Additives• Antimicrobial agents• Antioxidants• Appearance control
agents• Flavors and flavor
modifiers• Moisture control agents• Nutrient, dietary
supplements• Acidulants• Sequestrants (chelating
agents)
• Surface tension control agents
• Sweeteners• Texture and consistency
control agents– Emulsifiers and emulsifier
salts– Firming agents– Leavening agents– Masticatory substances– Propellants– Stabilizers and thickeners– Texturizers
Classifications
Top Ten Most TroublesomeIngredients in Formulation
33.3
27.2
26.7
20
15.6
13.3
12.2
11.7
10.6
10
0 10 20 30 40
Fat Re placer s/Textur e Enhancers
Swee teners (Low-calorie)
Chee se
Vegetable Pr oteins, Dairy P roteins
Fats & Oils, Flavors (Art ificial)
Gums, Dehydrated Fruits/Veg.
Starches
Anti-Oxidants/Pre ser vatives
Color s
Flavors (Natur al)
Pe rcent of re aders surveyed who rate the following categorie s asmost troublesome ingredients in formulation.
1997 FOODFORMUL AT INGProduct De velopment Surv ey
Specific Categories and Uses of Final Product Food Additives Antimicrobial Agents
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 8
Definition of Antimicrobial Agents
• Physical or chemical agents that can be added directly as a preservative or indirectly (intended for another function)
• “cidal” indicates that the compound is capable of killing (bactericidal)
• “static” indicates that the compound is capable of preventing growth (fungistatic)
Antimicrobial Agents
Antimicrobial agents must…
• Not affect the normal accepted quality of a food (texture, flavor, color)
• Not interact with other food components and become inactive or otherwise dangerous
• Work well under the intended storage conditions of the food (pH, aW, RH, temperature)
• Be stable• Be available and economical
Antimicrobial Agents
Questions to ask about antimicrobials:
• What is the specificity to act against certain microorganisms
• Can it be applied to a food and food process application?
• Does it meet prescribed regulatory requirements?– Safe for human consumption, effective in
small concentrations, does not hide any food defects, listed on the label when applicable
Antimicrobial Agents
Factors that Influence the Effectiveness of Antimicrobials
• Food composition– Moisture content– Presence of other inhibitors (salt, sugar, spices)– pH
• Contamination– Sanitary condition of ingredients and equipment– Processing methods (temperature, filtration ,
radiation)– Types of microorganisms present
• Handling of the processed product– Packaging– Length of storage– Storage environment (temperature, humidity, O2/CO2)
Antimicrobial Agents
Types of Antimicrobials• Organic acids• Parabens• Hydrophilic compounds• Sulfites• Nitrites• Hydrogen peroxide• Bacteriocins• Antibiotics• Wood smoke• Naturally occurring enzymes• Others
Antimicrobial Agents
Organic acids
• Organic acids are generally used in foods that have a pH < 5.5.– Usually used against spoilage organisms that
grow at low pH (yeast, mold, some bacteria)– Can be used against pathogens
• Organic acids take advantage of the undissociated form of the acid
Lower pH
Antimicrobial Agents
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Organic Acids
• stronger acids have higher K values, lower pK values• weaker acids have lower K values, higher pK values• pK = pH when the ratio of dissociated ions to
undissociated acid is equal to 0.5• pK = pH when half of the acid (50% of it) is dissociated
and the other half is undissociated
• For effective use of organic acids as antimicrobials, want pH of food < pK of acid
• The undissociated form of the acid is more active and can cross cell membranes
Antimicrobial Agents
Organic Acids: Mode of Action
• Lipophilic compounds• Can pass through cell membranes when in
undissociated form• Inhibit substrate uptake, disrupt
intracellular metabolism, inactivate enzymes, coagulate some proteins
• Use levels usually limited to 0.1 – 0.2% added to foods
Antimicrobial Agents
Examples of organic acids
• Acetic acid• Ascorbic acid• Benzoic acid• Citric acid• Propionates• Sorbic acid• Lactic acid
Antimicrobial Agents
Examples of organic acids• Acetic acid• Ascorbic acid• Benzoic acid• Citric acid• Propionates• Sorbic acid• Lactic acid
• Often potassium or sodium benzoate salt
• Most effective at pH 2.5-4• Use level restricted to 0.1%
– Carbonated drinks 0.03-0.05%– Noncarbonated drinks 0.1%
• More active against yeast and mold than bacteria
• Used in fruit juices and drinks, jams and jellies, pie fillings, fresh fruit cocktails, pickles, condiments
Antimicrobial Agents
Examples of organic acids• Acetic acid• Ascorbic acid• Benzoic acid• Citric acid• Propionates• Sorbic acid• Lactic acid
• Free acid and potassium salt forms– Potassium sorbate used when high
water solubility desired• Broad spectrum of antimicrobial
activity but more effective against yeast and mold than bacteria
• Effective up to pH 6.5• Neutral flavor• Frequently used in:
– dried fruits (0.02-0.05%),– pie fillings (0.05 – 0.1%), – beverage syrups (0.1%), – fruit drinks (0.025-0.075%)
Antimicrobial Agents
Examples of organic acids• Acetic acid• Ascorbic acid• Benzoic acid• Citric acid• Propionates• Sorbic acid• Lactic acid
• Sodium and calcium salts of propionic acid
• Effective mold inhibitors but no effect against yeast and bacteria
• Effective up to pH 6• Used in baked products because
do not inhibit yeast, used at 0.2 –0.4% in fruit products– Retards mold growth on blanched
apple slices, figs, cherries, blackberries, dried plums
Antimicrobial Agents
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Parabens
• Functions: broad spectrum antimicrobial agents– Due to high pKa values, they are effective at
high pH• Types: methyl, ethyl, butyl, propyl• Use levels: 10 – 100 ppm (0.01 – 0.1%)
– Nonalcoholic and alcoholic beverages, fruit fillings, jams/jellies, pickles, convectioneries, salad dressings, spreads, mustards
Antimicrobial Agents
Hydrophilic Compounds• Sulfites:
– Mechanism unknown but thought to disrupt critical enzyme systems
– More effective against molds and yeasts than bacteria– At low pH (<4.5) and low aW the fungicidal effect is
much more pronounced– Types: sulfur dioxide, sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfide,
sodium metabisulfites– Use levels: vary by country, 200-300 ppm in US– Used in: soft fruits, fruit juices, lemon juices,
beverages, wines, sausages, pickles, fresh shrimp– Note: approx. 1% of population is sensitive to these
compounds
Antimicrobial Agents
Hydrophilic Compounds
• Nitrites– Both oxidizing and reducing agent– Primarily used to control the growth and toxin
production of Clostridium botulinum– Work best in low pH foods (pH 5-6) and in the
presence of reducing agents (ascorbate, erythorbate, cysteine) and with sorbate
– Used mostly for heat processed meat, poultry, and fish that has been vacuum packaged
Antimicrobial Agents
Hydrogen Peroxide
• Used to facilitate the destruction of foodbornepathogens alone or with other means of preservation (heat).
• Solutions of 0.05 – 0.1% are recommended• Natural catalase in foods will detract from
effectiveness• Used in cheese and liquid egg processing• Also used as sanitizing agent on equipment and
packages
Antimicrobial Agents
Bacteriocins
• Byproducts that bacteria produce to attack other microorganisms– Peptides, proteins, or protein complexes– Inhibitory to closely related bacteria
• Nisin is the only commercial bacteriocinapproved for food use in US (for processed cheese, effective against Listeria monocytogenes)
Antimicrobial Agents
Antibiotics
• Secondary metabolites synthesized by many types of microbes
• Inhibitory to a wide range of microbes• Antibiotic resistance is a concern
Antimicrobial Agents
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Wood Smoke• Usually used to impart desirable flavor for meat
products and to improve texture and color attributes– Can be applied as liquid smoke or by burning
hardwoods– Production of formaldehyde and other inhibitory
compounds leads to antimicrobial properties• Temperature and time of heating, degree of
surface drying (aW), concentrations of chemicals produced all impact bactericidal and bacteriostatic properties
• Used for smoked meat, fish, cheeses
Antimicrobial Agents
Naturally occurring enzymes
• Conalbumin (egg white) binds iron• Avidin (egg white) binds biotin• Lysozyme (egg white) degrades G(+) cells• Lactoferrin (milk) binds iron• Lactoperoxidase (milk) damages
membranes
Antimicrobial Agents
Other antimicrobials
• Antioxidants (BHA, BHT)• Flavoring agents (spices, essential oils)• Emulsifiers (fatty acids and esters)• Ethylene oxide gase (surface sterilents)
Antimicrobial Agents
Antioxidants
http://www.althealth.co.uk/services/info/misc/antioxidants1.php
Definition of Antioxidants
• General:– All substances that inhibit oxidation reactions
• Compounds that interrupt the free radical chain reaction involved in lipid oxidation
• Compounds that scavenge singlet oxygen
Antioxidants
Food Antioxidants• Oil-Soluble
– BHA– BHT– TBHQ– Propyl gallate– Tocopherols– Thiodipropionic acid– Dilauryl
thiodipropionate– Ascorbyl palmitate– Ethoxyquin
• Water-Soluble– Ascorbic acid– Erythorbic acid– Glucose
oxidate/catalase– Gum guaiac– Sulfites
Antioxidants
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Commonly Used Antioxidants• BHA• BHT• TBHQ• Propyl Gallate (PG)• Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)• Erythorbic Acid• Tocopherols• Sulfites• Gum Guaiac• Spice Extracts
Antioxidants
Often used at low concentrations (0.01% of
the fat content)
In US must be < 0.02%
Japan Standards for Use
BHA
• Butylated hydroxyanisol• Often used in edible frying fats and oils,
salad oils, shortenings, nut meats, orange-flavored fruit drinks, processed fruits containing carotene pigments
• Often used in combination with other antioxidants
Antioxidants
BHT
• Butylated hydroxytoluene• Often used as antioxidant for waxes used
in packages and wrappers
Antioxidants
TBHQ
• Often the best synthetic antioxidant• Widely used in oils
Antioxidants
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Propyl Gallate
• Often used as a synergist in combination with BHA and BHT
Antioxidants
Ascorbic Acid/Sodium Ascorbate
Max. 200 mg/kg25-100 mg/lWineMax. 200 mg/kg150-200 mg/lCitrus beverages
Flavor protection in:100-500 mg/kgOlives
Prevention of discoloration in:Max. 2000 mg/kg1000-3000 mg/kgCanned fruitMax. 500 mg/kg300-500 mg/kgNectarsMax. 200 mg/kg120-200 mg/kgFruit juicesMax. 2000 mg/kg300-1000 mg/kgFrozen fruit
Prevention of browning in:
Antioxidants
Erythorbic acid/sodium erythorbate
• Primarily used as antioxidants in cured meats but also in canned and frozen fruits, fruit juices and nectars, olives, refrigerated guacamole to retard discoloration and off-flavor development
• Comparable antioxidant activity to ascorbic acid – use 1.23 kg of sodium erythorbate to replace 1 kg of ascorbic acid in frozen or canned fruit products
• Often less expensive than ascorbic acid
Antioxidants
Tocopherols
• Best antioxidant activity = 80% gamma and 20% delta mixture of natural tocopherols
• Nutritional vitamin E = alpha tocopherol• Possible replacement for synthetic
antioxidants
Antioxidants
Sulfites
• Sulfur dioside, sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfite, potassium bisulfite, sodium metabisulfite, potassium metabisulfite
• Retard enzymatic browning and reduce destruction of carotene and ascorbic acid– SO2 solutions 0.2-0.5%
• Some people are very sensitive to sulfites• Possible replacements: EDTA, blend of
erythorbic and citric acids
Antioxidants
Sulfites (cont.)
