factors affecting project implementation amongst
TRANSCRIPT
FACTORS AFFECTING PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION AMONGST
NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS IN KENYA
BY
Cornel Ragen
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
This study seeks to address the factors affecting project implementation in an
organization with a focus on a non-governmental organisation. The process of project
implementation, involving the successful development and introduction of projects in the
organization, presents an ongoing challenge for managers. Miller (2002) notes that project
implementation process is complex usually requiring simultaneous attention to a wide variety of
human, budgetary, and technical variables. As a result, the organizational project manager is
faced with a difficult job characterized by role overload, frenetic activity, fragmentation, and
superficiality. The major influencing variables to be considered in the study are the resources
management, the operational systems, the organizational culture and the leadership of the
organisation.
Arthur (2003) explains that resource management is the efficient and effective
deployment for an organization's resources when they are needed. Such resources may include
financial resources, inventory, human skills, production resources, or information technology
(IT). In the realm of project management, processes, techniques and philosophies as to the best
approach for allocating resources have been developed. Resource management is a key element
to activity resource estimating and project human resource management. Both are essential
components of a comprehensive plan implementation.
Czarniawska (2003) states that resource management is a relatively new approach to
managing people in any organisation. People are considered the key resource in this approach. It
is concerned with the people dimension in management of an organisation. Since an organisation
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is a body of people, their acquisition, development of skills, motivation for higher levels of
attainments, as well as ensuring maintenance of their level of commitment are all significant
activities. These activities fall in the domain of Human Reseource Management (HRM).
A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service and it
follows an agreed procedure of work flow. The selected plan is implemented by means of
programs, budgets, and procedures which are organizations operational systems and way of
handling things. Implementation practices involve organization resources and motivation of the
staff to achieve objectives. The way in which the plan is implemented can have a significant
impact on whether it will be successful or not. A project is temporary in that there is a defined
start (the decision to proceed) and a defined end (the achievement of the goals and objectives).
Ongoing business or maintenance operations are not projects. Projects usually include constraints
and risks regarding cost, schedule or performance outcome (Choudhury, 2007). It is noted that if
the operational systems are not clear then the implementation process will have a rocky path and
the project might fail to realize the intended goal or purpose.
Various typologies have been suggested as useful means of describing differences in
culture between organizations. Harrison (2007) suggests four main types of organizational
culture: power; role; task/achievement; and person/support. Deal and Kennedy (2009) also
proposed four generic culture types as determined exclusively by one aspect of organizational
behavior the degree and speed of feedback on whether decisions or strategies are successful.
Harrison (2007) further analyzed cultural differences in dealing with external population and
suggested that culture has four dimensions that influence project or strategies implementation:
power distance; uncertainty avoidance; individualism/collectivism; and masculinity/femininity.
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Project leadership is widely considered to be an important aspect of project control.
While the theory of managerial control in projects is well developed, there remains the need to
further develop understanding of the leadership style that complements the sophistication of
contemporary control techniques and methods (Barber, 2004). Regardless of the availability of
software tools, project implementation remains dependent on a leadership style that is outcome
focused and not problem focused. Although problems will always arise and deviations from plan
will occur, the need for control requires a shift away from reactive behaviours, the firefighter
style, where the focus is on tackling immediate problems.
1.2 Background of the Study
1.2.1 Non-Governmental Organisations in Kenya
The NGO Coordination Act (1990) defines an NGO as “a private voluntary grouping of
individuals or associations, not operated for profit or for other commercial purposes but which
have organised themselves nationally or internationally for the benefit of the public at large and
for the promotion of social welfare, development, charity or research in the areas inclusive of,
but not restricted to, health, relief, agriculture, education, industry and the supply of amenities
and services". An NGO cannot become a branch or affiliated with or connected with any
organisation or group of a political nature established outside of Kenya. An NGO is required to
benefit the public at large and promote social welfare, development charity, or research in areas
including but not restricted to health, relief, agriculture, education, industry, and the supply of
amenities and services (NGO Co-ordination Board, 2012).
In a broad sense, NGOs, though relatively recently identified with an acronymic label and
as a “third sector” are not new in Kenya (Salamon & Anheier 2002). Both local and international
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organizations have a long history in the territory. Since 1963, the beginning of Kenya's history as
an independent country, the government of Kenya has encouraged the development of
indigenous not‐for profit organizations, locally called harambee groups self‐help societies or
community‐based organizations (CBOs). Harambee, which literally means, “let’s pull together”
in Swahili, was the rally cry of Kenya's first President, Jomo Kenyatta, and it became the
country's motto.
Kanyinga (2009) states that in Kenya, local, community‐based self‐help groups and
foreign based other‐oriented NGOs exist. Both are registered with the government. The former,
now numbering more than 220,000 are registered with the Ministry of Culture and Social
Services under the Societies Act, and are often called CBOs. The later, for the most part, have
morphed into NGOs, and along with similar Kenyan‐based organizations, are registered with the
NGO Coordination Board. These NGOs are largely secular organizations, though they are
sometimes registered in association with a church or other religious organization, making the
strict characterization of NGOs as “secular organizations” inaccurate. While both CBOs and
NGOs are interesting and important, this dissertation focuses on NGOs. Most NGOs in Kenya
are involved in one or more of the following eight types of activities: agriculture, education,
environment, general development, peace and governance, health, emergency or refugee relief,
and programs directed at disadvantaged communities (specifically women, children, youth, the
disabled and the elderly).
