facilitating learning
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FACILITATING LEARNINGTRANSCRIPT
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Facilitating learning:A Meta-cognitive
Process
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“If you teach a person what tolearn, you are preparing that
person for the past. If you teacha person how to learn, you are preparing that person for its
future.”
- Cyril Houle -
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Teaching – giving/transferringLearning – acquiring/accepting
EDUCATIVE PROCESS
Learner – given focus
Teacher – prime moverLearning Environent – headway
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Learner – embodied spirit
Sentient body - rational soulExperiencing sensation - self-reection
- free will- intellectual abstractions
cognitive a!ective faculties
instinct feelings
imagining emotions intellect free rational memory volition
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In!"ences#$i%erent Factors to &ecoeDi%erent to each other:
- environment/home- biological aspect
- "eacher- #ersonal attributes
- #rofessional attributes
'a$ge o( Pro(ession – sense of service
$teacher%
E%ective – doing the right thingE)cienc* – time& e!ort& motivation& method
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+,s sho"l$ &e
Manage$:
'- oney'- aterials
'- oment'- anpower'- achine
'- ar(et'- anner
P – lanningO –
rgani)ingL – eadingC –ontrolling
S – ta*ng
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LEARER-CETEREDPS.C/OLO0ICAL PRICIPLES
"he following +, psychologicalfactors pertain to the learner and thelearning process "hey focus on
psychological factors that are primarilyinternal to and under the control of thelearner rather than conditioned habits
or physiological factors .owever& theprinciples also attempt to ac(nowledgeexternal environment or contextualfactors that interact with these internal
factors
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"he principles are intended to deal
holistically with learners in the contextof real-world learning situations "hus&they are best understood as anorgani)ed set of principles no principle
should be viewed in isolation "he +,principles are divided into thosereferring to 1)cognitive and meta-
cognitive& 2)motivational and afective&3)developmental and social& and4)individual diference actors inuencing learners and learning
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Cognitive an$ Meta-cognitiveFactors
+ 0ature of the learning process. learning of complex sub1ect matter
2 3oals of the learning process. can create meaningful& coherent
representations of (nowledge
4 5onstruction of (nowledge. can lin( new information with
existing (nowledge in meaningfulwa s
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, Strategic thin(ing
can create and use a repertoire ofthin(ing and reasoning strategies toachieve complex learning goals
6 "hin(ing about thin(ing beyond thin(ing/ deepening of(nowledge
7 5ontext of learning inuenced by environmental factors
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Motivational an$ A%ective Factors
8 'otivational and emotionalinuences on 9earning :hat and how much is learned;
< =ntrinsic motivation to learn learner>s creativity& higher orderthin(ing& and natural curiosity $w/in
yourself%stimulated by tas(s of optimal novelty
? E!ects of motivation and e!ortacquisition of complex (nowledge and
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Develo1ental an$ Social Factors
+@ Aevelopmental inuences on learning
di!erent opportunities and constraints forlearning physical& intellectual& emotional& andsocial domains
B appropriateness of materialB intellectual& social& emotional& and physicaldomainsB macro s(ills – interest and level of the studentB prior or past experiences – from school& home&culture& and community factorsB early and continuing parental – languageinteractions and two-wayB awareness and understanding of development
di!erences among children – understand
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++ Social inuences on learning
inuenced by social interactions&interpersonal relations& andcommunication with others
In$ivi$"al Di%erences Factors
+2 =ndividual di!erences in learning
di!erent strategies& approaches& andcapabilities for learning that are afunction of prior experience andheredity
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+4 9earning and diversity 9earning is most e!ective when
di!erences in learners> linguistic&cultural& and social bac(grounds areta(en into account
+, Standards and assessment Setting appropriately high andchallenging standards and assessing
the learner as well as learningprogress including diagnostic& process&and outcome assessment are integralparts of the learning process
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Ale2an$er 3 M"r1h* s"ar* o(the 45 Princi1les:
+ "he (nowledge base
2 Strategic processing and control
4 'otivation and a!ective
, Aevelopment and =ndividualdi!erences
6 Situation or context
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Revie6 o( the
Develo1entalTheories
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"heories
Celated "o "he9earnerDs
Aevelopment
Eri(son
< #sycho-socialStages of
Aevelopment
reud4 5omponents of
#ersonality6 #sychosexual Stages
of development
#iaget, Stages of 5ognitive
Aevelopment
Fohlberg4 Stages and 7
Substances of 'oralAevelopment
Gygots(y• Hn 9anguage
• Ione of #roximalAevelopment
JrofenbrennerJio-Ecological
System
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Fre"$ Ps*cho-Se2"alTheor*• reud proposed that there were 6
stages of development reudbelieved that few people successfullycompleted all 6 of the stages=nstead& he felt that most people tiedup their li&i$o at one of the stages&
which prevented them from usingthat energy at a later stage
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Stage Erogenous Ione ixation
Hral $birth to +<months% 'outh Arin(ing & eating&smo(ing or nail biting
Knal $+<-42 months% Knus Knal retentive and analexpulsive
#hallic $4 – 7 years% 3enitals Hedipus 5omplex andElectra 5omplex
9atency $7- puberty%
3enital $puberty L% 3enitals
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Piaget,s Stages o(Cognitive Develo1ent
M"he principle goal of education
is to create men who arecapable of doing new things¬ simply to repeating what
other generaions have done –men who are creative& inventiveand discoversN
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Oean #iagetCognitive
development theory
• Children "construct"their understanding ofthe world through theiractive involvement andinteractions.
• Studied his 3 children tofocus not on what theyknew but how they knewit.
• Described children'sunderstanding as their"schemas” and how theyuse: – assimilation – accommodation.
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• SchemaP – "he term MschemaN to refer to the
cognitive structures by which individualsintellectually adapt to and organi)e theirenvironment
• KssimilationP – "his is the process of Qtting a newexperience into an existing or previouslycreated cognitive structure or schema
• KccommodationP – "his is the process of creating a new
schema
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• Equilibration – Kchieving proper balance between
assimilation and accommodation –Aisequilibrium
• this means there is a discrepancy
between what is perceived and whatis understood :e then exert e!ortthrough assimilation andaccommodation to establish
equilibriumonce more
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#iagetDs 5ognitive Aevelopment Stages
• Sensorimotor
– !ges birth : the infant uses hissenses and motor abilities tounderstand the world
• #reo$eration
–
!ges %: the child uses metalre$resentations of ob&ects and is ableto use symbolic thought and language
• Concrete o$erations
– !ges %( the child uses logical
o$erations or $rinci$les when solving$roblems
• )ormal o$erations
– !ges u$( the use of logical
o$erations in a systematic fashion andwith the ability to use abstractions
#iagetDs 5ognitive Aevelopment
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#iaget s 5ognitive AevelopmentStages• Stage + P Sensory 'otor Stage$birth
to infancy% – "his is the stage when child who is
initially reexive in grasping& suc(ing&
and reaching becomes more organi)edin his movement and activity
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Eri7son8s Stages o(
Ps*chosocial Develo1ent
Stage Crisis Mala$a1tati Malignanc Virt"e
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Stage Crisis Mala$a1tation
Malignanc*
Virt"e
=nfancy "rust vs'istrust
SensoryAistortion
:ithdrawal .ope
Early Kdulthhood Kutonomy
vs Shame Aoubt
=mpulsivity 5ompulsion :ill #ower
#re-school =nitiative vs3uilt
ruthlessness =nhibition #urpose
School Kge =ndustry vs
=nferiority
0arrow
Girtuosity
=nertia 5ompetence
Kdolescence =dentity vsCole
5onfusion
anaticism Cepudiation idelity
Roung Kdulthood =ntimacy vs
=solation
#romiscuity Exclusivity 9ove
'iddle Kdulthood 3enerativityvs
Stagnation
Hverextention
Ce1ectivity 5are
'aturity Ego =ntegrityvs Aespair
#resumption Aisdain :isdom
FohlbergDs "heory of 'oral
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FohlbergDs "heory of 'oralAevelopment
•
Kssessed moral reasoning by posinghypothetical moral dilemmas andexamining the reasoning behind peopleDsanswers
•
Proposed three distinctlevels of moralreasoning: preconventional, conventional, andpostconventional
• Each level is based on the degree to which a
person conforms to conventional standards ofsociety
• Each level has two stages that representdifferent degrees of sophistication in moral
reasoning
FohlbergDs Stages of 'oral
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FohlbergDs Stages of 'oralAevelopment
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9ev Gygots(y
Socio-Cultural Theory
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• De9nition
–Sociocultural theory results fromthe dynamic interaction between a person
and the surrounding social and culturalforces
– clais o( V*gots7*
–
a% undamentally shaped by cultural tools –b% unctioning emerges out of social
processes
–c% Aevelopmental methods $Ione
of #roximal Aevelopment%
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• Strategies to utili)e the beneQtsof I#A
• a% Sca!olding –requiresdemonstration& while controlling the
environment so that one can ta(ethings step by step
• b% Ceciprocal teaching – open dialogbetween student and teacher whichgoes beyond simple question andanswer session
• Gygots(y theori)ed that human development is
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Gygots(y theori)ed that human development isnot something that is 92e$ an$ eternal =t willchange as a result of historical $evelo1ent;
C"lt"ral In!"ences – a% =mitative learning
– b% =nstructed learning
– c% 5ollaborative learning
Princi1les
– a% 5ognitive development is limited to a certain range at
any given age – b% ull cognitive development requires social interaction
i i
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6 'ain #oints
• a% se of Ione of #roximal Aevelopment
• b% =nteraction with other people is importantfor cognitive growth
• c% 5ulture can ma(e daily living more
e*cient and e!ective• d% Kdvanced mental methods start through
social activities
• e% =ncrease of the independent use of
language and thought during a childDs Qrstfew years of life
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Aevelopmental Systems
"heoryThe belief that
development can't beexplained by a singleconcept, but rather by acomplex system
Urie
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Urie'ron(en&renner
Ecological Systems Theory orbioecological theory• *he varied systems of theenvironment and theinterrelationshi$s among
the systems sha$e achild's develo$ment.• +oth the environment andbiology influence thechild's develo$ment.
• *he environment affectsthe child and the childinfluences theenvironment
-
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-'odel• *he microsystem activities and
interactions in the child's immediatesurroundings: $arents, school,friends, etc.
• *he mesosystem relationshi$s amongthe entities involved in the child'smicrosystem: $arents' interactionswith teachers, a school's interactionswith the daycare $rovider
• *he e-osystem social institutionswhich affect children indirectly: the$arents' work settings and $olicies,
e-tended family networks, mass media,community resources
• *he macrosystem broader culturalvalues, laws and governmentalresources
• *he chronosystem changes which occurduring a child's life, both$ersonally, like the birth of a
sibling and culturally, like the ra/iwar.
