factors influencing the implementation of free basic education program for learners with autism
TRANSCRIPT
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF FREE BASIC
EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR LEARNERS WITH AUTISM IN
SELECTED SCHOOLS IN NAIROBI COUNTY, KENYA
BY
KITHII KALEKYE MAGDALENE
A RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT PRESENTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN PROJECT
PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
2016
ii
DECLARATION
This is my original work and has not been presented to the University of Nairobi or any other
university for an award.
--------------------------------- Date -------------------
Magdalene Kalekye Kithii
L50/65754/2013
This research project report is submitted for examination with my approval as the university
supervisor.
------------------------------- Date ------------------
Professor Harriet Kidombo
Department of Extra- Mural Studies,
University of Nairobi
iii
DEDICATION
This study is dedicated to my sons, Brian, Steve and Allan who have endured the challenges of
one of their own being on The Spectrum.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to immensely thank my supervisor, Professor Harriet Kidombo, for her guidance in the
entire process of this study. Her wise counsel and valuable input shaped this study. I also thank
the Board of Postgraduate Studies for granting me the opportunity to take the course on part time
basis. The contribution of the lecturers and entire staff of the Extra Mural studies, and of the
entire University of Nairobi cannot be underestimated and I sincerely thank them. My fellow
students who I interacted with in one way or the other in the course of my study, I acknowledge
and thank you for your contribution in the realization of the study. My family, my husband,
Alfred and my three sons, you greatly supported me in all ways possible, and put up with my
absence from home as I pursued the course and so I salute you all. May God bless you all.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION........................................................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION.............................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. v
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................................... xi
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ xiii
CHAPTER ONE :INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the study ....................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the problem ...................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Purpose of the study .............................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Objectives of the study .......................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Research questions ................................................................................................................ 3
1.6 Significance of the study ....................................................................................................... 4
1.7 Delimitations of the study ..................................................................................................... 4
1.8 Limitations of the study......................................................................................................... 5
1.9 Assumptions of the study ...................................................................................................... 5
1.10 Definition of significant terms ............................................................................................ 5
1.11 Organization of the study .................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER TWO : LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 8
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Autism/Autistic spectrum disorder........................................................................................ 8
2.2.1 Inclusion and autism education ...................................................................................... 9
2.2.2 Special education for learners with autism ................................................................... 10
2.2.3 Implementation of Free basic education program in Kenya ......................................... 11
2.3 Support services and the inclusion of ASD children in the free basic education program in
public schools in Nairobi County .............................................................................................. 13
vi
2.4 Capacity building and the implementation of free basic education program of ASD
children in public schools .......................................................................................................... 17
2.5 Curriculum design and implementation of free basic education program for children with
ASD ........................................................................................................................................... 21
2.6 Monitoring and evaluation and the implementation of free basic education program for
children with ASD ..................................................................................................................... 23
2.7 Theoretical framework ........................................................................................................ 25
2.8 Conceptual framework ........................................................................................................ 27
2.9 Summary and Research gaps.............................................................................................. 28
CHAPTER THREE:RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................... 29
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 29
3.2 Research design ................................................................................................................... 29
3.3 Target population ................................................................................................................ 29
3.4 Sample size and sampling technique ................................................................................... 30
3.5 Research instruments........................................................................................................... 31
3.5.1 Pilot testing ................................................................................................................... 31
3.5.2 Validity of instruments ................................................................................................ 32
3.5.3 Reliability of instruments ........................................................................................... 32
3.6 Data collection procedures .................................................................................................. 33
3.7 Data analysis procedures ..................................................................................................... 33
3.8 Ethical considerations ......................................................................................................... 33
3.9 Operational definition of the variables ................................................................................ 34
CHAPTER FOUR : DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND
DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................................................................ 36
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 36
4.2 Response rate....................................................................................................................... 36
4.3 General information of respondents .................................................................................... 36
4.3.1 Teachers‟ gender and period of interaction with learners on ASD .............................. 36
4.3.2 Gender of school child and age at diagnosis with ASD ............................................... 37
4.4 Support services and the implementation of free basic education program for learners with
autism ........................................................................................................................................ 39
4.4.1 Importance of support services ..................................................................................... 39
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4. 4.2 Parents‟ view on necessity of support services ........................................................... 40
4.4.3 Support services offered in the free basic education program in schools of learners
with ASD ............................................................................................................................... 41
4.5 Capacity building and the implementation of free basic education to learners with autism42
4.5.1 Teachers‟ highest level of education ............................................................................ 42
4.5.2 Training levels of Teachers on autism condition .......................................................... 43
4.5.3. Teachers‟ skills on special intervention services for learners with autism .................. 43
4.5.4 Staffing levels in classes with children with ASD ....................................................... 45
4.5.5 Non-teaching staff working with learners with ASD in public schools ....................... 46
4.6 Curriculum design and implementation of free basic education program for learners with
autism ........................................................................................................................................ 48
4.6.1 Special curriculum for autistic learners ........................................................................ 48
4.6.2 Guide to class activities for learner with autism........................................................... 49
4.6.3 Individual education program (IEP) for the learner with autism .................................. 50
4.6.4 Curriculum delivery techniques and strategies ............................................................. 51
4.6.5 Teaching and learning resources and free basic education for learners with autism ... 52
4.7 Monitoring and Evaluation and implementation of free basic education program to
learners with autism .................................................................................................................. 54
4.7.1 Assessment and promotion of learners ......................................................................... 54
4.7.2 Assessment by quality and standards department ........................................................ 56
CHAPTER FIVE : SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................................ 59
5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 59
5.2 Summary of findings ........................................................................................................... 59
5.2.1 Support services and implementation of free basic education for learners with autism
............................................................................................................................................... 59
5.2.2 Capacity building and implementation of free basic education for learner with autism
............................................................................................................................................... 60
5.2.3 Curriculum design and implementation of free basic education program for learner
with ASD ............................................................................................................................... 60
5.2.4 Monitoring and evaluation and implementation of free basic education program to
learners with autism ............................................................................................................... 61
5.3 Conclusions of the study ..................................................................................................... 62
viii
5.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................................... 64
5.5 Suggestion for further research ........................................................................................... 65
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 66
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................. 72
APPENDIX 1: LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL ........................................................................ 72
APPENDIX 2: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS ........................................................... 73
APPENDIX 3: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PARENTS .............................................................. 77
APPENDIX 4: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR HEAD TEACHER ..................................... 80
APPENDIX 5: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
OFFICER .................................................................................................................................. 82
APPENDIX 6 INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR DIRECTOR, KISE ..................................... 83
APPENDIX 7 RESEARCH PERMIT FROM NACOSTI ........................................................ 84
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Respondent categories-------------------------------------------------------------------------30
Table 3.2 Operational definition of variables -----------------------------------------------------------35
Table 4.1 No. of years teachers worked with learners on ASD -----------------------------------37
Table 4.2 Gender of child ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
Table 4.3 Age of child at diagnosis with autism -------------------------------------------------------38
Table 4.4 Place of diagnosis of child with Autism -----------------------------------------------------38
Table 4.5 Teachers‟ rating of importance of support services ----------------------------------------39
Table 4.6 Parents‟ view on necessity of support services in school ---------------------------------40
Table 4.7 Education level of teachers of learners with ASD -----------------------------------------42
Table 4.8 Level teacher trained on autism behavior and management-------------------------------43
Table 4.9 Level of teachers‟ skills for classroom intervention of learners with autism-----------44
Table 4.10 Teachers‟ employer -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46
Table 4.11 teachers‟ responses on presence of curriculum for ASD learners ----------------------49
Table 4.12 teachers‟ responses on guide to school activities for a learner with ASD -------------49
Table 4.13 Parents‟ involvement in child‟s academic and other activities in the school ---------50
Table 4.14 Instructional techniques used by teachers of CwASD -----------------------------------51
Table 4.15 Parents‟ responses on no. of higher levels attained by their children in the last 5 years
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------55
Table 4.16 Parents‟ view on achievement of specific skills by learners on ASD ------------------55
Table 4.17 Number of visits per year by quality and standards officers to the autism units------56
Table 4.18 Impact of evaluation process on provision of resources and staffing levels ----------57
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Conceptual Framework------------------------------------------------------------------------27
xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ABA Applied Behaviour Analysis
CwASD Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder
DTT Discrete Trial Teaching/Training
EFA Education for All
EIBI Early Intensive Behavioural Intervention
FPE Free Primary Education
GMR Global Monitoring Report
GOK Government of Kenya
IDEA Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
ISCED International Classification of Education
KENPRO Kenya Project Organization
KICD Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development
KISE Kenya Institute of Special Education
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MOE/ST Ministry of Education Science and Technology
NACOSTI National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation
NGO Non-governmental organization
PMI Pre-Mediated Instruction
SNE Special Need Education
TSC Teachers' Service Commission
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UIS UNESCO Institute of Statistics
UNCRPWD United Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
WCEFA World Conference on Education for All
WHO World Health Organization
xiii
ABSTRACT
Education is a basic human right and everyone is therefore entitled to quality basic education.
The number of children diagnosed with autism has increased over the years with an estimation
that 1% of the world population have the condition. The education of the children with autism
spectrum disorder in Kenya has not received the necessary attention it deserves. This study
aimed at establishing the factors that influence the implementation of free basic education
program for children with autism spectrum disorder in Nairobi County, Kenya. It sought to find
how support services, capacity building, curriculum design and monitoring and evaluation
influence the education of learners with autistic spectrum disorder in the free basic education
policy program. Literature on the relationship between the independent variables and the
dependent variable has been cited. The study is based on Vygotsky's social constructonist theory
on disability that emphasizes a positive resource oriented approach including a favourable
societal view on children with disabilities, with preference to the strengthening and
empowerment of individual skills rather than the traditional stress on weakness or deviations.
The study was cross-sectional and adopted a descriptive survey research design, that entailed the
collection and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data. The target population was 210
individuals, being teachers and parents of three primary schools in Nairobi County with autism
integrated units and officers from the ministry of education, science and technology. A census
was conducted on the parents and teachers while convenience sampling was used for the
officials. Research instruments were questionnaires for teachers and parents, and interview
schedules for the officials. Reliability of instruments was determined by use of split-half method
and Spearman-Brown prophecy formula. Data analysis was done through qualitative and
quantitative methods and simple descriptive statistics used to interprete the results. The study
found that support services, evidence-based teaching strategies and visual and sound aides were
important for enhancing the learning process for a learner with autism., over 59% of teachers
were of the view that occupational therapy, support of teacher aides, behavior management
services, speech therapy and physiotherapy were important or very important, while 70% of
parents reported the same services, together with dietary intervention as very necessary in the
school for their children with autism spectrum disorder. Level of training of teachers determined
their level of use of strategies that enhance learning by the autistic child. 81% of teachers
surveyed had trained in special education but only 22% had specialized in education of learners
with autism. However, 66.6% reported to have been moderately to very highly sensitized on
autistic behavior and management while 68% were not aware of a special curriculum for learners
with ASD. The study established that there is inadequate staffing with a ratio 1 teacher per 7
learners, and, generally, teachers assigned to leaners with autism were just above moderately
trained in all the special evidence based-instructional skills for the category of learners. Parents
meet the cost of the few support services rendered to the child with autism while 63% of teachers
reported that ministry evaluators never visited or only visited once per year with an equal
proportion saying they did not discuss the evaluation process and outcome with the officers. The
study made recommendations to the government and stakeholders aimed at addressing the issues
unearthed relating to free education for learner with autism. Key among these are the enhanced
and intensive training and deployment of teachers, and the provision of necessary support
services as well as need-based funding of special need education.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
The World Conference on Education for all declared that primary education should be universal
since education is important for personal and social development and as such, it is a basic human
right. Education should be of quality so as to meet the basic needs of all the learners. Quality
education should encompass essential learning tools and basic learning content such as
knowledge, skills, values and attitudes required by an individual to survive and to develop their
full capacities (WCEFA, 1990).
The World Conference on Special Needs Education held in 1994 in Salamanca, Spain declared
inclusion as the means to realizing Education For All, including those with special needs. Policy
legislaton, curricula adaptations, school management dissemination, research, training of
personnel, support services, preparation for adult life and resource requirements are constituents
of quality education (UNESCO, 1994). Inclusive education requires the recognition and the
response to the various differrent needs in the learner necessitating different styles and rates of
learning. It should ensure quality education to all through appropriate curricula, organizational
arrangement, teaching strategies, resource use and partnerships with the communities (Peter's,
2003).
Education, being a fundamental human right that is key to sustainable development, peace and
stability within and among countries, must not only be universal but of quality. This came out in
the World Education Forum on education held in Dakar, Senegal (UNESCO, 2000) and states
should therefore accord all their citizens opportunities for basic education. The states were called
upon to provide free, compulsory and quality primary education. Teachers have an important
role in promoting quality education. They are the advocates and catalysts of change. Their
adequate remuneration, training and professional development and support are key in the
realization of EFA. Inclusive education for children with special needs is a key strategy to
addressing marginalization and exclusion (UNESCO, 2000). The fundamental principle of
inclusive education is that all children should have an opportunity to learn together (Peters,
2003).
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The latest World Education Forum, 2015, held in Incheon, Korea still emphasized education
quality, equity and inclusion, asserting that education is a main driver of development and in
achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) envisioned by the Open Working Group
on SDGs at the Global Education for All forum, 2014 . The forum noted that “No education
target should be considered met unless met by all” and participants committed to "making the
necessary changes in education policies and focusing efforts on the most disadvantaged,
especially those with disabilities...." (UNESCO, 2015)
The Kenya Government, in an attempt to provide universal primary education introduced free
primary education in all public schools in January 2003. Under this program all children are
expected to join school and access basic education free of charge. The government has also made
efforts through legislation for the education of 'special' children some of which include: The
Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 on importance of education to the lives of all children including
those with special needs; The SNE Draft Policy of 2009 on equal access to education for all
learners; the 2010 constitution on the Bill of Rights and the Basic Education Act, 2013 among
others.
1.2 Statement of the problem
The diagnosis of children and individuals with autistic spectrum disorder has increased over the
years. Studies in the UK show that one percent of the population are on the spectrum (Baron-
Cohen et al., 2009) and worldwide, prevalence of the disorder is 1% of the world population
(Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2014). In Kenya there are no official and
accurate records on the prevalence of autism, as is the case with the population with disability,
but many cases of children on the spectrum abound countrywide. Estimates by the Autism
Society of Kenya, an NGO dealing with ASD since 2003, approximated that 4% of the
population in Kenya was autistic back in 2007 (Kenpro, 2012).
The implementation of the free basic education programme for learners with autism has not been
clearly defined as far as quality education for all is concerned. These children face challenges
different from other mentally impaired learners and as such need unique services for their
education and learning. Education should not only be free but should be of quality and
appropriate for each child in order for the nation to rightfully achieve basic education for all
(EFA). Provision of free education for learners with autism entails the provision of free support
3
services, enough trained teachers and other professionals and support staff, a well-documented
curriculum and resources as well as timely monitoring and evaluation procedures to ensure
quality of teaching and learning. Owing to the increasing number of children with autistic
spectrum disorder world-wide and the Kenyan government policy to provide free basic
education, the study aimed at establishing the extent of implementation of free basic education
program to children with autistic spectrum disorder (CWASD) in Nairobi County. The study has
come up with recommendations on strategies that the government and stakeholders can embrace
to fill any existing gaps in the provision of „hole‟ free basic education for children with ASD.
1.3 Purpose of the study
The study intended to establish the factors that influence the implementation of free basic
education program for children with autistic spectrum disorder.
1.4 Objectives of the study
1. To determine the influence of support services on the implementation of free basic
education program for children on ASD in public schools in Nairobi County.
2. To determine influence of capacity building on the implementation of free basic
education program for children on ASD in public schools in Nairobi County.
3. To determine the influence of curriculum design on the implementation of free basic
education program for children on ASD in public schools in Nairobi County.