1.2.2 Overview of TechnoServe
TechnoServe is a non-governmental organization that helps entrepreneurial men and
women in poor areas of the developing world to build businesses that create income, opportunity
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and economic growth for their families, their communities and their countries. The organization
runs programs that focus on developing entrepreneurs, building businesses and industries, and
improving the business environment. TechnoServe is a registered organisation with branches
globally with over 1,000 employees in 30 offices worldwide. Its programs are designed to
develop capacity for individuals and businesses, strengthen market systems and facilitate
scalability for emerging industries (technoserve, 2012). TechnoServe was founded in 1968 by
businessman and philanthropist Ed Bullard after a volunteering experience at a hospital in
Ghana. He was inspired to start an organization helping rural people harness the power of private
enterprise to lift themselves out of poverty (technoserve, 2012).
The developing entrepreneur’s activities involve business plan competitions where it
helps aspiring entrepreneurs to turn business ideas into viable business plans through national
business plan competitions. TechnoServe’s Young Women in Enterprise (YWE) program is
helping several hundred young women to learn entrepreneurship and other important skills such
as personal finance. Mentors and coaches help them develop business plans and start businesses.
The participants also support each other in enterprise clubs and are given opportunities to
network with community leaders that can help them reach their goals. On building businesses
and industries activities involve agriculture and Agribusiness where the organization is helping
revitalize Kenya’s cashew-nut industry, working with entrepreneurs to establish processing
plants in struggling rural areas. One plant has already opened, and four more are planned. These
will create steady markets for some 30,000 farmers and generate thousands of new jobs.
TechnoServe is working with other stakeholders on a pilot program to help 10,000 farmers
organize themselves in business groups and produce more and better cashews, with the aim of
doubling their incomes. Kenya's climate, geography and soil conditions help it to produce some
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of the world's best coffee. But sub-optimal farming and processing practices limit the quality and
quantity of coffee that smallholders produce, and poor market links limit their ability to sell it
(technoserve, 2012).
TechnoServe being a non-governmental organization go through challenges in realising
some of its projects that targets the entrepreneurial men and women in poor areas of the
developing world. The operational system as planned normally don’t get realised considering
some of the target groups and parts of the country are involve with other similar or related
organisations which sometimes conflicts in ideas and manner in which operations are conducted
(technoserve, 2012).
1.3 Statement of the Problem
Project implementation in any given organisation involves a number of activities. At
TechnoServe among the major activities are securing community participation for launching the
project, co-ordination of activities, monitoring, and taking care of contingencies. These activities
are usually the responsibility of a project manager/coordinator or a project management
committee.
David (2008) states that project implementation problem become more important when
we realize that the efficiency of plan in an organization is faced with many impediments. If a
project is considered as a process consisting of formulation, implementation and assessment
steps, organizations face problems in each step. Aspects of the problems are revealed when we
understand that organizations have failed in implementing over 70% of their plans and strategic
initiatives (Miller, 2002).
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It is however noted that there is little attention on the non-governmental sector
considering most of them are normally accountable to the donor organization. Discussion on the
problems and difficulties of a project has been highly fascinated by the strategic management
discourse since the implementation of project plans and decisions have not been as successful as
their designers expected. The study notes that there are many nongovernmental organizations
that run similar programmes and this makes it difficult to realize the full intensions of a given
project. The target populations are normally the same and given different organizational
approaches some of the projects contradict at the implementation stages and as a result resources
run into to waste while the target audiences don’t get the intended assistance or help. Hence, it
seems necessary to identify factors affecting project implementation in a non-organization.
1.4 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to address the factors affecting project implementation
amongst non-governmental organizations in Kenya, with a focus on TechnoServe Kenya which
is a non-governmental organisation that seeks to provide business solutions to poverty. The study
will be tested using four variables (resources management, the operational systems, the
organizational culture and the leadership of the organisation).
1.5 Research Objectives
The study will be guided with the following specific objectives:
i. To establish the effect of resources management on project implementation within a non-
governmental organization.
ii. To determine how operational systems affect project implementation within a non-
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governmental organization.
iii. To find out if organizational culture affects project implementation within a non-
governmental organization.
iv. To determine whether the organisation leadership affects project implementation within a
non-governmental organization.
1.6 Research Questions
The study seeks to answer the following research questions:
i. Of what effect are resources management on project implementation within a non-
governmental organization?
ii. How do the operational systems affect project implementation within a non-governmental
organization?
iii. Does the organizational culture affects project implementation within a non-governmental
organization?
iv. Does the organisation leadership affect the project implementation within a non-
governmental organization?
1.7 Significance of the Study
The rationale of this study is to examine factors affecting project implementation in an
organization. This study is expected to benefit the management as to the best ways to re-align the
operations within the organisation to ensure full implementation of projects and strategies within
the case organisation.
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From this study other organizations ranging from small to large, public and private,
service and even the manufacturing organizations will benefit by finding solutions to project
implementation and even come up with better means and approaches in ensuring initiated
projects are implemented.
As a researcher this study will be a source of immense knowledge. It will aid in helping
to shape the role of project planning and implementation in an organisation. In the process of
researching, there will also be the benefit of exposure on how the research is conducted.
1.8 Scope of the Study
The study will be carried out at TechnoServe which is a nongovernmental organization
that helps entrepreneurial men and women in poor areas of the developing world to build
businesses that create income, opportunity and economic growth for their families, their
communities and their countries. The study will focus on the personnels who are charged with
carrying out projects within the organisations. The project in consideration are on education,
developing entrepreneurs, building businesses and industries, and improving the business
environment. TechnoServe is a registered organisation with branches globally with over 1,000
employees in 30 offices worldwide. The study will focus on the personnel at the Kenya Nairobi
offices.