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Hutline of 2@th 5entury "heories
• #sychoanalytical "heories –#sychosexualP Sigmund reud –#sychosocialP Eri( Eri(son
• 5ognitive "heories –5ognitive AevelopmentP Oean #iaget
–Socio-culturalP 9ev Gygots(y
• Systems "heories –Ecological SystemsP rie
Jronfenbrenner
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St"$ents 6ith E2ce1tionalities
<hat is S1ecial E$"cation=
Specially designed instruction& at no cost tothe parents& to meet the unique needs of a
child with a disabilityJefore +?86 and the passage of the Qrst
federal special education law& four millionchildren with disabilities did not receive thehelp they needed in school and another one
million were completely excluded from school
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Aiscrimination and the Jeginning of5hange
• Shortly after the +?6, Brown vs. Board oEducation decision clarifying that Mseparatecannot be equal&N some professionals beganquestioning whether separate classes provided
students with disabilities with an appropriateeducation
• Kfter decades of research& what had become clearwas that the special education was not 1ust a
means of assisting children with disabilities ithad also become a means of discriminatingagainst students who might be perceived byeducators as more challenging to reach
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#revalence of Students withAisabilities
• Klthough statistics are di*cult to obtain& it hasbeen estimated that between +@ and +4 percentof the school-age population has exceptionalities
"hus& in an average-si)e classroom of 26
students& it is conceivable that 4 or , individualswill exhibit one or more exceptionalities
• Students with speciQc learning disabilitiesrepresent approximately half of all those receiving
special education& followed by speech orlanguage impairments& mental retardation& andemotional disabilities
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#revalence of Students withAisabilities
• =n the past decade& the number ofstudents indentiQed in havingdisabilities has grown signiQcantly
• Some suggest that this increase is inpart because of the desire on thepart of educators and parents to give
help to struggling students• :hat other factors do you thin(
might contribute to this rise;
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#roviding an nwavering5ommitment
• Kt no point in history have we& as a nation& ta(ensuch bold and noble measures to mandate theeducational rights of all children& including thosewith disabilities and exceptionalities
• nder the =ndividuals with Aisabilities Kct and theguarantee for a free and appropriate publiceducation& the courts have repeatedly andconsistently ruled that schools simply must
provide the necessary resources to teach allchildren& regardless of the physical or mentalhandicaps they may manifest
"h 9 d E ti l
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"he 9aw and Exceptional5hildren• #9 ?,-+,2 Education for all handicapped
children act $+?86%
• irst law to clearly deQne the rights of disabledchildren to free appropriate public education
• =t requires the school systems to include theparents when meeting about the child or ma(ingdecisions about his/ her education
• =t mandated an individuali)ed education program
$=E#% which must include short and long termgoals
• =t also requires that the child be placed in theleast restrictive environment
9 t C t i ti
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9east CestrictiveEnvironment
• T9east restrictive environmentT means that astudent who has a disability should have theopportunity to be educated with non-disabledpeers& to the greatest extent possible
• "hey should have access to the general educationcurriculum& extracurricular activities& or any otherprogram that non-disabled peers would be able toaccess
• "he student should be provided withsupplementary aids and services necessary toachieve educational goals if placed in a settingwith non-disabled peers
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=ndividuali)ed Education #rogram$=E#%
• =f team members decide that a student is eligiblefor special education& they then prepare an =E#
• "his document summari)es all of the information
gathered concerning the student& sets theexpectations of what the student will learn overthe next year& and it prescribes the types andamount of special services the student will
receive• 'ust be received and updated annually
C i d 5 t f
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Cequired 5omponents of an=E#
• 'ust address how the studentDs disabilitya!ects involvement and progress in thegeneral education
•
Knnual goals and short term ob1ectives• Supplementary aids and services& assistive
technology& participation with peers whodo not have disabilities& accommodations
for testing& dates of e!ectiveness of =E#
"h 9 d E ti l
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"he 9aw and Exceptional5hildren• #9 ?<-+?? Education of the .andicapped
Kct Kmendments $+?<4%
• Kllows for federal funding to create parent
training and information centers so thatparents can learn how to protect the rightsof their child
• Klso provided Qnancial incentives for
transition services from school to adultliving for students with disabilities
"h 9 d E ti l
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"he 9aw and Exceptional5hildren• #9 +@+-,87 =ndividuals with Aisabilities
Education Kct $=AEK%$+??@%
• Cenamed earlier laws and their
amendments• 'ore importantly& it replaced the word
MhandicappedN with the word MdisabledN&therefore expanding services for these
students• =t strengthened the lawDs commitment to
greater inclusion in community schools
li h d
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Kccomplishments andAisappointments of Special
Education 9aw• "he passage of federal special education
law was revolutionary and it had many
positive e!ects many students who hadbeen completely left out of the publicschool system were now guaranteed aneducation
• .owever& the passage of the law did notaddress all the issues of educatingstudents with disabilities
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5onQdentiality
• =AEK speciQes that informationregarding a studentDs disability ishighly conQdential
• "hat information may not be sharedwith anyone who is not directlywor(ing with the student
• Hnce records are not longer needed&a procedure must be in place so thatthey are destroyed
:ho Ceceives Special
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:ho Ceceives SpecialEducation;• SpeciQc learning
disabilities
• Speech or
languageimpairments
• 'ental retardation
• Emotionaldisturbance
• Aeaf/ blindness$both%
•Gisual impairments
• .earing
impairments• Hrthopedic
impairments
• Hther healthimpairments
• Kutism
• "raumatic brain
in1ury• 'ultiple disabilities
• Aevelopmental
delays
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Educational #ractices
• =nclusive #racticesUlots of debatesV
• =nclusion is a belief system shared by everymember of a school as a learning communityabout the responsibility of educating all students
so that they can reach their potential• =nclusion encompasses students who are gifted
and talented& those who are at ris( for failurebecause of their life circumstances& those with
disabilities& and those who are average learners• KccommodationsUmar( in boo(& separate
setting& extended time& read alouds& reducednumber of items per page& alternate test
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=nclusion
• =n todayDs schools& what is consideredinclusive practice varies widely dependingon state and local policies related to
inclusion& the resources available& teacherand administrator understanding andcommitment& and parent and communitysupport
• =t may loo( li(e an E5 teacher who is inyour room every day for the entire classperiod or a few times a wee( for W a classperiod
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=mplications
• Exceptional 5hildrenDs teachers in 0orth 5arolinaare reporting all too often the hardships they facedue to the lac( of available resources
• "he state must do all within its means to secure
the necessary funding of exceptional children sothat no child has to use materials that are worn&out of date& or even worse& contain informationthat is no longer current
•
=t is painfully obvious that state funds areinsu*cient to meet the needs of 0orth 5arolinaDsexceptional children by providing them theresources that are required for a sound education
:hat E5 teachers are
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:hat E5 teachers areSaying• Success must never be based on
single test scores
• 0o other issue has raised more
concern with E5 teachers than thatof paperwor(
• .3E S.HC"K3EVV
:h t b t 3ift d d " l t d
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:hat about 3ifted and "alentedStudents;
• =AEK does not provide for specialeducation for these students
• Hnly 4@ states mandate education of
students who are gifted and talented• =mportant to note that sometimes
students with disabilities are also
gifted and talented
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:hat is 3iftedness;
• 3ifted and talented students are those identiQedby professionally qualiQed persons who by virtueof outstanding abilities are capable of highperformance
• 3iftedness is evidence of advanced developmentacross intellectual areas& within a speciQcacademic or arts-related area& or unusualorgani)ational power to bring about desired
results• "hese children may require di!erentiated
educational programs and services beyond thosenormally provided by the regular school programin order to reali)e their contribution to self andsociet
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#revalence
• Estimates vary considerably due todisagreement over deQnition
• Hn average& school districts serve
+2X of students under the MgiftedNlabel
• Aepending on the state& the
prevalence may range from 2 to 22Xof students being served
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5haracteristics
• Students who are gifted usually displaycuriosity& a strong need to (now and tounderstand how the world wor(s
•
K student who is gifted may understandlanguage and mathematics at an earlierage than is typical and become (nown toparents and teachers by these s(ills
• "hey may bring high energy levels toschool tas(s& may display characteristicsof perfectionism
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Educational #ractices
• Kbility 3rouping
• ull time or part time separate classes
• Speciali)ed schools
• 5luster 3rouping
• =nclusive practices
• Kcceleration
• Enrichment
• Ai!erentiation
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In$ivi$"al Di%erences
$Student Aiversity%
IndividualDifferences
Factors
Benefits ofDiversity in the
Classroom
ClassroomStrategies forStudentDiversity
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In$ivi$"al Di%erences
FactorsSocioeconomic Status
Thinking/Learning StyleExceptionalities
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'ene9ts o( Diversit*
in the ClassrooStudents' self-awareness is
enhanced by diversity
Student diversity contributes to
cognitive development
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'ene9ts o( Diversit*
in the Classroo Student diversity prepares
learners for their role asresponsible members of the society
Student diversity can promoteharmony
Cl St t i
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Classroo Strategies
(or St"$ent Diversit* Encourage learners to share their
personal history and experiences
ntegrate learning experiences and
activities which promote students'
multicultural and cross-cultural
awareness!
Cl St t i
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Classroo Strategies
(or St"$ent Diversit* "side from highlighting diversity#
identify patterns of unity thattranscend group differences!
$ommunicate high expectations tostudents from all sub-groups!
% i d i t ti l th d t
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%se varied instructional methods to
accommodate student diversity in
learning styles!
&ary the examples you use toillustrate concepts in order to
provide multiple contexts that are
relevant to students from diverse
backgrounds!
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"dapt to the students diverse
backgrounds and learning styles byallowing them personal choice and
decision-making opportunities
concerning what they will learn and
how they will learn it!
(iversify your methods of assessing
and evaluating student learning!
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)urposely# form small-discussiongroups of students from diverse
backgrounds! *ou can form groups
of students with different learning
styles# different cultural
backgrounds# etc!