4. To determine the influence of monitoring and evaluation on the implementation of free
basic education program for children on ASD in public schools in Nairobi County.
1.5 Research questions
1. How do support services influence the implementation of free basic education to children
with ASD in public schools?
2. How does capacity building influence the implementation of free basic education to
children with ASD in public schools?
3. How does curriculum design influence the implementation of free basic education to
children with ASD in public schools?
4. How does monitoring and evaluation influence the implementation of free basic
education to children with ASD in public schools?
4
1.6 Significance of the study
The study hopes to inform the government on the strategies and practices in terms of support
services, teacher training, curriculum design, and role of monitoring and evaluation in successful
integration and inclusion of special need education for learners with autism spectrum disorder.
This will guide policy formulation in various ministries that influence the growth, development
and education of children with ASD particularly ministries of health and education.
Other stakeholders involved in education may also benefit from this research as it hopes to
establish the services that are already in place and those that may be recommended by the study,
to help in the provision of services to special need cases as many people, especially parents of
and persons affected by autism spectrum disorder may not be aware of. This may guide them in
seeking these services and therefore getting their rights and alleviating their challenges since,
given the impairments of ASD persons, it is a great challenge as far as their health and education
are concerned.
Teachers and teacher training colleges may also benefit from this study as the study looked at
evidence-based practices and delivery methods that have been used elsewhere with successful
inclusion and education of learners with autistic spectrum disorder.
1.7 Delimitations of the study
Learners with autistic spectrum disorder are found in public and private schools all over Kenya.
The study looked at provision of education to children on the spectrum in selected three public
primary schools in Nairobi County, picked because they have autism integrated units. Many
factors may influence the provision of education to autistic children. The study only looked at the
influence of support services, capacity development, curriculum design and monitoring and
evaluation processes on the basic education of learners on autistic disorder.
The respondents in the study are head teachers, teachers and parents in the schools. Others were
government education officials in charge of curriculum development, staffing, trainers of special
education teachers and quality assurance. Identified to give more input were Autism society of
Kenya and a private school for children with ASD. Three types of research instruments, namely
questionnaires, interview and observation schedules would be used in the study.
5
1.8 Limitations of the study
One major limitation of the study was determining the outcome of the educational programs of
children with ASD as they are all very different with varying needs and as such cannot be
subjected to a uniform exam at the end of term or year. The researcher relied on the information
collected from teachers and parents, as most of the learners are not verbal and have low reading
and writing skills, given their challenges in speech and communication.
The researcher concentrated only on schools with integrated units of learners with ASD bearing
in mind that other schools may have these children who may have not been diagnosed, due to the
existence of different severities in the spectrum, or who cannot access the integrated schools for
some reason. Since it is not possible to visit all the schools the study hopes the situations are not
very different and the findings and recommendations may be applicable in all areas of the
country.
1.9 Assumptions of the study
The study assumes that the implementation of free basic education program for autistic learners
is the same countrywide as is in the selected schools in Nairobi County and therefore the study
findings and recommendations can be applicable countrywide.
The study also assumed the respondents would be honest in providing the desired information
and that the research instruments were valid and reliable in extracting relevant data from the
respondents.
1.10 Definition of significant terms
Autism, also known as Autism spectrum disorder - are a group of complex disorders of brain
development characterized, in varying degrees, by difficulties in social interaction, verbal and
nonverbal communication and repetitive behaviors
Basic education - refers to the whole range of educational activities taking place in school
setting, usually at primary level, that aim to meet basic learning needs of mainly 4 - 22 year old
learners.
Capacity building - refers to the imparting and strengthening of the skills, competencies and
abilities of people required to serve in the educational processes of learners with autistic
6
spectrum disorder. These individuals include teachers, teacher aids, speech-, occupational- and
physio-therapists, and child psychologists.
Curriculum design - refers to the goals and objectives of an education program, the content, the
learning materials, the in-class and the out of-class activities and the instructional and assessment
strategies.
Free education - provision of quality and appropriate education services without having to pay
any money.
Inclusion education - is the provision of education in such a way that it responds to needs of all
learners without segregation, and with modifications in content, approaches, structures and
strategies for special need learners, with an aim to educate all children.
Integration - is the placing of learners with 'Special Educational Needs' in mainstream
education settings with some adaptations and resources.
Monitoring and evaluation - the continuous and periodic assessment of the implementation of
the educational program to assess the efficiency of resource utilization and achievement of
objectives for purposes of sustainability and improvement of teaching and learning processes
Special need- a condition that is present in a child or person that hinders them from functioning
the same way or with the same speed as the majority of their peers. In here special need refers to
learning difficulties, physical disability emotional and behavioral difficulties, speech and
communication impairments
Special need education- or Special educational provision is the extra or different help given in
school to children with special educational needs.
Support services - are any of physical or human resources that may be required to assist in the
growth and development, health and education of children and persons with special needs
including teaching and learning resources, classrooms, computers, television videos; equipment,
rooms and personnel for physiotherapy, occupational therapy and speech therapy among others
7
1.11 Organization of the study
The study is organized in five chapters. Chapter one is introductory comprising of the
background to the study, the problem under investigation, the purpose, the objectives and
research questions, the significance, delimitations and limitations, assumptions and the definition
of significant terms. Chapter two is literature reviewed. It begins with overview on autism and
inclusion of, and special education for children with ASD and Kenya government policy on free
basic education and on special need education. The literature review is ordered based on the
objectives; influence of support services, influence of capacity development, influence of
curriculum design and of monitoring and evaluation on the free basic education of CwASD. The
theoretical and conceptual frameworks are also covered. Chapter three covers research
methodology. It outlines the study‟s research design, target population and sampling method,
data collection instruments and analysis procedures and ethical considerations. Chapter four
contains data analysis, presentation and interpretation/discussions. Chapter five is the summary
of findings, conclusions and recommendations.
8
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This section is on the literature reviewed. It begins with a detailed description of autism and
inclusion education of learners on the autism spectrum. The literature review is ordered based on
the objectives; influence of support services, influence of capacity development; influence of
curriculum design and role of monitoring and evaluation on the implementation of free basic
education for children with autistic spectrum disorder. It ends with a theoretical basis of the
study and a conceptual framework as well as a summary of the literature reviewed.
2.2 Autism/Autistic spectrum disorder
Autistic spectrum disorder (also known as autistic disorder or simply, autism) is a neuro-
developmental disorder that leads to problems in social communication, language development,
and restricted, repetitive behaviors (Lord & McGee, 2001). Its manifestation is varied in severity
of the symptoms , age of onset of symptoms and association with other disorders like speech and
language delay, mental retardation and epilepsy to name but a few. It is caused by differences in
the brain and scientists do not know yet exactly what causes these differences for most people
with ASD. The prevalence of autism across the world was reported in 2013 to be 1% of the
population (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2014.
The learning, thinking, and problem-solving abilities of people with ASD can range from gifted
to severely challenged. Some people with ASD need a lot of help in their daily lives; others need
less. A diagnosis of ASD now includes several conditions that used to be diagnosed separately:
autistic disorder, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), and
Asperger's syndrome (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2014). Turnbul et al,
(in Amtepee & Chitiyo, 2009), add that Autism manifests around age 3 and is characterized by
significant deficits in verbal and nonverbal communication as well as social interaction skills
(Ametepee & Chitiyo, 2009. In addition, children with ASD manifest uneven intellectual
development often with intellectual disability' (Sulkes, 2013). The term „autistic spectrum‟ is
often used because the condition varies from person to person. For example, Asperger‟s
Syndrome is a condition at the more able end of the spectrum and at the „less able‟ end of the
9
spectrum is Kanner‟s Syndrome, sometimes referred to as „classic autism (UK Goverment,
2006). Autism is more prevalent in boys than girls with 1 in 42 boys and 1 in 189 girls
having the condition (CDC, 2014)
There has not been any research based cure for autism. It is a life-long condition but there may
be considerable improvement over time, especially with appropriate education (Jordan, 1997).
However Sulks (2013), opines that treatment of these disorders consists of behavioral
management and sometimes drug therapy. When considering the special educational needs of
individuals, there is need to consider all those who will have specific needs arising from their
autistic spectrum disorder, in relation to the curriculum offered, the teaching approach and the
environment. This is because within children with autism some will have additional profound
and multiple learning difficulties, others have normal range of intelligence while others fall in
between these extremes (Jordan, 1997).
In Africa, reports describing existence of the autism condition in children with mental handicaps
were made as early as 1970s. These incidences were identified across varied geographic regions
(Autism Research, 2012). Since then a number of studies on autism have been carried out, but in
all these there is no published data yet on the exact prevalence of the disorders in Afica (Bakare
& Munir, 2011; Amteepee & Chitiyo, 2009, Mankoski et al, 2006). A study in Egypt and Tunisia
established that prevalenve of ASD among children with developmental disorders were 33.6 %
and 11.5% respectively (Seif, et al., 2008). In Kenya, Autism Society of Kenya, an NGO dealing
with ASD since 2003, approximated back in 2007 that 4% of the population was autistic
(Kenpro, 2012.
2.2.1 Inclusion and autism education
There are different needs amongst the special need education learners and as such inclusion of
special learners in a school and education system requires that there be flexibility and variety so
as to cater for all categories of learners. Flexibility should feature in the school structure, content
of the curriculum, attitude and beliefs of staff, parents and pupils and the goal to offer every
individual a relevant education and optimal opportunities for development should be part of the
education system (UNESCO, 2005).
10
Inclusive education should address the twin issues of equity and quality and UNESCO's Policy
Guidelines on Inclusion of Education declared that it is the responsibility of the regular system to
educate all children" since education, and in extension, inclusion have a link to broader
development goals, poverty alleviation and the achievement of all Millennium Development
goals (UNESCO, 2009) . Even though the global demand for inclusive education continues to
rise due to human rights movement and the need for education for all declarations, inclusion of
students with autism and other special needs into general curriculum continues to be a challenge
to school communities in most countries (Jeremy, 2013).
Inclusion entails educating children with special needs with those without disability through the
provision of appropriate curricula, organizational arrangements, teaching strategy, resource use
and partnership with communities (Matasio, 2012). The UNESCO Convention against
Discrimination in Education (1960) and other international human rights treaties prohibit any
exclusion from or limitation to educational opportunities on the bases of socially ascribed or
perceived differences. Education is more about identifying the barriers and obstacles learners
encounter in attempting to access opportunities for quality education, and removing those
barriers and obstacles that lead to exclusion (UNESCO, 2014).
In their paper on Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, Marks & Kurth
(2013), report that studies have shown positive results of inclusive education to both learners
with disabilities and those without. Mainstreaming children with ASD was found to be beneficial
as the peers served as 'role models' for the children with ASD and also the children feel accepted
and being part of the community. The mainstream peers learn to live with and appreciate people
who are different from them and this promotes socialization from both groups (Davis, 2013).
Other researchers add other benefits of inclusion as an opportunity for more learning, increased
self-esteem for the special need learners, and less isolation and stigma for the disabled and their
families (Renty & Roeyers,2005).
2.2.2 Special education for learners with autism
The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) defines Special Education
Needs as „Education designed to facilitate the learning of individuals who, for a wide variety of
reasons, require additional support and adaptive pedagogical methods in order to participate and
meet learning objectives in an educational programme' (UIS, 2012). Individuals disadvantaged in
11
physical, behavioural, intellectual, emotional and social capacities are candidates for special
education that calls for provision of specific resources including specially trained personnel,
equipment, or space and, if appropriate, modified educational content or learning objectives.
Education is a fundamental right for all children which must be guaranteed in every nation and
UNESCO declared " If the right to education for all is to become a reality, we must ensure that
all learners have access to quality education that meets basic learning needs and enriches lives"
(UNESCO, 2014). Despite this fact, children with disabilities have been marginalized in many
countries and are not given opportunity to access an appropriate education (Feurborn & Tyre,
2009). While subject-based academic performance is often used as an indicator of learning
outcomes for normal or mainstream learners, for special need learners like those on autistic
spectrum disorder, „learning achievement‟ should be viewed as the acquisition of the values,
attitudes, knowledge and skills required to meet the challenges of contemporary societies and the
ultimate goal of inclusion in education should be concerned with an individual‟s effective
participation in society and of reaching his/ her full potential (UNESCO, 2009).
2.2.3 Implementation of Free basic education program in Kenya
The Kenyan government has made efforts towards provision of education to her children since
independence and this commitment is evidenced by the signing of global policy frameworks
such as the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child(CRC), the 1990 Jomtien World
Conference on EFA, Salamanca statement of 1994, the framework of action on Special Needs
Education, 1999, the 2000 World Education Forum (Dakar, Senegal), the 2000 Millennium
Development Goals (MDG's) as well as other recent declarations; the; the United convention on
the Rights of Persons With Disability(UNCRPWD, 2006 (Ministry of Education,Kenya, 2009)
and latest, The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) where goal number 4 emphasizes
inclusive and equitable quality education for sustainable development (UNDP, 2015).
The Sessional paper no. 1 of 2005 outlined the vision of the education sector as an enabler of
youth and had it that the vision would only be realized through quality education that is
accessible and relevant to the lives of all children. The SNE draft policy of 2009 outlines the goal
of MOE as to 'provide equal access to education to all learners irrespective of their physical or
mental state'....in an effort to the achievement of EFA (GOK , 2009).
12
The government introduced FPE in January 2003. The Kenya Basic Education Act 2013 outlines
values and principles guiding education including the right of every child to free and compulsory
basic education, promotion of quality and relevant education and the provision of appropriate
human resource, funds, equipment, infrastructure and related resources that meet the needs of
every child in basic education (GOK 2013).
Part VI of the Kenya Basic Education act 2013, on special education states
“The Cabinet Secretary shall ensure that every special school or educational institution with
learners with special needs is provided with appropriate trained teacher, non-teaching staff,
infrastructure, learning materials and equipment suitable for such learners".
The act adds that it is the duty of the ministry of education under the CS to
"prescribe the curriculum to be used in respect of special needs education, prescribe the
categories of pupils requiring special needs education and methods appropriate for the
education of pupils in each category of special school or educational institutions) and
establish a mechanism for monitoring and evaluation to advice the government on the quality
of infrastructure and learning facilities in regard to special needs education" (GOK, 2013)
Kenya reognizes basic education as a fundamental human right and spells this out in the Bill of
Rights in the new constitution. Every child aged 4 to 17 years is entitled to a school and a quality
education. Kenya is also a signatory to other charters on the rights of the child including; the
African Charter on the Human and Peoples' Rights, (Article 17- on the right to education); the
African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (Article 11 on right to free and
compulsory basic education); the United Nations International Convention on Social and
Economic Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Accra Accord (2002), which
established the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and modalities for assessing progress
thereof and United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons With Disability (UNCRPWD)
that affirm right to education in an inclusive setting for all children with special needs
On teacher hiring, deployment and management, the Constitution of Kenya (2010) gives the
teachers' service commission (TSC), a constitutional commission, to undertake teacher
management. Its mandate includes the establishment and maintenance of a sufficient professional
teaching force that is equitably distributed and optimally utilized in public educational
13
institutions, playing a regulatory role in the teaching service and registration of personnel
qualified in education as a discipline (GOK, 2009)
2.3 Support services and the inclusion of ASD children in the free basic education program
in public schools in Nairobi County
The autistic spectrum comprises developmental disorders with a biological base that lead to a
different and characteristic pattern of perceiving, thinking and learning. Appropriate teaching
approaches and educational environments enable the child with autism to develop and learn and
many make significant progress. There is no single approach, since there is great individual
variation in learning needs but judgments can be made about the range of needs in these learners
and effective approaches for meeting them (Jordan, 1997).
The Salamanca Forum rightfully puts it that quality education to all is that which is offered
through appropriate curricula, organizational arrangements, teaching strategies and appropriate
resource use (UNESCO, 1994). In her study on teaching mentally retarded daily leaving skills,
Ruteere (2013) found that there was no effective teaching of the skills as teachers lacked the
appropriate teaching and learning materials (Ruteere, 2013). She adds that for better and
efferctive service to these learners training of teachers in the area of mental retardation, in this
case, is required.