1.9 Limitation of the Study
The following limitations might be encountered when carrying out the study:
The study for sees and expect suspicion by respondents. When carrying out the research
at times one encounter respondents who are over suspicious of the exercise to the point that some
are hesitant to give accurate details concerning questions that they are asked. They feel that the
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researcher is trying to find out their weaknesses which may be used against them by
management.
For the research work to be comprehensive and successful it needed funds for the
computation of data, purchasing writing materials, typesetting, questionnaires, mailing and
browsing the web, travelling and binding as well as other miscellaneous expenses.
Respondent’s perception is considered to be a limiting factor as it is realized in school
based research some of the respondents normally don’t see the need for the research and thus
hamper the smooth and easy collection of the much needed data. The research will be conducted
with ethical standards and observations. The respondents names will not appear anywhere in the
study and only the willing ones will be considered for the study.
1.10 Assumption of the Study
The study makes an assumption that there are certain forces of factors that affect the full
realization of projects within a nongovernmental organisation. It is assumed that the resources
management, the operational systems, the organizational culture and the leadership of the
organisation affect project implementation in an organization, hence it is the goal of this study to
determine the level of effect on each independent variable.
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1.11 Conceptual Framework
This section of the study illustrates and interprets the relationships that will be studied in
this research to outline the possible course of action. Below is a representation of a conceptual
framework reflecting the relationship between the various variables adopted for this study.
Figure 1.1 Conceptual Framework
Independent Variables Indicators
Dependent Variable
Source: Author (2012)
Resource management is the efficient and effective deployment for an organization's
resources when they are needed. Such resources may include financial resources, inventory,
human skills, production resources, or information technology (IT). In the realm of project
management, processes, techniques and philosophies as to the best approach for allocating
resources have been developed. Resource management is a key element to activity resource
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Resource Management
Operational Systems
Organizational Culture
Organisation Leadership
Project Implementation
Cost efficiency
Organization resources
Experiences
Management and Control
estimating and project human resource management. Both are essential components of a
comprehensive plan implementation.
The selected plan is implemented by means of programs, budgets, and procedures which
are organizations operating systems and way of handling things. Implementation practices
involve organization resources and motivation of the staff to achieve objectives. The way in
which the plan is implemented can have a significant impact on whether it will be successful or
not.
Organizational culture describes the psychology, attitudes, experiences, beliefs and
values (personal and cultural values) of an organization. It is the specific collection of values and
norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization and that control the way they
interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization. They are beliefs and
ideas about what kinds of goals members of an organization should pursue and ideas about the
appropriate kinds or standards of behavior organizational members should use to achieve these
goals.
Many administrators, supervisors, and even top executives execute their responsibilities
successfully without being great leaders. But these positions afford opportunity for leadership.
The ability to lead effectively will set the excellent managers apart from the average ones hence
for a project to be implemented well there is need for proper leadership approach. Organizations
projects succeed or fail not only because of how well they are led but also because of how well
followers follow.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current
knowledge and methodology approaches on a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary
source of data and as such, do not report any new or original experimental work. This chapter
enables the researcher to assess the present situation, previous and the expectations to come from
the sources such as publications, reports, books, journals and the internet. The section facilitates
the provision of intensive information, which makes the study reach a successful end. The
chapter has been divided into three sections which are the theoretical review, the empirical
review and the knowledge gap.
2.2 Theoretical Review
This section of the study seeks to explain the theories in relation to project implementation in an
organization. The discussed theories are organisation based and they entail Neoclassical
Organization Theory, Expectancy Theory and Goal Theory. This section of the study determines
the aims to review the critical points of knowledge including substantive findings.
2.2.1 Neoclassical Organization Theory
The human relations movement evolved as a reaction to the tough, authoritarian structure
of classical theory. It addressed many of the problems inherent in classical theory. The most
serious objections to classical theory are that it created over conformity and rigidity, thus
squelching creativity, individual growth, and motivation. Neoclassical theory displayed genuine
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concern for human needs. One of the first experiments that challenged the classical view was
conducted by Mayo and Roethlisberger in the late 1920's at the Western Electric plant in
Hawthorne, Illinois (Mayo, 1933). While manipulating conditions in the work environment like
the intensity of lighting, they found that any change had a positive impact on productivity. The
act of paying attention to employees in a friendly and nonthreatening way was sufficient by itself
to increase output. Uris (1986) referred to this as the "wart" theory of productivity. Nearly any
treatment can make a wart go away nearly anything will improve productivity. The implication is
plain: intelligent action often delivers results (Uris, 1986).
Barnard (1998) proposed one of the first modern theories of organization by defining
organization as a system of consciously coordinated activities. He stressed in role of the
executive in creating an atmosphere where there is coherence of values and purpose.
Organizational success was linked to the ability of a leader to create a cohesive environment. He
proposed that a manager's authority is derived from subordinates' acceptance, instead of the
hierarchical power structure of the organization. Barnard's theory contains elements of both
classical and neoclassical approaches. Since there is no consensus among scholars, it might be
most appropriate to think of Barnard as a transition theorist.
Simon (1995) made an important contribution to the study of organizations when he
proposed a model of "limited rationality" to explain the Hawthorne experiments. The theory
stated that workers could respond unpredictably to managerial attention. The most important
aspect of Simon's work was the rigorous application of the scientific method. Reductionism,
quantification, and deductive logic were legitimized as the methods of studying organizations.
