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Faculty of Cognitive Sciences and Human

Development

LANGUAGE SHIFT IN A MAJORITY ETHNOLINGUISTIC SPEECH

COMMUNITY: A CASE STUDY OF A FOOCHOW CHINESE FAMILY

IN SIBU

HUNG YU LING

(10159)

Bachelor of Science with Honours (TESL)

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

April 2007

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

Kota Samarahan

FSKPM

BORANG PENYERAHAN TESIS

Judul:

SESI PENGAJIAN: 2003 – 2007

Saya

(HURUF BESAR)

mengakui membenarkan laporan projek ini disimpan di Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik, Universiti

Malaysia Sarawak dengan syarat-syarat seperti berikut:

1. Hakmilik kertas projek adalah di bawah nama penulis melainkan penulisan sebagai projek bersama dan dibiayai

oleh UNIMAS, hakmiliknya adalah kepunyaan UNIMAS.

2. Naskhah salinan di dalam bentuk kertas atau mikro hanya boleh dibuat dengan kebenaran bertulis daripada

penulis.

3. Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik, UNIMAS dibenarkan membuat salinan untuk pengajian mereka.

4. Kertas projek hanya boleh diterbitkan dengan kebenaran penulis. Bayaran royalti adalah mengikut kadar yang

dipersetujui kelak.

5. * Saya membenarkan/tidak membenarkan Perpustakaan membuat salinan kertas projek ini sebagai bahan

pertukaran di antara institusi pengajian tinggi.

6. ** Sila tandakan (√)

SULIT (Mengandungi maklumat yang berdarjah keselamatan atau kepentingan

Malaysia seperti yang termaktub di dalam AKTA RAHSIA RASMI 1972).

TERHAD (Mengandungi maklumat TERHAD yang telah ditentukan oleh organisasi/

badan di mana penyelidikan dijalankan).

TIDAK TERHAD

Disahkan oleh

(TANDATANGAN PENULIS) (TANDATANGAN PENYELIA)

Alamat tetap:

(Nama Penyelia)

Tarikh: Tarikh: ____________________________

CATATAN * Potong yang tidak berkenaan.

** Jika Kertas Projek ini SULIT atau TERHAD, sila lampirkan surat daripada pihak berkuasa/

organisasi berkenaan dengan menyertakan sekali tempoh kertas projek. Ini perlu dikelaskan

sebagai SULIT atau TERHAD.

LANGUAGE SHIFT IN A MAJORITY ETHNOLINGUISTIC SPEECH COMMUNITY:

A CASE STUDY OF A FOOCHOW CHINESE FAMILY IN SIBU

HUNG YU LING

DR. TING SU HIE

NO. 3D, LORONG 4C, JALAN KENARI,

96000 SIBU,

SARAWAK.



IN SIBU

by

HUNG YU LING

(10159)

This project is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

Degree of Bachelor of Science with Honours (TESL)

Faculty of Cognitive Sciences and Human Development

University Malaysia Sarawak

April 2007

The project entitled Language Shift in a Majority Ethnolinguistic speech

community: a Case Study of a Foochow Chinese Family in Sibu was prepared

by Hung Yu Ling and submitted to the Faculty of Cognitive Sciences and Human

Development in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor

of Science with Honours (Teaching English as a Second Language).

Received for examination by:

__________________

(Dr. Ting Su Hie)

Date:

__________________

iii

ABSTRACT



IN SIBU

Hung Yu Ling

This case study examined the extent of language shift across generations within a

Foochow Chinese family in Sibu, a Foochow-dominant town in the Malaysian

state of Sarawak. In specific, this study investigated language choice patterns

within and across generations in the family domain, the speakers’ self-rated

Foochow dialect proficiency, the reasons of the speakers’ language choice, and

the key factors of language shift. This case study offered insight into the actual

language situation of a majority Chinese ethnic group, based on interview data

from 30 participants in an extended Foochow Chinese family. In the context of

Sibu, Foochow Chinese is the largest group within the Chinese community. One

would say that there is no possibility of language shift because of the majority

Foochow Chinese and the prevalence of Foochow dialect in Sibu town.