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9earning/"hin(ingstyles and multiple
intelligences
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9EKC0=03/".=0F=03 S"R9Es-refer to the preferred way an individual processes
information- they describe a personDs typical mode of thin(ing&
remembering or problem solving
SE0SHCR #CEECE05ES =ndividuals tend to gravitate toward one or two
types of sensory input and maintain a dominancein one of the following types P
-Gisual 9earners
- Kuditory 9earners - "actile/ Finesthetic 9earners
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Gi l l d l b
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Gisual learners- tend to learn betterwhen a variety of visual aids are used
Gisual- iconic -refers to those who are
more interested in visual imagery such
as Qlm& graphic displays& pictures Gisual- symbolic
- refers to those who feel
comfortable with abstract symbolismsuch as mathematical formula or the
written word
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KA="HCR 9EKC0ECS- recieve information best bylistening
9isteners - they remember things said
to them and ma(e the information their own "al(ers
- they are the one whoprefer to tal( and discuss $ auditory- verbal
processors%
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"actile/ (inesthetic learners-
they tend to prefer learning bydoing/ experiencing things
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5haracteristics of tactile learnersP- =s good at sports
- 5anDt sit still for long- =s not great at spelling
- Aoes not have great handwriting- 9i(e science lab
- Studies with loud music on- 9i(e adventure boo(s& movies
- 9i(es role playing
- "a(es brea(s when studying- Juilds models- =s involved in martial arts& dance
- =s Qdgety during lectures
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3lobal–analytic continuum
analytic- they tendtoward the linear& step- by- step
processes of learning $tree seers% 3lobal- they lean towardsnon- linear thought and tend to
see the whole pattern rather thanparticle elements
$forest seers%
9 ft b i /
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9eft- brain/
right- brain continuum left- brained #ECSH0- isportrayed as the linear
$analytic% right- brained person- isviewed as non- linear $global%
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Successive processor $left
brain% - details leading to a
conceptual understandingS='9"K0EHS #CH5ESSHC$C=3." JCK=0%
- general concept going onto speciQcs
9E" JCK=0$ K0K9R"=5% right brain$global%
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9E" JCK=0$ K0K9R"=5% right brain$global%
Successive .emispheric
Style + GECJK9
2 CES#H0AS "H :HCA'EK0=03
4 SEYE0"=K9
, #CHSESSES =0HC'K"=H09=0EKC9R
6 CES#H0AS "H 9H3=5
7 #9K0S K.EKA
8 CE5K99S #EH#9EDS 0K'E
< S#EKFS :=". E: 3ES"CES ? #05"K9
+@ #CEECS HC'K9 S"AR
AES=30
++ #CEECS JC=3." 9=3."S:.=9E S"AR=03
Simultaneous .emispheric
Style + G=SK9
2 CES#H0AS "H "H0E H GH=5E
4 CK0AH'
, #CH5ESSES =0HC'K"=H0
=0 GKC=EA HCAEC 6 CES#H0AS "H E'H"=H0
7 ='#9S=GE
8 CE5K99S #EH#9E K5ES
< 3ES"CES :.E0 S#EKF=03
? 9ESS #05"K9 +@ #CEECS SH0A/ 'S=5
JK5F3CH0A :.=9ES"AR=03
++ #CEECS CEYE0" 'HJ=9="R
:.=9E S"AR=03
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'9"=#9E =0"E99=3E05ES- is an educational theory& Qrst developed by .oward
3ardner& that describes an array of di!erent (inds ofintelligences exhibited by human beings
.oward 3ardner
- he believes that di!erent intelligences may beindependent abilities and all of us possess theintelligences but in varying degrees of strength and s(ill - the theory was Qrst laid out in 3ardnerDs +?<4
boo( rames of 'indP "he "heory of 'ultiple
=ntelligences and has been further reQned in subsequentyears
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intelligences
- an ability or set of abilities that allows a person
to solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued in oneor more cultures
? A=S"=05" HC'S H =0"E99=3E05E +G=SK9/ S#K"=K9 =0"E99=3E05E
$p=5"CE S'KC"%- learning visually and organi)ing ideas
spatially2GECJK9/ 9=03=S"=5 $:HCA S'KC"%
- learning through the spo(en and written word4 'K".E'K"=5K9/ 9H3=5K9 $ 0'JEC S'KC"/ 9H3=5
S'KC"%- learning through reasoning and problem solving
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, JHA=9R/ F=0ES".E"=c $ JHAR S'KC"%- learning through interaction with oneDs
environment6 'S=5K9 $'S=5 S'KC"%
- learning through patterns& rhythms and music7 =0"CK#ECSH0Kl $SE9 S'KC"%
- learning through feelings& values and attitudes 8 =0"EC#ECSH0K9 $#EH#9E S'KC"%- learning through interaction with others
< 0K"CK9=S" $0K"CE S'KC"%- learning through classiQcation&categories and
hierarchies? EZ=S"E0"=K9 $S#=C=" S'KC"%
- learning by seeing the Mbig pictureN
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:hat is Special Education;
• Specially designed instruction& at no costto the parents& to meet the unique needs
of a child with a disability• Jefore +?86 and the passage of the Qrst
federal special education law& four millionchildren with disabilities did not receivethe help they needed in school andanother one million were completelyexcluded from school
St"$ents 6ith E2ce1tionalities
Discriination an$ the
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Discriination an$ the'eginning o( Change
• Shortly after the +?6, Brown vs. Board oEducation decision clarifying that Mseparatecannot be equal&N some professionals beganquestioning whether separate classes
provided students with disabilities with anappropriate education
• Kfter decades of research& what had becomeclear was that the special education was not
1ust a means of assisting children withdisabilities it had also become a means ofdiscriminating against students who might beperceived by educators as more challenging
to reach
Prevalence o( St"$ents 6ith
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Prevalence o( St"$ents 6ithDisa&ilities
• Klthough statistics are di*cult to obtain& ithas been estimated that between +@ and +4percent of the school-age population hasexceptionalities "hus& in an average-si)e
classroom of 26 students& it is conceivablethat 4 or , individuals will exhibit one or moreexceptionalities
• Students with speciQc learning disabilities
represent approximately half of all thosereceiving special education& followed byspeech or language impairments& mentalretardation& and emotional disabilities
Prevalence o( St"$ents 6ith
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Disa&ilities
• =n the past decade& the number ofstudents indentiQed in havingdisabilities has grown signiQcantly
• Some suggest that this increase is inpart because of the desire on the partof educators and parents to give help
to struggling students• :hat other factors do you thin( might
contribute to this rise;
Provi$ing an Un6avering
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g gCoitent
• Kt no point in history have we& as a nation&ta(en such bold and noble measures tomandate the educational rights of allchildren& including those with disabilitiesand exceptionalities
• nder the =ndividuals with Aisabilities Kctand the guarantee for a free and
appropriate public education& the courtshave repeatedly and consistently ruledthat schools simply must provide thenecessary resources to teach all children&
regardless of the physical or mental
"he 9aw and Exceptional 5hildren
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"he 9aw and Exceptional 5hildren
• #9 ?,-+,2 Education for all handicappedchildren act $+?86%
• irst law to clearly deQne the rights of disabledchildren to free appropriate public education
• =t requires the school systems to include theparents when meeting about the child or ma(ingdecisions about his/ her education
• =t mandated an individuali)ed education program
$=E#% which must include short and long termgoals
• =t also requires that the child be placed in theleast restrictive environment
9east Cestrictive
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Environment• T9east restrictive environmentT means that a
student who has a disability should have theopportunity to be educated with non-disabledpeers& to the greatest extent possible
• "hey should have access to the general educationcurriculum& extracurricular activities& or any otherprogram that non-disabled peers would be able toaccess
•
"he student should be provided withsupplementary aids and services necessary toachieve educational goals if placed in a settingwith non-disabled peers
=ndividuali)ed Education #rogram
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g$=E#%
• =f team members decide that a student is eligiblefor special education& they then prepare an =E#
• "his document summari)es all of the information
gathered concerning the student& sets theexpectations of what the student will learn overthe next year& and it prescribes the types andamount of special services the student will
receive• 'ust be received and updated annually
Cequired 5omponents of an
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q p=E#
• 'ust address how the studentDs disabilitya!ects involvement and progress in thegeneral education
•
Knnual goals and short term ob1ectives• Supplementary aids and services& assistive
technology& participation with peers whodo not have disabilities& accommodations
for testing& dates of e!ectiveness of =E#
"he 9aw and Exceptional
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p5hildren• #9 ?<-+?? Education of the .andicapped
Kct Kmendments $+?<4%
• Kllows for federal funding to create parent
training and information centers so thatparents can learn how to protect the rightsof their child
• Klso provided Qnancial incentives for
transition services from school to adultliving for students with disabilities
"he 9aw and Exceptional
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p5hildren• #9 +@+-,87 =ndividuals with Aisabilities
Education Kct $=AEK%$+??@%
• Cenamed earlier laws and their
amendments• 'ore importantly& it replaced the word
MhandicappedN with the word MdisabledN&therefore expanding services for these
students• =t strengthened the lawDs commitment to
greater inclusion in community schools
Kccomplishments and
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pAisappointments of Special
Education 9aw• "he passage of federal special education
law was revolutionary and it had manypositive e!ects many students who hadbeen completely left out of the publicschool system were now guaranteed aneducation
•
.owever& the passage of the law did notaddress all the issues of educatingstudents with disabilities
5onQdentiality
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5onQdentiality
• =AEK speciQes that informationregarding a studentDs disability ishighly conQdential
• "hat information may not be sharedwith anyone who is not directlywor(ing with the student
• Hnce records are not longer needed&a procedure must be in place so thatthey are destroyed
:ho Ceceives Special
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Education;• SpeciQc learning
disabilities
• Speech or
languageimpairments
• 'ental retardation
• Emotional
disturbance• Aeaf/ blindness
$both%
•
Gisual impairments
• .earing
impairments• Hrthopedic
impairments
• Hther health
impairments• Kutism
• "raumatic brain
in1ury• 'ultiple disabilities
• Aevelopmentaldelays
Educational #ractices
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Educational #ractices
• =nclusive #racticesUlots of debatesV• =nclusion is a belief system shared by every
member of a school as a learning communityabout the responsibility of educating all students
so that they can reach their potential• =nclusion encompasses students who are gifted
and talented& those who are at ris( for failurebecause of their life circumstances& those with
disabilities& and those who are average learners• KccommodationsUmar( in boo(& separate
setting& extended time& read alouds& reducednumber of items per page& alternate test
=nclusion
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=nclusion
• =n todayDs schools& what is consideredinclusive practice varies widely dependingon state and local policies related toinclusion& the resources available& teacherand administrator understanding andcommitment& and parent and communitysupport
•
=t may loo( li(e an E5 teacher who is inyour room every day for the entire classperiod or a few times a wee( for W a classperiod
=mplications
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=mplications
• Exceptional 5hildrenDs teachers in 0orth 5arolinaare reporting all too often the hardships they facedue to the lac( of available resources
• "he state must do all within its means to secure
the necessary funding of exceptional children sothat no child has to use materials that are worn&out of date& or even worse& contain informationthat is no longer current
•
=t is painfully obvious that state funds areinsu*cient to meet the needs of 0orth 5arolinaDsexceptional children by providing them theresources that are required for a sound education
:hat E5 teachers are
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Saying• Success must never be based on
single test scores
• 0o other issue has raised more
concern with E5 teachers than thatof paperwor(
• .3E S.HC"K3EVV
:hat about 3ifted and "alented
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Students;
• =AEK does not provide for specialeducation for these students
• Hnly 4@ states mandate education of
students who are gifted and talented• =mportant to note that sometimes
students with disabilities are also
gifted and talented
:hat is 3iftedness;
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:hat is 3iftedness;
• 3ifted and talented students are those identiQedby professionally qualiQed persons who by virtueof outstanding abilities are capable of highperformance
•
3iftedness is evidence of advanced developmentacross intellectual areas& within a speciQcacademic or arts-related area& or unusualorgani)ational power to bring about desiredresults
• "hese children may require di!erentiatededucational programs and services beyond thosenormally provided by the regular school programin order to reali)e their contribution to self and
societ
#revalence
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#revalence
• Estimates vary considerably due todisagreement over deQnition
• Hn average& school districts serve
+2X of students under the MgiftedNlabel
• Aepending on the state& the
prevalence may range from 2 to 22Xof students being served
5haracteristics
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5haracteristics
• Students who are gifted usually displaycuriosity& a strong need to (now and tounderstand how the world wor(s
•
K student who is gifted may understandlanguage and mathematics at an earlierage than is typical and become (nown toparents and teachers by these s(ills
• "hey may bring high energy levels toschool tas(s& may display characteristicsof perfectionism
Educational #ractices
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Educational #ractices
• Kbility 3rouping• ull time or part time separate classes
• Speciali)ed schools
• 5luster 3rouping• =nclusive practices
• Kcceleration
• Enrichment
• Ai!erentiation
MODULE 4>
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MODULE 4>
ALBINO, Anne Marie
CANICULA Marielle
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Edward Chace
Tolman
Theories of Learning
CANICULA, Marielle
CORDOBA, Joel Mari
DELA CRUZ, MikkoandSUAREZ, Raael Lawrence
together with
Sr! An"elina J#lom, CS$N
present
E$6ar$ Chace Tolan?