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2.2.1:1 Application of Neoclassical Organization Theory
The Neoclassical Organization Theory has been used effectively in highly dynamic and
technological environments by project management organizational. The project manager
becomes the focal point for information and activities related to a specific project. The goal of
the theory is to provide effective integration of an organization’s resources towards the
completion of a specific project. Implementing a project management approach often involves
dramatic changes in the relationships of authority and responsibility
2.2.2 Expectancy Theory
According to Vroom (1964) in a general approach expectancy theory is about the mental
processes regarding choice, or choosing. It explains the processes that an individual undergoes to
make choices. In organizational behavior study, expectancy theory is a motivation theory first
proposed by Victors Vroom of the Yale School of Management. Expectancy theory predicts that
employees in an organization will be motivated when they believe that the reward they are
receiving is adequate to offset the amount of work being done. These predicted organizational
rewards are valued by the employee in question. This theory emphasizes the needs for
organizations to relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided
are those rewards deserved and wanted by the recipients. This theory is used to indicate an
approach to empowering the employees.
Vroom (1964) defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative
forms of voluntary activities, a process controlled by the individual. The individual makes
choices based on estimates of how well the expected results of a given behavior are going to
match up with or eventually lead to the desired results. Motivation is a product of the
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individual’s expectancy that a certain effort will lead to the intended performance, the
instrumentality of this performance to achieving a certain result, and the desirability of this result
for the individual, known as valence. In this context a motivated employee feel empowered on
work performance.
Rao, (2000) states that in order to enhance the performance-outcome tie, managers should
use systems that tie rewards very closely to performance. Managers also need to ensure that the
rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients. In order to improve the effort-
performance tie, managers should engage in training to improve their capabilities and improve
their belief that added effort will in fact lead to better performance. Rao further explains that
Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose
purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Vroom (1964) suggested that the
relationship between people's behavior at work and their goals was not as simple as was first
imagined by other scientists. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on
individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities.
Vroom introduces three variables within the expectancy theory which are valence (V),
expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I). The three elements are important behind choosing one
element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P
expectancy), performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy). E>P expectancy: Our
assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to the required performance level. P>O
expectancy: Our assessment of the probability our successful performance will lead to certain
outcomes (Vroom, 1964).
Rao (2000) states that on Vroom’s model is based on three concepts: Valence - Strength
of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome. For the valence to be positive, the person
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must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. Instrumentality means of the first level
outcome in obtaining the desired second level outcome; the degree to which a first level outcome
will lead to the second level outcome. Expectancy - Probability or strength of belief that a
particular action will lead to a particular first level outcome.
The relevance of the theory is that, expectancy is the belief that one's effort will result in
attainment of desired performance goals. Usually based on an individual's past experience, self-
confidence and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal. Factors associated
with the individual's Expectancy perception are self efficacy, goal difficulty, and control. Self
efficacy is the person’s belief about their ability to successfully perform a particular project.
Goal difficulty happens when goals are set too high or performance expectations that are made
too difficult are most likely to lead to low expectancy perceptions. Control is one’s perceived
control over performance. In order for expectancy to be high, individuals must believe that they
have some degree of control over the expected outcome in a project.
2.2.3 Goal Theory
Goal theory holds that goals are important regulators of human behavior and posits a
strong relationship between goal difficulty and performance, with harder goals resulting in a
greater effort than easier goals (Manning, 1995). Goal theory is normally used to empower
employee in a given task, it’s also used in motivating workers to performance and productivity
improvements. The theory examines goal-setting activities from an individual perspective.
Ivancevich, (1998) says that goal setting is designed to improve an individual's ability to
set and achieve goals. Goals are the object of an action or what a person intends to accomplish.
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Goal setting theory was proposed initially by Locke (1998) and was based on the understanding
of goal setting as a cognitive process of some practical utility. Locke's (1998) view is that an
individual's conscious goals and intentions are the primary determinants of behavior. The theory
places specific emphasis on the importance of conscious goals in explaining motivated behavior.
Tetlock and Kim, (1997) states that depending on the type of goal given, one can go
about achieving it differently. A directional goal is one where individuals are motivated to arrive
at a particular conclusion. Thinking can be narrowed to selecting beliefs. The lack of deliberation
also tends to make one more optimistic about achieving the goal.
An accuracy goal is one where people are motivated and empowered to arrive at the most
accurate possible conclusion. These occur when the cost of being inaccurate is high. People
invest more effort in achieving accuracy goals, as any deviation costs, and a large deviation may
well more. Their deliberation also makes them realize that there is a real chance that they will not
achieve their goal. When we have an accuracy goal we do not get to a 'good enough' point and
stop thinking about it people tend to continue to search for improvements. Both methods work by
influencing our choice of beliefs and decision-making rules (Tetlock and Kim, 1997).
Cooper and Schilndler (2002) point out goals inform individuals to achieve particular
level of performance, in order for them to direct and evaluate their actions, while performance
feedback allows the individual to track how well he or she has been doing in relation the goal, so
that, if necessary adjustments in effort direction or possibly task strategies can be made.
Cooper and Schilndler (2002) notes that there are at least five ways to convince people
that goal attainment is worthwhile: These include (a) eliciting a public commitment to goals, (b)
communicating an inspiring vision, (c) using an empathy box analysis to understand and alter the
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perceived consequences of goal commitment, (d) providing financial incentives for goal
attainment, and (e) expressing confidence that the goal will be achieved.
Cooper and Schilndler (2002) investigated performance differences depending on
whether difficult tasks are framed as a challenge providing an opportunity for self-growth, or as a
threat regarding which effective strategies to deal with it are not readily available. As
hypothesized, challenge appraisals yielded consistently better performance than threat appraisals.
However, those who viewed the task as a threat performed better when they had learning goals
rather than performance outcome goals. Finally, difficult performance goals induced high
adaptation to change when the work context was perceived as challenging, but poor adaptation
and performance when the work context was perceived as threatening.