Nevertheless, the results of the current study showed that there was strong

evidence of intergenerational language shift away from the ethnic language to the

standard language in this community. This intergenerational language shift was

accompanied by the decrease of Foochow dialect proficiency among the younger

generations. The result also revealed that the intergenerational shift was because

of institutional and socio-cultural factors in which government policy was the

most influential factor that caused the shift.

iv

ABSTRAK

PERALIHAN BAHASA DALAM KUMPULAN ETHOLINGUISTIK

MAJORITI: SATU KAJIAN KES DALAM SEBUAH KELUARGA CINA

FOOCHOW DI SIBU

Hung Yu Ling

Kajian kes ini menyelidik sejauh manakah proses peralihan bahasa (language

shift) berlaku di antara generasi dalam domain keluarga Cina Foochow di Sibu,

sebuah bandar di Sarawak yang terdiri daripada majoriti Cina Foochow. Kajian

kes ini mengkaji corak pilihan bahasa sesama dan antara generasi dalam domain

keluarga, penilaian kendiri tahap penguasaan dialek Foochow, sebab-sebab

pilihan bahasa tertentu dan faktor-faktor proses peralihan bahasa. Hasil kajian ini

memberi pemahaman teliti tentang keadaan bahasa sebenar yang berlaku dalam

golongan besar Cina Foochow ini melalui temubual dengan 30 responden dari

sebuah keluarga Cina Foochow. Disebabkan dominasi Cina Foochow sebagai

golongan Cina yang besar di Sibu, Foochow dialek banyak digunakan sebagai

bahasa perantaraan di Bandar. Keadaan ini mendorong banyak orang mengatakan

bahawa proses peralihan bahasa tidak mungkin berlaku pada golongan Cina

Foochow ini. Akan tetapi, hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa proses peralihan

bahasa dari bahasa etnik kepada bahasa standard berlaku di antara generasi

disebabkan oleh faktor-faktor institusi dan sosial. Antara faktor-faktor tersebut,

rancangan kerajaan didapati adalah faktor yang paling utama.

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First, I would like to express my great gratitude to my supervisor, Dr.

Ting Su Hie for her guidance, encouragement and patience throughout the

implementation of this research. Without her assistance, it would not be possible

for me to complete this research successfully. Thus, a special thank you to you,

Dr. Ting!

Second, I would like to express my great appreciation to my beloved

parents (Mr. Hung Huo Kim and Mdm. Tiong Chui Chiong) for supporting me

all way through. Without you, I could not complete my data collection

successfully. I love you! Surely I do not forget to express my warm Thank you to

my beloved grandmother (Tiong Shuok Gin), my uncles (Robert Tiong and

Stanley Tiong), all my brothers (ChowSing, ChowHui), sisters (YuHie, YuSia,

YuYing), and brothers-in-law (HaiKiong, KokYong) who gave me moral and

spiritual support all the time. I love you all!

Third, I am also very grateful to all my relatives that I had interviewed in

this study. It was impossible for me to complete this study without your

participation. Thank you very much!

Fourth, a big thank you to all TESL lecturers who had taught me during

my four study years in UNIMAS, especially to Dr. Ting Su Hie again (my

supervisor during teaching practice), Dr. Chen Chwen Jen (my mentor), Mr.

Jayapragas Gnaniah (my source of inspiration all the time), Mr. Collin Jerome

(my favourite literature instructor), Mr. Joseph Ramanair (my guidance always),

Ms. Yvonne Campbell (my ex-mentor), Ms. Diana Carol, Mr. Jecky Misieng,

and Ms. Mahanita Mahadhir.

Fifth, I would like to express my gratitude to all of my classmates

(TESLians, Batch 05/03- 05/07). Thank you for your assistance, companionship,

encouragement, guidance, and tolerance. Remember all sweet and sour times

during four years study in UNIMAS! You are the best!