• FDA limits for residual sulfur dioxide equivalent levels in foods– Jams and jellies: 30 ppm– Nut products: 25 ppm– Dried fruits: 2000 ppm– Fruit juice concentrates: 1000 ppm– Single-strength fruit juice: 200 ppm– Maraschino cherries: 150 ppm– Wine: 275 ppm– Vinegar: 75 ppm
Antioxidants
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Gum Guaiac
• Resin containing complex phenoliccompounds
• More effective in animal fats than vegetable oils
• Approved antioxidant for natural flavoring substances used in conjunction with fruit flavors
Antioxidants
Spice Extracts
• Spice extracts do not have specific FDA approval for use as antioxidants and thus cannot be promoted as such
• However,– Rosemary-based extracts have high
antioxidant capacities• Used in processed meat and poultry
Antioxidants
Antioxidant Capacity of Select Foods
Antioxidants
Appearance Control Agents
Colors
Color Psychology• …. a lasting color
impression is made within 90 seconds and accounts for 60 percent of the acceptance or rejection of an object….
Dr. Morton Walker, The Power of Choice
Colors
Definition of a “Color Additive”
• A color additive is “any dye, pigment, or other substance made or obtained from a vegetable, animal, mineral or other source capable of coloring a food, drug, or cosmetic or any part of the human body.”
Colors
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Why Do We Use Food Colors?
Aesthetic Value Identification Judgement of Quality
Colors
Food Colors may be added to foods for the following reasons:
• To restore original appearance of food when natural colors have been damaged by heat processing
• Te ensure uniformity of color due to natural variation in color intensity (seasonal, etc.)
• To intensify colors naturally occurring in foods where color is weaker than that which consumer associates with the product
• To help protect flavor and light-sensitive vitamins during storage by sunscreen effect
• To give attractive appearance to foods that would otherwise look unappetizing (colorless gelatin jelly)
• To help preserve the identity or character by which foods are recognized
• To serve as visual indication of quality
Types of FDA Regulated Colorants
• Certified Colors• Compounds of known
structure, produced by chemical synthesis and conforming to high purity specifications established by the FDA.
Colors Exempt from Certification
Colors typically referred to as‘Natural Colors’ by the food industry. They are obtained from vegetable, animal, and mineral sources, or are synthetic duplicates of naturally existing colorants.
Colors
Certified Colorants• Dyes
– Colorants that function by dissolution
• Pigments– Insoluble colorants that
function by dispersion
Both dyes and lakes must have every batch certified by the FDA in the US
Colors
FD&C Certified Dye and Lake Colors Approved for use in the US
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Synthetic Colors Approved for use in Japan
Major Western European Synthetic Dyes for Food Use
How Dyes Function
• Dyes selectively absorb some wavelengths of light. They allow the balance of the wavelengths to be transmitted without scattering.
• Dyes always make the product appear darker since they reduce the amount of light which reaches the eye.
White Light
Colors
FDA Approved Certified Food Dyes
FD&C Blue #1 (sky blue; turquoise)
• FD&C Blue #2 (royal blue)
• FD&C Green #3 (sea green)
• FD&C Yellow #5 (lemon yellow)
• FD&C Yellow #6 (orange)
• FD&C Red #40 (orange red)
• FD&C Red #3 (pink)
Colors
Typical Uses of Dyes
• Any application in which there is enough water (or some other solvent) to dissolve the color
• Very strong…a little goes a long way
BeveragesDessert MixesConfectionsDairy Products
Pet FoodsCerealsBaked Goods
Colors
Potential Issues with DyesDull effectspH stabilityPrecipitationFading
Strong LightMetal IonsMicro-OrganismsExcessive HeatingOxidizing and Reducing Agents
Powder appearanceFlashingSolubility
Colors
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Certified LakesLakes–Extensions of the water soluble
dyes on a substratum of alumina hydrate
–Color by dispersion–Common carriers: water,
propylene glycol, glycerine, sugar syrup, oil
Colors
How Pigments Function• Pigment particles are dispersed
throughout the product, not dissolved.• The pigment selectively absorbs some
wavelengths of light and reflects others.
White Light
Pigments contribute to the opacity and can lighten or darken theproduct being colored.
Lakes are one type of pigment.
Colors
Typical Uses of Lakes
• Any application in which they can be suitably and uniformly dispersed
• Lakes are also used in products where color migration or bleed is not desired.
Icings & FrostingsCompound CoatingsDry mix productsSemi – moist pet food
PharmaceuticalsCosmeticsPlasticsInks
Colors
Potential Problems with Lakes
• Incomplete Dispersion• Settling• Haze• Shade/Strength Variation• pH Stability
Colors
How Dyes and Lakes Differ
Characteristics Lakes Dyes
Solubility Insoluble Soluble in water, propylene glycol,
glycerine Method of coloring
Dispersion
Dissolution
Pure dye content
Generally 10-40%
~90% (Primary
colors) Rate of use
0.1% to 0.3%
(1000 – 3000 ppm)
0.001% to 0.03% (10 – 300 ppm)
Colors
Market Forms• Dyes
– Primary Powder– Primary Granules– Powder Blends– Powder Monoblends– “Cut” Colors and Blends– Liquid Colors
LakesPrimary powdersPowder blendsDispersions
Colors
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Types of FDA Regulated Colorants
• Certified Colors• Compounds of known
structure, produced by chemical synthesis and conforming to high purity specifications established by the FDA.
Colors Exempt from Certification
Colors typically referred to as‘Natural Colors’ by the food industry. They are obtained from vegetable, animal, and mineral sources, or are synthetic duplicates of naturally existing colorants.