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?4@@-4BB
• 'orn in e6tonMassach"setts
• Receive$ aca$eic
$egrees inElectrocheistr* an$Ps*cholog* ?M;A; 4B4
Ph;D; 4B4• /e 6as release$ (ro
orth6estern Universit*
(or Glac7 o( teaching
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• /is theor* o( learning can &e
loo7e$ on as a &len$ o( 0estalttheor* an$ &ehavioris
•
/e sa6 little val"e in theintros1ective a11roach
•
/e agree$ on olar &ehaviorrather than olec"lar &ehavior
Molar 'ehavior
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Molar 'ehavior• P"r1osive
• Tolan,s aor 6or7 6as entitle$P"r1osive 'ehavior in Anials an$Men
•
Relate$ to the 0estalt theor*• Tolan (elt that 6hole &ehavior
1atterns ha$ a eaning that 6o"l$&e lost i( st"$ie$ (ro an eleentistic
vie61oint• It is in contrast 6ith the i$ea o(
olec"lar &ehavior
P"r1osive 'ehavioris
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P"r1osive 'ehavioris• E21lains goal-$irecte$ &ehavior
•
&ehavior is PURPOSIVE CO0ITIVE 3MOLAR
E2a1le: the searching &ehavior o( a ratin a aJe 6ill 1ersist "ntil (oo$ is (o"n$
• 0oal or P"r1ose o( Rat: To 9n$ the (oo$• "he purposive behavior is the fact that the rat
still (eeps up with the ma)e
Maor TheoreticalC
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Conce1ts• Kccording to "olman& ta(ing his lead
from the 3estalt theorists& learningis essentiall* a 1rocess o(
$iscovering 6hat lea$s to 6hatin the environent;
• E1hasiJer an organismDs drive
state determines which aspect of theenvironment will be emphasi)ed inits perceptual Qeld
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• Princi1le o( Least E%ort whenan organism chooses the one that
will require the shortestroute/shortcuts or anything that willonly require minimum amount of
energy
• Cognitive a1 a 1ict"re o(
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• Cognitive a1 a 1ict"re o(soething that an organis
"s"all* is enco"ntering 6hen it$o soething;
E2a1le: when a person wal(s on
the same street everyday& he will(now that when he loo(s/turns tohis left& he will see this and when
he loo(s/turns to the right& he willsee that
Vicario"s Trial an$ Error
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Vicario"s Trial an$ Error
•
Vicario"s Trial an$ Error -characteristic o( rats 6hereinthe* consistentl* sto1 or 1a"se
at choice 1oints;• Tests in this t*1e o( trial an$
error are teste$ cognitivel*rather than &ehaviorall*;
Learning vs; Per(orance
•
Latent Learning learning thatis not translate$ into1er(orance
Tolan an$ /onJi7 ?4B> ranan e21erient involving
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an e21erient involving gro"1s o( rats learning to solve
a aJe; The 9rst gro"1 6as reg"larl*
rein(orce$; The secon$ one ha$to 6ait "ntil the 44th $a*; The
thir$ one 6as Tolan,s interest; A(ter the e21erient he
concl"$e$ that the 1er(oranceo( those 6ho 6ere rein(orce$
a(ter the 44th $a* co1are$ tothe one 6hich 6as rein(orce$contin"all* 6as "ch &etter i(not e"all* &etter;
• things that Tolan o&serve$:
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things that Tolan o&serve$:
?4 There is a slight i1roveentin the 1er(orance o( the gro"1that 6as never reall*
rein(orce$;
? The rein(orce$ gro"1 sho6e$stea$* i1roveent
thro"gho"t the $"ration;? <hen the rein(orceent 6as
intro$"ce$ 1er(orance vastl*
i rove$
"h lt f th i t
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• "he results from the experiment
proved "olmanDs statement thatreinforcements are performancevariable not a learning variable
• 9atent Extinction – occurs simplybecause the organism waspresented in a situation where areinforcer is no longer present Suchextinction does not depend on theperformance of non-reinforced
res onse
Res1onse Learning vs; Place Learning
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• Res1onse Learning learning o(s1eci9c res1onses that aree%ective in solving a 1ro&lean$ there&* 1rovi$ing
rein(orceent;
• Place learning learning 6here
an o&ect is locate$; For Tolanonce the location o( an o&ect is7no6n it can &e reache$ &* an*
n"&er o( alternate ro"tes
Rein(orceentE t
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E21ectanc*•
Tolan 1re$icte$ that i(rein(orcers 6ere change$&ehavior 6o"l$ &e $isr"1te$&eca"se in Rein(orceentE21ectanc* a 1artic"larrein(orcer &ecoes a 1art o(6hat is e21ecte$;
• Cognitive $issonance negative$rive state an$ the 1ersone21eriencing it see7s 6a*s to
re$"ce it "st as the erson
In$ivi$"al Di%erence Varia&les
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• Ks per suggested by "olman&
•
/ [ heredity• A [ age
• T [ previous training
•
E [ special endocrine& drug& orvitamin conditions
Intervening Varia&les
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g
•
Create$ &* the theorist to ai$ ine21laining the relationshi1 &et6een thein$e1en$ent an$ $e1en$ent varia&les
•
In-&et6een &ehavior an$ environentalan$ in$ivi$"al $i%erence varia&les
• E2a1les: Dean$ A11etite
Di%erentiation Motor S7ill /*1otheses'iases
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'ehaviorist
Pers1ective#avlov&"horndi(e&:atson&S(inner
'ehavioris:
'ehaviorisf h d f b bl d
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• focuses on the study of observable and
measurable behavior•=t emphasi)es that behavior is mostlylearned through conditioning andreinforcement $ rewards and
punishment %•=t does not give much attention to themind & and the possibility of thoughtprocesses occurring in the mind
•5ontributions in the development of thebehaviorist theory largely came from#avlov& :atson& "horndi(e and S(inner
•a Cussian psychologist is
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Ivan
Pavlov
well (nown for his wor( in
classical conditioning orstimulus substitution
•'ost renownedexperiment involvedmeat& a dog and a bell'easuring the dogDssalivation in order tostudy digestion
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5lassical5onditioning
•Sti"l"s generaliJation- once thedog has learned to salivate at the
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dog has learned to salivate at the
sound of the bell& it will salivate atother similar sound•E2tinction- if you stop pairing thebell with the food& salivation will
eventually cease in response to thebell•S1ontaneo"s recover*-
extinguished responses can berecovered after an elapsed time& butwill soon extinguish again if the dog
is not presented with food
•Discriination- the dog could
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learn to discriminate between
similar bells and discern which bellwould result in the presentation offood and which would not•
/igher-or$er con$itioning- oncethe dog has been conditioned toassociate the bell with the food&another unconditioned stimulus&such as a light may be ashed atthe same time that the bell is rungEventually the dog will salivate at
the ash of the li ht without the
•.e explained that learningis the result of associations
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Edward
"horndi(e
is the result of associationsforming between stimuliand responses Suchassociation or habitsbecome strengthened or
wea(ened by nature andfrequency of the S-Cpairings• "he main principle of
connectionism was thatlearning could beadequately explainedwithout considering any
unobservable internal
Theor* o( connectionis- stated that learning has ta(en place when
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stated that learning has ta(en place whena strong connection or bond between stimulus
and response is formed
Three 1riar* la64;La6 o( e%ect- S-C is strengthened when
the consequence is positive and wea(enedwhen the consequence is negative
;La6 o( e2ercise- when S-C bond ispractice the stronger it will become
;La6 o( rea$iness- the more readiness the
learner has to respond to the stimulus& thestronger will be the bond between them
Princi1les $erive$ (ro theor*( ti i
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o( connectionis:
+9earning requires both practiceand rewards $law ofe!ect/exercise%
2K series of S-C connection can bechained together if they belongto the same action sequence $lawof readiness%
4"ransfer of learning occursbecause previously encounteredsituations
, =ntelligence is a function of the
• wor( with #avlov>s ideas5 id d th t h
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Oohn:atson
•5onsidered that humans
are born with a fewreexes and the emotionalreactions of love and rage•Experiment on Klbert anda white rat•.is wor( did clearly showthe role of conditioning in
the development ofemotional responses tocertain stimuli
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• operant conditioning
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Jurrhusrederi
c(S(inner
•
CeinforcementLC-any stimulusgiven or added toincrease the response
-C- any stimulusthat results in theincreased frequency
of a response when itis withdrawn orremoved
Al&ert 'an$"ra:Social # O&servational Learning
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• 'asic Preise
• :e learn behavior through observation
• Gicarious reinforcementP 9earn throughobserving consequences of behaviors of
others• Mo$elling
• Hbserve behavior of others and repeat thebehavior
• Jobo doll studies $+?74%• AisinhibitionP :ea(ening of inhibition
through exposure to a model
g
actors =nuencing 'odelingP=mpact "endency to =mitate
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=mpact "endency to =mitate
• 5haracteristics of the modelsPsimilarity& age& sex& status& prestige&simple vs complex behavior
•
5haracteristics of observersP 9owself-conQdence& low self-esteem&reinforcement for imitation
• Ceward consequences of behaviorP
Airectly witnessing associatedrewards
"he Hbservational 9earning #rocessP, Steps
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, Steps
• Kttentional processes• Cetention processes
• #roduction processes
• =ncentive and motivational processes
Step +P Kttentional#rocesses
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#rocesses• Aeveloping cognitive processes to
pay attention to a model- moredeveloped processes allow for better
attention• 'ust observe the model accurately
enough to imitate behavior
Step 2P Cetention #rocesses
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• "o later imitate behavior& mustremember aspects of the behavior
• Cetain information in 2 waysP
– =maginal internal representationP Gisualimage ExP orming a mental picture
– Gerbal systemP Gerbal description ofbehavior ExP Silently rehearsing steps inbehavior
Step 4P #roduction #rocesses
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• "a(ing imaginal and verbalrepresentations and translating intoovert behavior- practice behaviors
•
Ceceive feedbac( on accuracy ofbehavior- how well have you imitatedthe modeled behavior;
• =mportant in mastering di*cult s(ills – ExP Ariving a car
Step ,P =ncentive and 'otivational#rocesses
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#rocesses
• :ith incentives& observation morequic(ly becomes action& pay moreattention& retain more information
•
=ncentive to learn inuenced byanticipated reinforcements
Kspects of the SelfP Self-reinforcement and Self-e*cacy
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reinforcement and Self e*cacy
• Self-reinforcementP Cewards orpunishments given to oneself for reaching&exceeding or falling short of personalexpectations – ExP #ride& shame& guilt
• Self-e*cacyP Jelief in ability to cope withlife –
'eeting standardsP Enhances self-e*cacy – ailure to meet standardsP Ceduces self-e*cacy
Self-E*cacy
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• .igh self-e*cacy – Jelieve can deal e!ectively with life events
– 5onQdent in abilities
– Expect to overcome obstacles e!ectively
• 9ow self-e*cacy – eel unable to exercise control over life
– 9ow conQdence& believe all e!orts are futile
Sources of =nformation inAetermining Self-e*cacy
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Aetermining Self e*cacy
• #erformance attainment – 'ost inuential
– Cole of feedbac(
–
'ore we achieve& more we believe wecan achieve
– 9eads to feelings of competency andcontrol
Sources of =nformation inAetermining Self-e*cacy
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Aetermining Self e*cacy
•Gicarious experience – Seeing others perform successfully – =f they can& = can too
• Gerbal persuasion – Gerbal reminders of abilities
• #hysiological and emotional arousal – Celated to perceived ability to cope – 5alm& composed feelingsP .igher self-e*cacy – 0ervous& agitated feelingsP 9ower self-e*cacy
Aevelopmental Stages of 'odelingand Self-e*cacy
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a d Se e cacy
• 5hildhood – =nfancyP Airect modeling immediately
following observation& develop self-e*cacy with control over environment
– Jy age 2P Aeveloped attentional&retention and production processes tomodel behavior some time after
observation& not immediately
Aevelopmental Stages of 'odelingand Self-e*cacy
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y
• Kdolescence – =nvolves coping with new demands
– Success depends on level of self-e*cacy
established during childhood
Aevelopmental Stages of 'odelingand Self-e*cacy
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y
• KdulthoodP 2 #eriods – Roung adulthoodP
• Kd1ustmentsP 5areer& marriage& parenthood
• .igh self-e*cacy to ad1ust successfully
– 'iddle adulthoodP• Kd1ustmentP Ceevaluate career& family life
• 0eed to Qnd opportunities to continue to
enhance self-e*cacy
Aevelopmental Stages of 'odelingand Self-e*cacy
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y
• Hld ageP – Aecline in mental/physical function&
retirement
–
Cequires reappraisal of abilities – Jelief in ability to perform a tas( is (ey
throughout the lifespan
Kpplication of Social 9earning "heoryP Jehavior 'odiQcation
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y
• ears and phobias – 3uided participationP Hbserve and
imitate
–
5overt modelingP =maginal• Knxiety
– ear of medical treatment
–
"est anxiety
Kssessment of JanduraDs "heoryPSelf-e*cacy
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y
• Kge and gender di!erences• #hysical appearance
• Kcademic performance
• 5areer choice and 1ob performance• #hysical health
• 'ental health
• 5oping with stress
Assessent o( 'an$"ra,s Theor*:
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"elevision and Kggressive Jehaviors
• Celationship between watchingviolence and imitating violence
Assessent o( 'an$"ra,s Theor*
• StrengthsP – ocus on observable behavior- research
support
– #ractical application to real-worldproblems
– 9arge-scale changes
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T=n psychology we havewholes which& instead ofbeing the sum of parts
existing independently& give
their parts speciQc functionsor properties that can only
be deQned in relation to thewhole in questionT
T=n psychology we havewholes which& instead ofbeing the sum of parts
existing independently& give
their parts speciQc functionsor properties that can only
be deQned in relation to thewhole in questionT
:olfgang F\hlerP.uman #erception $9aperception humaine&
+?4@%
0ESTALTPS.C/OLO0.