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT

iii

ABSTRAK

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

v

LIST OF TABLES

x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

xi

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the research problem

1.2 Statement of the problem

1.3 Purpose of the study

1.4 Objectives of the study

1.5 Significance of the study

1.6 Operational definition of terms

1.6.1 Dominant language

1.6.2 Foochow dialect

1.6.3 Foochow dialect proficiency

1.6.4 Monolingual

1.6.5 Mother tongue

1.6.6 Multilingual Chinese

1

4

8

8

8

10

10

10

10

10

11

11

2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 12

2.1 Language choice

2.1.1 Functional domains

2.1.2 Types of functional domains

2.1.3 Factors affecting language choice

2.2 Language shift

2.2.1 Theory of language shift

2.2.2 Language shift across generations in the family

12

13

15

19

23

24

27

vii

domains

2.2.3 Bilingualism, multilingualism and language shift

2.3 Language attitudes in language shift

2.3.1 Language attitudes

2.3.2 Language attitudes affecting language choice

2.3.3 Language attitudes affecting language shift

2.4 Summary

31

34

34

36

38

40

3 METHODOLOGY 43

3.1 Research design

3.2 Population and sampling

3.3 Description of the family

3.4 Data collection procedures

3.5 Data analysis

3.6 Limitations

43

44

45

48

50

51

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Description of the seven families

4.1.1 Family 1

4.1.2 Families 2A and 2B

4.1.3 Family 3

4.1.4 Family 4


4.2 Language choice patterns with and across generations

4.2.1 Family 1


4.2.3 Family 3

4.2.4 Family 4


4.2.6 Sum up

4.3 Speakers’ self-rated Foochow dialect proficiency

53

53

53

54

55

56

56

57

57

62

65

68

71

75

80

viii

4.3.1 Family 1


4.3.3 Family 3

4.3.4 Family 4


4.3.6 Sum up

4.4 Reasons of language choice in the family domain

4.4.1 Reasons for choosing Foochow dialect

4.4.1.1 Home language

4.4.1.2 Environment

4.4.1.3 Ethnic language

4.4.1.4 Sum up

4.4.2 Reasons for choosing Mandarin

4.4.2.1 Education

4.4.2.2 Mass media

4.4.2.3 Common language for Chinese

4.4.2.4 Minor reasons

4.4.2.5 Sum up

4.5 Discussion on key factors prompting language shift away

from Foochow dialect to Mandarin

80

83

85

88

91

93

95

95

95

97

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

105

106

5 CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary of the study

5.1.1 The problem

5.1.2 Objectives

5.1.3 Methodology

5.1.4 Findings

5.2 Conclusion

5.3 Implications of the findings

5.4 Recommendations for future research

111

111

111

112

112

113

114

116

117

ix

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

119

121

x

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Variables of speech behaviour with examples 14

2 Functional differentiation between subordinate and

dominant languages

17

3 Self-rated proficiency level according to percentage 51

4 Language choice patterns of Family 1

58

5 Language choice patterns of Family 2A

62

6 Language choice patterns of Family 2B

63


67


69

9 Language choice patterns of Family 5A

72

10 Language choice patterns of Family 5B

72

11 Self-rated Foochow dialect proficiency for Family 1

80


83


85


88


91

xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

FCD Foochow dialect

M Mandarin

G1 First Generation

G2 Second Generation

G3 Third Generation

G4 Fourth Generation

G5 Fifth Generation

G6 Sixth Generation

F1 Family 1

F2A Family 2A

F2B Family 2B

F3 Family 3

F4 Family 4

F5A Family 5A

F5B Family 5B

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

This chapter describes the background of the study, statement of the

problem specific to the context of the study, research purpose, research objectives,

significance of the study, and definitions of key terms.

1.1 Background of the research problem

The issue of language choice in sociolinguistic field can be succinctly put

in Fishman’s (1965) words – “Who speaks what language to whom and when”

(Tsunoda, 2005, p. 65). Fishman (1965) pointed out that language choice in a

speech community can be accounted for by certain social factors such as group

membership, situation, topic, domains of language behaviour, media and role

(ibid.). Following this, Holmes (1994) explained that it is the typical interaction

between the typical participants in the typical setting that determines the language

choice in a speech community. For instance, in a typical family interaction, family

members are the typical participants and the home is the typical setting. Hence,

the language choice for this typical family interaction could be different due to

formality and topic involved and this is indeed different from other typical

2

interactions such as business and employment interactions (Holmes, 1994, pp. 23-

24).