Goal theory is of relevance to the study in that it holds that goals are important regulators
of human behavior and posits a strong relationship between goal difficulty and performance,
nearly everything Human resources (HR) specialists do from recruiting to compensation has
organizational ramifications and hence benefits from knowledge provided by organization
theory; organizational development and change are particularly important elements of HR that
demand deep knowledge of organizations and organizing, and organization theory can provide
content for executive training programs.
Communication specialists must understand the interpretive processes of organizational
stakeholders and need to address the many ways in which different parts of the organization
interact with each other and the environment, in order to design communication systems that are
effective or to diagnose ways existing systems are misaligned with the organization’s needs.
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Goal theory is concerned with how the internal organizational structure works to motivate
participants and produce outcomes consistent with the goals of those who control the
organization projects. It is also interested in how the world external to an organization effects
what goes on inside of a particular organization. It is concerned with how the internal
organization and the external world can effect organizational survival. There are three questions
that all theories take up.
2.3 Empirical Review
2.3.1 Project Implementation
Touwen (2001) Project implementation involves a number of activities. Among the major
activities are securing community participation for launching the project, co-ordination of
activities, monitoring, and taking care of contingencies. These activities are usually the
responsibility of a project manager/coordinator or a project management committee.
Morris (2003) states that in project implementation or project execution, one put it all
together. Project planning is complete, as detailed as possible, yet providing enough flexibility
for necessary changes. In a customer-contractor relationship, the contract is signed, based on the
right decisions about the contract structures, and including clauses for change management and
claim management.
Nutt (2001) indicates that the process of project implementation, involving the successful
development and introduction of projects in the organization, presents an ongoing challenge for
managers. The project implementation process is complex, usually requiring simultaneous
attention to a wide variety of human, budgetary, and technical variables. As a result, the
organizational project manager is faced with a difficult job characterized by role overload,
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frenetic activity, fragmentation, and superficiality. Pinton (2011) indicates that often the typical
project manager has responsibility for successful project outcomes without sufficient power,
budget, or people to handle all of the elements essential for project success. In addition, projects
are often initiated in the context of a turbulent, unpredictable, and dynamic environment.
Consequently, the project manager would be well served by more information about those
specific factors critical to project success.
The project manager requires the necessary tools to help him or her focus attention on
important areas and set differential priorities across different project elements. If it can be
demonstrated that a set of factors under the project manager's control can have a significant
impact on project implementation success, the project manager will be better able to effectively
deal with the many demands created by his job, channeling his energy more efficiently in
attempting to successfully implement the project under development (Cleland and Kerzner,
2005).
Pinton (2011) notes that project implementation success has been defined many ways to
include a large variety of criteria. However, in its simplest terms, project success can be thought
of as incorporating four basic facets. A project is generally considered to be successfully
implemented if it comes in on-schedule (time criterion), comes in on-budget (monetary
criterion), achieves basically all the goals originally set for it (effectiveness criterion) and is
accepted and used by the clients for whom the project is intended (client satisfaction criterion).
Tuman (2008) explains that strategy and tactics are both essential for successful project
implementation, but differently so at various stages in the project life cycle. Strategic issues are
most important at the beginning of the project. Tactical issues become more important towards
the end. This is not to say that there should not be a continuous interaction and testing between
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the strategic and tactical factors. Strategy is not static and often changes in the dynamic
corporation, making continuous monitoring essential. Nevertheless, a successful project manager
must be able to transition between strategic and tactical considerations as the project moves
forward.
2.3.2 Resource Management
Slevin (2000) states that the implementation management team requires expertise in
planning for both financial and non-financial resource types, such as human resources, supplies,
specialist knowledge and supporting teams. The Resource Management Strategy typically
consists of the following elements: funding requirements (including budget), procurement
approach, required assets (such as office space and equipment), technology and services and
finally human resources (including Subject Matter Experts).
Beck (2010) states poor resources selection and considerations lead to failures in project
implementation stages. There should be a proper budgeting system in place which involves the
allocation of administered and departmental funds against key project deliverables. This section
sets the framework for dealing with the “on budget” part of the objective on time, on budget and
to expectations. The principle underlying this section is cost control. This section will enable
departments and agencies to effectively track expenditure over time and provide early warning of
likely overspend /under spend or possible savings. In some cases, expenditure will be a critical
indicator of progress.
Beck (2010) further states that It is critical that the budget reflects whole of life costing
for the measure concerned and clearly distinguish departmental and administered items as well
as distinguishing capital and operating expenses. This section of the implementation plan will
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only be necessary for projects where there is substantial buy in of expertise or capital items.
Projects that do not involve a high level of procurement expenditure should simply indicate that
this requirement is not applicable.
Adams and Barndt (2006) on a study on behavioral implications of the project life cycle,
state that failure to document the following then projects are likely to fail: Policy deliverables to
be procured by proposed agreement or contract, strategies for negotiating and managing
agreements/contracts, If there is need for staged delivery and desirability of testing the
deliverables and whether a purchase-provider arrangement is being considered and if so: timings
for release of documentation to the public, tender and contract finalization, contract period; the
procurement method (specific purpose payments, expressions of interest, request for price/quote,
request for tender); the funding model (i.e. milestone payments); supplier selection processes
such as tender evaluation and contract negotiation, and tender evaluation criteria; and
arrangements for ongoing contract management including review and evaluation. Probity issues
should be covered in the Quality Assurance section. Where appropriate, link also with risk
management, resources, quality assurance and stakeholder engagement sections. Review the
scope and work breakdown structure and identify the resources that are critical to the successful
implementation of the measure. Critical resources are those which are vital to the success of the
measure, and may include staff with the special skills, consultants, a co-located office venue,
ICT equipment, transportation, data / information systems etc.