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PS.C/OLO0.
"he term MgestaltN means MformN or
MconQgurationN #roponents are 'ax :ertheimer&:olfgang Fohler and Furt Fof(a "hey studied perception and
concluded that perceivers $or
learners% were not passive& but ratheractive
0ESTALT PRICIPLES
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Law of Proximity
Law of Similarity
Law of Closure
Law of Good Continuation
Law of Good Pragnanz
Law of Figure / Ground
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Law of
Proximity
Eleentsthat are closer
together 6ill&e 1erceive$as a coherent
o&ect;
Law of
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Law of
Similarity Eleentsthat loo7
siilar 6ill &e
1erceive$ as1art o( thesae (or;
Law of
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Law of
Closure <e ten$ to
9ll the ga1s orGcloseH the
9g"res 6e1erceive;
Law of GoodContinuation
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In$ivi$"alshave the
ten$enc* tocontin"econto"rs
6henever theeleents o(the 1atternesta&lish an
i1lie$$irection;
L f G d
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Law of Good
Pragnanz
The sti"l"s6ill &e
organiJe$ intoas goo$ a9g"re as1ossi≤
Law of
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Law ofFigure /Ground
<e ten$ to1a* attention
an$ 1erceivethings in the(oregro"n$
9rst;
0estalt Princi1les an$the Teaching-Learning
Process
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N"rt Le6in
GAn in$ivi$"al hasinner an$ o"ter
(orces that a%ecthis 1erce1tions
an$ also hislearning;H
Inner Forces
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Motivation Attit"$es
Feelings
O"ter(orces
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Attit"$e 'ehavior
'HA9E +4
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'HA9E +4
=0HC'K"=H0 #CH5ESS=03
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'RUER8SCOSTRUCTIVIST
T/EOR.
eroe 'r"nerBorn in +ew *ork $ity, ,ctober # .. He
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y, #
received his "!0! degree from (uke %niversity in.12 and his )h!( in .32 from 4arvard.
He was on the faculty in the
(epartment of )sychology at 4arvard
%niversity from .5-.25. Next, he was at
,xford from .25-.67. ater, he !oinedthe +ew *ork %niversity of Law.
eroe 'r"nerIn .87, he "u#lished The )rocess of
Ed i l d % # % hi h l d h
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Education$ a landmar% #oo% which led to much
ex"erimentation and a #road range of educational
"rograms in &'()*s.
Howard +ardner and other young
researchers wor%ed under Bruner and were much
influenced #y his wor%.
In the early 27s, he left Harvard to teachin %niversity of ,xford for several years. He
returned to 4arvard in .2..
h % l
09%+E9'S :"+ $,+$E)TS
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-hree ways to re"resent %nowledge
S"iral Curriculum
rinci"les of instruction #y Bruner
Discovering earningFour ma!or as"ects that should address in
theory of instruction
Four things a#out o#!ect
Several /inds of Categories
4; Enactive Re1resentation
Three ;ays to 9epresent <nowledge
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0t the earliest ages, children learn a#out theworld through actions on "hysical o#!ects andthe outcomes of these actions.
; Iconic Re1resentation
-his second stage is when learning can #eo#tained through using models and "ictures.
; S*&olic
Re1resentationIn this third stage, the learner hasdevelo"ed the a#ility to thin% in a#stractterms.
S1iral C"rric"l"
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-eachers must revisit the curriculum
#y teaching the same content in
different ways de"ending on students*
develo"mental levels.
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)rinciples of
instruction by
0runer
Rea$iness
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Instruction must #e concerned with
the ex"eriences and contexts that
ma%e the student willing and a#le to
learn.
S1iral OrganiJation
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Instruction must #e structured so
that it can #e easily gras"ed #y the
student.
0oing 'e*on$ the
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In(oration 0ivenInstruction should #e designed to
facilitate extra"olation and or fill inthe ga"s.
Discovering Learning
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1efers to o#taining %nowledge for
oneself.
=our ma>or
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>
aspects that
should address
in theory of
i i
Pre$is1osition to Learn
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He introduced the ideas of
2readiness for learning.3
Str"ct"re o( Nno6le$ge
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-he ways in which a #ody of
%nowledge can #e structured so that it
can #e most readily gras"ed #y the
learner.
E%ective Se"encing
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No one se4uencing will fit every
learner, #ut in general, the lesson can
#e "resented in increasing difficulty.
Rein(orceent
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1ewards and "unishment should #e
selected and "aced a""ro"riately.
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=our thingsabout ob>ect
Criterial Attri&"tes
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1e4uired characteristics for
inclusion of an o#!ect in a category.
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<eight to vario"s
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1ro1erties-he third rule assigns weight to
various "ro"erties.
Sets acce1tance liits
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on the attri&"tes-he fourth rule sets acce"tance
limits on attri#utes.
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Several <indsof $ategories
I$entit* Categories
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Categories include o#!ects #ased on
their attri#utes or features.
E"ivalent Categories
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54uivalence can #e determined #y
affective criteria, which render
o#!ects e4uivalent #y emotional
reactions, functional criteria, #ased on
related functions.
Co$ing S*stes
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Categories that serve to recogni6e
sensory in"ut.
R 8 S T I
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R U - E
R
C O - S
T R U C
V I S T
E O R .
-he "rinci"les of Bruner launched
the notion that "eo"le inter"ret world
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the notion that "eo"le inter"ret world
mostly in terms of similarities in
differences. -his is a valua#lecontri#ution to how individuals
construct their own models or view ofthe world.