In relation to Fishman’s idea of functional domains, many sociolinguists

focus on a different aspect, which is the effects of language choice while it deals

with the community members who can speak more than one language, either in

bilingual or multilingual community. Some have found that if two or more than

two languages are spoken in a speech community, there is often a situation where

dominant language and minority language exist (Tsunoda, 2005, p. 66). While this

situation again deals with other factors such as economic and political factors,

language shift may become one of the obvious effects of language choice in a

bilingual or multilingual speech community.

According to Holmes (1994), language shift generally refers to “the

process by which one language displaces another in the linguistic repertoire of a

community” and “it also refers to the result of this process” (p. 64). Referring to

Fishman’s (1964) and Crawford’s (1996) views, there is no definite or adequate

theory of language shift (Tsunoda, 2005, p. 70). However, McKay (1996) has

suggested that theories of language shift should be expressed in the context of

language maintenance as language shift always ties up with language maintenance

(ibid.). By putting these arguments into consideration, it is understandable that the

causes and processes of language shift in many studies are indeed different from

each other. For example, the process of language shift that happens in migrant

communities is slightly different from those non-migrant communities. Migrant

3

families who have migrated to monolingual countries such as England, Australia,

New Zealand and the United States are more inclined to shift their mother tongue

to English gradually due to the pressure from the majority group members. In

contrast, for non-migrant communities such as in Oberwart (an Austrian town on

the border of Hungary), the community has been gradually shifting from

Hungarian to German due to the political and economic advantages of using

German. Indeed, the process of language shift for both communities constantly

involves family domain as parents tend to speak the advantageous language

instead of their mother tongue (Holmes, 1994, pp. 56-59).

The examples of migrant communities mentioned above mostly refer to

migrant minorities. Nonetheless, there is also another situation of language shift

that involves migrant majorities. According to Holmes (1994), the migrant

majorities may also face similar political and economic pressures as the migrant

minorities. These political and economic influences may somehow affect migrant

majorities’ attitude towards the dominant language in the society (pp. 60-61).

With regards to this, Gardner and Lambert (1972) proposed two terms,

“instrumental orientation” and “integrative orientation”, in relation to language

attitudes (cited in Lai, 2005). They seemed to suggest that positive attitude

towards one language, either dominant or minority language, could be formed

because of economic and political influences. This attitude does not only

influence the use of language in those communities, but may also cause the

language shift as a long term effect.

4

While discussing the migrant majorities, question of “size does matter”

has been raised. The studies done in Victoria and New South Wales found that the

areas with the largest groups of Maltese speakers had the lowest rates of shift

towards English. In addition, Spanish has also survived well in the United States

partly due to the large numbers of Spanish speakers (Holmes, 1994, p. 67). All

these outcomes support the notion that the large size of the group has become a

critical factor that decides the speed of language shift in a speech community.

In brief, Fishman’s domain theory is closely related to language choice

and language shift in bilingual or multilingual speech communities. Despite some

studies in Victoria, New South Wales and United States showing that the size of

migrant group could somehow slow the speed of language shift, it was found that

migrant majorities might also face some pressures or changes of attitudes as

minority migrants due to the political and economic conditions in the countries

they live in. Within family domain as many cases mentioned above, language

choice, reasons of language choice, and language shift in migrant communities

could be traced. In order to find out how far these claims apply in Malaysian

context, the current study looked into a few areas of study: language choice,

language shift and language attitude within family domain in a chosen migrant

majority community, which refers to Sibu Foochow Chinese community.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Malaysia has been regarded as a “multicultural, multi-ethnic and multi-

religious” country (Ward & Hewstone, 1985, p. 272). Sarawak is one of the

5

Malaysia’s states. According to the population census in year 2000, Sarawak has a

population of 2.1 million (8.9 percent of Malaysian population). Sarawak is the

home to 27 ethnic groups including larger ethnic groups such as Malays,

Melanaus, Chinese, Ibans, Bidayuhs, Penans, Kayans, Kenyas and Kelabits.