2.3.3 Operational System
Unlike other functional areas within organizations, many people find it hard to clearly
and easily understand what activities come under the field of Operations. Finance, for example,
24
deals with the use (and sometimes abuse) of funds. Marketing is primarily responsible for
positioning, pricing, selling and liaison with customers. However, when it comes to Operations,
it is not so clear-cut. This is because the word ‘operations’ is sometimes (wrongly) used
interchangeably with ‘operational’, a word that is the opposite of strategic, and connotes detailed,
localized, short term, day-to-day activities (Danny 2007).
Ideally defined, operations within an organization are first and foremost an oversight
function that ensures all internal operating groups are Integrated into the same business plan with
well defined roles and responsibilities. Danny (2007) notes that most organizational projects
involving external community fail as a result of the organizations departments not functioning
together as one unit to ensure operational integrity relative to opportunity development, there is
no proper risk management, resource management and allocation, and overall best practices are
not covered within all functions of the organization.
Effectively communicating between other functional departments, participating in the
business planning and development strategy process are some of the indicators of an efficient
operational system. Operating within the parameters of an integrated budget, and adhering to all
financial practices while following other established policy, procedures and controls will see a
success to project implementation.
2.3.4 Organisational Culture
Organizations, just like individuals, have their own personalities more typically known as
organizational cultures. Understanding how culture is created, communicated, and changed will
help you to be a more effective manager. (Nelson and Pasternack, 2005)The concept of culture is
complex and definitions of culture vary. The anthropologist Edward Tylor defined culture in the
25
late 1800s as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom,
and other capabilities acquired by a man as a member of a society” (Hill, 2005).
Drucker (1999) culture is more generally as a system of values, norms, and practices that
are shared among a group of people and that, when taken together, constitute a design for living.
Values are ideas about what a group believes to be good, right and desirable. This is the deepest
level of culture since values are often embedded in tacit preferences as well as they are difficult
to articulate and change. Norms are derived from values and can be described as social rules and
guidelines that prescribe appropriate behavior in particular situations.
Burman and Evans (2008) argue that it is leadership that affects culture rather than
management and describe the difference to be an influence to change management in an
organization. When one wants to change an aspect of the culture of an organization one has to
keep in consideration that this is a long term project. Corporate culture is something that is very
hard to change and employees need time to get used to the new way of organizing. For
companies with a very strong and specific culture it will be even harder to change.
Cummings and Worley (2005) give the following six guidelines for cultural change
management, these changes are in line with the eight distinct stages mentioned by Kotter (1995):
Formulate a clear strategic vision, Display Top-management commitment Model culture change
at the highest level, Modify the organization to support organizational change and Develop
ethical and legal sensitivity.
Changes in culture can lead to tensions between organizational and individual interests,
which can result in ethical and legal problems for practitioners. This is particularly relevant for
changes in employee integrity, control, equitable treatment and job security (Cummings &
Worley, 2005).
26
Organizations culture is very important and inevitable. Culture innovations is bound to be
because it entails introducing something new and substantially different from what prevails in
existing environment. Black (2003) states that cultural innovation is bound to be more difficult
than cultural maintenance. Besides institutionalization, deification is another process that tends
to occur in strongly developed organizational cultures. The organization itself may come to be
regarded as precious in itself, as a source of pride, and in some sense unique. Organizational
members begin to feel a strong bond with it that transcends material returns given by the
organization, and they begin to identify with in. The organization turns into a sort of clan.
Organization culture at any given organization is different to that of another organization and the
impact levels are normally varied.
2.3.5 Organisation Leadership
Argyris and Schon (1996) organizational leadership does not mean having a boss think of
a command and then watch as it is filtered throughout the ranks. Organizational leadership,
instead, is the ability of management to understand its employees and company goals enough to
bring everyone together. Frequently, an organization with excellent leadership will have
employees who feel that their opinions are valued and that their work is highly important to the
shared success of the whole organization. There is no single technique to ensure that this
happens.
Every company is different, and positive leadership recognizes that and turns it into an
advantage. Utilizing team-building exercises, instilling leadership development on all levels of
organization and fostering positive communication are some techniques used to promote positive
leadership. Many times, these exercises are used to fix organizations in trouble. An example
27
would be an insurance company that is losing money, so it gives bottom-line financial
responsibilities to individual employees instead of departments, in order to foster ownership of
the company's mission (Argyris and Schon 1996).
Cole (2004) recommends that those attempting to implement projects should study the
history of the organization and its relationships with its various stakeholders, including those
beyond its boundaries. Only in this way can project implementation advocate and understand the
observable but misleading facts and uncover the real systems of meaning to which managers and
employees subscribe.
Brungardt (1996) management's leadership in the project effort seems to be the key
determinant of whether that the project will succeed. It is not new to say that leadership is
critical. What is new is the type of leadership being recommended one that does more than just
create and articulate a new vision for the organization. Management needs to communicate
openly with those affected by the change and once again, collaborate with those same individuals
to obtain their input. Part of communication and collaboration involves wining the intended
project to organizational outcomes. Brungardt (1996) states another key leadership feature
involves role modelling of expected behaviors. For example, if top management expects lower
level managers and employees to behave ethically, then top executives themselves must do the
same.