In the United States services are offered from the school setting and are aimed at assisting the
children in alleviating the challenges they have in communication and social interaction and in
managing repetitive behaviors. In their study on special education services offered across the
states, Wei et al (2014) established that majority of the pre-school children with ASD are given
speech and occupational therapy. Other supporting services offered to CwASD in the US include
behavior management programs, learning strategies/ study skills support, service coordination/
case management, communication services, mental health services and special transportation
(Wei et al, 2014).
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of the United States' stipulates that all
children with disabilities should receive or have access to free and appropriate public education.
Such access includes accommodation within the classroom, specially designed instruction to
14
address any educational deficits and related services to help them be successful in school (US
Department of Education's Office of Civil Rights, 2010). Speech and language therapy focuses
on the acquisition of pragramatic and social language. In a study by Murphy (2013), a variety of
tools to aid in communication include communication boards, picture schedules and other
augmentative language tools. Speech and language service has been considered effective in
improving communication development for children with ASD.
Occupational therapy services in schools for children with ASD focuses the fine and gross motor
and also sensory therapy. Tools required for these services include weighted vest, swings and
other stimulating devices to help the children better integrate their sensory environment.
Occupational therapy has been found to be evidence-based intervention for sensory integration,
social skills training, parent- mediated training, behavioral intervention, and along with speech
and language therapy are frequently applied for children with ASD in the schools across urban
and rural settings in the United States (Murphy, 2013).
Physical therapy services, like occupational therapy, focus on the control of body movements
(fine and gross motor skills) and Bitterman (in Murphy, 2013) recognized it as necessary for this
population. Other services are specialized academic instruction and social skills training (SST).
Specialized academic instruction center on a student's identified academic weakness like reading,
writing, math content and may also be appropriate in social skills, adaptive skills or appropriate
behavior. Delivery method of specialized instruction may include behavioral principles such as
Pivotal response teaching (PRT), Structured teaching or discrete trial teaching /training (DTT)
(Smith, 2001). For social skills training and behavioral approaches such as ABA and SST,
methodology could employ video modeling, social stories and social group skills that will allow
children with ASD to practice new social skills with their peers. Social skill training can be
integrated in a student's daily curriculum or be provided through individualized direct
instruction. Other SST delivery methods include naturalistic interventions (those occurring in the
classroom), self-monitoring and visual supports (Murphy, 2013).
Roberts (2007) notes that for the inclusion of all autistic students, a number of changes would
need to be effected. Some of these include provision of paraprofessionals, smaller classes and
15
safety precautions (Roberts, 2007). A survey of parents with children with ASD on how to
achieve best service to their children who already had support in learning in form of tutoring and
specialized computer software and hard ware, established that improvement in service (quality,
quantity, accessibility, and availability), better training of nonprofessionals to work effectively
with children with ASDs, increased funding for services, staff development, research, and
appropriate school placements and educational programs for students with ASDs were necessary
(Wei et al , 2014).
Inclusion is not just about putting the autistics together with the regular or normal students but
rather the access to effective teaching and curriculum together with the necessary supports for
the inclusion to bear fruit. It should focus on the 'how' of teaching and be addressed both at the
classroom and systems (program) levels so that implementation would result to meaningful
outcomes such as self- esteem, academic skills communication and social skills among other
outcomes (Marks & Kurth , 2013). The meeting on The Principles, Policy and Practice in Special
Education Needs Education held in Salamanca, Spain had this to say on inclusive education:
Inclusive schools must recognize and respond to the diverse needs of their students,
accommodating both different styles and rates of learning and ensuring quality education
to all through appropriate curricula, organizational arrangements, teaching strategies,
resource use and partnerships with their communities. There should be a continuum of
support and services to match the continuum of special needs encountered in every
school. (UNESCO, 1994, para. 7)
In a study on teacher attitudes towards inclusion in Seville,Spain (2012) it was established that
availability of resources for teaching and learning as well as support from experts and
practitioners, and classroom support greatly influenced the positive attitude found among a
section of the teachers under the study (Rodriguez, Saldana & Moreno, 2012). The positive
attitude was enhanced further by more specific support from various parental and ASD groups.
A network on autism spectrum disorder provided examples on successful inclusion and was a
means of informal support that contributed to the dissemination of information and positive
experiences among practitioners. This has the effect of reducing anxiety associated with
inclusion of a student with autism in the classroom. For children and young persons with autism,
it is not just a matter of „access‟ to education as a statutory right, but about how education can
16
have a central role in „remediating‟ the effects of autism (not „curing‟ it) and improving the
quality of life for individuals with autism throughout their life span (Jordan, 1997).
In Africa there are more cases of non-verbal children with autism than the verbal cases while in
Kenya most cases have little or no speech at all. This was reported in a study by Bakare and
Munir (2014) where they attributed the severe cases of autism in Africa and Kenya to low levels
of knowledge and awareness about ASDs in the general public and among general healthcare
wokers. The result of low awareness and recognition is late diagnosis and delayed interventions.
Such interventions like speech and language development are likely to alleviate the development
of autism (Bakare & Munir, 2011). Early identification of autism disorder in children has
increased over the years in the United States due to more frequent well-child physician visits and
increased public awareness of the disorder (Murphy, 2013). This early diagnosis is connected to
early intervention services which have been shown to have drastic impacts for the children with
ASD as research has shown that it brings improvement in communication, language and IQ and
decreased stereotypic behaviours. Early recognition of the social deficits that characterize autism
is key to maximizing the potential of these children (Rapin & Tuchman, 2008).
The specific characteristics of autism provide a rationale for using visually cued instruction that
restricts the field of focus while not imposing too much demand on social attention or
interaction. Individuals with ASD have over-selective attention, atypical responses to the social
environment, a restricted field of focus, preference for visual stimuli and avoidance of face-to-
face attention (Corbett & Abdullah, 2005). Use of television and videos in video-modeling has
been used to target a variety of behaviors across many areas of functioning including language,
social behavior, play, academics and adaptive skills and has been shown to be particularly
efficacious for children with autism especially in increasing vocalization and communication. It
generally involves the learner observing a videotape of a model engaging in a behavior that is
subsequently practiced and imitated (Corbett & Abdullah, 2005).
Special education services in Kenya suffer from lack of vital human and material resources
(Kiarie 2005). This is echoed by Njenga (2011) and Kiama (2012) who cite inadequate
teaching/learning materials and physical facilities as a hindrance to inclusion of learners with
special needs.
17
2.4 Capacity building and the implementation of free basic education program of ASD
children in public schools
Successful implementation of free basic education policy depends largely on teachers having the
knowledge, skills, and competency necessary to make it work. From results of a study it was
established that teachers who had been in-serviced or trained in special education felt more
competent to teach and manage behaviour of autistic children (Cardona, 2009)
In a report for the Disabled Group, World Bank, Peters (2003) identifies the Northern countries
as having the best practices in inclusive education. These countries have given a high priority to
teacher training, of which, Peters adds, training needs to focus on enhancing skills of the
classroom teacher in areas of pedagogy, curriculum development and adaptation. Training
should be intentional, classroom based, intensive and continuous so as to promote sustainable
effective practice (Peters, 2003).
Many studies concur on the fact that cases of children being diagnosed with autism are on the
rise with unique needs of autistic spectrum disorders also identified. As such there is need for
special education services for this increasing population (Baker, 2012). One of these education
services is the teacher training for students with ASD. They need to be trained on evidence-based
practices that lead to learning in these students (Baker, 2012). In the United States, legislation on
special need education, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was enacted in
1975. Autism was categorized in 1990 and in 2002 an autism category created in the Council of
Exceptional Children Division on Developmental Disabilities (CEC-DDD, 2003). Standards for
training teachers for autistic children were set in 2009. These standards require the preparation of
teachers to have the knowledge and skills to handle 'high-incidence, low- incidence' and birth to
22 - year old individuals on the autism spectrum (Baker, 2012). Baker adds that training teachers
in language and autistic spectrum disorder is necessary given that the autistic children are
impaired in language and communication.
Basic elements required for programs for learners with ASD include early and intensive
intervention (discussed earlier), low student to teacher ratio, planned teaching opportunities,
individualized supports and services for students and families, systematic instruction,
comprehensive and/or structured environments and a functional approach to problem behaviors
as well as family involvement (Lord & McGee, 2001). Other competency areas for teachers of
18
students with ASD are knowledge of the disorder, theoretical underpinnings of instructional
approaches such as applied behaviour analysis (ABA), cognitive and biophysical aspects.
Teachers need to have know-how on individualized curriculum development and futures
planning and additional strategies such as shaping, joint action routines and joint attention. In
addition to skills for teaching language and communication, teachers should also have skills for
teaching social competences. The teachers need to be skilled to manage adaptive behaviour and
children transitions, special issues and to structure and organize the classroom in a way that
makes autistic learners comfortable (Baker, 2012).
In the United Kingdom, the department of Education has profoundly committed to special
education needs of children with ASD. Just as in the United States, they appreciate the fact that
cases of children on the spectrum are increasing with equally increasing demands on the
educational system, as every individual is entitled to education. In cognizance of the several
impairments experienced by children with ASD the Education Department had the Autism
Working Group of the Department develop a guide for teachers on the best practices to apply
while handling learners with ASD. In agreement with Baker (2012), the guide maintains that
teachers need to understand the child with ASD and appreciate that in order to help the child a
variety of strategies and skills are needed in different situations (UK Government, 2006).
Children with autism are greatly affected by the environment and also have poor socialization
skills. The Guide recommends that the teacher needs social skills and ability to understand the
social interaction problems of each child and identify things that upset them and be able to
observe and assess the child in order to gauge their level of social competence so as to decide the
skills to pass to the child explicitly as well as planning to involve others (peers, staff and parents)
appropriately (UK Goverment, 2006).
A study in Spain by Rodriguez, Saldana and Moreno (2012) established that most teachers had
college degree in special education but not necessarily related to autism, and sometimes recieved
further supplementary training in autism. These teachers taught in either special or mainstream
school setting in which latter case they handled children with ASD who were fully or partially
integrated in a support classroom. Those with training that incorporated specific professional
abilities in handling childen with ASD reportedly had very positive attitude towards teaching
learners with ASD (Rodriguez, Saldana & Moreno, 2012). Teachers in the study were more
19
positive towards learners with ASD if they were offered training for the skills needed to teach
these leaners in mainstream or special units settings, and whether they were in a ASD network or
not because teaching the learners with their myriad of impairments is a complex process that
requires skill.
Autism children have no expressive language or are behind children their age. Some have
difficult acquiring spoken language regardless of the instructional aproach. Teachers of children
with autism require to have skills to help the children overcome these and other impairements
including communication, social interraction and self care (Smith, 2001). Such skills include the
ability to apply and implement techniques such as discrete trial training (DTT), ABA and others
mentioned in the literature. DTT particularly, has been proved, along with other behavior
modification and instruction techniques, to help children on ASD to acquire a variety of skills
including communication, expressive language, conversation, sentence, grammer and syntax, and
also in learning alternative communication systems like the use of pictures to indicate what they
want (Smith, 2001).
Education quality was established as the sixth Education for All goal in 2000, and again when
the UN secretary-general made it one of the three priorities of the Global Education First
Initiative of September 2012 (UNESCO, 2015). Good teachers translate to quality education by
maximizing the benefits of learning in every classroom for every child. Across the world
children who are disadvantaged due to factors such as poverty, gender, ethnicity, disability and
geographical location are not likely to have good teachers. An education system is only as good
as its teachers. Unlocking their potential is essential to enhancing the quality of learning.
Evidence shows that education quality improves with teachers being supported and the converse
is also true (UNESCO, 2014)
The Global Monitoring Report on Education for All for the year 2013/2014 states that children
with disabilities are most excluded and are much less likely to be taught by good teachers. It
notes that a crisis in education in many countries exists due to poor quality education and the
failure to include the marginalized. To solve this crisis, the GMR adds, "all children must have
teachers who are trained, motivated and enjoy teaching, who can identify and support weak
learners, and who are backed by well-managed education systems", for good teachers close the
gap between poor and good quality education by maximizing the benefits of learning in every
20
classroom for every child (UNESCO, 2014). For quality learning, the right teachers must be
selected in accordance to the diversity of the learners, they must be trained and governments
must provide teachers with the right mix of incentives to encourage them to remain in the
profession and to make sure all children are learning, regardless of their circumstances.
Children on the ASD spectrum present with a high profile of challenging behaviors such as self-
injury, aggression, non-compliance and stereotypies. Such problematic behaviors are physically
dangerous and can impede learning and access to normal activities and therefore need
management (Matson & Nebel-Schwalm, 2007). A study on behavior management in learners
with ASD established that respondents (teachers and teacher aids) highly rated trainings,
seminars and workshops that they had attended as having equipped them with adequate skills to
manage challenging behaviour presented by learners with ASDs. They also found that staff
training can increase staff confidence in the managing of aggression in the same learners
(Khasakhala, Oracha, & Ouma, 2014). The same sentiments are shared with Roberts (2007), in
her study on teachers' perspection on inclusion of autistic learners, of the need for extensive
training for teachers who are to deal with behavioural problems exhibited by autistic students as
well as practical exposure of mainstream teachers to and training on autism (Roberts, 2007).
Students with ASD present unique challenges to school systems. Despite these challenges,
schools need to implement research-based practices in the least restrictive environment (LRE).
The LRE is often deemed to be the general education classroom with the primary intervention
agent often being the classroom teacher. Ensuring students with ASD receive effective
intervention in these least restrictive and inclusive school settings will depend, in part, on the
extent to which teachers and school personnel are prepared to implement research-based
interventions (Koegel, Matos-Freden, Lang & Koegel, 2012). This is so because what is taught to
pupils in a classroom partly depends on the way a teacher delivers the curriculum in the class,
which in turn depends on a teacher‟s level of qualification and teaching materials available to
them (Ngware, Oketch, Mutisya, & Kodzi, 2010). This is echoed by Abuya et al (2015) that the
teaching delivered by a teacher towards the learner largely depends on the teacher's training, the
provision of materials necessary for teaching and classroom organization that ensures contact of
the teacher with the learner (Abuya et al, 2015). Several stdies done in Kenya point to teacher
21
shortage as a challenge to the general education system (Matasio(2012), Kiama(2012) and
Njenga (2011).
2.5 Curriculum design and implementation of free basic education program for children
with ASD
From the Salamanca Forum, quality education is that which is offered through appropriate
curricula, organizational arrangements, teaching strategies and appropriate resource use
(UNESCO, 1994). There are many conceptions and definitions of the curriculum including as
content, as learning experiences, as behavioral objectives, as a plan for instruction, and as a
nontechnical approach (Lunenburg, 2011). The Kenya basic education act defines curriculum as
"all the approved subjects taught or programmes offered including all the activities provided at
any institution of basic education" (GoK, 2013)
The developmental disorder that is autism is defined by behavioral and developmental features
such as impaired social function and communication, repetitive and stereotypical patterns of
behavior and uneven intellectual development (Sulkes, 2013). The committee on educational
intervention for children with autism (US) reported from their study that children with autism
need special teaching to enable them to learn behaviors that are common with typical children.
Thus education for autistics is not only for addressing independence and social responsibility
later in life, as with the mainstream children but should also address language, social and
adaptive goals, all of which are not part of a typical (and general special) education curricula.
Both academic and non-academic goals must be considered (Lord & McGee, 2001).
Because of the very nature of the disorder, many children with ASD seem to require an
alternative educational approach than that applied to students without ASD. For instance use of
gestures, abstract concepts, modeling and social rewarding educational techniques may benefit
other students but may confound students with ASD (Renty & Roeyers, 2005). The education
curricula for children with ASD should emphasize social and cognitive skills, increased
competence in motor activities and amelioration of behavior difficulties. The learners with ASD
have varied needs that require addressing by the curriculum, as such there is no one ideal
curriculum that fits all of them but each needs an individualized program using mixed methods
(Lord & McGee, 2001).