Chinese is the second largest ethnic group in Sarawak with a total of 540,000

people. Within this large population of Sarawak Chinese, Fuzhou or Foochow

Chinese form a large 33 percent, which is around 180,000 people (Wong, 2005, p.

79).

Foochow Chinese in Sarawak do not originate from Sarawak but they are

migrants from China, who have settled in the state since the nineteenth century.

According to Lau (1980) and Wong (2005), most Foochow Chinese chose to form

settlements in Sibu, a city in Sarawak during the early immigration. Sibu, sixty

miles from the South China Sea, is Sarawak’s second largest city. It is located at

Latitude 2 degrees 19 North and Longitude 111 degree 15’ East at the confluence

of Rajang and Igan rivers. Before the year 1900, Sibu was only a small village

with a few small and simple shop houses made of atap roof and wooden walls and

floors. The main population during that time was Malay and Chinese was only the

minority (Sibu Foochow Association, 1981; Wong, 2005).

In April 1900, Mr. Wong Nai Siong (a Foochow Chinese from Ming

Ching District, Foochow city, China) found that Sibu was a strategic location for

his poor people in his homeland to form settlements. Thus, in order to escape from

suffering under the totalitarian government of the Ching Dynasty, he fought to

6

bring his people in China to open up the fertile lands of Sibu for cultivation. After

signing an Agreement of Seventeen Rules with the second Rajah of Sarawak,

Charles Brooke, as well as borrowing thirty thousand dollars from Charles

Brooke, Mr. Wong led the three batches of Foochows, totalling 1118 people, from

China to Sibu. The first batch of 72 Foochow immigrants arrived in Sibu on 20

February, 1901. The second batch of 535 people arrived on 16 March, 1901. The

third batch arrived on 7 June, 1902 with a total of 511 people (Chew, 1990; Sibu

Foochow Association, 1981, pp. 388-389).

As the news of these Foochow people’s success in plantation in Sibu

reached the villages in China, more Chinese people including other Chinese

groups such as Cantonese and Hing Hua decided to migrate to Sibu. As the

majority of the Chinese immigrants to Sibu were Foochow people and also

because of Foochows’ effort to open Sibu as a plantation area, Sibu has got the

fame name of “New Foochow” (“New Fuzhou”) or “Small Foochow” (Sibu

Foochow Association, 1981; Wong, 2005).

It was found that Foochow immigrants brought along their culture and

language or dialect into Sibu. Initially most were monolinguals but later they

spoke not only Foochow dialect, but also other languages since they were staying

with other Chinese groups or the local people. According to Sibu Foochow

Association 80 Anniversary Magazine (1981), Foochow people introduced the

Chinese medium of education when they arrived in Sibu. Many vernacular

schools were built for the sake of educating the Foochows and other Chinese

7

groups in Mandarin. Thus, Mandarin can be regarded as the first language that

they learn instead of their mother tongue during early twentieth century. Besides

that, with many Foochow people becoming businessmen and some marrying other

Chinese groups and local people, many Foochows have also learnt other

languages such as Cantonese, Hing Hua, Hokkien, Sarawak Malay and Iban for

the purpose of communicating with one another. Therefore, starting from the early

settlement, Foochows in Sibu have already been either bilingual or multilingual as

they speak not only their own Foochow dialect, but also Mandarin or/and other

tribes’ languages (Sibu Foochow Association, 1981, pp. 355-392).

In addition, due to the acceptance of Sarawak as part of Malaysia in 1963,

Standard Malay (Bahasa Melayu) and English have been taught to the Foochow

Chinese children who attend the government schools. As a consequence, to date,

many Foochows in Sibu are also able to speak Standard Malay or English

although their proficiency varies. In short, many Sibu Foochows, especially the

younger generation nowadays can comprehend or speak not less than two

languages. Most of them are either bilingual or multilingual speakers.