2.4 Knowledge Gap
This literature has reviewed organizations as people management systems that range from
simple hierarchies along traditional lines to complex networks dependent on computer systems
and telecommunications. The observed literature term organizational structure to how individual
28
and team work within an organization. It states that agility is a critical structural element in
achieving organizational and a project effectiveness and efficiency. It is also made clear that in
reconfiguring an organization to enhance its performance, there is no one appropriate or ideal
structure. Further, there is agreement that many organizations have hybrid structures in which a
several different structures happily co-exist and as a result implementing projects might involve
reviewing the organization structure.
The key component of successful leadership now and in the next century is proactive and
effective responsiveness to change. It is noted that too often leaders and managers address
technical dimensions of projects but fail to consider what it takes at each stage for leaders to
actually carry out that project implementation. It is noted that leading implementation of projects
requires, establishing direction, aligning people, and motivating and inspiring. Other elements
like operations system do not come out clearly on the observed literature as well as the
organisation culture from both within and out of the organisation hence it is of essence to carry
out a study on factors affecting project implementation amongst nongovernmental organizations
in Kenya.
29
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the methodology that will be used to carry out the study. The
chapter presents the research design, the population, sample and sampling technique, data
collection methods and instruments and data analysis.
3.2 Research Design
The study will adopt a descriptive design to research on factors affecting project
implementation amongst nongovernmental organizations in Kenya. Descriptive research studies
are designed to obtain pertinent and precise information concerning the current status of a
phenomenon and draw valid general conclusions from the facts discovered.
This research design will be both qualitative and quantitative methods that probe for
deeper understanding rather than just examining surface features (Patton 1990). The adoption of
this research design is based on Strauss and Corbin (1990) claim that qualitative methods can be
used to better understand any phenomenon about which little is yet known. They can also be
used to gain new perspective on things about which much is already known or to gain more in-
depth information that they may be difficult to convey quantitatively. Thus, this qualitative
method is appropriate in this situation where researchers needs to first identify the variable that
might later be tested quantitatively, or where the researcher has determined that quantitative
measures cannot adequately describe or interpret a situation.
30
3.3. Target Population
The study will focus on the personnel’s who are charged with carrying out projects within
the organisations. The project in consideration are on education, developing entrepreneurs,
building businesses and industries, and improving the business environment. TechnoServe is a
registered organisation with branches globally with over 1,000 employees in 30 offices
worldwide. The study target population will be drawn from the personnel’s at the Kenya Nairobi
office which entails 160 personnel’s (techno serves HR 2012). The Nairobi based office is
considered to be having permanent and temporary staffs and volunteers. The table below shows
the population stratus to be considered.
Table 3.1 Target Population
Category Frequency Percentage
Directors/Chief of Party 4 3
Heads of projects 12 8
Programme Managers 16 10
Administration 23 14
Logistics team 27 17
Field Personnel’s 39 24
Volunteers 20 13
Affiliates 19 12
Totals 160 100
Source: Researcher (2012)
3.4. Sampling Procedure
According to Kothari (2004) sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals
or objects from a population such that the selected group contains elements representative of the
characteristics found in the entire group. Stratified random sampling technique will be used to
31
select the sample. Kothari further states that the method allows the researcher to divide the
sample into appropriate strata that is mutually exclusive. The strata entail the departmental staffs
involved with the project initiation to implementation. A representative sample of at least 50% of
the target population will be considered for the study. Sekaran, (2003) contend that a sample
size should be at least 50% of the target population. The sample selection is shown in the table
3.2 below.
Table 3.2 Sample Size
Category Frequency Sample Size
Directors/Chief of Party 4 2
Heads of projects 12 6
Programme Managers 16 8
Administration 23 11
Logistics team 27 14
Field Personnel’s 39 19
Volunteers 20 10
Affiliates 19 9
Totals 160 79
Source: Researcher (2012)
3.5. Data Collection Instruments
The data collection instruments will include questionnaires. The questionnaires will
contain both closed and open ended questions. The questionnaire will consist of two sections A
and B. Section A will sort for general information on the respondents while section B will focus
on the study information.
32
The administration of the questionnaires will be done by the “drop and pick” method that
allow respondents ample time to complete the questionnaires. The respondents approval to
participate in the survey will be sought before administering, the questionnaire. A letter of
identification introducing the researcher will be obtained from the learning institution.
3.6 Data Analysis
Before analyzing the responses, the completed questionnaires will be edited for completeness
and consistency. The data will be coded and checked for errors and omissions. This will be done
to ensure precision; precision is expressed as validity and reliability. The responses will be
analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative research techniques. The data will be analyzed
using descriptive statistics to assess the influence of various variables.
33
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Reading”, Mass: Addison Wesley.
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Barnard, W. (1998). “A casual model of organizational performance”, The 1998 Annual:
Developing Human Resources, University Associates, San Diego, pp. 277-88.
Beck, D. R. (2010). "Implementing Top Management Plans through Project Management," in
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Black, R. (2003). “Organisational Culture: Creating the Influence Needed for Strategic
Success”, London UK,
Brungardt, C. L. (1996). “The making of leaders: A review of the research in leadership
development and education”. The Journal of Leadership Studies.
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Cleland, D. I. and Kerzner, H. (2005). “A Project Management Dictionary of Terms”. Nostrand
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Cole. G., (2004). Management theory and practice, 6th edition, Research fellow, University of
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Cooper, D. and Schilndler. P. S., (2002). “Business Research Methods”, 9th edition. McGraw
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Cummings, T. G. and Huse, E. F. (2005). “Organizational Development and Management”. St
Paul: West Publishing Company.
Czarniawska, B. (2003). “Social constructionism and organizational studies”, in Westwood, R.
and Clegg, S. (Eds), Debating Organization – Point and Counterpoint, Blackwell, Oxford,
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Danny. S. (2007). “Operations Management” An Integrated Approach Cambridge University
Press
Deal, T. and Kennedy, A. (2009). “Corporate Culture: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life”,
Penguin Business, London.