22
Schreibman and Peters,( in Renty and Roeyers, 2005), assert that students with autism or a
related disorder learn best in highly structured environments with lots of visual support and few
distractions. Environments that allow for individualized and skill oriented learning, where
predictability exists and where antecedent conditions and consequent events responsible for
erratic responses/behaviors are identified and managed are the ideal environments for educating
children and learners on autism spectrum disorder(Renty & Roeyers, 2005).
One of the aspects of special need education is the pedagogy of the special or appropriate
curricula (Basic Education Act, 2013. p224). Some of the pedagogy methods for teaching autistic
learners include peer-mediated interventions (PMI). It is used to improve the social interaction
skills in inclusive settings. PMI has been established to be a promising treatment for increasing
social interaction in children, adolescents, and young adults with ASD in inclusive settings, with
positive generalization, maintenance, and social validity outcomes (Watkins, et al., 2015).
Discrete Trial Training (DTT) is a method used in applied behaviour analysis. It is teaching in
simplified and structured steps. Instead of teaching an entire skill in one go, the skill is broken
down and “built-up” using discrete trials that teach each step one at a time (Smith, 2001).
Lessons are broken down into their simplest parts and positive reinforcement is used to reward
correct answers and behaviors. Incorrect answers are ignored (CDC, 2015). Children with autism
often lack a desire to learn like their typical peers. That is, children with autism often have
difficulty learning through observing others or exploring their environments, as well as difficulty
engaging with, playing with or talking to others. DTT can increase motivation and learning for a
child with autism (Smith, 2001). Each trial is short therefore many teaching trials can be
completed allowing for numerous learning opportunities. Secondly, the DTT method of one-to-
one teaching allows for the program to be completely individualized for the needs of each child.
Thirdly, the “procedural” format of a discrete trial creates clarity for the child (Smith, 2001).
Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention (EIBI) is a type of ABA for very young children with an
ASD, usually younger than five, and often younger than three. Pivotal Response Training (PRT)
aims to increase a child‟s motivation to learn, monitor his own behavior, and initiate
communication with others. Positive changes in these behaviors should have widespread effects
on other behaviors. Verbal Behavior Intervention (VBI) is a type of ABA that focuses on
teaching verbal skills (CDC, 2015). Other methods useful for teaching learners with ASD
23
include incidental teaching, time delay, peer tutoring, photographic and written activity
schedules, script fading and video modeling (Smith, 2001).
An important feature of special education is an individualized curriculum, also known as
individual education program in many developed countries (IEP). Essentially, an IEP is a plan
that is developed so that an educational program is tailored to the needs of an individual child.
The IEP is developed with input from the child's parents as well as through assessments carried
by various different professionals, such as Teachers, Behaviour Analysts, Clinical Psychologists,
Educational Psychologists, Occupational Therapists, Speech and Language Therapists, etc. A
child's parents and a multi-disciplinary team combine their expertise in order to develop the best
education plan for the child. Assessment informs IEP Development. It forms the back-bone of
the IEPs development (Cosgrave, 2015). Sometimes these assessments may simply be analyzing
the child‟s progress within a specific academic area over the past year to identify if changes need
to be made or to identify if the child is lacking skills in certain areas (e.g. academic, motor skills,
social skills, self-management etc).
Following the foregoing, specialized instructional techniques and learning environments are
often recommended for students on the spectrum. It is not the single classroom model that is
most important in choosing the best educational option for students with ASD, but the quality of
the instruction delivered in that classroom (Renty and Roeyers).
2.6 Monitoring and evaluation and the implementation of free basic education program for
children with ASD
Monitoring and evaluation help improve performance and achieve results of a program.
Monitoring is a continuing function that aims primarily to provide the management and main
stakeholders of an ongoing program (project, policy or support) with early indications of
progress, or lack thereof, in the achievement of results. Evaluation is a periodic exercise that
systematically and objectively assesses progress towards and the achievement of an outcome
(UNDP, 2002). Monitoring is a more immediate and continuous process meant to keep things on
track and ensure that the right inputs are included for successful implementation of a model. A
comprehensive approach to monitoring and evaluating schools and learning spaces should be
able to assess their effectiveness and efficiency at different levels – from the global (multi-
24
country) to the national and sub-national levels to the school, classroom and individual learner
(UNICEF, 2009).
M & E should, among other roles, help establish national standards, criteria and indicators for
rights-based education; track and assess individual children in terms of inclusion, health,
development, protection, learning barriers, learning achievement and special needs. Outcome
evaluation measures whether and to what extent objectives have been achieved. Assessment
tools on outcome indicators must cover additional aspects including child-friendly criteria and
the enabling environment, that is the optimal conditions for children‟s learning, cognitive, social
and psychological development (UNICEF, 2009)
The Kenya Constitution Chapter 6 articles 43, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57and 59 gives mandate of
education and training to the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. Executive order
No. 2 on the Organization of the Government of Kenya mandates the ministry to undertake
educational policy management, curriculum development, management of education standards,
quality assurance in education, teacher education management, school management and special
need education management among others (GOK, 2015). As such the ministry is responsible
for M&E of curricula development and implementation, teacher training and evaluation and
resources and learning outcomes of all levels of education and categories of learners.
A study by Ondieki and Matonda (2013) established that quality assurance in the ministry of
education is similar to monitoring and evaluation but noted that quality assurance oficers lacked
the principles of monitoring and evaluation. Principles such as participatory approaches to
evaluation that involve stakeholders are key to the success of a program. Teachers, parents,
adminstrators and management, as well as support staff and community should all be involved in
quality assurance. Quality assurance officers need to embrace M& E principles in the setting,
assessing and improving educational quality standards (Ondieki & Matonda, 2013).
The uniqueness of individuals along the autism spectrum means that one size does not fit all. A
classroom or program that meets a student‟s needs at a specific time, that considers the family
situation and context, and sets the stage to respond to these changing needs will be the most
productive match between student and program. An appropriate match will be evidenced by data
and result in outcomes producing meaningful change and apparent social validity. One needs to
consider variables at all level to increase the chances that the collaboration between families and
25
professionals will be productive and that each student with ASD will receive meaningful and
effective services based on empirical support and informed by the available evidence (Delmolino
& Harris, 2011)
2.7 Theoretical framework
The study is based on Vygotsky's social constructonist theory on disability. Lev Vygotsky (1896
- 1936), a Russian educational psychologist begun his work on social origin of higher mental
functions and simiotics. His later works (1924-1934) were on special education and psychology
(Rodina, 2007). Vygotsky formulated a practice-oriented paradigm of education for children
with special needs. His theory on dysontogenesis (Greek; dys=anomaly; ontos=being; genesis=
development) emphasizes a positive resource oriented approach including a favourable societal
view on children with disabilities, with preference to the strengthening and empowerment of
individual skills rather than the traditional stress on weakness or deviations (Rodina, 2007).
To Vygotsky, handicaps are a developmental process and as such disability is dynamic in nature.
Gindis, 2003 (in Rodina, 2007) adds that this dynamic nature of didability is the the significance
of certain dydactic aspects such as constant change in structure and content of disability in the
developmental process influenced by education and remediation.
According to Vygotsky, children with disabilities tend to have a special need for other special
educational environments (adapted educational mileu) which provide necessary conditions for
the “cultural introduction" and realization of mankind's inherent socio-cultural experience. There
are three types of disability identified by Vygotsky; primary disability (organic impairment),
secondary and tertiary disability - these two being the distortions of socially conditioned higher
mental functions. He stressed that focusing on primary reasons for disability means ignoring the
developmental process leading to exclusion from the socio-cultural, traditional and educational
environment (Rodina, 2007). For the study of upbringing, teaching and education of children
with different disabilities, it is paramount to distiguish between primary and succeeding
symptoms, being that primary disability is less subject to remediation while secondary
developmental complications, the social and psychological consequences of disability are less
resistant and more subject to elimination. These secondary (socio-cultural) disability may be
prevented and eliminated by medical and educational means (Rodina, 2007).
26
Wang (2009) adds that based on Vygotsky's dysontognesis theory, the main emphasis of special
education should not only be to compensate major disabilities through developing and
strengthening psychological functions, but also to prevent, rescue and heal the second level of
disability through psychological and educational methods. He adds that Lev Vygotsky's ideology
for effective rehabilitation requires appropriate and timely methods to educate, strengthen and
compensate cultural and psychological functions, communicational abilility and social
relationships of special education learners (Wang, 2009).
Gindis, (2003) quoted in Rodina, 2007) points that Vygotsky‟s theory on special education
practice calls for „inclusion based on positive differentiation‟. Vygotsky was critical of
segregation and mindless inclusion (Rodina, 2007). Lipsky & Gardner, 1996, (in Dixon &
Verenikina, 2007) add that Vygotsky advocated for what is now called the Full Inclusion Model
(Dixon & Verenikina, 2007). In his later writings he proposed that a very different learning
environment where all of the staff could concentrate on the individual needs of the child was
necessary. Vygotsky emphasized that it was the methods of teaching that should be changed and
not the school setting (Dixon & Verenikina, 2007). The child must always be maintained as
much as is possible within the mainstream social and cultural environment. According to
Vygotsky, this is the only way that the secondary disability may be prevented or remediated
(Wang, 2009).
Theory on dysontogenesis postulates that a positive approach means a favourable societal view
on children with disabilities, directing the focus point not on weaknesses and disorders, but on
the strengthening and empowerment of individual skills. Thus, the main objective of special
education should be the implementation of a “positive differential approach” that may help to
develop higher mental functions among handicapped children‟s overall personalities (Rodina,
2007).
The autistic spectrum comprises developmental disorders with a biological base that lead to a
different and characteristic pattern of perceiving, thinking and learning and according to the
Vygotskian theory, appropriate teaching approaches and educational environments will enable
the child with autism to develop and learn and make significant progress. They should not be
condemned due to their impairments, instead they should be accorded the necessary supports to
learn and improve their personal and social lives.
27
2.8 Conceptual framework
The literature reviewed shows that support services, capacity development, curriculum design
and monitoring and evaluation influence the basic education of learners on the spectrum. This is
summarized in the conceptual framework below.
Independent Variable
1.
Figure 1: Conceptual framework
1. Support services
-Early diagnosis and
intervention
-Behaviour management
- Communication services
-Physical facilities
-Expert support services
Moderating variable
Government policies
on education and
health Dependent variable 2. Capacity development
-Teacher education
-Skills and competencies
-Training of non-
professionals
Implementation of
free basic education
program for learners
with autism
-No.of transitions from
one level to a higher
one
-Improvement in life
skills
-Independent autistic
individuals
3. Curriculum Design -Curriculum goal/objectives
-Curriculum content
-Implementation techniques,
materials and equipment
Societal attitudes
towards children
with ASD.
Complexity of ASD
4. Monitoring and Evaluation
-Teacher/ Learner performance
-Learning processes and outcomes
-Ministry monitoring and
evaluation process
Intervening variable
28
2.9 Summary and Research gaps
From the literature reviewed it has come out that education is a basic human right and everyone
including children with autism are entitled to the right quality education. Quality education is
that which addresses the needs of the learner. Free quality education for children with ASD calls
for the rightful inclusion and integration that should comprise of a myriad of support services,
properly trained teachers, other professionals and paraprofessionals conversant with the disorder
and its impairment and mitigation measures who can help the learners cope with their
impairments and learn. Other measures include teacher skills to manage behaviours and special
pedagogic skills to overcome the communication and social interaction challenges that these
children have. Literature shows children on the spectrum have varied challenges, one from the
other, and therefore a one-fits-all curriculum is not feasible but a tailor-made one for each to
address each individual's needs. From the literature it also emerges that the right infrastructure
and equipment are necessary for learners on the spectrum, and that there is need for adequate
provision of these for the successful implementation of the free basic education program and the
eventual independence of children with ASD.
Several studies done in Kenya in the past have looked at factors influencing implementation of
free basic education of mainstream learners and general special need education while a few have
done case studies of challenges faced by teachers in City primary school autism unit. These
studies did not address the influence of special support services, special teacher skills for autistic
learner, special skills to be imparted to the autistic learner, special curriculum including the
resources, and monitoring and evaluation processes in provision of free and quality basic
education to CwASD. This study set out to fill this gap.
29
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter covers the research methodology that was used in the study under the following
subheadings; research design, target population, sampling techniques and sample size, research
instruments as well as their validity and reliability. Data collection procedures and analysis and
ethical considerations are also be covered in this chapter.
3.2 Research design
The researcher set to determine the factors influencing implementation of free basic education
program for learners with autism. This involved studying in depth the current situation on the
activities, processes and resources being applied to educate the autistic learners in the school.
The study thus employed a cross-sectional descriptive, survey design. According to Kothari,
descriptive research aims at fact finding while describing a situation as "it exists at present"
(Kothari, 2004). The study set to describe the support services, the capacity building, the
curriculum design and delivery techniques, monitoring and evaluation processes involved in the
implementation of free basic education program, hence the choice of descriptive design. It
involved use of both quantitative and qualitative techniques of data collection and analysis by
use of questionnaires, interviews and observation.
3.3 Target population
The study involved three public primary schools targeting 3 head teachers, 20 teachers, 180
parents and 5 Ministry of education officials, 1 director each of two NGOs: Autism Society of
Kenya and Fairmile School for special children in Nairobi County. This makes a total of 210
respondents.
The three public primary schools were purposively selected as they have units and integrated
classes for CwASD. The ministry of education officials were those in charge of curriculum,
special education provisions and staffing, quality and standards and teacher training. The two
directors of NGOs, also have dealt with autism issues for many years and the researcher hoped
30
that they would provide insights on best educational practices for autistic learners from their
experiences.
3.4 Sample size and sampling technique
The three schools selected were City, Kasarani and Buruburu 1 primary schools. They were
chosen because they have integrated units specifically for learners with autism. A census type
sampling was carried out on the 20 teachers and 180 parents in the three schools. The reason for
choice of census is that the population of targeted teachers was relatively small as interest was on
getting data from teachers who taught classes of only or integrated with autistic learners. The
researcher was afraid that a randomly sampled group of parents may fail to return the research
instruments in good numbers for analyses and so questionnaires were administered to all the
parents through their children as it was not possible and ethical to summon the parents to school
for a face to face meet with the researcher.
The five ministry of education officials including office of the director, Kenya Institute of
Curriculum Development (KICD), office of director, Kenya Institute of Special Education
(KISE), County Director of Special Education, county staffing officer, and county director of
education quality and standards were conveniently sampled to provide data on curriculum design
for autistic learners, special need provisions for autistic education, capacity development and
staffing, and monitoring and evaluation for quality education standards. The director Autism
Society of Kenya has been involved in autism awareness and sensitization since 2003 while the
director Fairmile school has run the school for special children for more than twenty years and
the researcher hoped they would provide useful information to contribute to some of the study
questions.
Table 3.1 Respondent Categories
Questionnaires
Category of respondent No.
Teachers 20
Parents 180
Source: County Education Statistics office, January, 2016
31
Interview
Category of respondents No.
Head teachers 3
Director KICD 1
Director Quality and Standards 1
Officer in charge, Special
Education
1
Officer in charge, Staffing 1
Director KISE 1
Director ASK 1
Director Fairmile school 1
3.5 Research instruments
Questionnaires were used to collect data from teachers and parents. The questions in the
questionnaire were closed- while others were open- ended, all aimed at getting data to explain
the independent and dependent variables. Structured interview guides were used for the head
teachers and the education officials. These ensured only relevant data was generated and also
guided the interview to minimize on time spent. Unstructured interviews were used to collect
data from the directors of ASK. Structured observations were carried out to obtain data on
support services and physical facilities in the schools. To carry out the observation the researcher
spent one (1) working day in each of the schools in the study.