In short, Sibu is a town full of Chinese Foochows. The history of Chinese

Foochows and the fame name of “Small Foochow” have proven that Sibu Chinese

Foochows is a majority migrant community. Due to the intervention of education

policy as well as the out-group members’ interactions, unavoidably, Sibu Chinese

Foochows community evolved to become either bilingual or multilingual

community. As discussed in 1.1, language shift could occur in migrant majority

8

and this could be traced through language choice and language attitude within a

family domain. Following these criteria, the current study focused on the extent of

language shift in this Chinese Foochow community and the factors affecting the

language shift.

1.3 Purpose of the study:

The purpose of this study is to find out the extent of language shift across

generations within the Foochow Chinese family domain in Sibu setting.

1.4 Objectives of the study:

In specific, the study aims to address the following research objectives:

i. To identify language choice patterns of speakers within and across

generations in the family domain.

ii. To describe the speakers’ self-rated Foochow dialect proficiency as an

indicator of language shift.

iii. To describe reasons of the speakers’ language choice in order to

identify key factors of language shift.

1.5 Significance of the study

According to many studies related to language shift, many researchers

have found out that language shift mostly happen among immigrant minority

groups due to societal pressure from the wider society or the majority groups.

Some argued that a similar situation may happen in migrant majority groups and

9

the size of group is always a critical factor that determines the speed of language

shift (Holmes, 1994, p. 60, p. 67).

Sibu is a typical setting where it is called as “New Foochow” or “Small

Foochow”. It indicates that Sibu is a town full of Foochow Chinese, inevitably,

Foochow dialect is prevailing in this town for communicative purpose, especially

for Foochow people. Nevertheless, there are also out-group people such as

Malays, Ibans, Melanaus or other Chinese ethnic groups such as Cantonese,

Hokkien, and Hing Hua living in Sibu town. Thus, interaction with out-group

members is unavoidable. While there is an intervention of out-groups in different

social contexts, question of language accommodation may arise. This

accommodation of language could result in a shift away from one’s mother tongue

as a long term effect (Bradley, 2002). Hence, it is interesting to find out whether

the large size of Chinese Foochow population determines which language they

accommodate to and to which language and whether there is a shift away from

Foochow dialect in Sibu.

For practicality, the results of this study could give awareness to the

Foochow Chinese community, and institutions such as clan associations,

governmental agencies, and non-governmental agencies about the actual language

situation in this majority ethnolinguistic speech group. This actual language

situation includes the changes in the language behaviour of different generations

of Foochow speakers within the Foochow Chinese community and how these

changes are associated with the socio-cultural pressures that take place in this

10

community. Corresponding to this awareness, it is hoped that more efforts may be

given to language maintenance in order to preserve the Foochow dialect from

language loss and language death.

1.6 Operational definitions of terms

1.6.1 Dominant language

Dominant language in this study refers to the exact concept that used by

Li, Saravanan & Ng (1997), which is the most frequently used language.

1.6.2 Foochow dialect

It refers to any varieties of Foochow dialect include Minqing, Gutian,

Luoyuan, Pingnan, Lianjiang, Minhou, Changle, Yongtai, Fuqing and Pingtan. In

the current study, Foochow dialect is the term used for representing the varieties

of Minqing, Gutian and Pingnan.

1.6.3 Foochow Dialect Proficiency

Foochow dialect proficiency in this study refers to the proficiency in terms

of listening and speaking in the Foochow dialect.

1.6.4 Monolingual

Those who speak only one language (Li, Saravanan & Ng, 1997). This

could refer to those speak only a dialect, Mandarin, Standard Malay or English. In

this study, monolingual refers to those speak only Foochow dialect.

11

1.6.5 Mother tongue

In this study, mother tongue refers to the same concept as what mentioned

in Li, Saravanan & Ng (1997), which is the first language learnt since birth.

1.6.6 Multilingual Chinese

Those speak more than two languages, either one or more Chinese

‘dialects’ (e.g. Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Foochow, Hing Hua etc), together

with other languages such as Mandarin, Standard Malay, and English. In this

study, multilingual speakers refer to those speak more than two languages. These

languages can be Foochow dialect, Mandarin, English, Standard Malay, Iban

language, Melanau language, local Malay and other Chinese dialects.

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