Colors
21 CFR Part 73 (exempt)
• 26 Permitted for Foods• Many Restrictions
–Tagetes Meal–Grape Skin Extract
• 28 Permitted for Drugs• 28 Permitted for Cosmetics• 5 Permitted for Use Across the Board
Colors
Food Color Additives Exempt from Certification
Natural Color Additives in Japan Common Exempt Colorants
• Turmeric Oleoresin
• Annatto Extract• Paprika Oleoresin• Beta Carotene• Cochineal
Extract/Carmine
Vegetable/Fruit JuiceAnthocyaninsRed Beet Juice Concentrate
Caramel Color
Titanium Dioxide
Colors
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Turmeric Oleoresin Applications
• Ice Cream• Pickles
• Yogurt• Mustard• Dairy
Applications• Salad
Dressings• Chewing Gum
Salad Dressings
Dry Mix Soup
Baked Goods
Seasonings
Cereals
Candy/Confection
Colors Annatto Extract Applications• Beverages
• Ice Cream• Frozen Novelties• Cereal• Yogurt• Salad Dressing• Fruit Preparations• Baked Goods• Confections• Ice-cream Cones• Sausage Casings• Cheese• Eggnog
Colors
Paprika Oleoresin Applications
• Salad Dressings
• Popcorn Products
• Snack Foods
• Processed Cheeses
• Coatings• Breadings
Breadings
Sweet Goods
Gravies
Marinades
Crackers
Cookies
Colors
Beta Carotene Applications• Butter• Dairy Products• Popcorn Oil• Margarine• Snack Foods• Soups • Salad
Dressings• Confections• Baked Goods• Cheeses• Beverages
Colors
Carmine Applications
Beverages
Dairy Products
Yogurt
Ice Cream
Tomato Extenders
Confections
Surimi
Cosmetics
Pharmaceuticals
Colors
Anthocyanins
• Yellow-Red– Black Currant– Elderberry – Hibiscus
• Blue-Red– Red Cabbage– Grape Skin Extract– Grape Juice Conc. – Black Carrot
Colors
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 20
pH’s <3.8(best stability)
pH 11.0 (not stable)
pH 8.0(unstable)
pH’s 3.8-7.9(stabilitydecreases)
Alcohol SolubleChange shade with change in pHVarying shades of redMost stable at pH less than 3.8
Anthocyanin PropertiesColors
Anthocyanin Applications
• Beverages• Fruit Preps• Confections
Colors
Red Beet Applications
• Ice Cream• Yogurt• Fruit Preps• Frozen
Novelties• Confections• Tomato
Extenders• Dry Mix
Beverages•
Colors
Caramel Color Applications• Baked Goods
• Beverages
• Gravies
• Sauces
• Syrups
• Seasonings
• Pet Foods
• Candy
• Alcoholic Beverages
• Dry Mixes
Colors
Titanium Dioxide Applications
• Opacifier
• Pastel Candies
• Pet Foods
• Dairy Products• Mozzarella
Cheese
• Cottage Cheese
• Cream Cheese
• Low fat / No fat (replaces opacity)
• Salad Dressings
Colors
Exempt Colorants
• Exempt Shades Easy to Obtain– Yellow– Orange– Red
• Exempt Shades Difficult to Obtain– Blue– Green
Colors
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 21
Typical Usage Levels
• Annatto Extract 0.04-0.08%• Beta Carotene 0.05-0.10%• Cochineal Extract 0.05-0.15%• Carmine Liq. Color 0.05-0.10%• Vegetable Juice Conc.. 0.03-0.20%• Fruit Juice Conc.. 0.05-0.15%• Caramel Colors 0.10-0.30%
Colors
Labeling of Certified Colors
21 CFR Section 101.22
May 1993 - NLEA removed prior labeling exemption
Must declare individually by name
Prefix “FD&C” and “No.” not requiredFD&C Blue No. 1Blue No. 1
Use of “Lake” suffix is mandatoryBlue No. 1 Lake
Colors
Labeling of Exempt Colorants
Cannot use the term “natural”
Several Options Artificial Color (Added)Color Added“Colored with name of color”Colorant name (color)
Do not need to declare titanium dioxide by name
Colors
Flavors and Flavor Modifiers
Flavoring agentsFlavor potentiators
Flavor Definition
• Legal Definition– Flavors are mixtures of ingredients whose
exact composition is usually known only to their supplier and which are sold in bulk to food and beverage manufacturers. They are labeled as FLAVORS according to definitions found in the code of federal regulations title 21, part 101.
– The composition of flavors are considered trade secrets
Flavor: Definition• “Sensation”: The sum of those characteristics of
any material taken in the mouth, perceived principally by the senses of taste and smell and also by the general tactile and pain receptors in the mouth as received and interpreted by the brain (Hall, 1968)
• A substance which may be a single chemical entity, or a blend of chemicals of natural or synthetic origin whose primary purpose is to provide all or part of the particular flavor effect to any food or other product taken in the mouth (Society of Flavor Chemists)
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 22
Flavor: Definition• A composite of chemosensations:
taste, olfaction, and trigeminal (nerve) sensations– Without olfaction/ability to smell, food no
longer has as much flavor (noticed by anosmics or you when you have a cold)
• Flavor results from compounds divided into two broad classes:– Those responsible for taste– Those responsible for odors (aroma
substances)– Note: there are compounds that do both
Definition of Flavoring Agent
• In the US, natural fruit flavors represent over 1/3 of the flavor market
• In the US, natural + synthetic fruit flavors = 48% of the sales value of flavor industry
• Largest user of fruit flavors = fruit beverages (including alcoholic beverages)
Flavors
Reasons for adding flavors to food products
• To create a totally new taste• To enhance, extend, round out, or increase the
potency of flavors already present• To supplement or replace flavors to compensate
for losses during processing• To simulate other more expensive flavors or
replace unavailable flavors• To mask less desirable flavors (NOT hide
spoilage)
Flavors
21CFR 101.22Flavors
Flavors Flavors
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 23
Flavors Flavors
Flavors
Chemical Flavor Classification
• Natural • Natural Type• Natural WONF
• BATF (0.1% artificial top note, 40ppm vanillin, 250ppm maltol)
• Artificial• N/A
– Natural and Artificial• Nature Identical
Flavors
Regulatory Labeling• Kosher (Parve, Dairy)
• Non-Kosher (contains meat, grape skin, etc.)
• Halal (contains no alcohol)
• GMO free
• Allergens (Peanut, Soy, egg, etc.)
Flavors
Beverage New Product Positioning Claims
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 24
Flavor Trends in Juice Products Flavor Houses
• Bell www.bellff.com
• Degussa www.degussa.com
• Dragoco www.dragoco.com
• Firmenichwww.firmenich.com
• Givaudanwww.givaudan.com
• IFF www.iff.com
• Mane www.vmf-mane.com
• McCormick www.mccormick.com
• FONA (Flavors of North America) www.fonaflavors.com
• Sensient www.sensient-tech.com
• Takasago www.takasago.com
• Wild www.WILDflavors.com
Definition of Flavor Enhancer• Enhance flavors at levels below their independent
detection thresholds and contribute umami taste to foods when used in excess of detection threshold– Enhance flavors of vegetables, dairy products, meats, poultry,
fish, seafoods• Examples:
– 5’ribonucleotides (5’ inosine monophosphate)– Glutamate (monosodium glutamate)– Yeast extracts and vegetable hydrolysates
– Maltol and ethyl maltol used to enhance flavors for sweet goods and fruits used at 50 ppm
Moisture Control Agents
Nutrient, Dietary Supplements
Definition of Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
• Nutrient: – A chemical compound (such as protein, fat,
carbohydrate, vitamins, or minerals) that make up foods.
• A dietary supplement is a product (other than tobacco) that:– is intended to supplement the diet; – contains one or more dietary ingredients (including
vitamins; minerals; herbs or other botanicals; amino acids; and other substances) or their constituents;
– is intended to be taken by mouth as a pill, capsule, tablet, or liquid; and
– is labeled on the front panel as being a dietary supplement.
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
21 CFRNutrient, Dietary Supplement
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 25
Vitamin Definition
• Organic compounds, usually of low molecular weight, that are essential nutrients for normal body growth and functions
• The human cannot synthesize vitamins – Except vitamin D with exposure to sunlight– Therefore vitamin sources must be
external (food and/or dietary supplements)
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Vitamins
• There are 13 recognized vitamins• Classified as fat soluble or water soluble• Each has unique chemistry and RDI• Each must be considered in food
processing and formulation– Concentration and bioavailability will
influence food quality
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
100% Daily Value
10 mgPantothenic acid0.3 mgBiotin6 µgVitamin B12
0.4 mgFolic acid2 mgVitamin B6
30 IUVitamin E400 IUVitamin D20 mgNiacin1.7 mgRiboflavin1.5 mgThiamin60 mgVitamin C5000 IUVitamin A
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Types of Fortification
• Restoration– Restore losses due to processing and handling
• Standardization– Enrich to meet current food standards
• Fortification– Enrich to meet a specific nutritional profile
• Replacement – A modified or new product replacing a standard
product (reduced, low, non-, light, etc.)
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Why Fortify?
• Processing can reduce vitamin content or bioavailability– Heat sensitive vitamins
• D, E, thiamin, riboflavin, pyridoxine, pantothenicacid, folic acid
– Oxygen sensitive vitamins• Fat soluble (ADEK), C, thiamin, biotin,
pantothenic acid, folic acid• Can add antioxidants to reduce lipid oxidation
and oxidative rancidity to slow damage to carotenoids and ACE
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Why Fortify?
• Variation of vitamins in plants– Growth conditions, genetic variation, postharvest
practices– Soil conditions (moisture, fertilizer)– Washing, blanching, cooking will decrease vitamin
content– Vitamin C content dramatically decreases after
harvest and with maturity of plant– Milling of cereals reduces vitamin content
• Flours usually fortified with B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin)
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 26
Classes of Vitamins
• Fat soluble– A (retinol)– D (cholecalciferol, D3)– E (tocopherol)– K (phytonadione, K1)
• Water soluble– B vitamins
• Thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin/niacinamide (B3), pyridoxine (B6), cyanocobalamin (B12), folic acid, pantothenic acid, biotin
– C (ascorbic acid)
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Vitamin A as a Food Ingredient
• Soluble in oil but dry vitamin A can be dispersed in water
• Isomerizes in acid (< pH 6), stable at pH > 7• Sensitive to air oxidation (catalyzed by Fe
and Cu)• Palmitate more stable than acetate in solution• Inactivated by UV light• Sensitive to heat and humidity• Stabilized by reducing agents
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Vitamin D as a Food Ingredient
• Soluble in oil but dry vitamin D is dispersible in water
• pH stable• Similar but slightly more stability than
vitamin A (sensitive to oxygen and light)• Analysis difficult at food occurrence
levels
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Vitamin E as a Food Ingredient• Unesterified forms used in foods• Soluble in oil but dry vitamin E is
dispersible in water• Free tocopherol sensitive to air
oxidation (especially at pH>7)• Free tocopherol oxidation catalyzed by
metals (Fe, Cu)• Acetate ester very stable• Tocopherol used as an antioxidant (in
many oils, e.g. safflower, etc.)