3.5.1 Pilot testing
The research instruments were piloted at Veterinary Laboratories primary school in Nairobi
County. The school was selected because it has an integration program for special education
(though not specifically for autism). Responses from the head teacher, 5 randomly selected
teachers and 5 randomly selected parents of pupils in the special unit were analyzed for purposes
of gauging the clarity and therefore the interpretation of the questions by the respondents, and
whether they would generate the data they had been designed to. The feedback was used to carry
out adjustments on the research tools to make sure they were appropriate for the study.
32
3.5.2 Validity of instruments
Validity of an instrument is the extent to which it measures what it purports to measure
(Kimberlin & Winterstein, 2008). The researcher applied content-related validity, which,
acccording to Kimberlin & Winterstein (2008), is a type of validity that addresses how well the
items developed to operationalize a construct provide an adequate and representative sample of
all the items that might measure the construct of interest. The researcher consulted her supervisor
to ensure the research tool items were validly constructed to generate desired data.
3.5.3 Reliability of instruments
Reliability is the degree to which a measurement technique can be depended upon to secure
consistent results. The researcher used the split half method of internal consistency techniques to
test the reliability of the questionnaires. Internal consistency is an estimate of the equivalence of
sets of items from the same test (Kimberlin & Winterstein, 2008).
There were questionnaires, for teachers and parents, and in each, the questions were split into
two halves: even and odd numbers. The responses of the two halves from the pilot test were
correlated and corrected by use of the Spearman - Brown prophecy formula. There were 5 simple
randomly-sampled respondents for each questionnaire in the pilot study. For the Parent
questionnaires the correlation between the two halves was found to be 0.992 and that for teachers
was 0.901.The overall reliability coefficient for each questionnaire was then adjusted by use of
Spearman-Brown prophecy formula:
Reliability of questionnaire (correlation coefficient) = 2× reliability for 1/2 of questions
1 + reliability for 1/2 of questions
Reliability (parent questionnaire) = 2 × 0.992 = 0.996
1 + 0.992
Reliability (Teacher questionnaire) = 2 × 0.901 = 0.948
1 + 0.901
RC=2 The Spearman-Brown correction factors for parents' and teachers'
questionnaires were 0.996 and 0.948 respectively. Webb, Shavelson and Haert (2006), writing in
the hand book of statistics journal point that reliability coefficients at or above 0.80 are
33
considered sufficiently reliable with a higher value, perhaps 0.90, preferred (Webb, Shavelson, &
Haertel, 2006). Both questionnaires had reliability coefficients of well over 0.9 and we can
therefore conclude that the two research instruments were consistent and highly reliable in
collecting the data they were set out to collect.
3.6 Data collection procedures
A permit to collect data for the study was sought from the National Commission for Science,
Technology and Innovation (NACOSTI). During the data collection process the researcher
dropped the questionnaires and went back after four days, allowing the respondents humble time
to fill the questionnaires to the best of their capability. For the interviews, the researcher booked
appointments with each of the officials and arranged to meet them at their times of convenience,
owing to the fact that they are very busy with official duties. An observation guide to measure
the presence of equipment and other physical facilities was filled for each school.
3.7 Data analysis procedures
The researcher employed both qualitative and quantitative methods of data analysis. Qualitative
analysis involved content and narrative analysis of data received from the written interview
responses, open ended questions and observation schedules. The data was coded and analyzed
thematically based on the objectives. Closed-ended questions were also coded and analyzed
through quantitative methods of simple descriptive statistics including frequency and measures
of central tendency and dispersion, through use of the computer software, Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS).
3.8 Ethical considerations
The researcher obtained permission to collect data from NACOSTI as well as other relevant
government agencies before collecting data. There was strict observance of rules governing
research, enlightenment of the respondents on the purpose of the study and allowing them free
choice to participate in the study while at the same time ensuring them of confidentiality of the
responses they gave. The researcher stuck only to the issues relating to the study, that is the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The researcher steered clear of
any coercion and influence of the respondents in any way whatsoever so that the data would be a
true `representation of issues as they are on the ground‟.
34
3.9 Operational definition of the variables
The following table summarizes the elements of each of the variables, the measurement scales,
data collection methods and the techniques that were used to analyze the generated data
35
Objective Type of
variable
Indicators Measurement
scale
Method of data collection Data analysis
Support
services
Independent Presence of services-speech,
occupational, etc
Presence of support staff
Presence of physical
facilities/infrastructure
Ordinal
Questionnaire/observation/Interview
Frequency, mean,
Standard deviation
Content analysis
Teacher
training
Independent Number of teachers
Level of schooling
Skills trained in
Degree of competence
Pedagogy skills
Ordinal
Questionnaire/interview
Frequency
Mean, Mode,
Standard deviation
Content analysis
Curriculum
Design
Independent Curriculum goal/objective
Curriculum content
Implementation techniques,
Materials and equipment
Ordinal
Questionnaire/interview/ observation
Frequency tables,
Mean, Standard
deviation,
Content analysis
Monitoring
and evaluation
Independent Leaner/teacher assessments
Learning processes &
outcomes
External assessment
process/outcome
Ordinal
Questionnaire , interview
Content analysis
Frequency.
Mean
Content analysis
Quality free
basic
education for
learners with
ASD
Dependent Acquisition of/improvement
in skills -Transition levels
Ordinal
Questionnaire
Frequency tables
Mean
Content analysis
Table 3.2: Operational definition of variables
36
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents data analysis, findings and discussion of the results of the study. A census
was conducted on the teachers and parents in the three select schools with autism integrated
units: City, Kasarani and Buruburu 1 primary schools. Structured interviews were conducted on
head teachers and education officials while unstructured interviews were used to get data from
the directors of Autism society of Kenya. The data was cleaned, coded and analyzed as per the
research questions using descriptive statistics and content analysis of open ended questions and
interview responses.
4.2 Response rate
The researcher targeted 180 parents in the three schools and administered 120 questionnaires
through the pupils who were present in the schools on the dates of administration of the research
tool. 50 questionnaires were returned thus a return rate of 42 % was realized. 20 questionnaires
were administered to teachers and 19 were filled and returned, achieving 95 % return rate.
Interviews were carried out on two head teachers, an officer at each of directors‟ offices of
Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE) and Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development
(KICD). An interview was also undertaken with the director of Autism Society of Kenya (ASK).
4.3 General information of respondents
This section describes the respondent profiles in terms of gender, period in which they have
served in their capacities with children with autistic spectrum disorder, gender of the child and
the age of children when they were diagnosed with ASD.
4.3.1 Teachers’ gender and period of interaction with learners on ASD
The teachers were asked to indicate their gender, the number of years they had worked with
children on the autism spectrum and the composition of their classrooms. 100%, that is, all of the
respondents were female. Similarly all the head teachers interviewed were female. However, the
37
other head who did not yield to the interview was male. Periods of teaching learners on the
spectrum are summarized in table 4.1
Table 4.1 No. of years Teachers worked with learners on ASD
Number of Years Frequency Percent
Less than 2 10.5
1-3 2 10.5
3-5 2 10.5
Over 5 13 68.4
The results show that majority of the teachers, 78.9 % had been with learners with autism for
over three years, with 68.4 % of the respondents having been in the school for learners with
autism for over 5 years. This means they had been long enough in the schools and therefore data
from them could be relied upon to make conclusions
4.3.2 Gender of school child and age at diagnosis with ASD
The study sought to know from parents the gender of their child and the age when diagnosed
with the disorder. The results are to be found in tables 4.2 and 4. 3
Table 4.2 Gender of the Child with ASD
Frequency Percent
Male 43 86.0
Female 7 14.0
From the study majority of children with autism are boys (86 %). Only a small proportion are
girls at 14%. When asked to comment on the trend in enrollment of CwASD over the years, head
teachers reported that it has been rising. This statistics agree with others elsewhere that
incidences of autism are on the rise and that majority of the diagnoses are boys (Baren et al,
2009: CDC, 2014).
38
Table 4.3 Age of child at diagnosis
Age(Years) Frequency Percent
Below 2 4 8.0
2-3 20 40.0
3-5 16 32.0
5-10 9 18.0
Over 10 1 2.0
The results in the table indicate that majority (92%) of the children are diagnosed with autism
when they are well over two years with most parents (72%) knowing their children have the
condition when the children are between 2-5 years old. This agrees with Turnbul et al, (in
Amtepee & Chitiyo, 2009), who noted that Autism manifests around age 3. Early intensive
intervention has been found to be an important service for the development of the autistic child.
According to Rapin and Tuchman (2008) early diagnosis is connected to early intervention
services which have been shown to have drastic impacts for the children with ASD as research
has shown that it brings improvement in communication, language and IQ and decreased
stereotypic behaviours. Early recognition of the social deficits that characterize autism is key to
maximizing the potential of these children (Rapin & Tuchman, 2008).
The researcher also sought to establish from the parents where the diagnosis of their children was
done and what immediate support or advice was given to them regarding the diagnosis. The
results for place of diagnosis are indicated in table 4.4 below.
Table 4.4 Place of diagnosis with ASD
Place of assessment Frequency Valid Percent
Public Hospital 22 44.9
Private Hospital 10 20.4
School 6 12.2
Education Assessment center 9 18.4
Others 2 4.1
39
The results indicate that majority of the diagnoses were made in hospitals at 65%. A third or 30
% of the diagnoses were made in school and educational assessment and resource centers. On the
immediate advice given, majority of the parents said they were counselled and advised to enroll
the child into a special school and also sensitized on dietary intervention. Others indicated that
they were advised by the doctors to have their child on occupational therapy.
4.4 Support services and the implementation of free basic education program for learners
with autism
The study sought to establish the extent to which support services influenced the implementation
of free basic education program for children with autism spectrum disorder.
4.4.1 Importance of support services
The teachers were asked to rate the importance of support services in the teaching and
management of learners with autism on a scale of 1 to 5: (1- Not important; 5-very important)
Table 4.5 Teachers’ rating of importance of support services
Service 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Mode SD
Occupational therapy 0 0 12.5 18.8 68.8 4.56 5 0.727
Physiotherapy 0 17.6 23.5 11.8 47.1 3.88 5 1.219
Speech therapy 10.5 10.5 10.5 26.3 42.1 3.79 5 1.398
Behaviour management therapy 5.6 11.1 11.1 5.6 66.7 4.17 5 1.339
Mental health services 11.8 23.5 23.5 11.8 29.4 3.24 5 1.437
Support of teacher aids 0 11.1 5.6 11.1 72.2 4.44 5 1.042
Support of psychologists/psychiatrics 17.6 11.8 41.2 11.8 17.6 3.00 3 1.323
Hydrotherapy 11.1 16.7 16.7 27.8 27.8 3.44 4 1.328
The teachers indicated that support of teacher aids, occupational therapy and behavior
management therapies were the most important services in aiding the teaching and management
of learners with autism. 72 % of the respondents said that support of teacher aids is very
important; 67% of respondents indicated that occupational therapy was very important while 69
% said behavior management was very important. All in all, over 59% of teachers were of the
40
view that all services except mental health services and psychological services were important or
very important. 70% of respondents were of the opinion that psychological support had little or
no importance in the school of learners with ASD.
The means of the responses for all the support services were all above the average 2.5 with the
lowest being on support of child psychologists/psychiatrists at 3.00. The mean for mental health
services was 3.24; speech therapy, 3.79; physiotherapy, 3.88 and the highest mean being that of
occupational therapy at 4.56 followed by support of teacher aides at 4.44. From the means
therefore the teachers felt all the support services were relatively important
4.4.2 Parents’ view on necessity of support services
The parents were asked to select from a least of support services the ones they deemed necessary
and should be offered in school to aid in the learning of their children with autism spectrum
disorder.
Table 4.6 parents’ view on necessity of support services in school
SERVICE % of respondents
Medical treatment 52%
Psychological services 60%
Occupational therapy 76%
Physiotherapy 58%
Special education 74%
Speech therapy 84%
Dietary intervention 72%
Behaviour management 84%
From the results parents indicated that all the stated services were necessary and need to be
availed in the school for their children on the spectrum. 84 % of them felt that behavior
management and speech therapy were necessary. 76 % and 72% indicated occupational therapy
and dietary intervention, respectively, were necessary in the school while 58% and 52% of the
parents felt that physiotherapy and medical treatment, respectively, were necessary.
41
Parents preferred the services in the following descending order; speech and behaviour
management (84%), occupational therapy (76%), special education (74%), dietary intervention
(72%), psychological services (60%), physiotherapy (58%) and medical treatment (52%).
Parents‟ view of importance of services can be attributable to the severity of impairments. Most
children with autism have problem with speech, sensory integration and unique behaviours that
are sometimes said to be alleviated by omission of some foods in their diet. The study findings
on need for behavior management concurs with that of Matson & Nebel-Schwalm (2007) who
noted that children on the ASD spectrum present with a high profile of challenging behaviors
such as self-injury, aggression, non-compliance and stereotypies, adding that problematic
behaviors are physically dangerous and can impede learning and access to normal activities and
therefore need management.
4.4.3 Support services offered in the free basic education program in schools of learners
with ASD
The study sought to establish from the head teachers which support services are offered in the
learning institutions for learners on ASD. One head said they offer occupational therapy, sensory
integration, vocational training and dietary intervention. The second head said that the school has
a swimming pool for hydrotherapy and also do some dietary intervention. Support from teacher
aids is also given with one school having one teacher aid for the 20 learners while the other has
about 2 teacher aids in a class of 10 -15 pupils. All schools indicated use of individual education
plans as an intervention service.
From the interaction with the officer at Kenya institute of especial education (KISE), on support
services, he put it that for the management of learners in a school, a multidisciplinary approach is
important. The multidisciplinary team should comprise of speech therapists, occupational
therapists, social workers, school psychologist, special need teachers trained on autism spectrum
disorder and physiotherapists. Other services the officer mentioned as important for learners with
autism include teacher aids, medical care, hydrotherapy and dietary intervention.
The officer in charge of special need education curriculum at KICD concurred with her KISE
counterpart that special support services are needed for learners with autistic spectrum disorder.
She was also of the opinion that a multidisciplinary team of officers from the ministry of health
42
and MOEST should collaborate in provision of services for the learner with autism in the school.
Such collaboration, the officer said, include seconding of medical personnel; occupational
therapists, child psychologists and clinicians, among others, by ministry of health to schools with
learners with ASD.
The study brought out the need for provision of support services in the implementation of free
education of learners with ASD. This is in agreement with many other studies done elsewhere in
the world. Murphy (2013) noted from his study that occupational therapy in schools assisted the
learners to develop gross motor and sensory skills while speech and language therapy assisted
with pragmatic and social language. Physiotherapy helps in development of fine and gross motor
skills. Wei et al (2014) enlists behavior management programs, study skills support,
communication, mental health and transport services as other crucial services for a learner on the
autism spectrum.
4.5 Capacity building and the implementation of free basic education to learners with
autism
This section looks at the staffing in the schools of learners with ASD. Of concern to the study
was education and training levels of teachers and their use of pedagogic techniques to impart
special skills to the learners. Other professionals and paraprofessionals that are required for the
implementation of free education of ASD learners are also mentioned.
4.5.1 Teachers’ highest level of education
The study sought to establish there were appropriately trained teachers in classes with children
on the spectrum and asked teachers to state their highest level of education. They were also
asked whether they had formal training in dealing with learners with autism spectrum disorder.
Their responses are summarized in table 4.7.
Table 4.7 Education level of teachers
Education Level Frequency Percent
KCPE/CPE 1 5.3
Diploma 5 26.3
Degree 11 57.9
Post Graduate 1 5.3
Others 1 5.3
43
The results indicate that almost all teachers teaching learners with autism had post-secondary
school training with 26% of the respondents having a diploma in education and the majority, at
58% having trained to graduate level.
4.5.2 Training levels of Teachers on autism condition
In order to establish if the teachers had training on handling learners with autism, the researcher
asked the teachers if they had any training in SNE and what their specialization in SNE was.
Most (81%) of the respondents had training in special education and 19 % did not have training
in SNE. Of those trained in SNE only 22% had specialized in education of learners with autism.