David P Ausubel was born in 1918
Davi$ A"s"&el : Meaning("l Ver&alLearning 3 S"&s"1tion Theor*
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David P. Ausubel was born in 1918
Grew up in Brooklyn, NY
Attended the niversity o! Pennsylvania, takin" the
pre#$edi%al %ourse and $a&orin" in Psy%holo"y
=n +?84 he retired from academic life to devote full timeto his psychiatric practice
.is principal interests in psychiatry have been generalpsychopathology& ego development& drug addiction& and
forensic psychiatry
=n +?87 he received the "horndi(e Kward from theKmerican #sychological Kssociation for TAistinguished#sychological 5ontributions to EducationT
=ntroduction
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-Supported the theory that pupils form organise (nowledge by themselves
-Emphasi)ed the importance of verballearning / language-related learningwhich he consider to be very e!ectivefor pupils of the age ++ or +2 above
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-#upils gradually learn to associatenew (nowledge with existingconcepts in their mental structures
-"o ensure meaningful teaching&necessary to avoid rote memorisingof facts #upils need to manipulateideas actively
Kdvance Hrgani)er
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-#resents an overview of theinformation to be covered in detailduring the exposition that follows
-5an be classiQed P exposition orcomparison type
Kdvance Hrgani)er of theExposition "ype
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-:hile presenting new material
-se beginning of lesson
-#resents several encompassinggeneralisations where detailedcontents will be added later
Kdvance Hrgani)er of the 5omparison "ype
-seful when the (nowledge to be
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seful when the (nowledge to be
presented is new to pupils-5ompares new material with (nowledge
already (nown by emphasising thesimilarities between 2 types of material
showing the information that is to belearnt
-KusubelDs teaching approach isdeductive in nature
S 4 "h h
Step ,P"he pupils studyspeciQc examples
S#E5==5
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Step 4P"he teacherpresents examples
KAGK05E HC3K0=IEC
3E0ECK9
Step 2P"he teacherexplains important terms
Step +P"he teacherpresents general statement
or abstraction of lesson
Aeductive "eaching 'odelP Kdvance Hrgani)er as thebasis of the lesson
K concerned with howstudents learn large amountsof meaningful material fromverbal/textual presentationsin a learning activities
9earning is based on therepresentational&superordinate andcombinatorial processesthat occur during thereception of information
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Meaning("lRece1tion
Learning Theor*
reception of information
K primary process in learningis s"&s"1tion in whichnew material is related torelevant ideas in the existing
cognitive structure on a non-verbatim basis $previous(nowledge%
'eaningful learning resultswhen new information isacquired by lin(ing the new
information in the learner>sown cognitive structure
A"s"&el,s Meaning("l Learning
The 1rocesses o( eaning("llearning
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Kusubel proposed four processes bywhich meaningful learning can occur P
Aerivative subsumption
5orrelative subsumption
Superordinate learning
5ombinatorial learning
Derivative subsuption
• Aescribes the situation in which the new information
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pupils learn is an instance or example of a conceptthat pupils have already learned
E2a1le ?Stage 4 :
PREVIOUS NO<LED0E : Let8s s"11ose Ali
have ac"ire$ a &asic conce1t s"ch as treeH have green leave &ranch (r"its
Ali learn a&o"t a 7in$ o( tree that he havenever seen &e(ore G1ersion treeH -con(ors to his 1revio"s "n$erstan$ing o(
Gtree,, /is ne6 7no6le$ge o( 1ersion trees isattache$ to the conce1t o( tree 6itho"ts"&stantiall* altering that conce1t in an*6a*
Correlative subsuption
more TvaluableT learning than that of derivative
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more TvaluableT learning than that of derivativesubsumption& since it enriches the higher-levelconcept
E2a1le ?Stage :
•o6 let8s s"11ose Ali enco"nter a ne67in$ o( tree that has re$ leaves rather
than green
• Accoo$ate this ne6 in(oration Alihave to alter or e2ten$ *o"r conce1t o(
Gtree,, to incl"$e the 1ossi&ilit* o( re$leaves
!uperor"inate learning
E2a1le ?Stage :
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=n this case& you already (new a lot of examples ofthe concept& but you did not (now the concept itselfuntil it was taught to pupils
• Ali 6as 6ell ac"ainte$ 6ith a1les oa7sa11le trees etc; &"t 1"1ils still $i$ not
7no6 "ntil the* 6ere ta"ght that these6ere all e2a1les o( $eci$"o"s trees
Cobinatorial learning
E2a1le ?Stage :
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• =t describes a process by which the new idea is derivedfrom another idea that is comes from his previous(nowledge $in a di!erent& but related& TbranchT%
• Students could thin( of this as learning by analogy
•Ali learn a&o"t o$i9cation on the 1lants1art Ali ight relate it to 1revio"sl*
ac"ire$ 7no6le$ge o( ho6 1a1*r"s tree"se$ to 1ro$"ce 1a1er
%rinci&le' o A#'#(el)'
Meanin"#l Rece&*ion
Learnin" Theor+ wi*hin a
cla''room 'e**in"
%rinci&le' o A#'#(el)'
Meanin"#l Rece&*ion
Learnin" Theor+ wi*hin a
cla''room 'e**in"
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• 0eneral i$eas o( a s"&ect ?general stateent: – M"st &e 1resente$ 9rst – then 1rogressivel* $i%erentiate$ in ters o(
$etail an$ s1eci9cit*;
• Instr"ctional aterials : – sho"l$ atte1t to integrate ne6 aterial 6ith
1revio"sl* 1resente$ in(oration – Using co1arisons an$ cross-re(erencing o(
ne6 an$ ol$ i$eas;
cla''room 'e**in""
%rinci&le' o A#'#(el)'
Meanin"#l Rece&*ion
Learnin" Theor+ wi*hin a
cla''room 'e**in"
%rinci&le' o A#'#(el)'
Meanin"#l Rece&*ion
Learnin" Theor+ wi*hin a
cla''room 'e**in"
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• A$vance organiJers : – Instr"ctors sho"l$ incor1orate a$vance
organiJers 6hen teaching a ne6 conce1t
• E2a1les : – Instr"ctors sho"l$ "se a n"&er o( e2a1les
an$ (oc"s on &oth siilarities an$ $i%erences;
cla''room 'e**in""
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The ostiportant singlefactor in#uencing
learning is whatthe learner
alrea"y $nows..
0agnQ,s Con$itionso( Learning
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<hat islearning=
• 3agn] believed that an external observercould recogni)e learning by noting behavioralchanges that remains persistent over time$3agn]& +?8,%
• .e also stated that maturation is not learning
because the individual does not receivestimulation from the outside environment$3agn]& +?8,%
• 9earning has two parts& one that is external to
o( Learning
3agn^Ds 5onditions of9earning
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5onditions of 9earning
•
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•
9earning is an important causal factor indevelopment
• .uman learning is cumulative9earning of certain s(ills contributes to the
learning of more complex s(ills• .uman learning is both complex and
diverse
• 9earning is set of cognitive processes thattransforms the stimulation from theenvironment into capabilities
3agneDs #rinciple
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ive Garieties of 9earning
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"he Qve varieties of9earning
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"he Qve varieties of9earning
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"he Qve varieties of9earning
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0ine =nstructional Events+ 3aining attention $reception%
2 =nforming learners of the ob1ectives
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$expectancy%4 Stimulating recall of prior learning
$retrieval%
, #resenting the stimulus $selective
perception%6 #roviding learning guidance $semantic
encoding%
7 Eliciting performance $responding%
8 #roviding feedbac( $reinforcement%< Kssessing performance $retrieval%
? Enhancing retention and transfer$generali)ation%
5H0S"C5"=G=S'PF0H:9EA3E
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Constr"ctivis- is a theory of learning based on the
idea that learnerDs construct(nowledge for themselves
5H0"C5"=H0/5H05E#" 9EKC0=03
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":H G=E:S H5H0S"C5"=G=S'
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=0A=G=AK9 5H0S"C5"=G=S' $5H30="=GE 5H0S"C5"=G=S'%- it emphasi)es individual& internal
construction of (nowledgeSH5=K9 5H0S"C5"=G=S'- it emphasi)es that (nowledge exists in
a social context and is initially sharedwith others
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5.KCK5"EC=S"=5S H5H0S"C5"=G=S'
+ 9earners construct understanding2 0ew learning depends on current
understanding4 9earning is facilitated by social
interaction
HC3K0=I=03
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F0H:9EA3E#eople store (nowledge in
many di!erent ways5H05E#"S- is a way of grouping or
categori)ing ob1ects or eventsin our mind
5oncepts as feature lists- involves learning speciQc features that
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characteri)e positive instance of theconcept
AE=0=03 EK"CE- characteristics
present in all instances 5HCCE9K"=H0K9 EK"CE- is one
that is present in many positive instances
but not essential for conceptmembership
5oncepts as prototypes
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prototype- is an idea or avisual image of a MtypicalexampleN
5oncepts as exemplars
exemplars- represent avariety of examples
S5.E'K
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- is an organi)ed body of (nowledgeabout something
S5C=#"- is a schema that includes a series of
predictable events about a speciQc
activity
:hat is transfer of learning;
• M"ransfer of learning is about how teachers
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gwant their students to apply the (nowledge andthe s(ills they learn in class to other situationN
"ransfer of learning is aboutU• :hen one recogni)es a situation as somethingsimilar in a way to what he has learned before&
his tendency is to use the (nowledge and s(illshe has learned to this situation
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"CK0SEC H 9EKC0=03
"R#ES H9EKC0=03
5H0A="=H0S K0A#C=05=#9ES H
9EKC0=03
• .appens when learning in one
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context or with one set of materialsa!ects performance in anothercontext or with other related
materials
• =t is applying to another situation
what was previously learned
• "he circumstance of learning di!ers
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signiQcantly from situations whenwhat is learned is to be applied
•
"he educational goals are not metuntil transfer occurs that>s whytransfer of learning is a veryimportant aspect of instruction
• #ositive transfer
occurs when learning in one context improvesperformance in some other context
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• 0egative transfer
Cefers to transfer between very similarcontexts Klso referred to as speciQc transfer
• ar transfer
• Cefers to transfer between context that on
appearance seem remote and alien to oneanother Klso called as general transfer
"hese principles are based on thefactors that a!ect transfer of learningCon$itions# (actorsa%ecting trans(er
o( learningPrinci1le o(
trans(erI1lication
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Similarity betweentwo learningsituations
"he more similar thetwo situations are&the greater thechances that learningfrom one situation willbe transferred to
other situation
=nvolve students inlearning situationsand tas(s that aresimilar as possible tothe situations wherethey would apply the
tas(
Aegree ofmeaningfulness/relevance of learning
'eaningful learningleads to greatertransfer than rotelearning
Cemember to provideopportunities forlearners to lin( newmaterial to what they
learned in the past9ength ofinstructional time
"he longer the timespent in instruction&the greater theprobability of transfer
"o ensure transfer&teach a few topics indepth rather thanmany topics tac(ledin a shallow manner
Con$itions# (actors
a%ecting trans(er o(learning
Princi1le o( trans(er I1lication
Gariety of learningexperiences
Exposure to manyexamples andopportunities for
=llustrate new conceptsand principles with avariety of examples
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practice to encouragetransfer
#lan activities thatallow your learners topractice their newlylearned s(ills
5ontext for learnerDs
experiences
"ransfer of learning is
most li(ely to happenwhen learners discoverthat what they learnedis applicable to variouscontexts
Celate topic in one
sub1ect in one sub1ectto topics in othersub1ects or disciplinesCelate it also to real lifesituation
ocus on principles
rather than tas(
#rinciples transfer
easier that facts
Iero in on principles
related to each topictogether with strategiesbased on thoseprinciple s
Emphasis onmetacognition
Student reectionimproves transfer of
Encourage students tota(e responsibility for
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MODULE 4BFacilitating Learning an$'loo,s Ta2ono*,s o(
O&ectives
9evels of JloomDs "axonomy
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Fnowledge 5omprehension
Kpplication Knalysis Synthesis
Evaluation
Fnowledge•
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remembering•'emori)ing
•Cecogni)ing
•
Cecalling identiQcation and•Cecall of information
5omprehension
•
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=nterpreting• "ranslating from one medium to
another
•
Aescribing in ones own words• Hrgani)ation and selection of facts
and ideas
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Kpplication• #roblem solving
• Kpplying information to producesome result
• se of facts& rules and principles
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Knalysis• Subdividing something to show how it is
put together• inding the underlying structure of a
communication
• =dentifying motives
• Separation of a whole into component parts
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Synthesis
•5reating a unique& original productthat may be in verbal form or may bea physical ob1ect
•
5ombination of ideas to form a newwhole
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Evaluation• 'a(ing value decisions about issues
•
Cesolving controversies ordi!erences of opinion
• Aevelopment of opinions& 1udgements or decisions
E!ective Yuestioning "echniques
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• #ose the question Qrst& before as(inga student to respond
• Kllow plenty of Mthin( timeN bywaiting at least 8-+@ seconds beforeexpecting students to respond
•
( i ll d h
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'a(e sure you give all students theopportunity to respond rather thanrelying on volunteers
• .old students accountable by
expecting& requiring& and facilitatingtheir participation and contributions
• Establish a safe atmosphere for ris(
ta(ing by guiding students in theprocess of learning from their mista(es
"orranceDs 5reativity ramewor( "orranceDs 5reativity ramewor(
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• Mfather of 5reativityN
• Mprofessor of emeritusN
of educationalpsychology
• "he M"orrance "ests of
5reative "hin(ingN
• Mfather of 5reativityN
• Mprofessor of emeritusN
of educationalpsychology
• "he M"orrance "ests of
5reative "hin(ingN
•
' i hi
FLUEC.
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'any responses within a category=or example?