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Vitamin K as a Food Ingredient
• Soluble in oil but dry vitamin K is dispersible in water
• Stable to air• Stable in acid• Unstable in strong bases• Decomposed by sunlight
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Water Soluble Vitamins
B vitaminsC
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 27
B Vitamins
• Thiamin (B1)• Riboflavin (B2)• Niacin/niacinamide/nicotinamide (B3)• Pyridoxine/pyridoxal (B6)• Cyanobalamin (B12)• Folic acid• Pantothenic acid• Biotin
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Thiamin (B1) as a Food Ingredient
• Water soluble (HCl 1g/1ml, mono 1g/35ml)• Is the most unstable B vitamin
– Increasingly unstable as pH rises to neutral and greater
– Completely degraded in chocolate cake (pH = 8.0)• Sensitive to oxidizing and reducing agents• Split by sulfite• Off flavor and aroma potential• Good stability in crystal form
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Riboflavin (B2) as a Food Ingredient
• water soluble (120mg/L, B2-5’phosphate 11.2g/100ml)
• Light sensitive especially at pH>7• Stable in acid solution, unstable in
basic/alkaline solution• Moderately heat stable in neutral solutions• Sensitive to reducing agents• Orange color
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Niacin (B3) as a Food Ingredient
• Water soluble – Niacin = 1g/60 ml– Niacinamide = 1g/1ml
• Very stable – not sensitive to heat, light, air, alkali
• Best to use niacinamide in foods since niacin is a vasodilator
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Pyridoxine (B6) as a Food Ingredient
• water soluble (1g/5ml)• Most stable of 6 vitamin structures• Relatively stable and heat resistant• Dilute solutions are sensitive to light and
alkali• Activity = pyridoxine * 1.21 = pyridoxine
HCl
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Cyanocobalamin (B12) as a Food Ingredient
• Water soluble• Hygroscopic crystal• Moderate/good heat stability at pH 4-5• Destroyed rapidly when retorted at high
pH• Decomposed by reducing agents (Fe)• Assay sensitive to light in dilute solution• Red in color
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 28
Folic Acid as a Food Ingredient
• Water soluble • Unstable at pH<5• Stable to heat in neutral and alkaline
solutions• Sensitive to light• Stabilized by ascorbic acid• Destruction catalyzed by copper• Light yellow in color
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Pantothenic Acid as a Food Ingredient
• water soluble (1g/3ml)• Heat stable at pH=5-7• Increasingly unstable as pH drops
below 5• Decomposed by hydrolysis (rate
influenced by pH)
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Biotin as a Food Ingredient
• water soluble (1g/5000ml)• Good stability to heat, dilute acids,
alkali, oxygen, and light• Inactivated by avidin in raw egg whites
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Vitamin C as a Food Ingredient• Water soluble (1g/3ml)• Usually loss of vitamin C in foods
exceeds that of B and fat soluble vitamins
• Stable in crystal form• In solution is readily oxidized by
atmospheric oxygen and oxidizing agents (catalyzed by Cu, Fe)
• Most stable in pH 4-6– More sensitive to base than acid
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Vitamin C as a Food Ingredient• Sensitive to heat and light• Can decolorize azo and
triphenylmethane colors• Anthocyanins are unstable in presence
of oxygen and ascorbic acid• Will stabilize carotenoids (β-carotene)
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Mineral Definition
• An inorganic substance• Something neither animal nor vegetable• A solid homogeneous crystalline
chemical element or compound that results from the inorganic processes of nature (or synthetic substance with same chemical composition and crystalline form)
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 29
Primary Functions of Minerals
• Nutrients • Biological functions• Minor structural functions
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Functional Properties of Minerals in Foods
• Bleaching• pH control• Buffering• Antioxidant• Chelating or sequestering• Oxidation or reducing agents
– Transition metals will catalyze lipid oxidation• Preservation by lowering aW• Leavening• Coloring
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Types of Minerals
• Elements• Salts
– Most minerals added to foods are salts• Complexes• Ash
– Minerals are the constituents in foods that remain as ash after incineration
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Elements
• 30 elements are required or beneficial to humans
• 7 are macronutrients • 7 are micronutrients • 18 added to foods for nutritional
purposes• 12 added to foods for nutrition and
functional properties– Added to foods as salt forms
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
ElementsMAIN ELEMENTS
• Calcium• Phosphorus• Potassium• Chlorine• Sodium• Magnesium
TRACE ELEMENTS
• Iron• Fluorine • Zinc• Silicon • Copper• Boron • Vanadium• Arsenic• selenium• Manganese• Iodine• Nickel • Molybdenum• Chromium• Cobalt
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
12 Elements Added to Foods for Functional Properties
• Sodium• Magnesium• Aluminum• Silicon• Phosphorus• Sulfur• Chlorine• Potassium• Calcium• Titanium• Bromine• Tin
Examples for each are contained in the following
slides
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 30
Sodium
• Sodium is the anion in the salts of many inorganic and organic compounds (improves solubility)
• Seasoning/flavor• Preservative (lowers aW)• Can use to salt in proteins
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Magnesium
• Solubility properties• White color (milk of magnesia)• Part of hard water
– Desired for brewing because dissolved magnesium (and calcium) salts increase acidity of the wort
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Aluminum
• Sodium aluminum phosphate –– Provides acid in baking powders– Hydrated Al3+ reacts with bicarbonate (HCO3
-) to release CO2
• Aluminum salts firm pickles• Colloidal calcium phosphate
– White opaque color of milk• Aluminum calcium silicate anticaking agent• Aluminum hydroxide used to bind water
soluble dyes to form lakes
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Silicon
• Silicon dioxide = anticaking or freeflowagent– Flours, powdered soups, powdered coffee
whiteners, baking powder, dried eggs• Silicones with methyl groups used as
anti-spattering agents in cooking oils
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Phosphorus
• Buffering• pH stabilization• Acidification or alkalization• Sequestering of metals• Chelation of metals• Water-binding in protein foods• Emulsification• Anticaking• Antimicrobial preservation• Leavening
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Sulfur
• In foods, use oxo-species of sulfur– Bisulfite, sulfite, sulfurous acid, metabisulfite,
sulfur dioxide• Sulfur dioxide –
– Preserving dried fruits and vegetables (color)– Retard growth of unwanted organisms in wine– Antioxidant properties
• Preserve color (bleaches or oxidizes products that discolor the food)
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 31
Chlorine
• Chlorine and chlorine dioxide gases used to bleach flour
• Improves solubility of salts in water
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Potassium
• Anion of many salts – good solubility• Potassium ion used to help gel
carrageenan• Potassium hydroxide used to peel fruit
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Calcium
• Calcium chloride used as firming agent for canned foods– Tomatoes, potatoes, apple slices
• Calcium ion active ingredient in leavening agents (monocalciumphosphate) = fast acting leavening agent
• Monocalcium phosphate acidulant
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Titanium
• Titanium dioxide used as white color (levels up to 1% finished weight allowed)– Confectionary panned goods (jelly beans),
icings, sugar syrups
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Bromine
• Calcium and potassium bromate used as bleaching agents and dough conditioners (improve strength, grain, texture, water absorption, crumb resiliency)
• Being phased out of use because is possible carcinogen
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Tin
• Not widely used• Stannous chloride used as food
preservative• Tin salt retains color in asparagus
Nutrient, Dietary Supplement
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 32
Acidulants
Definition of Acidulants• Acids that occur naturally in fruits and
vegetables or are used as additives in food processing
• Functions:– Acidifier– pH regulator– Preservative and curing agent– Flavoring agent– Chelating agent– Buffer– Gelling/coagulating agent– Antioxidant synergist
Acidulants
Types of Acidulants
• Acetic acid• Adipic acid• Citric acid• Fumaric acid• Lactic acid• Malic acid• Phosphoric acid• Tartaric acid
Acidulants
Japan Standards for Use
Typical usage of acidulants in fruit processing (table 13.4)
Acidulants
Tartness comparisons• At equal concentrations, acidulants vary in their
ability to depress pH and the level of acidic taste or tartness intensity
55-60Phosphoric (85% soln.)