Drucker, P. (1999). “Managementb of Challengesin Projects for the 21st century”, Harper
Business, New York.
Harrison, R. (2007). “How to describe your organization”, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 51,
May/June, pp. 119-28.
Hill, J. (2002). "Managing an Organizational Learning System by Aligning Stocks and Flows".
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Personality and Social Psychology21-431.
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Miller D (2002). Successful Change leaders: What Makes Them? What Do They Do That Is
Different? J. Change Manage, 2(4): 359-68.
Morris, P. W. G. (2005). “Managing Project Interfaces-Key Points for Project Success” in
Project Management Handbook, ed. Cleland, D. I. and King, W. R. (Van Nostrand
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37
APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE
The purpose of this questionnaire is to facilitate data collection to the study that seeks to address
factors affecting project implementation amongst non-governmental organizations in Kenya,
with a focus on TechnoServe Kenya which is a non-governmental organization that seeks to
provide business solutions to poverty. Information gathered will be treated confidential and no
names should be indicated in the questionnaire.
Section A: Bio Data
1. State your Gender as applicable
a.) Male [ ]
b.) Female [ ]
2. State your age as applicable
a.) Between 18 – 25 [ ]
b.) 26 – 40 [ ]
c.) 41 – 55 [ ]
d.) Over 56 [ ]
3. What is you department of work and job title …………………………………………...
4. State your level of education.
a.) Diploma level [ ]
b.) Degree Level [ ]
c.) Postgraduate Level (Masters) [ ]
d.) Postgraduate Level (PhD) [ ]
38
5. How long have you worked at TechnoServe Kenya?
a.) Below one year [ ]
b.) Between one to two years [ ]
c.) Between two to four years [ ]
d.) Over five years [ ]
Section B: Study Information
I. Resource Management
6. Do you think resource management is handled poorly on the organisation?
a.) Yes [ ]
b.) No [ ]
Give reasons;
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. Do you agree that the human/personnel’s at TechnoServe Kenya affect project
implementation?
a) Strongly Agree [ ]
b) Agree [ ]
c) Undecided or Neutral [ ]
d) Disagree [ ]
e) Strongly Disagree [ ]
39
8. Are there adequate allocation of finance to ensure projects are implemented at TechnoServe
Kenya?
a.) Yes [ ]
b.) No [ ]
Give reasons;
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
9. Do you agree that the cost efficiency is not well managed hence affect project implementation
at TechnoServe Kenya?
a) Strongly Agree [ ]
b) Agree [ ]
c) Undecided or Neutral [ ]
d) Disagree [ ]
e) Strongly Disagree [ ]
10. Is the human resource well trained on TechnoServe Kenya projects?
a.) Yes [ ]
b.) No [ ]
Give reasons;
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
40
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
II. Operation Systems
11. Are the operation systems in place affects project implementation at TechnoServe Kenya?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………....
12. Are the TechnoServe Kenya operational system advance to ensure projects are executed?
a.) Yes [ ]
b.) No [ ]
Give reasons;
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
13. How would you rate the budgeting plans in relation to implementation of projects?
a.) Reasonable [ ]
b.) Acceptable [ ]
c.) Justifiable [ ]
d.) Fair [ ]
e.) Not Sure [ ]
41
14. Do you agree that the manner in which problems and challenges are addressed project affect
implementation?
a) Strongly Agree [ ]
b) Agree [ ]
c) Undecided or Neutral [ ]
d) Disagree [ ]
e) Strongly Disagree [ ]
Organizational Culture
15. Are you as an employee TechnoServe influenced by the prevailing organizational culture?
a.) Yes [ ]
b.) No [ ]
Give resons;
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
16. How does governance within TechnoServe Kenya affects project implementation?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
42
17. Does the level of individual staff performance affects project implementation at TechnoServe
Kenya?
a) Strongly Agree [ ]
b) Agree [ ]
c) Undecided or Neutral [ ]
d) Disagree [ ]
e) Strongly Disagree [ ]
18. Would you consider the staff’s level of experience to be of effect to project implementation
at TechnoServe Kenya?
a.) Yes [ ]
b.) No [ ]
Give reasons
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
IV. Leadership
19. Are you as an employee affected by the organization leadership?
a.) Yes [ ]
b.) No [ ]
Give reasons,
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
43
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
20. Do you agree that communication in the organization effect to project implementation at
TechnoServe Kenya?
a) Strongly Agree [ ]
b) Agree [ ]
c) Undecided or Neutral [ ]
d) Disagree [ ]
e) Strongly Disagree [ ]
21. Does the form of leadership in the organization effect project implementation at TechnoServe
Kenya?
a.) Yes [ ]
b.) No [ ]
Give reasons;
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
44
22. Finally what is your opinion on practices and procedures in implementation of projects at
TechnoServe Kenya?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..….
24. What are your recommendations for better approaches to project implementation at
TechnoServe Kenya?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
Thank you for your cooperation
45
APPENDIX II: BUDGETARY ALLOCATION
No. Cost (kshs)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Travelling
Research and Stationery
Photocopying
Typing and Printing
Binding three copies
Hard Cover Binding
Miscellaneous
2,000.00
1,500.00
2,00.00
2,000.00
560.00
3,000.00
2,000.00
Total 14,060.00
46
APPENDIX III: TIME FRAME (2012 - 2013)
47
Activities September October November December January
1. Formulation of
problem
2. Writing of
research
proposal
3. Presentation of
proposal
4. Data collection
5. Data analysis
and Final
presentation