Majority indicated they had specialized in dealing with mentally handicapped learners.
Teachers were then asked to give an indication of the level to which they were trained in
college, on autistic behaviours and management in the classroom using a scale of 1 to 5 (1 for
None; 5- Very high). The results are in table 4.8.
Table 4.8 Level of teacher training on autism behavior and management
Level Frequency Percent
None 2 11.1
Very Low 4 22.2
Moderate 4 22.2
High 6 33.3
Very high
Total
2
18
11.1
100
33% of the respondents said they had very little or no training on autism behaviours and their
management while 44% said they were highly trained. Overall 55.5% had no training, very low
training or moderate levels of training on autistic behavior and management.
4.5.3. Teachers’ skills on special intervention services for learners’ with autism
The study sought to establish the level to which teachers were trained in specific intervention
services for using in a classroom of learners on the spectrum. The teachers were asked to indicate
44
on a scale of 1 to 5 (1- None; 5- Very high), the level to which they were trained in the skills.
The results are tabulated below:
Table 4.9 Level of teacher skills for classroom intervention for ASD learners
Skills 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Mode SD
Communication 0 15.8 31.6 26.3 26.3 3.63 3 1.065
Social 5.3 5.3 26.3 31.6 31.6 3.79 4 1.134
Structured teaching 11.1 16.7 22.2 27.8 22.2 3.33 4 1.328
Special instruction methods 5.6 22.2 22.2 5.6 44.4 3.61 5 1.420
Individual curriculum design 0 21.1 15.8 21.1 42.1 3.84 5 1.214
Behaviour modification techniques 5.3 26.3 21.1 21.1 26.3 3.37 2 1.300
Common/general instruction methods 5.3 5.3 26.3 26.3 36.8 3.84 5 1.167
Evaluation on cognitive achievement 5.3 10.5 15.8 26.3 42.1 3.89 5 1.243
Evaluation of non-cognitive abilities 5.3 15.8 31.6 26.3 21.1 3.42 3 1.170
47% of the respondents indicated they had very low to moderate training in communication
skills, the rest indicating they had high to very high training in teaching of communication skills
while 37% had very little to moderate training in social skills. The highest percentage, 26.3%
said they had very low training in behavior modification skills. 63% of the respondents indicated
that they were highly to very highly trained in the development and use of individual education
curriculum/program (IEP). About 53 % of the respondents said they had none to moderate
training in the evaluation of non-cognitive abilities.
Overall, however, the means show that the teachers are just above moderately trained in all the
essential skills with standard deviations of each being slightly above 1.00). The means for level
of use for all skills fall below 4.00 (highly trained). For proper implementation of a program the
right human capital with the requisite skills is necessary. According to Smith (2001), teachers of
CwASD require to have skills to help the children overcome their lack of expressive language,
dificulty in acquiring spoken language and other impairements including communication, social
interraction and self care. Such skills include the ability to apply and implement special
techniques such as those mentioned above, discrete trial training (DTT), ABA and others
45
mentioned in the literature. DTT(or structured teaching) particularly, has been proved, along
with other behavior modification and instruction techniques, to help children on ASD to acquire
a variety of skills including communication, expressive language, conversation, sentence,
grammer and syntax, and also in learning alternative communication systems like the use of
pictures to indicate what they want (Smith, 2001).
The study established that 90% of teachers would like to improve their skills to help them handle
better learners with ASD when given an opportunity. The interview with KISE officer was aimed
at establishing if teacher trainees were taught special skills to handle learners with ASD. It came
out that trainees are taught foundation course in first year and in second year and choose the
learning impairments they wish to specialize. Those who choose to specialize in autism are
taught about autism impairments and teaching strategies including IEP preparation, picture
exchange communication system, behavior modification strategies, behavior management
strategies (like management of temper tantrums), use of visual schedules/aids to attract attention
because the children are not able to conceptualize, and diet interventions so that the teacher can
advise parents on the same. However, according to the director of Autism Society of Kenya,
“teachers in Kenya are not prepared to handle autism learners…not even those from KISE…”
According to the director the trainees are only introduced to the condition but not given the
proper skills to teach and manage that category of learners.
A key element of successful program implementation is ensuring that stakeholders such as
school leaders, teachers, other professionals and support staff have sufficient capacity to meet the
challenge. When teachers are trained on the right skills, the teaching and learning outcomes such
as independene of ASD learners would be higher. In another study it was established that
teachers with a training that incorporated specific professional abilities in handling childen with
ASD reportedly had very positive attitude towards teaching learners with ASD (Rodriguez,
Saldana & Moreno, 2012).
4.5.4 Staffing levels in classes with children with ASD
The study set out to establish the staffing levels and the employers of teachers teaching children
with autism. Head teachers were asked to state the teacher: pupil ratio in the classes of CwASD.
The responses were 1: 5 and 1:8, giving a mean of 1 teacher for 7 pupils. When asked who the
46
employers of the teachers were, one school, Buruburu 1, with a relatively smaller population of
autistic learners, had all its teachers employed by the teachers‟ service commission (TSC). The
response from City primary school, with a child population of 140, was that teachers were
employed by TSC and parents‟ teachers association (PTA). The heads responses were in
agreement with the teachers‟ who were asked to indicate their employer and state their terms of
service, their responses are captured in table 4.10
Table 4. 10 Teacher employer and terms of engagement
The results in the table show that 62% or about 6 of every 10 teachers of learners on the autism
spectrum are employed by the government through the TSC while 37.8% or close to 4 of every
10 teachers are employed by parents.
The heads were further asked to comment on the staffing levels and the general competency of
teachers and other persons dealing with learners with autism. Their response was that the
“teachers are well educated in special need education but not on autism, and staffing levels are
grossly low. The teachers are „overwhelmed‟ since the learners portray different characteristics,
and so the teachers require support from time to time”. On staffing levels for learners with
autism the KICD and KISE officers had these to say….”the staffing level for autistic learner
should be 1:1 because their attention span is short….”.The director of ASK expressed the same
sentiments. To uphold quality in education, all children must have enough teachers who are
trained, motivated and committed, who can identify and manage challenges of learners with
autism, and who are guided and supported by well-managed education systems (UNESCO,
2015).
4.5.5 Non-teaching staff working with learners with ASD in public schools
The study had set to find out the other staff, in addition to teachers, that give services to learners
with ASD in the school setting. Head teachers were asked to give other staff categories serving
Employer Contract P&P
TSC 0 62.2%
PTA 37.8% 0
47
CwASD and state their source of remunerations. The responses were that there are occupational
therapists, teacher aids, cleaners and cooks who are paid by the parents. However, it is important
to note here that occupational therapists and teacher aides were found only in City primary
school, none in Kasarani and only one in Buruburu 1 primary school.
The head teachers‟ responses concur with that of parents‟, who, when asked whether they pay
levies to the schools and for what services, answered that they pay school fees for payment of
staff salaries including teachers, teacher aids, occupational therapists and other support staff as
well as diet intervention. They added that they support cleaning and maintenance, funding of
educational programmes, security and fuel costs. City primary reported to offer relatively more
services and the parents, too, reported to pay higher fees (Ksh. 26,500 per term) compared to
Kasarani (ksh. 15,000 per term and Buruburu 1 (ksh.9, 000 per term). Buruburu 1 parents pay the
lowest fees of the three schools and consequently offers the least support services, to be specific
dietary intervention only.
The officials interviewed (KISE, KICD and ASK director) underscored the need for teacher
aides for learners with autism. They said children with autism are “quite a handful due to their
many and varied impairments” and, as the head teachers said, the teacher gets overwhelmed. The
teacher aid would assist the teacher in getting tasks accomplished. The KISE and ASK director
added that in developed countries (UK and USA) each autistic leaner has a teacher and a teacher
aide paid by the government. In his study, Roberts (2007) noted that for the inclusion of all
autistic students, provision of paraprofessionals, smaller classes and safety precautions are
necessary (Roberts, 2007).
The results indicate that teachers assigned to learners with autism are highly trained but not in
the area of autism. Baker, (2012) and Lord & McGee, (2001) concur that due to the unique needs
of learners with autism, their teachers need training in evidence-based practices that lead to
learning including early intensive intervention, individualized supports, systematic instruction,
structured environments and a functional approach to problem behaviours. Teachers who possess
the right skills have a better attitude and feel more competent to teach and manage behavior of
autistic children (Cardona, 2009; Rodriguez, Saldana & Moreno (2012), Matson & Nebel-
Schwalm, 2007).
48
Results indicate that the inadequate staffing by government through TSC has led to parents to not
only hire teacher aides but also teachers and occupational therapists as well as other support
staff. This understaffing lowers the quality of education offered to the autistic learner. Only 62%
of teachers are employed by TSC on permanent and pensionable terms, the rest are employed on
contract basis by parents. For quality education, learners on the autism spectrum must have
teachers who are trained, motivated and enjoy teaching as good teachers translate to quality
education (UNESCO, 2015).
4.6 Curriculum design and implementation of free basic education program to learners
with autism
This section looks at the curriculum design and implementation strategies including teaching
strategies, teaching and learning resources and how these are funded.
4.6.1 Special curriculum for autistic learners
The researcher asked all the respondents whether there is a curriculum for learners with ASD.
There were mixed reactions to this question. The head teachers answered in the affirmative with
the one for City Primary adding „but there is none for those integrated… “. The KICD and KISE
officers said…” there has not been a curriculum in the past years for learners with ASD but one
has been recently developed…” with the KICD officer elaborating that it was developed in 2015.
The officer at KICD said that the curriculum for learners with autism is tailor-made to meet their
developmental challenges of lack of or poor communication, being non-verbal or limited verbal
and lack of or very poor socialization. According to the officer, the curriculum in place is aimed
at helping the learners develop communication skills, social skills, numeracy, activities of daily
living, prevocational and vocational skills , since, she added, as they grow they would need to be
independent. The officer pointed that although the KICD developed curricula for autistic
learners, its implementation will depend on the level and special condition of each special child.
However, according to ASK there is no curriculum in schools for CwASD, adding that the
ministry of education has a policy for children with autism that “has never been implemented”.
The teachers‟ responses on whether they knew of a curriculum for learners with autism are
summarized in table 4.11
49
Table 4.11 Teachers’ responses on presence of autism curriculum
Yes/No Frequency Percent
Yes 6 31.6
No 13 68.4
Total 19 100.0
68% of the teachers in the study were not aware of a special curriculum for learners with ASD.
This contradicts the head teachers who say there is a curriculum. This means if at all there is one
it has not been implemented as majority of the teachers who should utilize it are not aware of its
existence, and thus the situation on the ground concurs with the ASK‟s sentiments.
4.6.2 Guide to class activities for learner with autism
The study then sought to establish what guided the teacher in a classroom of CwASD. Both
teachers and head teachers were asked to state what guides the teacher in the classroom. The
heads answered that they are guided by the IEP. The teachers‟ responses to this question are
summarized in table 4.12.
Table 4.12 Teachers’ responses on guide to school activities for ASD learner
Guide to activity Frequency Percent
Schedule of activities on the school time table 10 52.6
Activities agreed on by each child‟s parent, teachers, therapist or doctor 5 26.3
Decides what to teach/do on him/herself 2 10.5
Guided by needs of the majority of the leaners 2 10.5
The results in the table shows that majority of teachers (53%) rely on school timetable. Only
26% use schedule of activities agreed on by each child‟s parent, teachers and therapist that is the
IEP. This contradicts the heads who said the teacher are guided by the IEPs of each child.
50
4.6.3 Individual education program (IEP) for the learner with autism
Every special need child has their own unique needs that require to be met by the education
provided to them. The officer at KICD put it that IEPs are a requirement for every special need
child getting special need education. She added that each special child‟s IEP should be
developed by a team comprising of teachers, occupational therapist or input from a medical
doctor and the parent‟s child, among others. She added that special children join school at
different levels of development and have different needs, and therefore cannot be subjected to a
regular curriculum like the regular students. A team of stakeholders have to develop an IEP for
each child that outlines the current level of learner and sets out the objectives to be met with that
particular child.
The researcher set to find out if the parents were involved in the school activities of their
children including the development of IEP and asked them to rate on a scale of 1 to 5 (1-not
engaged; 5- very highly engaged), the level of their engagement or involvement in their child‟s
school activities. Their responses are in table 4.12
Table 4.13 Parents’ Involvement by the school in Child's academic and other activities
Level of engagement Frequency Valid Percent
Not Engaged 3 6.1
A little Engaged 6 12.2
Fairly Engaged 19 38.8
Much Engaged 13 26.5
Highly Engaged 8 16.3
57% of the respondents reported not to be involved to just moderately or fairly actively engaged
in their child‟s school activity.
On parent involvement for the learner with autism the officers from KICD and KISE put it that
active involvement of parents by teachers in the day to-day programs is crucial as the parent is
expected to contribute to the child‟s need assessments and in the achievement of those needs
through continuation of the school programs at home. Although over 60% of teachers said they
were trained on IEP preparation and reported to use it, it emerges that they do not effectively use
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them, as varied interests of 10 or so special pupils cannot be put on a timetable. In addition the
teachers prepare the IEPs solely based on their view of the child as over 57% of the parents
reported not to be very actively involved or to know the school or classroom routine of their
child on the spectrum. The experts‟ view was that each child‟s IEP must be developed by a team
basically composed of at least two teachers, an occupational therapist or doctor and the parent.
According to Cosgrave (2015), an IEP should be developed with input from parents and from an
assessment of the child carried out by various different professionals including teachers,
behavior analysts, clinical and educational psychologists and occupational and speech therapists,
etc (that is, the multidisciplinary team).
4.6.4 Curriculum delivery techniques and strategies
A curriculum design is implemented through designated techniques or strategies and through
specified methodologies and resources. This section will outline the teaching strategies and
resources designed for use or used in the teaching of learners with ASD.
The researcher sought to establish from the teachers the degree or extent to which they applied
specialized instruction techniques while teaching learners with autistic disorder. They were asked
to gauge themselves on a scale of 1 to 5 (1-not applied at all; 5-very highly applied) the extent to
which they used the techniques. The responses are contained in table 4.14.
Table 4.14 Instructional techniques used by teachers of CwASD
Technique 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Mode SD
Individualized curriculum 5.6 16.7 0 27.8 50.0 4.00 5 1.328
Pre mediated instruction( PMI) 14.3 28.6 14.3 21.4 21.4 3.07 2 1.439
Incidental teaching 13.3 20.0 26.7 33.3 6.7 3.00 4 1.195
Photographic schedules 33.3 6.7 6.7 26.7 26.7 3.07 1 1.710
Structured environment 12.5 12.5 37.5 12.5 25.0 3.25 3 1.342
Discrete trial teaching(DTT) 33.3 33.3 6.7 20.0 6.7 2.33 1 1.345
Early intensive behaviour intervention 12.5 6.3 31.3 18.8 31.3 3.50 3 1.366
Written schedules 31.3 18.8 6.3 25.0 18.8 2.81 1 1.601
Video modeling 40.0 6.7 20.0 6.7 26.7 2.73 1 1.710
Common instruction techniques 12.5 18.8 12.5 18.8 37.5 3.50 5 1.506
52
78 % of the respondents said they highly used individualized curriculum (IEP) while 57% said
they did not use discrete trial teaching or used it only a little. Only 40% of respondents highly
applied incidental teaching and a similar proportion of respondents said they never or only used
photographic schedules a little. Only 32 % of respondents structured the environments of autistic
learners while a whole 66% never applied at all or only applied a little discrete trial teaching.
40% of the respondents indicated they never applied video modelling when teaching learners
with autism. Overall, the methods applied by the teachers can be ordered from least applied to
most applied as follows; photographic schedules, DTT, written schedules, video modelling,
premediated instruction (PMI), structured environment, early intensive behavioral intervention,
incidental teaching, individualized curriculum and common instruction techniques.