110-115Adipic
78-83Malic
80-85Tartaric
67-72Fumaric
100Citric, anhydrous
% to replace anhydrous citric acidAcid
Acidulants
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 33
Citric Acid
• The most versatile and widely-used food acidulant
• Characteristics: – excellent solubility, extremely low toxicity,
chelating ability, pleasantly sour taste• FDA designates citric acid and its sodium,
potassium, and calcium salts as GRAS for general purpose uses
Acidulants
Citric Acid: Functions
• Lower pH, buffer– Widest use in beverages
• Preservative, sequestrant• Flavor enhancer• Antioxidant synergist with ascorbic or
erythorbic acid• Prevent crystallization of honey
Acidulants
Malic Acid
• Second major acid next to citric• Strongly associated with apples• Used in fruit-flavored sodas (apple or berry
flavors), may mask high-intensity sweetener off-tastes in sugar-free drinks (synergism with aspartame)
• Blends of citric and malic acid may exhibit some better taste characteristics
Acidulants
Phosphoric Acid• Not recognized as an acidulant in Japan• The only inorganic acid extensively used as a
food acidulant, least costly of the food acidulants, gives the lowest attainable pH
• Has a characteristic flavor and tartness and is almost entirely used in cola-flavored carbonated beverages
• Sometimes used as buffering agent in jams and jellies to adjust acidity for maximum gel formation
• Food-grade phosphoric acid mostly supplied as 75% aqueous solution
Acidulants
Fumaric Acid• Use in mixtures with 0.3% dioctyl sodium
sulfosuccinate (DOSS) and 0.5% calcium carbonate to speed solubility
• Used as modified acid for use in dry beverage powders, frozen fruit concentrates
• Increases strength of gelatin gels and acts as a calcium liberator incorporated in alginate preparations
• Stabilize suspended matter in in flash-pasteurized and frozen juice concentrates and inhibits development of off-odors and darkening
Acidulants
Adipic Acid
• Often used in dry food products (it is nonhygroscopic and may extent shelf-life in humid conditions)
• Adds supplementary flavor to grape-flavored products
Acidulants
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 34
Lactic Acid
• Has a mild taste relative to other food acids
• Often sold as 50% and 80% solutions that are colorless and odorless
• Used in frozen desserts, jams, jellies to add slight tartness without masking natural fruit
• Used as gelling agent for demethylatedpectins (dietetic/sugar-free jams/jellies)
Acidulants
Tartaric Acid
• EC regulations indicate this should not be used in sparkling waters
• Widely used in cranberry and grape flavored foods and beverages
• Used in candies with citric acid to produce tart and sour flavors
Acidulants
Vinegar
• Cider vinegar (US), wine vinegar (EU), malt vinegar (UK)
• 4-8% solution of acetic acid has similar taste to cider vinegar
• Vinegar powder used in dry seasonongblends
Acidulants
Sequestrants (Chelating Agents)
Definition of Sequestrant
• To sequester = “to withdraw from use”• Ingredients added to form complexes with
metal ions and thereby stabilize foods– Any molecule with an unshared electron pair
can form complexes with metal ions in a favorable physical environment
• Act synergistically with antioxidants
Sequestrant
Types of Sequestrants• EDTA• Polycarboxylic acids
– Citric acid– Malic acid– Tartaric acid– Oxalic acid– Succinic acid
• Polyphosphoric acids– Adenosine triphosphate– phyrophosphate
Calcium, sodium, and potassium salts of these increase solubility
Sequestrant
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 35
EDTA
• The EDTA molecule can bind to metal ions by forming six bonds to it - two from nitrogen atoms in amino groups and four from oxygen atoms in carboxyl groups.
Sequestrant
Sweeteners
NutritiveNonnutritive
Definition of Sweeteners
• Nutritive:– Ingredients that are metabolized and provide
calories– May also function as flavor, body, bulk,
texturizing, aW lowering, and viscosity agents and lower the freezing point
• Nonnutritive:– Ingredients that are non-caloric– Many high-intensity sweeteners fall in this
category (>30 times sweeter than sucrose)
Sweeteners
Sweetness
• Sucrose is the standard against which sweeteners are measured in terms of quality taste and taste profile
Types of nutritive sweeteners
• Sugars– Sucrose– Glucose– Fructose– Galactose– Mannose– Maltose– Xylose– Lactose
• Polyols– Mannitol– Lactitol– Isomalt– Xylitol– Sorbitol– Maltitol– Hydrogenated corn
syrup
Sweeteners
May be “ingredients” not “additives”
Types of nonnutritive sweeteners
• Acesulfame K• Alitame• Aspartame• Cyclamate• Glycyrrhizin• Monelin• Neohesperitin dihydrochalcone• Saccharin• Stevioside• Sucralose• Thaumatin
Sweeteners
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 36
Table of Sweeteners and Regulatory Status
• Table 13.3
Sweeteners
Questions to ask about non-nutritive sweeteners
• Regulations on use• Price• Safety• Taste• Solubility• Stability in your product
Sweeteners
Economics of Sweeteners
Alitame
• 2000x sweeter than sucrose• Approved for use in foods, beverages, and
as table top sweeteners in Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Colombia, China, Indonesia, and Mexico.
• Approval is pending in USA, Brazil, Canada
Sweeteners
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 37
Cyclamate
• 30 x sweeter than sucrose• Banned in some countries (including US),
reapproved in over 50 countries• Enhance fruit flavors, even in low
concentrations, and can mask some natural tartness of citrus fruits
• Has lower specific gravity and osmotic pressure than sucrose syrups, therefore do not draw water out of canned fruits
Sweeteners
Glycyrrhizin
• US FDA GRAS status to ammoniated glycyrrhizin for use as flavor enhancer and natural flavoring agent
• Japan – used as a sweetener
Sweeteners
Nonhesperidin DC
• 2000x sweeter than sucrose• Currently used in Belgium, Holland,
Germany• Often coupled with other sweeteners
(aspartame and aceK)• Recommended for fruit juices and nectars
Sweeteners
Stevioside
• 300x sweeter than sucrose• Approved for sweetening use in Japan,
Republic of Korea, Brazil
Sweeteners
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 38
Thaumatin
• 3000x sweeter than sucrose• Used primarily as a flavor enhancer• Approved in US, EU, Japan, others
Sweeteners
Tagatose
• 0.9x as sweet as sucrose• Has the bulk of sucrose, is almost as
sweet, but provides only 1.5 kcal/g• Declared GRAS by manuracturer’s self-
determination process
Sweeteners
Production of Polyols
Use of Polyols Polyol Functionality• Polyols are derived from sugars, but they are not
processed by the body like sugars. Polyols have many advantages such as reduced calories as compared to sugar, reduced insulin response, ability to be labeled "sugar-free" and "no sugar added", do not promote tooth decay, and do not brown in bakery applications (i.e. no Maillard reaction).
• Polyols are used mostly in confectionery, food, oral care, pharmaceutical, and industrial applications. Some characteristics of polyols are fewer calories, pleasant sweetness, ability to hold moisture, and improved processing. Polyols serve as humectants, bulking agents, and freeze point depressants.
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 39
Polyol Functionality
• Sweet• Cool• Not fully digested in body• Non-cariogenic• Beneficial to colon health• Laxative effects
Spipolyols.com – refer to for many applications
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 40
Texture and Consistency Control Agents
Emulsifiers and emulsifier saltsFirming agents
Leavening agentsMasticatory substances
PropellantsStabilizers and thickeners
Texturizers
Emulsifiers and Emulsifier Salts
What Are Emulsifiers• Chemical agents which reduce surface tension between
two normally immiscible agents (water and oil) and allow then to mix together.
• Agitation is typically required.• Produces either an oil in water (o/w) or water in oil (w/o)
emulsion.• Results in small droplets being dispersed within a
continuous phase.• Droplets are held interspersed by the emulsifiers
employed.
Emulsifiers
Emulsion Examples• Water in oil
– examples: margarine and butter– water is the dispersed phase and oil the
continuous phase• Oil in water
– examples: milk, ice cream, mayonnaise– oil is dispersed phase and water the
continuous phase
Emulsifiers
Stearic acid [R = -(CH2)16CH3]OOCR
CC
C
HOH
HH
HH OH
HCC
C
H
O P O N(CH3)3
RCOOH
RCOO
H H
OH
O+
RCH2O S O
O
OH
-
Nonionic 1-monoglyceride
Amphoteric - lecithin
Anionic lauryl sulfate
Emulsifier Chemistry
Hydrophobic & Hydrophilic Domains
stearic
Emulsifiers
fragmentation to meta stable colloids
Shear
surfactant micelle
surfactant molecule
polar
nonpolar
dispersed phase
Brownian motion
Emulsifier Structure/Function Mechanisms
1. Electrostatic - phospholipids & proteinsrepulsion
Emulsifiers
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 41
1. Electrostatic
2. Steric hindrance
3. Particle adsorption
Emulsifier Structure/Function Mechanisms
3. 3.
Water
Oil
2.
Emulsifiers
How Emulsifiers Work
• Electrostatic - charged emulsifiers like lecithins and proteins; alternate charges attracted to polar headgroup creates ion clouds to repel like droplets.
• Steric - non-ionic emulsifiers like MG and polysorbates; in o/w emulsions, hydrophilic group holds a layer of water and repels like hydrophilic micelles.
• Adsorbtion - small particles held on the surface of emulsion droplets that protrude into the preferred liquid.
Emulsifiers
How To Select Emulsifiers• In theory, selection is based upon HLB values
– hydrophilic/lipophilic balance– values of between 1 and 20; 1-8 lipophilic and 9-20 hydrophilic– HLB is a calculated value based upon the chemical groups
present in the compound
• In reality, historical uses and experience help with proper selection– some situations require only one emulsifier– most use a blend of emulsifiers– stabilizers are often used to “tie up” available continuous phase
Emulsifiers
Selecting Emulsifiers
• Product design involves determining:– the problem– knowing what the emulsifier can & cannot do– on basis of food system functionality, will an
emulsifier solve that problem?– select the appropriate emulsifier/s – optimize usage levels
Emulsifiers
Selecting emulsifiers• Functionality• Cost $
– Plastics vs. powders
• Low Fat– Flavor impact problems
• Regulations– MG & DG not regulated, polysorbates more highly
regulated (U.S.)