UtypingstylesUtypingstyles
Utyping stylesUtyping styles
Utyping stylesUtyping styles
Utyping stylesUtyping styles
Utyping styles
•
S hi hif i h i d
FLEI'ILIT.
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Stretching or shifting the mind togenerate a variety of categories
=or example?
Utyping si)esUtyping si)es
Utyping stylesUtyping styles
Utyping casesUtyping cases
•
Kddi d t il f i t t
ELA'ORATE
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Kdding details for interest orclarity=or example?
:hat speciQc idea willma(e the idea easier to
understand or more
interestinginteresting
•
i id th t l t
ORI0IALIT.
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nique ideas that are relevant&but not obvious
=or example?
Jeginning of Mthe greatestN tea [ ;
Aesign a new ______ that is better than the
one you have
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Creative Pro&leSolving
7s#orn*s Chec%list the origin of ClassicalBrainstorming is the root of creative"ro#lem solving 8CS9.
•
K b i l f ' i t i i b ild
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K basic rule of 'rainstoring is buildonto ideas already suggested Ale2Os&orn& the originator of classicalbrainstorming& Qrst communicated
this K chec(list was formulated as ameans of transforming an existingidea into a new one "he chec(list is
designed to have a exible& trial anderror type of approach
"he 5hec(listP "he 5hec(listP
• Kdapt; =s there anything else li(e this; :hatd thi t ll ; = th t bl ;
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does this tell you; =s the past comparable;
• 'odify; 3ive it a new angle; Klter the colour&sound& odour& meaning& motion& and shape;
•
'agnify; 5an anything be added& time&frequency& height& length& strength; 5an itbe duplicated& multiplied or exaggerated;
• 'inify; 5an anything be ta(en away; 'ade
smaller; 9owered; Shortened; 9ightened;Hmitted; Jro(en up;
• Substitute; Ai!erent ingredients used; Hther
material; Hther processes; Hther place; Hther
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material; Hther processes; Hther place; Htherapproach; Hther tone of voice; Someone else;
• Cearrange; Swap components; Klter the pattern&sequence or layout; 5hange the pace or
schedule; "ranspose cause and e!ect;• Ceverse; Hpposites; Jac(wards; Ceverse roles;
5hange shoes; "urn tables; "urn other chee(; "ranspose `L/-`;
• 5ombine; 5ombine units& purposes& appeals orideas; K blend& alloy& or an ensemble;
5lassical Jrainstorming5lassical Jrainstorming• Kvoid criticising ideas / suspend 1udgement Kll
ideas are as valid as each other
• 9isten to other ideas& and try to piggy bac( on
them to other ideas
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them to other ideas• ree-wheeling Aon>t censor any ideas& (eep the
meeting ow going
• Kvoid any discussion of ideas or questions& asthese stop the ow of ideas
• 3enerate ideas - either in an unstructured way$anyone can say an idea at any time% or structure$going round the table& allowing people to pass ifthey have no new ideas%
• 5larify and conclude the session =deas that areidentical can be combined& all others should be(ept =t is useful to get a consensus of which ideas
Th f ll i b d &Th f ll i b d &
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The following# based on &an@undy A.66sB description# isa very brief skeleton of a
very rich process# showing itin its full C8 x 5 stages form
The following# based on &an@undy A.66sB description# isa very brief skeleton of a
very rich process# showing itin its full C8 x 5 stages form
• Stage 1: ess !nding: Sensitise yourself$scan& search% for issues $concerns&challenges& opportunities& etc% that need tobe tac(led
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– Aivergent techniques include `:ouldnDt =t Je 0ice=fUD $:=J0=% and `:ouldnDt =t Je Kwful =fUD $:=JK=%– 'RAISTORMI0 to identify desirableoutcomes& and obstacles to be overcome
– 5onvergent techniques include the identiQcationof hotspots $ .ighlighting %& expressed as a list of=::'s $`=n :hat :ays 'ightUD%& and selection interms of ownership criteria $eg problem-ownerDs
motivation and ability to inuence it% and outloo(criteria $eg urgency& familiarity& stability%
• Stage 2: "ata !nding: 3ather informationabout the problem – Aivergent techniques include ive :s and .
$:ho :hy :hat :hen :here and .ow% and
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$:ho& :hy& :hat& :hen& :here and .ow% andlisting of wants& sources and dataP 9ist all yourinformation `wantsD as a series of question foreach& list possible sources of answers thenfollow these up and for each source& list whatyou found
– 5onvergent techniques again includePidentifying hotspots $.ighlighting% 'ind-mapping to sort and classify the information
gathered and also restating the problem in thelight of your richer understanding of it
• Stage 3: #ro$lem !nding: convert a fu))ystatement of the problem into a broadstatement more suitable for idea Qnding –
Aivergent techniques include as(ing `:hy;D
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Aivergent techniques include as(ing :hy;etc – the repeatable questions andive :>s and .
– 5onvergent techniques include .ighlighting
again& reformulation of problem-statements tomeet the criteria that they contain only oneproblem and no criteria& and selection of themost promising statement $but 0J that themental `stretchingD that the activity gives to
the participants can be as important as theactual statement chosen%
• Stage 4: %dea &inding: generate as manyideas as possible – Aivergence using any of a very wide range of
idea generating techniques "he general rules
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idea-generating techniques "he general rulesof 5lassic Jrainstorming $such as deferring
1udgement% are li(ely to under-pin all of these
– 5onvergence can again involve hotspots or
mind-mapping& the combining of di!erentideas& and the short-listing of the mostpromising handful& perhaps with some thoughtfor the more obvious evaluation criteria& butnot over-restrictively
• Stage ': Solution !nding: 3enerate andselect obvious evaluation criteria $using an
i / t ti l % d d l
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expansion/contraction cycle% and develop$which may include combining% the short-listed ideas from =dea inding as much as
you can in the light of these criteria "henopt for the best of these improved ideas$eg using 5omparison tables%
• Stage (: cceptance !nding: .ow can thesuggestion you have 1ust selected be made up to
standard and put into practice; Shun negativity
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standard and put into practice; Shun negativity&and continue to apply deferred 1udgement –problems are exposed to be solved& not todishearten progress Kction plans are better
developed in small groups of 2 – 4 rather than ina large group $unless you particularly wantcommitment by the whole group% #articularly for`peopleD problems it is often worth developingseveral alternative action plans
H ther model for #roem
Solving
•
JranfordDs =AEK9 model
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Jranford s =AEK9 model – Identify the #roblem
–DeQne the problem
–
Explore solutions –Act on the strategies
–Loo( bac( and evaluate the e!ects of your
activity
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GMeaning an$ T*1es
o( MotivationH
Motivation
is an inner drive that causes you toP
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• do something
• persevere at something
•
energi)es you to do something• initiate
• direct
•
become intense• persistence of behavior
GIn$icator,s o( a /igh Level o(MotivationH
She/he ta(es the initiative to underta(e learning
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She/he ta(es the initiative to underta(e learningtas(s& assignments and pro1ects without beingpushed by his/her teachers and parents
She/he has goals to accomplish and dreams toreali)e
She/he is convinced that accomplishing the
things she/he as(ed is to accomplish in classhelps her/him reali)e the goals she/he has set forherself/himself and their dream in life
In$icator,s o( a /igh Level o(MotivationH
She/he willing to give up the satisfaction of
immediate goals for the sa(e of morei t t t l K l i h /h
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immediate goals for the sa(e of moreimportant remote goals Kn example is she/heis willing to give up 1oining her/his bar(ada towatch a movie in order to prepare thoroughly
for Qnal examinations
She/he persists and perseveres in her/hisstudies even when things turn out to be
di*cult
She/he does not give up easily
In contrast an "notivate$
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In contrast an "notivate$st"$ent:
• does not en1oy learning• does not study unless pushed
• easily gives up
• lac(s of perseverance
GT*1es o( MotivationH
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• Intrinsic Motivation – the source ofmotivation is from within the person
herself/himself or the activity itself
• %&aple' K student reads
poc(etboo(s because it is en1oyable
• E2trinsic Motivation – the source ofmotivation is something outside
herself/himself or the rewards and
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herself/himself or the rewards andincentives
• %&aple'K student studies becauseshe/he was told by her/his teacher or
because she/he is afraid to fail andher/his parents ma(es her/him stop
schooling
GT*1e o( Motivation 6hichis
More 'ene9cialH
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=t is obviously that intrinsicmotivation is more beneQcial
because it comes from within theperson and it is not after theincentives or rewards =t is shown in
the en1oyment of the activity itselfand the inner conviction of thelearner that such things are the right
GThe Role o( E2trinsic MotivationH
• Extrinsic 'otivation factors
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Extrinsic 'otivation factorsincludeP
• Cewards
• =ncentives
• #raises or words ofencouragements
• Kpproval of signiQcant others li(eteachers& parents& peer group
O11osites:
•
#unishment
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#unishment• :ithdrawal
• #rivileges
• 5ensure
• Hstracism
:e may begin employing
extrinsic motivation at the startb t thi h ld f d
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extrinsic motivation at the startbut this should fade away asthe students get intrinsically
motivated themselves =t playsa signiQcant role in thedevelopment of motivated
students
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GTheories on Factors
A%ectingMotivationH
Factors A%ecting
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Factors A%ectingMotivation
these are the elements thatcontributes to a particular
result that a!ects motivation
Attri&"tion Theor*
- explains that we attribute our successes or
failures or other events to several factors. For
instance you attribute your popularity to your
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instance, you attribute your popularity to your popular parents or to your own sterling
academic performance. Or you attribute the
poor economic condition you are in to the LandReform of the Phil. Govt. !your lands were
sub"ected to land reform# or to the vices of your
father. $hese attributions differ from oneanother in three ways % locus, stability, and
controllability !Ormsrod, &''(#.
Locus !)place*#+ nternal vs. external.
f your student traces his good grade to
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f your student traces his good grade tohis ability and to his wor-, he attributes
his good grade to internal factors. f your
student, however, claims that his goodgrade is due to the effective teaching of
his teacher or to the adeuate library
facilities, he attributes his good grades to
factors external to himself.
Stability /table vs. unstable.
f you attribute your poor eyesight to what
you have inherited from your parents, then
you are attributing the cause of your sic-ness
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you are attributing the cause of your sic-ness
to something stable, something that cannot
change because it is in your genes. f you
attribute it to excessive watching of tv, then
you are claiming that your poor eyesight is
caused by an unstable factor, something that
can change. !0ou can prolong or shorten your
period of watching tv#.
Controllability: 1ontrollable vs.uncontrollable.
f your student claims his poor academic
performance is due to his teachers in
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performance is due to his teacher s in2
effective teaching strategy, he attributes his
poor performance to a factor beyond his
control. f, however, your student admits that
his poor class performance is due to his poor
study habits and low motivation, he attributes
the event to factors which are very much
within his control.