Generally the mean scores indicate none or very poor application of those techniques that would
really benefit the CwASD. These range from 2.33 for DTT to 3.25 for structured teaching. The
highest score after IEP is common instruction method with a mean of 3.5, a technique not
applicable to CwASD because by the very nature of the disorder, many children with ASD
require an alternative educational approach than that applied to students without ASD (Lord &
McGee (2001) and Renty & Royers (2005), Sulkes (2013)).
4.6.5 Teaching and learning resources and free basic education for learners with autism
To find out the resources used in teaching and learning with learners with autism the researcher
asked the KISE and KICD officers whether there were specific special resources for learners
with autism. The officer in KISE put it that the autistic learner needs a plethora of resources for
learning because of their deficits. He mentioned such teaching aids as abacus, teaching blocks,
therapy equipment and materials such as balls, trampling, hammock, swings, sensory rooms and
equipment, computers, radio and DVD player, balls and play equipment. The two officers said
the teachers are trained to be creative and come up with teaching aids as there are no resources to
prepare them at KICD, adding that resources for SNE have not been specified in a book that has
all required resources for mainstream learners.
On observation the schools were found not to have special equipment and resources for the
autistic learners. City Primary has a therapy room with a few equipment. The few computers
available are used for administrative work, though a teacher can give notice to be availed one if
they needed to use with the learners.
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The teachers were asked to identify the resources they would need to make their work with
autistic learners a better and more fulfilling experience. They gave a number of services and
materials including; provision of and equipping of occupational therapy rooms, charts with
pictures and matching sounds as well as DVD/VCD to aid in teaching communication,
television screen, projector programmed teaching videos and talking toys, computers,
classrooms, learner friendly environments and more staff among others.
When asked to identify what they would like improved or incorporated in school to enhance
learning by their CwASD, the parents concurred with the teachers but added that they would like
more training and hiring of more teachers, occupational therapists, teacher aids and social
workers; speech and occupational therapy, more infrastructure and equipment and provision of
school transport.
The KISE officer concurred with the parents and teachers in the need for more support from the
government in provision of support services and teaching and learning resources noting that
“autism condition is emotionally, psychologically and financially draining and that there need for
greater government support in meeting the cost of education for learners with ASD….” The
heads response when asked to identify areas or services constrained due to lack of finances
named shortage of personnel, lack of adequate equipment for learning and therapy and lack of
classrooms, thus echoing the teachers‟ and parents‟ responses.
Other challenges faced in the provision of education for learners on the spectrum identified by
the KICD officer include inadequate funding to meet services such as capacity development-
both training and hiring of teachers, teacher aides, occupational therapists and other necessary
staff, transport for special need children, large classes and the need for sensitization of the parent
to help in the development of skills in the child and the setting up of home-school program for
continuation of school training. When asked to comment on the government provisions and
staffing of autism programs as far as free education was concerned, the head teachers said it is
grossly inadequate while the officers interviewed had this to say;” Given the needs of learners
with autism the current government support is like a drop in the ocean” adding “… it would be
54
ideal if the government considered the specific needs of each category of SNE when considering
their funding”.
Children with autism need special teaching to enable them to address language, social and
adaptive goals (Lord & McGee, 2001) so as to mitigate on their impaired social function and
communication, repetitive and stereotypical patterns of behavior and uneven intellectual
development (Sulkes, 2013). The results indicate a very low use of the techniques and
teaching/learning resources that assist the autistic learner in the classroom given their myriad
impairments. Photographic and written schedules as well as video modelling are not used at all
by majority of the teachers. This is indicated by all having mode 1. Many reported to apply pre-
mediated instruction once in a while, while majority reported moderate use of structured
environment, discrete trial teaching and early intensive behavior intervention (mode 3).PMI has
been established to help these learners with improved social interaction skill (Watkins et al,
2015). While DTT increases motivation and learning (Smith, 2001) as do visual aids including
television, videos and sound music instruments that have been established to increase
vocalization and communication.
A key aspect of any project or program implementation is timely supply and effective use of
appropriate resources. Learners with autism learn best with visual aids. The study found that
these aids were lacking in the schools. This lack of resources may explain the low level of
education outcomes of the autism integrated units discussed in section 4.7.1 as Ruteere (2013)
found in her study on teaching mentally retarded daily leaving skills, that there was no effective
teaching of the skills as teachers lacked the appropriate teaching and learning materials (Ruteere,
2013).
4.7 Monitoring and Evaluation and implementation of free basic education program to
learners with autism
This section looks at the systems of assessment of achievement of objectives and the strategies
used by teachers and the school to improve on the teaching of learners with ASD.
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4.7.1 Assessment and promotion of learners
The study sought to establish how the teachers assess learners on the spectrum, given that they
cannot all take a common assessment test. The heads said that teachers observe change of
behavior, oral interviews with the parents, ability to cope with challenges and use of IEP. The
teachers gave similar responses in addition to use of progress record of work. The teachers were
then asked to state on average, how many learners in their classes had progressed to the next
higher level in the last 2 academic years. Majority stated that 3 learners had attained promotion
to a higher class in the last two years. The parents were asked to indicate the number of higher
levels their child attained in the last five years. Their responses are in table 4.15
Table 4.15 Parents’ response on number of higher levels attained by their children in the
last 5 years
Level of transitions Frequency Percent
None 28 45.0
One 10 25.0
Three 10 25.0
Four 2 5.0
Total 50 100.0
The results show that 45 % of learners never moved from their classes to higher ones over a 5
year period, while 25 % of the children moved one class higher. Only 30% of the learners moved
three to four classes higher over a five- period.
The researcher further sought to establish the level of acquisition of various skills by the CwASD
and asked parents to rate the achievement of skills by their children on a scale of 1 to 5; 1 for
none and 5 for very high achievement.
Table 4. 16 Parents’ view on achievement of specific skills by learners on the spectrum
Skill 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Mode SD
Writing 37.0 30.4 23.9 4.3 4.3 2.09 1 1.092
Reading 62.8 14.0 20.9 0 2.3 1.65 1 0.937
Communication 18.2 22.7 40.9 15.9 2.3 2.61 3 1.039
Sensory/motor 4.7 9.3 39.5 30.2 16.3 3.44 3 1.031
Increased attention/calmness 10.9 4.3 41.3 30.4 13.0 3.30 3 1.113
Hygiene and toileting 8.9 6.7 40.0 24.4 20.0 3.40 3 1.156
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The results indicate that there is nil level or very low level of acquisition of reading and writing
skills by learners with autism. This is represented by 67% of responses indicating none and very
low achievement of writing skills and 77% of respondents indicating the children acquired zero
level to very low levels of reading skills. 62% of responses indicated the children had shown
very low to moderate levels of achievement of communication skills. The parents‟ responses
indicate that relatively a bigger number of the children had presented moderate levels of
achievement of sensory/motor, attention span/calmness and hygiene and toileting skills by 39%,
41%, and 40% of respondents respectively.
4.7.2 Assessment by quality and standards department
The study set to find out if officers from the ministry of education often assessed the teaching
and learning processes in the autism units and the level of involvement of teachers in the
evaluation process. The researcher was also interested in establishing whether the evaluation of
the processes and programs have yielded improvement in the school programs for learners on the
spectrum.
Teachers were asked to state the number of times per year quality and standards officers visited
to assess the units‟ programs and to also state whether the teachers were actively involved in the
evaluation process. A summary of the responses are in table 4.17.
Table 4.17 Number of visits per year by quality and standards officers to the autism units
Frequency Percent
Not at all 5 26.3
Once 7 36.8
Twice 1 5.3
Thrice 1 5.3
More than three times 5 26.3
Majority of the respondents, 63% , reported that evaluators did not visit or only visited once,
while 31% said the evaluators visited three or more times. On involvement in the evaluation
process 61% of the respondents reported that they were not involved while only 39% percent
said they were involved.
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On the outcome of the evaluations, majority of the teachers, 37%, felt the process had no impact
while 22% of them said there was improvement in funding and staffing levels. This is outlined in
table 4.18
Table 4.18 Impact of evaluation process on provision of resources and staffing levels
Impact Frequency Percent
None 7 36.8
Increasing staffing 4 22.2
Increased funding for resources 4 22.2
Increased funding and staffing 4 22.2
Total 19 100
The results of this variable show that teachers do not have the skills to assess learners on non-
cognitive skill attainment. The transitions for learners with autism are very low and so are the
acquisition of skills, poorest of all being reading, writing and communication. This can be
attributed to the lack of essential support services and special teaching and learning resources
and the higher teacher: pupil ratio.
There is low level of monitoring and evaluation from the education ministry and this can be
attributed to lack of or non-implementation of a curriculum which should set the objectives to be
achieved, the methods of achieving these and the resources to be used to achieve them. Ngware
et al(2010) found that what is taught to pupils in a classroom partly depends on the way a teacher
delivers the curriculum in the class, which in turn depends on a teacher‟s level of qualification
and teaching materials available to them (Ngware, Oketch, Mutisya, & Kodzi, 2010).
A curriculum would set goals and objectives would be the benchmark for the monitoring and
evaluation of the teaching and learning processes for learners with autism. According to Ondieki
& Matonda, participatory approaches to evaluation with involvement of stakeholders are a key to
the success of a program. Delmolino & Harris (2011) point that monitoring and evaluation of
school programs for learners with autism would consider variables at all levels so as to increase
collaboration between the stakeholders for effective service- based support informed by the
M&E process for higher pupil improvement and transitions. With an efficient M&E process,
national standards, criteria and indicators for rights-based education can be established as well as
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tracking and assessing individual children in terms of inclusion, health, development, protection,
learning barriers, learning achievement and special needs. It would also help address additional
aspects including child-friendly criteria and the enabling environment (the optimal conditions for
children‟s learning, cognitive, social and psychological development) (UNICEF, 2009)
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the summary of findings, conclusions and the recommendations of the
study. The summary of findings are based on the study objectives that were to determine the
influence of support services, capacity building, curriculum design, and monitoring and
evaluation on the implementation of free basic education program for children with autistic
spectrum disorder in public schools in Nairobi County. The study focused on three schools in
Nairobi with autism integrated units: City, Kasarani and Buruburu 1 primary schools and
ministry of education institutes, Kenya institute of special education and Kenya institute of
curriculum development.
5.2 Summary of findings
The findings of the study as articulated in chapter 4 are summarized in this section in the order of
and as per the research objectives. The study summary highlights whether or not the
implementation of free basic education program for learners with autism is or is not influenced
by support services, capacity building, curriculum design, and monitoring and evaluation.
5.2.1 Support services and implementation of free basic education for learners with autism
The study found that support services; Occupational therapy, physiotherapy, speech therapy,
behavior management therapy, mental health services, service of teacher aides and psychologists
as well as water or hydrotherapy are very important and a necessity for management and
education of learners with ASD. This emerges from the fact that means of teacher responses
were all above 3 except the need for psychological services. The means ranged between 3.24
(mental health services) and 4.56 (occupational therapy). The standard deviation for importance
of services ranged between 0.727 (for occupational therapy) and 1.398 (for speech therapy). The
modes from the teacher responses also show that majority of the teachers term all the services,
except support of psychologists and hydrotherapy, as extremely important. Parents, head teachers
and KISE and KICD experts concurred with teachers that all the above stated services were
important to aid in the learning of CwASD. However, of all the support services deemed very
60
important and necessary by the respondents, only occupational therapy, dietary intervention and
teacher aides‟ services were offered to the learners in the three sampled schools, and this only to
a small degree. In one school there was not even one occupational therapist. The reason for this
sorry state of affairs, as given by the head teachers, was constraints of space and finances to set
up especially therapy rooms, buy equipment and hire the necessary staff.
5.2.2 Capacity building and implementation of free basic education for learner with autism
Results on this variable show that 95% of teachers had post-secondary education, most (90%)
having a diploma or a degree and 81% having trained in special education. However only 22%
had specialized in education of learners with autism. On special classroom intervention services,
majority of teachers reported to have been very highly trained in special instruction methods,
individual curriculum design, common or general instruction methods and evaluation based on
cognitive achievement. The mean for these were around 4 (correct to whole number) while the
modes were 5 (very highly trained). The teachers were least trained in behaviour modification
strategies (mode of 2) and moderately trained in communication skills and evaluation of non-
cognitive abilities (mode of 3). The units for learners on the autism spectrum are grossly
understaffed with a teacher to pupil ratio of 1:7. This is against the recommended ratio of one
teacher for one child according to the KISE expert. Majority of teachers (53%) rely on school
timetable to order activities in the classroom of autistic learner. Only 26% of teachers relied on
IEPs to schedule school activities for the child with ASD. This is against the expert view that
there cannot be a uniform syllabus for uniform application to learners with autism in a
classroom, instead teachers should use an individual education plan for each child. The teacher
shortage is acute with parents having to employ 38% of them.
5.2.3 Curriculum design and implementation of free basic education program for learners
with ASD
The study established that there has not been a curriculum for learners with ASD in Kenya over
the years. Director, Autism society of Kenya put it that the Kenya Government (read Ministry of
Education, as it was in the past called) did not recognize autism as a unique impairment and this
explains why there had not been a curriculum for all those years. However one was developed
just the other year (2015), the implementation of which has not been effected as 68% of the
61
teachers were not aware of a special curriculum for learners with ASD. According to KICD the
curriculum in place for CwASD is aimed at helping the learners develop communication skills,
social skills, numeracy, activities of daily living, prevocational and vocational skills. With poor
communication and socialization skills, low attention and retention spans as well as their low
cognitive abilities learners on the spectrum require special teaching skills. On instructional
methodologies, a higher proportion of teachers reported to make use of individualized education
programs (78%) and common instruction techniques (56%) to teach CwASD. This was also
depicted by the higher means of 4.0 and 3.5.
Apart from lack of essential support services the schools too lacked special resources for learners
on the spectrum. Teachers reported of a need to be provided with resources to enhance teaching
of communication and social skills among other skills. Such items as picture schedules, teaching
blocks, talking toys, abacus, television screens and video players, computers and computer
programs for teaching as well as projectors were lacking in the schools. These visual aids when
used during teaching and learning are reported to increase the attention span by arousing interest
thus enhancing mastery of the skills.
5.2.4 Monitoring and evaluation and implementation of free basic education program to
learners with autism
Learners on the spectrum cannot be subjected to a uniform curricular or examination due to the
unique needs of each of them. For evaluation teachers observe change of behavior, oral
interviews with the parents, ability to cope with challenges and use of IEP. However on skills
63% of teachers reported to have none to moderate skill levels for assessment based on non-
cognitive skills most of which apply to learners with autism. On average only 3 learners
transitioned to a higher level in two years. This was reported by teachers and head teachers.
According to the parents 70% of the children never went to a higher level class or only went one
class higher over a 5 year period. Close to 70% of the CwASD either did not acquire reading and
writing skills or acquired very little of these skills. However, there was substantial improvement
in sensory motor skills in a bigger proportion of the children, at a mean of 3.44, with 5 indicating
very high achievement. On external monitoring and evaluation by ministry‟s quality and
standards officers, teachers reported that it rarely took place and if it took place the teachers were
62
not involved in the process. 63% of teachers said quality and standards officers never visited or
only visited once and a similar percentage said they did not discuss the evaluation process and
outcome with the officers.
5.3 Conclusions of the study
After education was declared a basic human right many countries declared basic or primary
education as free in an attempt to achieve the global education for all goal. Kenya introduced the
free basic education program in 2003. Education should not only be free but also of quality, that
is meeting the basic needs of the learner. Implementation of free basic education program calls
for learners with autism to be accorded the necessary assistance be it service, resource or
technique so that they can benefit from education. The study sought to establish the factors that
influence the implementation of free basic education for learners with autism spectrum disorder,
choosing to look at how support services, capacity development, curriculum design and
monitoring and evaluation impact on the education of children with autistic disorder. The
following are conclusions of the study ordered according to the study objectives.