• Synergism– Work best in combination with each other
Emulsifiers
Common Emulsifiers• Lecithins (phospholipids); baked goods, chocolates,
cooking sprays, confections, instantized foods• Mono and diglycerides; bakery, frozen desserts,
icings, toppings, peanut butter• Sucrose esters; wide range of HLB dependent on
ester number• Sorbitans (Spans 60); toppings and cake mixes• Polysorbates
– Tween 60- cake mixes and icing; Tween 65- ice cream, custards; Tween 80- oils in diet foods, vitamin-mineral preps, fat-soluble vitamins
• Stearoyl lactates; baked goods• Proteins (milk proteins)
Emulsifiers
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 42
Fats in food systems interact with other components, usually at an interface:
• liquid–liquid• air–liquid • solid-liquid
Emulsifiers:• ingredient component (e.g., egg yolk)• additive (e.g., monoglyceride)
Rheological & Textural - EmulsifiersEmulsifiers
Rheological & Textural - Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers: • decrease surface tension of dispersed phase
• surface active agents• solubilizing agents• dispersants• wetting agents• whipping agents• foaming agents• defoaming agents• viscosity modifiers
Emulsifiers
Stearic acid [R = -(CH2)16CH3]OOCR
CC
C
HOH
HH
HH OH
HCC
C
H
O P O N(CH3)3
RCOOH
RCOO
H H
OH
O+
RCH2O S O
O
OH
-
Nonionic 1-monoglyceride
Amphoteric lecithin
Anionic lauryl sulfate
Rheological & Textural - Emulsifiers
Hydrophobic & Hydrophilic Domains
Emulsifiers
Rheological & Textural - Emulsifiers
Shear
fragmentation to meta stable colloids
Emulsion: homogeneous mixture of two fluids that are normally immiscible
Dispersion of fine droplets in a continuous/bulk phase
surfactant micelle
surfactant molecule
polar
nonpolar
Dispersed phase
Brownian motion
Emulsifiers
Bulk
Oil-in-water emulsion
Water-in-oil emulsion
Physical State: Functionality Affected:Melting & Solidification
Snap & Appearance
Viscosity
Melting & Solidification
Stability
Whipping Qualities
Viscosity & De-emulsification
Melting & Solidification
Stability
Plasticity & Consistency
Spreadability & ViscosityLipid
H2O
H2O
oil
lipid phase
Rheological & Textural - EmulsifiersEmulsifiers
PhospholipidsLecithin:
• important emulsifier in the food industry• by-product of processing crude soybean oil• complex of phospholipids, glycolipids, TAGs, smallquantities FAs, sphingolipids
• fractionation new products of variable functionality
Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Balance (HLB) = High or LowFood technologists calculate:
HLB values = ∑(hydrophilic values) - ∑(lipophilic values) + 7
Emulsifiers
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 43
Phospholipids
• HLB of 2-6: good W/O emulsifier, retards wetting
• HLB of 7-9: good wetting agent
• HLB of 10-18: good O/W emulsifier, wetting of fat powders
Wetting:
High surface tension
Reduced surface tension
(θ < 90°)H2O
(θ > 90°)H2Oθ
Emulsifiers
Lecithin
Enzyme-digested Lecithin
fatty acid part
phospholipid
Either of choline, ethanolamine, inositol, serine
P X
fatty acid part
phospholipid
Either of choline, ethanolamine, inositol, serine
P X
Enzyme-Digested Lecithinfatty acid part
phospholipidP
Hydroxyl group
Market products are paste lecithin & powdered lecithin of high purity.Uses: viscosity control & wetting, anti-spattering & anti-staling, also used in chocolate
Enzyme-digested or enzyme-treated lecithin is improved through strengthening the hydrophilicity by a treatment with phospholipase
Emulsifiers
Monoglycerides (MG)fatty acid part
hydroxy grouphydroxy group
Diglyceridesfatty acid parts
hydroxy group
Acetylated Monoglyceride (AMG)
fatty acid part
hydroxy groupacetyl group
Glycerine + plant/animal oil/fat produced by interesterification
Uses: emulsifier W/O, foaming agent, starch modifying agent, anti-foam, anti-tack, anti-bacterial, anti-staling, & softening
A very stable oil, peroxide value not increased at 97 C for 1,000 h. Stable α-crystals
Uses: added to hydrogenated fats (margarines), coatings, plasticizer, solvent, & powdered foaming agent
Emulsifiers
fatty acid part
hydroxy groupacetyl group
Lactylated Monoglycerate (LMG)
Foaming ability > emulsifier ability
Uses: in shortenings for cakes, desserts, & foam aeration for cream, by itself or with MGs, & gloss enhancement
Citric Acid Esters of Monoglycerides
fatty acid part
hydroxy groupcitric acid
Highly hydrophilic emulsifier, stable α-crystal structure
Uses: margarine, dairy products (in coffee whitener & cream), an emulsion stabilizer for mayonnaise & dressings because of strong acid-resistance
Emulsifiers
Diacetyl Tartaric Acid Esters of Monoglycerides (DATEM)
Succinic Acid Esters of Monoglyceride (SMG)
fatty acid part
hydroxy groupsuccinic acid
tartaryl groups
fatty acid part
hydroxy group
acetyl group
Insoluble in cold water, dispersible in hot water, soluble in hot alcohol, fats & oils. SMG complexes with starch & reacts with protein
Uses: dough modifying agent, emulsifier for shortening
Dispersible in cold & hot water, soluble in fats/oils,hydrophilic emulsifier, acid resistant
Uses: emulsification & foaming of margarine, mayonnaise & dressing, acts on starch & protein, & a dough modifier
EmulsifiersPolyglyceride Esters of Fatty Acids (PGE)
fatty acid part
hydroxy group
nn = ~ 2-10
fatty acid parthydroxy group
nn = ~ 2-10
( ) n
Polyglycerol Polyricinate (PGPR)
Dispersible in water, soluble in oilHydrophilicity & lipophilicity greatly change with degree of polymerization and the type of fatty acid, HLB range 3-13
Uses: various (i.e., in many types of food as an O/W & W/O emulsifier for milk products containing acid & salt, and a modifier to control fat crystallization
Strong lipophilic W/O emulsifier, a highly-viscous liquid, insoluble in water & ethanol, and soluble in fats & oils
Uses: a viscosity-reducing agent for chocolate
Emulsifiers
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 44
Calcium Stearoyl-2-Lactate (CSL)
o
fatty acid part
o o
hydroxyl group
Sucrose ester
nCam
stearic acid lactic acid
Usually m = 2, n = 1/2
Wide HLB range 1 - 16 & multi functional
Uses: emulsifying & dispersing agent for cream & bacteriocidal agents for canned coffee
Unreacted stearic acid & salt, partially neutralized with calcium, an anionic emulsifier with a strong ability to bind protein Uses: as a dough modifier for flour foods like bread
Emulsifiers
Sorbitan Monoester
Sorbitol Monoester
hydroxy group
fatty acid part
o
Many types of sorbitan esters, each with different kinds of fatty acids & various degrees of esterification
Uses: by itself limited to emulsifying applications mainly for cream, widely used as a major emulsifier in combination with other emulsifiers with different functions
o
o
o
Sorbide Monoester
OR
Emulsifiers
Emulsion Destabilization• Creaming - density differences; droplet size critical• Flocculation - droplet aggregation; interaction of
adsorbed macromolecules between droplets, pH and ionic strength play a role as well
• Coalescence - droplet collision that breaks interfacial film; pH, salts, temperature, emulsion volume all involved
• Oswald Ripening - droplet collision that produces smaller and smaller particles that eventually dissolve and float above the aqueous layer; frozen foods
Emulsifiers
Emulsifier Applications
• Baked Goods– largest use of emulsifiers (over 55%)– Dough Conditioning (SSL, polysorb, DATEM,
ethoxylates and succinylated mono and diglycerides
• improve binding of gluten strands by increasing binding sites
– Crumb Softening (monoglycerides, SSL, DATEM)
• complex with amylose to inhibit staling
Emulsifiers
Emulsifier Applications
• Foaming/Aeration (monoglycerides, PGME, polysorbates)– batter systems; helps gas bubbles to form
• Emulsification (mono and diglycerides, PGME)
– shortening and oil dispersion• Crumb Softening (PGME acetylated and lactylated
monoglycerides, polysorbates)– moisture retention, higher volume, tender
crumb
Emulsifiers
Emulsifier Applications
• Confectionary and Coatings– prevention of fat bloom– sorbitan tristearate, lactylated
monoglyceerides– lecithins in chocolate (scavenges free water)– monoglycerides often used to enhance fat
dispersion and improve eating in caramels and toffees
Emulsifiers
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 45
Emulsifier Applications• Dairy and Aerated Foods
– foam promotion with stability arising from proteins in system; emulsifier promotes fat crystal agglomeration to form matrix
– propylene glycol esters, acetylated and lactylatedmonoglycerides used
– coffee whiteners use emulsifiers for dispersion and rapid hydration
– ice cream usually used additional gums (CMC, guar, locust bean, and carrageenan) to stabilize
Emulsifiers
Emulsifier Applications
• Fat Reduction– better fat dispersion and smaller droplets for
better mouthfeel even at reduced fat levels– emulsifiers used in full fat will require
modification in reduced fat systems– combinations of emulsifiers work better
Emulsifiers
Emulsifier Regulations• In USA:
– GRAS:• Lecithin, mono and di-glycerides, DATEM, triethylcitrate
– All others governed by multipurpose additive regulations stating use in specific products at set levels
• In Europe:– Classified under EEC Council Directive reference
numbers• e.g. mono and diglycerides: E471• Western Europe – no food use of sorbitan esters• Germany – no propylene glycol esters
Emulsifiers
Emulsifier Regulations• In Japan:
– On positive list of food additives:• Glycerin fatty acid esters• Sorbitan fatty acid esters• Propylene glycol fatty acid esters• Sucrose fatty acid esters• Lecithin
Emulsifiers
Definition of Leavening Agents
• From the latin “levare” - to lift• a substance used in doughs and batters
that causes them to rise. - the holes left by the gas bubbles give breads, cakes, and other baked goods their soft, sponge-like textures.