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Theories on Factors
A%ecting Motivation
Kttribution "heory
• Explains that we attribute oursuccesses or failures or other events
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successes or failures or other eventsto several factors
4 :ays of Kttribution from HneKnother
+% 9ocus MplaceNP =nternal vs external
2% StabilityP Stable vs unstable
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2% StabilityP Stable vs unstable
4% 5ontrollabilityP 5ontrollable vsuncontrollable
.ow does attribution a!ect
motivation;
Self-e*cacy "heory
• =s the belief that one has thenecessary capabilities to perform a
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necessary capabilities to perform atas(& fulQll role expectations&or meeta challenging situation successfully
Self-e*cacy enhancingstrategiesP• 'a(e sure students master the basic
s(ills
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s(ills
• .elp them ma(e noticeable progresson di*cult tas(s
• 5ommunicate conQdence instudentsD abilities through bothwords and actions
• Expose them to successful peers
Self-determination and regulationtheories
• Students are more li(ely to beintrinsically motivated when they
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intrinsically motivated when theybelieve they can determine theirlearning goals and regulate their
learning
.ow to enhance studentsD sense of self-determination about school activities;
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Self Cegulation
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5hoice "heory
• =t is a biological theory that suggestswe are born with speciQc needs that
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we are born with speciQc needs thatwe are genetically instructed tosatisfy
our Jasic #sychological0eeds
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Maslo6,s /ierarch* o( ee$s
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3oal "heory
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Learning 0oal vs; Per(orance 0oal
9EKC0=03 3HK9
• K Mdesire to acquire additional (nowledge
or master new s(illsN
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#ECHC'K05E 3HK9
• K Mdesire to loo( good and receive
favorable 1udgments from others or elseloo( bad and receive unfavorable 1udgments
Self-determined 3oals
• :hen the lesson ob1ectives arerelevant to the life of students& then
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&students turn out to be moremotivated to learn
3oal Setting
'a1or ElementsP
+ 3oal acceptance
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+ 3oal acceptance
2 SpeciQcity
4 5hallenge, #erformance monitoring
6 #erformance feedbac(
Lesson O&ectives "st &e:
S - sart&l
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S sartM - eas"ra&le
A - attaina&le
R - res"lt-oriente$
T - tie-&o"n$
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• Students are more li(ely to beintrinsically motivated when they are
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y ymotivated towards deep mastery of atopic& instead of 1ust rote-learning
performance to get good grades
StudentsDdi ersit in
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Studentsdiversity in
motivation
:hat are the factors that
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:hat are the factors thatinuences studentsmotivation;
Students who& by themselves arealready as diverse& also di!er in
motivation"hese diversity in motivation may
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"hese diversity in motivation maybe traced to di!erences in age&developmental stage& gender& socio-
economic and cultural bac(ground
.ow these factors
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.ow these factorsinuences studentDs
motivation;
Hur class is a conglomerate ofstudents with varying ages& andgender and cultural and
socioeconomic bac(ground"heir motivational drives reect the
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"heir motivational drives reect theelement of the culture in which theygrow up – family& their friends& school&
boo(s and even church "o motivate all of them for learning&
it is best to employ di!erentiated
approaches
Ks the adage goes
MAi!erent fol(s& di!erent
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&stro(esN
meaning
:hat is medicine for one may
be poison to others
"here are two principles toconsider regarding social andcultural inuences on motivation
+ Students are most li(ely to model
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+Students are most li(ely to modelthe behaviors they believe are
relevant to their situation2Students develop greater e*cacyfor a tas( when they see othersli(e themselves performing thetas( successfully$Hrmrod& 2@@,%
+ Students need models who aresimilar to themselves in terms of
race& cultural bac(ground&socioeconomic status gender and $
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socioeconomic status& gender& and $if applicable% disability$Hrmrod&2@@,%
2 =t must be good to expose ourstudents to models of their age andto models who come from similarcultural& socioeconomicbac(grounds
Ao we have to limit ourselvesto live models;
0ot necessaril :e can ma(e
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0ot necessarily :e can ma(eour students read biographies and
autobiographies of successfulindividuals who were in situationssimilar to them
'HA9E 2,.uman Environmental actors K!ecting 'otivation
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The Classroo
cliate#oints to #onder
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cliate#oints to #onder
+:hat is a classroom
climate that facilitateslearning;
2 :hat ta(es place in aclassroom where a business-
-
:hat is a classroom;=t is a physical space where
learning is facilitated =t is a place
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g pwhere classes meet
:hat is climate;=t is the prevailing inuence or
environmental conditionscharacteri)ing a group or period =tis synonymous to atmosphere
:hat is a classroom climate;
"he classroom climate is more a product
of the interaction between and amongteacher and students than that of the
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teacher and students than that of thephysical condition of the classroom
"he physical condition of the classroommay exert an inuence on the socialinteraction among the personalities in
class but it may not contribute as muchas the classroom social interaction does
3oing bac( to question number +P
:hat then is the classroomclimate that is conducive for
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climate that is conducive forlearning;
- is one that is non-threatening yetbusiness-li(e
=n answering question number 2P
:hat ta(es place in a
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:hat ta(es place in aclassroom where a business-
li(e and a non-threateningatmosphere prevail;
=t is a classroom whereP
•rules and procedure are discussedon the Qrst day of class
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on the Qrst day of class
• students are involved in the design
of rules and procedures• techniques to ac(nowledge and
reinforce acceptable behavior and
provide negative consequences areemployed
• clear limits for unacceptablebehavior are established
• there is a healthy balancebetween dominance and
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cooperation
• the teacher is aware of the needsof di!erent types of students
• the teacher is fully aware of thehappenings in class and
• studentsD responsibility for their
own behavior is enhanced
"o summari)e
+ "he classroom climate is a by-productof the social interaction between and
among teacher and students2 "h d i l li t i
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2 "he conducive classroom climate isone that is business-li(e yet non-
threatening4 =t is a (ind of classroom whereP
a expectations& rules and procedures&limits on behavior are made from thevery Qrst day of school
b the teacher& who is the leader& is
fully aware of what is happeningand is in control of the classroom
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and proceedings and yet conveysthe message that he/she is
interested in the concerns of thestudents as an individual and theclass as a whole
c students are responsible fortheir own behavior
The )hysical Learning
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The )hysical Learning
Environment" conducive physical learning
environment is one thatD
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0llows maximum interaction #etweenteacher and student and among
students.0llows student movement without
unnecessary distraction.0llows teacher to survey the
whole class. It is safe, clean, orderly
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It is wellventilated, s"acious,
and ade4uately lighted It ma%es "ossi#le re
arrangement of chairs as the
need arises.
"ssessment for Learning"SSESS:E+T is #asically the
"rocess of gathering information a#out
the students* learning$ then analy6ing andinter"reting them for the "ur"ose of
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inter"reting them for the "ur"ose ofma%ing decision.
)%9),SE ,= "SSESS:E+T &. Diagnosis:. lacement
;. 5ffectiveness of the rogram<. Student Feed#ac%=. 1esearch
9esearched-0ased )rinciple of"ssessment for Learning
"ssessment for learningD0ssessment for learning should #e
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0ssessment for learning should #e"art of effective "lanning and learning
=ocuses on how students learn!0ssessment for learning should focuson how student learn.s central to classroom practice!
0ssessment of learning should #econsidered central to classroom "ractice.
s a key professional skill!0ssessment of learning should #e
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0ssessment of learn ng should #econsidered as a %ey "rofessional s%illfor teachers.
s sensitive and constructive!
0ssessment of learning must #esensitive and constructive #ecause
assessment has an emotional im"act.
=,STE9 :,T&"T,+!
0ssessment of learning shouldconsider the im"ortance of learner
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motivation.
)romotes understanding of goals and
criteria!0ssessment of learning should
"romote commitment to learning goals
and a shared understanding of thecriteria #y which they are assessed.
4elps learners to know to improve!
0ssessment of learning should include
constructive guidance on how learners canim"rove.
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(evelops the capacity for
self-assessment!
0ssessment of learning develo"slearners* s%ills on selfassessment.
9ecognies all educational achievement!
0ssessment of learning shouldrecogni6e the full range of achievementof all learners.
Co$e o( Ethics (or Pro(essionalTeachers
PREAM'LE
Teachers are $"l* license$
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1ro(essionals 6ho 1ossess $ignit* an$re1"tation 6ith high oral val"es as
6ell as technical an$ 1ro(essionalco1etence; In the 1ractice o( theirno&le 1ro(ession the* strictl* a$hereto o&serve an$ 1ractice this set o(ethical an$ oral 1rinci1les stan$ar$
an$ val"es;
Kssessment for learning is more inline with A"thentic Assessent;
Sometimes referred to as
alternative assessentauthentic assessment see(s to
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directly assess student performancethrough real-life tas(s or products
ExampleP tas(s and rubrics& andportfolios
ARTICLE 4
!cope an" Liitations
Section : This Co$e covers all 1"&lic
an$ 1rivate school teachers in alle$"cational instit"tions at the
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1reschool 1riar* eleentar* an$secon$ar* levels 6hether aca$eic
vocational s1ecial technical or non-(oral; The ter GteacherH shallincl"$e in$"strial art or vocationalteachers an$ all other 1ersons1er(oring s"1ervisor* an$ # or
a$inistrative ("nctions in all schoolat the a(oresai$ levels 6hether on("ll-tie or 1art-tie &asis;
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Diagnosis "se$ to $eterine an*
s1ecial learning nee$ that a learner a*have
Placeent the learner can &e 1lace$ inthe &est learning environent 6here he
can &etter learn an$s $evelo1;
E%ectiveness o( the Progra can also
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E%ectiveness o( the Progra can also1rovi$e $ata a&o"t ho6 a 1artic"larc"rric"l" or 1rogra is e%ective in
eeting its goals
St"$ent Fee$&ac7 "se$ toco"nicate to the learner his c"rrentlevel o( 1er(orance s1eci9call* hisstrong an$ 6ea7 1oints;
Research can also &e "se$ as a so"rceo( ver* "se("l $ata in a 6i$e rangeto1ics in the 9el$ o( e$"cational
Researche$-'ase$ Princi1les o(Assessent (or Learning
The gro"1 1ro1ose$ 4>1rinci1les; Accor$ing toth t (
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the assessent (orlearning:
4; Is 1art o( e%ective 1lanning; "hereshould be an opportunity for both the learner and theteacher to use the assessment of progress in loo(ing
at the learning goals
; Foc"ses on ho6 st"$ents learn; "heteacher should understand the nature of learning
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5; Is a 7e* 1ro(essional s7ill; It is vital that
teachers acquire the necessary (nowledge& s(ills andvalues about the entire assessment process
; Is central to classroo 1ractice; "eachers would come to reali)e that a lot of what they
do inside the classroom can be seen as a form ofassessment
; Fosters otivation; Kssessment shouldfocus on progress and achievement rather than failure
; Is sensitive an$ constr"ctive; Ks futureteacher& bear in mind that your comments& mar(s andgrades& as well as the manner you communicate them
to students can a!ect their self-conQdence
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+; Prootes "n$erstan$ing o( goals an$
criteria; Kssessment of learning should promotecommitment to learning goals and a shared
understanding of the criteria by which they areassessed
@; /el1s learners 7no6 ho6 to i1rove;Kssessment of learning should include constructive
guidance on how learners can improve
B; Develo1s the ca1acit* (or sel(-assessent; Kssessment should allow learners
to apply metacognitive s(ills =n this way& assessmentempowers the student to ta(e a more active role in
his own learning process
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4>; RecogniJes all e$"cationalachieveent; Kssessment should be able to
integrate the totality of the learnerDs achievement
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