The study established that support services; occupational therapy, physiotherapy, speech therapy,
behavior management therapy, mental health and psychological services, hydrotherapy and
teacher aides‟ services alleviate impairments in language and communication, socialization,
sensory, fine and gross motor issues thus leading to effective learning. The study found that these
services are not provided adequately to learners with autism in public primary schools in Nairobi
County. The reasons advanced to their absence is lack of funds for purchase of necessary
equipment and remuneration of the personnel to carry out the services. The few services offered
in the schools at low levels are dietary intervention, occupational therapy and support of teacher
aides and only in two of the schools surveyed. Here, parents fund the services. The government
gives the per capita funding for special education to learners with autism just like other special
need categories, however the needs of CwASD are too many to be met with the monies given
and, to quote the special education and curriculum specialists interviewed in the study, is „ a drop
in the ocean‟.
A program is as good as its implementers and an education program is therefore as good as its
teachers. The level of training of teachers for their job determines to a greater extent the outcome
of an education system. The study found that learners with ASD not only lack enough teachers
63
but the few teachers‟ present lack training on autism and therefore do not possess the requisite
skills. It emerged that KISE has been training teachers for learners with autism since 2010 but
the few schools with autism units are still greatly understaffed of autism trained teachers. The
study established that teachers did not possess and if they possessed, did not apply evidence-
based teaching techniques such as PMI, incidental teaching, photographic schedules, structured
environments, DTT and video modelling that improve communication skills, attention spans and
retention of ideas or skills. Other personnel like occupational therapists and teacher aides were
also found to be lacking or very few as their remuneration is done by parents. There is need for
capacity development especially intensive training of teachers and teacher aides and hiring or
seconding of other personnel from other government ministries to offer the important services
discussed above for the implementation of free basic education for learners.
The Kenya government through KICD has finally developed a curriculum for the learners with
autism after years without one. A curriculum for training teachers on autism was developed in
2009 and implementation taken effect in 2010. The teachers, though, report not to be aware of
the learners‟ curriculum. This means currently, just like in the past, there is no effective teaching
of learners with autism. The teachers appear not to have been sensitized of the curriculum and it
follows that they may not be applying the right teaching and learning strategies and
accompanying resources. This is evidenced by poor transition rates they have reported in the
study. However the low education output could also be attributed to lack of space for classrooms
and other infrastructure, low staffing levels or lack of essential resources. These are some of the
constraints reported by teachers, parents and experts as challenging the education of CwASD. An
important aspect of SNE is the development and implementation of IEPs. The IEP should be
developed by a multi-disciplinary team. The study established that teachers prepare IEPs on their
own without even the input of parents.
Monitoring and evaluation are important aspects in the implementation of a program, project or
policy. A program is evaluated on the level of achievement of set goals and objectives so that
inputs can be planned and supplied and deviations can be corrected for the success of the
program. The study established that monitoring and evaluation of autism programs in public
schools by department of quality and standards of the ministry of education, science and
technology was very infrequent and when it happened teachers were not involved. This state of
64
affairs means the evaluators do not get the required data to help them make decisions, on one
hand, and the teachers may never know their weaknesses, on the other hand. Omissions and
inappropriate practices are likely to never get corrected. This could explain the low staffing
levels and lack of support services, lack of curriculum or its poor implementation and the
insufficient government funding.
Without provision of requisite support services, enough and qualified teachers, other
professionals and paraprofessionals, absence of or poorly implemented curriculum and lack of or
ineffective monitoring and evaluation processes to ensure quality of resource use and
streamlining of the education programs, it can be concluded that quality free education is yet to
benefit the Kenyan child with autism spectrum disorder.
5.4 Recommendations
From the foregoing the study has a number of recommendations thus:
1. For proper implementation of free basic education for learners with autism the
government and stakeholders need to strive to provide the essential support services that
help the learner manage challenges and therefore learn to eventually be independent. On
this the MOEST needs to collaborate with MOH in providing personnel for some of the
medical services in the precincts of schools.
2. For the successful implementation of free basic education of ASD learners, training of
teachers specifically on autism needs to be enhanced and intensified. There is need to
train and retrain teachers in the field so that they are updated on latest techniques and
methodologies of teaching.
3. For the free basic education program requires for learners with autism there is need for
development of a curriculum that outlines the skills to be imparted to the learner, the
resources to be used and the techniques to be applied based on a detailed study of autism
impairments and involving all important stakeholders.
4. To ensure proper implementation of free basic education evaluation and monitoring of
autism programs needs to be enhanced including assessing teachers on the IEPs of every
learner they handle. Also teachers and parents should be part of the evaluation process.
65
5. Enough funding will contribute to successful implementation of free basic education. A
needs assessment is important when funding each category of children so that enough
resource are availed depending on the need of each learner.
6. To avail free education to every learner with autism, there is need t to set up more centers
and provide the necessary infrastructure and staff so that the rising number of individuals
with autism are able to access quality education.
5.5 Suggestion for further research
1. The study established that dietary intervention is one of the preferred intervention services for
CwASD. The researcher did not encounter scientific study associating particular foods with
autism symptoms and others alleviating the same. This would be a good subject for further
research.
2. The study was carried out in Nairobi, the city county with higher and better infrastructure and
a more informed populace. A similar study is recommended for the rural setting and compare
findings with this study.
3. Other non-school factors may influence the outcome of the learning process of the learner with
ASD. A study on home or society factors and their influence on education of a child on the
autism spectrum is recommended.
66
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Magdalene Kalekye Kithii
P.O BOX 29040-00625
Kangemi
Dear Respondent,
RE: ACADEMIC RESEARCH
I am a student of the University of Nairobi pursuing a Masters of Arts Degree in Project
Planning and Management. I am conducting an academic research on factors influencing the
implementation of free basic education program for children with autistic spectrum disorder. I
have chosen your school for the study.
I humbly request you to fill the enclosed questionnaire. The questionnaire has four sections that
focus on support services, capacity development, curriculum and quality assessment (M&E).
Please note that all the information provided for this study will be treated with utmost
confidentiality and will be used only for the purpose of my academic research. Your ability to
answer all the questions comprehensively and to the best of your knowledge will be highly
appreciated.
Thank you for your co-operation and precious time.
Yours faithfully,
Magdalene Kithii
E-mail: [email protected]
Phone: 0725496331
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APPENDIX 2: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS
A. Demographic information
i) Please indicate your gender.
Male Female
ii) For how long have you interacted with learners with autism?
A .Less than 1 yr B. 1-3 yrs C. 3-5 yrs D. Over 5 yrs
iii) What is the structural composition of the classes you handle?
1. Only autistic learners 2.Mixed categories 3. Mixed sometimes
B. Support Services
i) On a scale of 1 (not necessary) to 5 (very necessary) indicate the requirement of the following services in the
teaching and management of learners on autistic spectrum disorder.
Service 1 2 3 4 5
Occupational therapy
Physiotherapy
Speech therapy
Behaviour management therapy
Mental health services
Support of teacher aids
Support of psychologists/psychiatrics
Hydrotherapy
ii) On a scale of 0 -for not applied to 4-for most applied, indicate the extent to which you apply each of these
instructional techniques when dealing with learners with autistic disorder? Please tick in the appropriate box.
Technique 0 1 2 3 4
Individualized curriculum
Pre mediated instruction( PMI)
Incidental teaching
Photographic schedules
Structured environment
Discrete trial teaching(DTT)
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Early intensive behaviour intervention(EIBI)
Written schedules
Video modeling
Common instruction techniques
iii) What are some of the special equipment and learning resources that are at your disposal for you to discharge
your duty with learners on the spectrum?
iv) What other resources if availed will make your work with autistic learners a better and fulfilling experience?
v) What in your opinion, should be done to increase the level of performance of teachers dealing with learners with
autism?
C. Capacity building
i) What is your highest level of education? Please tick the appropriate choice
KCPE/CPE
KCSE/KCE
P1
Diploma
Degree
Postgraduate
Other (specify)
ii) Have you been trained in special need education? If yes, what is your specialization in SNE?
iii) On a scale of 1(no training) to 4(a lot of training) indicate by a tick the level to which you were trained on
autistic behaviour and management in the classroom.
1-No training 2- Very little training
3-Fair amount of training 4- A lot of training
iv) On a scale of 1 for zero to 5 for very high, please indicate the level to which the skills below constituted part of
your training.
Skills 1 2 3 4 5
Communication
Social
Structured teaching
75
Special instruction methods
Individual curriculum design
Behaviour modification techniques
Common/general instruction methods
Evaluation on cognitive achievement
Evaluation of non-cognitive abilities
v) In your opinion do you think you and your colleagues possess the competences necessary for helping learners on
autistic disorders to learn successfully in the classroom?
1.Have no competences
2. Have some of the competences
3. Have most of the competences
4. Have all the necessary competences
vi) Given an opportunity to improve your skills and competences on education of learners on ASD would you take
it up?
1. Yes 2. No 3. Not sure
vii) Who is your employer and what are the terms of service? Tick in the appropriate box.
D. Curriculum
i) Is there a syllabi for the teaching of learners with autistic disorder similar to one for the main stream classes?
Yes No
ii) What guides the you in the classroom of autistic learners? Please tick the appropriate choice,
1. Schedule of activities on the school timetable
2.Schedule of activities agreed on by each child's parent, the teacher/s, therapists and/doctor
Employer Contract P&P
TSC
PTA
Volunteer
Other
76
3.Decides what to teach/ do on him/herself.
4. Guided by needs majority of the learner/s
iii) How do you assess your performance with learners with autism?
iv) Please explain the criteria, if any, of assessing and promoting learners.
v) How many learners have gone to the next in the last two academic years?
ii) As a teacher of learners with autism what, in your opinion, are the important services or activities that are not
carried out due to lack of funds?
F. Monitoring and Evaluation
i) How many times in a year do quality assurance officers visit to assess the programs of Autistic learners in the
school?
1. Not at all 3. Twice 5.More than three times
2. Once 4.Thrice
ii) Do you as teachers sit and discuss the monitoring and evaluation process and outcomes with the assessors? Please
elaborate.
iii) What has been the response to monitoring and evaluation reports in regard to physical/learning resources and
staffing levels?
1. None 3. Increased funding for resources
2.Increased staffing 4. Increased funding and staffing
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APPENDIX 3: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PARENTS
A. Details of Child
i) What is the gender of your child on the autistic spectrum?
Male Female
ii) At what age was your child diagnosed with autism?
A. Below 2yrs B. 2-3yrs C. 3-5yrs
D.5-10yrs E. over 10 yrs
iii) Where was the diagnosis done?
1. Public hospital 2. Private hospital 3. School
4. Educational assessment centre 5. Other (specify)
iv) After diagnosis what help or advice/help were you soon after given and by who?
B. Support Services
i) By a tick indicate whether your child had access to any of the following services? If yes indicate whether you
noted any improvement on the child?
SERVICE ACCESSED NOT
ACCESSED
Medical treatment
Psychological services
Occupational therapy
Physiotherapy
Special education
Speech therapy
Dietary intervention
Behaviour management
ii) Please indicate which of the following services you consider necessary and should be offered in school to aid
learning for children with autistic spectrum disorder.
78
SERVICE
Medical treatment
Psychological services
Occupational therapy
Physiotherapy
Special education
Speech therapy
Dietary intervention
Behaviour management
C. Curriculum Design
i) How long has your child been in the current school?
A. Less than 1 yr B. 1-3yrs C. 3-5yrs
D. 5-10yrs E. over 10 yrs
ii) Rate, on a scale of 1(not engaged), 2(only a little engaged), 3(fairly engaged),to 4(very much engaged) your
involvement by teachers in your child's school academic and other activities
1 2 3 4
iii) Do you know of the daily or weekly routine activities, learning or otherwise, undergone by your daughter/son in
school?
1.Yes 2. No. 3. Only To A Little Extent
iv) On a scale of 1-Zero, 2-Very low, 3- moderate, 4- High and 5- Very high, indicate the level of achievement of
the following skills by your child over the last two years attributable to the school programs.
SKILL 1 2 3 4
Writing
Reading
Communication
Sensory/motor
Increased attention/calmness
Hygiene and toileting
v) Comment on the general progress made by your child since they enrolled in the current school.
79
1. Regressed/Became worse
2. No change
3. Very little progress
4. Substantial progress
5. A lot of progress
D. Monitoring and Evaluation
i) Are you paying any levies for your child to be in school?
Yes No
ii) If the answer above is yes state the services for which you are levied in the school.
iii) How many higher levels has your child attained in the last 5 years?
1. None 2. One Three 4. Four
iv) How would you rate the current educational intervention given to your child on the spectrum?
1. Grossly inadequate 2. Fairly adequate 3. Very adequate
v)What would you like improved or incorporated for the success of education of your child and to benefit from free
basic education program?
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APPENDIX 4: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR HEAD TEACHER
How long have you been in your current school?
What is the number of pupils on the autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) in the school?
What is the general trend in enrollment of pupils on the spectrum for the last five years?
What is the composition of classes attended by autistic learners?
Briefly describe the criteria of mainstreaming autistic learners?
B. Support Services
What are some of the extra ('special') physical and learning facilities that are in place to facilitate
learning for pupils on the spectrum?
Which special intervention services are offered to autistic learners in your school?
Which other services and or expert personnel other than teachers are engaged in the
schooling/management of autistic pupils in school activities.
What is the source of funds for remuneration of the personnel, if any, you have mentioned
above?
C. Capacity Building
What is the ratio of teacher to learners(number of pupils per teacher) in the autistic classes?
Who are the employer(s) of teachers serving the autistic learners?
What would you comment on the staffing level of education for learners with ASD?
Briefly comment on the competency of teachers to handle learners with ASD.
D. Curriculum design
Is there a syllabi/teaching guides for the teaching of learners with autistic disorder?
What guides the teacher in the classroom of autistic learners? Please tick as appropriate.
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Please explain the criteria, if any, of assessing performance of teachers for learners on the autism
spectrum.
Please explain the criteria, if any, of assessing and promoting learners.
E. Government Policy/Funding
What are the sources of funding for the autism program in your school?
As a manager of the programs of learners with autism (and other SNE learners) what are the
major areas/activities constrained due to shortage of funds?
F. Monitoring and Evaluation
How many times in a year do quality assurance officers visit to assess processes and activities of
the autism program? in the school?
What has been the response to monitoring and evaluation reports in regard to physical/learning
resources and staffing levels for learners with autism? Please tick as appropriate.
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APPENDIX 5: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
OFFICER
1. Every child in Kenya has a right to education that meets their basic needs. Are there curricula
for all the special need education categories in Nairobi/Kenya?
2. In a nutshell please explain what the curriculum for learners on the autistic spectrum disorder
entails.
3. Special education is about navigating the obstacles that a learner has so that they can learn.
What is the provision in the curriculum for behavioural, communication and social integration
impairments?
4. A curriculum is only as good as its implementers. In your opinion, are there sufficiently
trained teachers to implement a curriculum for special need learners with autism?
5. What are the special resources identified in the curriculum to aid in the learning of pupils on
the ASD?
8. What are some of the challenges to the curriculum design and implementation for pupils on
the ASD?
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APPENDIX 6: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR DIRECTOR, KISE
1. You train teachers who already possess teacher training certificate, right?
This means in the P1 or Diploma in education curricula, there is no training on special need
education, right?
2. Do you train teachers for general or specific impairments?
3. Does your curriculum recognize autistic spectrum disorder as a SNE category ?
4. Do you impart in your trainees knowledge on ASD?
5. Children on ASD have many impairments including communication, speech and language,
socialization and sensory integration that may result in abnormal behaviour. Does your
curriculum address the management of these impairments by giving the teachers who would
handle them the right skills for the job?
If the answer is yes please elaborate.
6. What are some of the pedagogic skills do you impart to your trainers to use in a class with
learners on the spectrum?
7. Autism is a spectrum meaning that each is unique. How do you train the teachers to implement
a curriculum in a class of pupils with diverse needs?
8. Are there particular resources and equipment that u recommend to be used while teaching
learners on autistic spectrum disorder?
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APPENDIX 7 : RESEARCH PERMIT FROM NACOSTI