Types of leavening agents
1. Air• Beating of a batter or egg whites,
creaming of butter and sugar, incorporates and hold air inside
• when the product is heated, the gases of air expand to take up greater volume
• Large bubbles - coarse textureFine, well distributed air bubbles are
necessary for soft texture • Overbeating will often cause the air to
be lost. Smaller bubbles in contact with large bubbles will merge into the larger over time
• Major leavening agent in pound cakes and angel food cakes.
2. Water Vapor (Steam)
• When water is heated, water molecules turn to gas and take up a greater volume than when the water is liquid.
• Expansion of air bubbles by increasing vapor pressure
• Main leavening agent in popovers, eclairs, cream puffs, some cookies, and crackers.
Leavening agents
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 46
Types of leavening agents3. Carbon Dioxide
- either chemically or biologically generated• important leavening agent for most baked products. • Like air, carbon dioxide is a gas that expands when
heated. • It is generated from within the product rather than being
incorporated into the product. • Sources:
– Baking soda– Baking powder– Yeast– Sourdough– Ammonium bicarbonate– Potassium bicarbonate
Leavening agents
Baking soda
• Sodium bicarbonate, soluble white chemical compound witha slight alkaline taste
• Above 60 C, 2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
• When exposed to an acidNaHCO3 + HX CO2 + H2O + NaX
Leavening agents
Baking soda• Cream of Tartar (potassium acid tartrate) (1835)
-> development of the first baking sodagas release: 70/0/30 (relative percentages of gas release
at mixing/bench/cooking)
• Sodium Aluminum Sulfate (SAS) (1885) – 0/0/100• Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate (SAPP) (1900’s) – several grades
based on particle size:40/8/52, 36/8/56, 32/8/60, 28/8/64, 22/11/67
• Other modern leavening agents:- monocalcium phosphate monohydrate (60/0/40)- coated monocalcium phophate (15/35/50)- sodium aluminum phosphate (22/9/69)- dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (0/0/100)
Leavening agents
Baking Powder• Baking soda (about 30%)
+ acidulants+ starch (25-40%)
• Home use:Phosphate (monocalcium phosphate) or SAS
• Commercial:Variable; mainly SAPP + monocalcium phosphate
• Double acting: two kinds of acidulants (room temp + high temp) Single acting: contain only room-temp acidulants
• Can substitute baking powder for baking soda
• One year shelf-life and lose activity over time
Leavening agents
Ammonium bicarbonate
• Baker’s ammonia • Slight ammonia odor and
soluble in water -> alkaline soln.
• The aqueous solution of this salt liberates carbon dioxide and ammonia on heating
NH4HCO3 NH3 + H2O + CO2
• used in food industry before the introduction of baking soda
Leavening agents
Yeast
• Saccharomyces cerevisiae
• yeast cells convert carbohydratesinto carbon dioxide and alcohol.
• More yeast needed in sweet breads because excess sugar will havenegative osmotic effect on the cells
• Compressed fresh yeast (70% H2O)Granulated dry yeast (8% H2O)
Leavening agents
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 47
Functions of Intermediate Molecular Weight Carbohydrates
• Texture– Fat replacers/mimetics– Viscosity
• aW control• Bulking agent• Energy source 1 – 4 kcal/g
Maltodextrins as Fat Mimetics
• Maltodextrins with DE < 5, modified starches, dextrins
• Stabilize large amount of water into a gel-like structure
• Lubricant and flow properties similar to fat
• Give smooth and stable texture
Polydextrose
• Polymer of D-glucose (dextrose) containing bound sorbitol and citric acid with MW 22,000 Daltons
• Soluble in water• aW profile similar to sucrose – used to
lower aW in foods• Depresses freezing point• Energy 1 kcal/g• Bulking and fat sparing agent
Functions of Polysaccharides
• Interactions with water– Texture– Thickener– Gel formation
• Digestibility– Dietary fiber
• Processing aid• Binder• Adhesive• Gel or film former• Stabilizer
Function of Starches in Foods
• Thicken• Bind• Adhere• Suspend• Carry• Improve
Appearance• Extend Shelf-Life• Add Bulk
• Encapsulate• Gel• Agglomerate• Coat• Stabilize• Provide Body• Extend Ingredients
Starch
StarchGranule
Enlargement
Amylose
Amylopectin
Basic Starch StructureStarch
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 48
•Maize, Waxy Maize and High Amylose
•5-35 Micrometer Granules
Waxy Maize: 0% Amylose Maize: 27% AmyloseHigh Amylose: 55-95% Amylose
Corn StarchStarch
•5-35 Micrometer Granules
•Truncated Spheres‘Bell Shaped’
•17% Amylose
Tapioca StarchStarch
•20-100 Micrometer Granules
•Large Lenticular Granules
•20% Amylose
Potato StarchStarch
•Bi-Modal Granule Distribution•2-10 micrometer• 20-35 micrometer
•Large Lenticular and Small Spherical Granules
•27% Amylose
Wheat StarchStarch
Native Starches:The Functionality of AmyloseWaxy Corn Tapioca Potato
Dent Corn Wheat
0% Amylose
17% Amylose
20% Amylose
27% Amylose
27 % Amylose
Non-Gelling
Soft Gel Salve Consistency
Firm Gel Soft Gel
Clear Clear Clear Slightly Opaque
Slightly Opaque
Starch
Uses for Native Starches
Candy Moulding
Moisture Control
Sugar Grinding
Dusting
Starch
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 49
Chemical Modification Improves:
Freeze/Thaw Stability
Heat, Acid and Shear Stability
Texture and Mouthfeel
Process Control
Shelf-life Stability
Product Handling
Starch
Starch Modifications
Physical Modification
Native Starch
Chemical Modification
Dextrinization
Oxidation
Thinning
Crosslinking
Substitution
Agglomerate
Instantize
Starch
Thinning/Thin-Boiling
Increases:Paste ClarityGel Strength
•Decreases:Hot Paste Viscosity
•(Thin-Boiling)
Starch
Thin-Boiling
Confection JelliesBakery FillingsGelled ProductsMeats
Salad DressingsBaked GoodsMeatsDairyCoatings
Starch
Crosslinking
• Increases:Temperature Stability
Acid StabilityShear Stability
• Decreases:Viscosity
Rate of Hydration
Starch
Crosslinking
High Acid• Tomato based sauces, salad dressings
Hot Fill• Pie fillings, bakery glazes
Aseptic• Puddings, cheese sauces
Retorted• Soups, gravies, sauces
Starch
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 50
Substitution• Increases:
Freeze/Thaw StabilityWater Holding Capacity
Peak ViscosityClarity
• Decreases:Retrogradation
Pasting Temperature
Starch
Substitution
Substituting AgentsPropylene OxidePropylene Oxide
Acetic AnhydrideAcetic Anhydride
Octenyl Succinic Octenyl Succinic AcidAcid
Starch Terms
HydroxypropylHydroxypropyl(HP Starch)(HP Starch)
Acetylated StarchAcetylated Starch
OS StarchOS Starch
Starch
Acetylated Starch
1st Generation in Substituted Starches
Better Moisture Control over Unmodified Starches
Increased Clarity
Starch
Hydroxypropylated Starch
Provides Exceptional Freeze/Thaw StabilityImproved Paste ClarityIncreased Moisture ControlBetter Control of Retrogradation
Starch
Octenylsuccinate Starch
Lipophilic CharacteristicsHelps Control FatProvides Moisture BarrierExcellent Encapsulation Properties
Starch
Combined Modifications
Crosslinking
Substitution
Benefits of Both
Process Stability Process Stability ANDAND Moisture ManagementMoisture Management••Diversification of PropertiesDiversification of Properties••Product and Process SpecificProduct and Process Specific
+ =
Starch
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 51
Combined Modifications
Frozen FoodsProcessed FoodsNeutral and Acidic SystemsAseptic and Retorted FoodsMeatsDairy
Starch
Starch Modifications
Physical Modification
Native Starch
Chemical Modification
Agglomerate
Instantize
Starch
Instant Starches
UnUn--cooked Starchcooked Starch
PrePre--cook and Dry
cook and Dry
PrePre--Gelatinized StarchGelatinized Starch
Cold Water Swelling StarchCold Water Swelling Starch
PrePre--swell and Dryswell and Dry
Starch
PrePre--GelGel GranularGranular
Cold Water Swelling Starches
Starch
Advantage of Intact Granules:Quality Attributes
Starch
Pre-gelatinized Granular/CWS
Instant StarchesPregelatinized
Rapid HydrationPre-CookedFew Intact GranulesGrainy Appearance
Granular/CWS• Rapid Hydration• Pre-Swollen• Intact Granules• Cook-up Quality
without Heat– Smooth Texture– Superior Surface
Gloss
Both types require a diluent for lump-free dispersion
Starch
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 52
Agglomerated Starches
Instant StarchInstant Starch
AgglomerationAgglomeration
AgglomeratedAgglomeratedInstant StarchInstant Starch
Starch Agglomerated Starches
No Need for Diluent
Ideal for Hot Water Dispersion
Cook-up Quality
Versatile for Processing
Starch
Gums/Hydrocolloids
Functions of Gums
• Thickening/ increasing viscosity• Stabilizing aqueous dispersions,
suspensions, and emulsions• Formation of gels• See table 5-8 in book, page 75
Gums
Plant Seed Gums: Function
• Guar gum– Highest viscosity per unit concentration of any
gum– Bread staling inhibitor, sausage, salad dressings– Does not form a gel (no junction zones)
• Locust bean gum– Synergistic activity with carrageenan to improve
viscosity– Added to cottage cheese to improve yield and
speed curd formation• Both used in ice creams for binding water,
decreasing ice crystal size, stabilizer, texture
Gums
Plant Exudate Gums: Function
• Gum arabic– Flavor encapsulation
• Spray-dried citrus drink mixes– Most water soluble – up to 50% w/w
• Newtonian flow up to 40%– Acts as an emulsifier
• Gum tragacanth– Stable to heat and acid
• Used in salad dressings and sauces• Clarity and brilliance in frozen pie fillings
Gums
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 53
Seaweed Gums: Function• Agar
– Remain stable at temp > initial gelation point – High gel strength– Reduces syneresis in frozen desserts– Stability and texture in process cheese and cream
cheese• Carrageenan
– Interacts with locust bean gum and milk proteins– Chocolate milk -> stabilize chocolate suspension– Chemically set gels with potassium ion
• Alginates– Form gels at room temp. in presence of calcium ion– Icing on donuts – texture, gel, and stickiness
Gums
Bacterial Gums: Functions• Xanthan gum
– Soluble in hot and cold water– Pseudoplastic suspensions– Temperature and pH stable
• Suspending and stabilizing agent in canned foods
• Gellan– Requires monovalent or divalent cations to
form a gel– High gel strength and low syneresis
Gums
Cellulose Gums: Functions
• Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)– Forms thixotropic dispersions (water insoluble)– Body agent, foam stabilizer, suspension aid
• Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)– Nondigestible bulk and body agent in diet foods– Protective colloid in emulsions and prevents
precipitation of soy proteins or caseinates at their pI’s• Methylcellulose
– Thermogelation (gels when heated, melts when cooled)• Grease barrier in fried foods
– Soluble in cold not hot water
Gums
Pectin Functions
• Commercial pectin obtained from:– Citrus peel (lemon and lime) and apple pomace
• Extracted with acid– Hydrolysis of methyl ester groups occurs
• Pectin with > 50% carboxyl groups in methyl ester form are high-methoxyl (HM) pectins
• Pectins with < 50% carboxyl groups in methyl ester form are low-methoxyl (LM) pectins
Gums
Pectin
• Virtually impossible to dissolve without high shear and or high temperature
• Food uses:– Jelly– Fruit on the bottom yogurt
Gums
Pectin Functions
• HM pectin– Solutions gel when sufficient acid and
sugar are present– Lower pH convert charged carboxylate
groups to uncharged and these can form junction zones
– High concentrations of sugar (at least 55%, often 65%) competes for water of hydration and assists junction zone formation
Gums
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 54
Pectin Functions
• LM pectin– Gel only in the presence of divalent cations
(only calcium used in food industry)– Divalent cations provide cross-bridges
(form junction zones)– Increasing concentration of calcium
increases gelling temperature and gel strength
– Gel formation does not require sugar – can be used for diet formulations
Gums
Regulations for Hydrocolloids
• In USA:– Food additives
• CFR 21 172.580 – 172.874– GRAS
• CFR 182.1480 – 184.1724
Humectants
Humectants• Additives which are used to keep food moist.
Humectants are hygroscopic, i.e. they absorb moisture from the atmosphere, and thus are able to counteract the normal drying effects caused by evaporation.
• Typical foods kept moist by humectants include cake icings, confectionery, shredded coconut and dried fruit.
• Common humectants include GLYCEROL, MANNITOL, SORBITOL, CALCIUM LACTATE and POTASSIUM LACTATE, and PROPYLENE GLYCOL.
Other Functions of Additives For Fruits
Enzymes
Enzymes: Definitions
• Biological catalysts that make possible or greatly speed up chemical reactions
Enzymes
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 55
Enzyme Functions
• Speed up reactions• Reduce viscosity• Improve extractions• Carry out
bioconversions
• Enhance separations• Develop functionality• Create/intensify flavor• Synthesize chemicals
Enzymes
Groups of Enzymes1. Oxidoreductases
• Catalyze oxidations or reductions2. Transferases
• Catalyze a shift of a chemical group from a donor to an acceptor substrate
3. Hydrolases• Catalyze hydrolytic splitting of substrates
4. Lyases• Catalyze removal or addition of chemical groups to substrates
(excluding hydrolysis)5. Isomerases
• Catalyze intramolecular rearrangements6. Ligases (synthetases)
• Catalyze combinations of substrate molecules
Enzymes
Enzymes Important to Food Industry
• Most are hydrolases– Add one water molecule for each bond split– Carbohydrases, proteases (proteinase), esterases,
lipases – mostly unwanted and not added ( exception: protease
in cheese)• Some are oxidoreductases
– Substrate loses hydrogen or gains oxygen• One is an isomerase
– Intramolecular rearrangement– Glucose isomerase
Enzymes
Functions and Importance of Enzymes
• Enzyme activity can be:– Wanted
• Ripening of cheese• Conversion of milk to cheese• Conversion of corn starch to high fructose corn syrup
– Unwanted• Lipid hydrolysis producing hydrolytic rancidity in lipid
containing foods• Thinning of tomato paste• Browning of fruits
Enzymes
Factors that Affect Enzyme Reactions
• Enzyme Concentration• Substrate Concentration• Combined Effect of Enzyme and Substrate
Concentration• Time• Temperature• pH• Inhibitors
Enzymes
Enzyme Inactivation and Control
• Inhibitors• pH• Temperature• Denaturation
– Shear force– Very high pressure– Irradiation– Interfacial inactivation– Solvent
• Chemical modification of active site groups• Removal of substrate or cofactor
Enzymes
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 56
Enzyme activity in foods
• Desirable (often additive added as processing aid)– Control with enzyme type– Control with time– Control with temperature – Control with pH– Control with substrate concentration– Control with enzyme concentration
• To optimize enzyme activity
Enzymes
Enzyme activity in foods
• Undesirable (often endogenous enzyme)• To slow down or inactivate enzyme activity
– Control with temperature– Control with pH – Control with aw
– Control with inhibitor
Enzymes
Pectinases and juice• Pectinase is added to clarify the product by hydrolysis of
pectinaceous materials.– May also increase yield
• Control :– Enzyme Type
• Most commercial pectinase is produced by Aspergillus niger (mold)• Often combination of pectin methylesterases and
polygalacturonases
– Time• Depends on the dosage of the enzyme and variety of fruit (15 min –
2 hours)• The more the enzyme, the less time is needed
Enzymes
Pectinases and juice
– Temperature • Optimum temperature is 30-40°C
– pH• Want maximum activity
– Limited denaturation with maximum conversion of reactant to product
• The optimum is pH 4.8-5.0• Juice manufactures usually use pH 3.5
Enzymes
Amylases
• Used to hydrolyze starch to sugar• Remove starch from:
– Fruit juices and extracts– Flavoring extracts– Prepare starch-free pectin (important that this
contains no pectinases)
Glucose Oxidase and Catalase
• Keep oxygen out of products by catalyzing reaction of glucose to gluconic acid and absorbing oxygen in the process– Catalase needed to provide oxygen for the
reaction• By removing oxygen:
– Prevent off flavors in citrus concentrates and drinks
– Prevent enzymatic browning of fresh frozen fruits
– Prevent iron pickup in canned fruit drinks
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 57
Bromelain, Ficin, and Papain
• Proteases extracted from pineapple, figs, and papaya, respectively
• Hydrolyze plant and animal proteins to peptides and amino acids
• Used as meat tenderizers
Undesirable Enzyme Activity
Enzymes
Proteases in milk• Proteases in milk degrade proteins and
significantly affect flavor and protein stability
• Control– Enzyme Type
• General protease• Native to milk (e.g. plasmin) • Produced by psychrotrophic microbes
– Temperature• Very high temperature is needed to inactivate the enzymes• Pasteurization and other milk processings are not inactivate
all the enzymes, some still remain active
Enzymes
Pectinases in tomato paste
• Pectinases clarify tomato paste. However, cloudiness is desired.
• Control– Enzyme Type
• Native to commodity
– Temperature• Inactivated by denaturation (> 50°C)
Enzymes
Polyphenoloxidase (PPO) in fruits
• PPO is responsible for undesirable discoloration (brown) of fruits.
• Control– Enzyme Type
• Native to fruits
– Temperature• Not recommended to heat
– pH• Lower pH to reduce activity using organic acid
Enzymes
Dr. Lisa Mauer, Purdue University, September 2006 58
Polyphenoloxidase (PPO) in fruits
– aw• Lower aw to reduce activity (reduce mobility of substrates and
enzymes) by drying
– Inhibitor• Sulfite
– Substrate removal• Remove O2 using vacuum package, MAP, CAP• Remove copper
– Radiation• D37 = 30-70 kGy
Enzymes
Gelatin and raw pineapples
• Bromelain (protease) in raw pineapples will prevent gelation of gelatin.
• Control– Temperature
• Inactivated by denaturation (> 71°C)• No bromelain activity in canned pineapples
– pH• Inactivated at pH < 3 and > 9.5
Enzymes
Lipoxygenases and soybean
• Lipoxygenases in soybean produce beanyflavour.
• Control– Temperature
• Heat to inactivate (>70°C)
– Choose variety of soybean with nonlipoxygenase to avoid beany flavor
Enzymes
Serbian Enterprise Development Project:
Use of Food Additives
Dr. Lisa MauerAssociate Professor
Department of Food SciencePurdue University