Morphology

What is morphology?

The study of the internal structure of words is the science of morphology. The word morphology consists of two word-elements : morph-,which means "form " and " –logy", " the science of the study of". Originally, morphology was used only in biological sciences. However, in linguistic context ,it refers to that branch of language studies which deals with what morphemes are and how they operate in the structure of a word. On the basis of morphological knowledge one can generalize the rules that apply on one word to the rest of the words. For example one can derive different forms of a huge number of words on the analogy of the derivation of one word such as Cat-cats-cattish - catbird : All of these words are clearly connected with cat, but on the other hand they are also all words in their own right. Similarly, one can apply the same approach in deriving these forms: a wug, say ‘a large, hairy bovine mammal known for being aggressive and braying’. We do not need to learn independently that two of these are wugs, or that wuggish behaviour is likely to involve attacking one’s fellows, or that awugbird (if there were such a thing) might be a bird with a braying call All of these things follow from the knowledge we have not just of the specific words of our language, but of their relations to one another, in form and meaning. This knowledge of the morphology of our language generalized on the basis of the first first word.

What is a morpheme?

Before embarkation on the examination of the structure of words, it is necessary to be acquainted with an entity known as a morpheme. It is the minimal grammatical unit of a language It is a short segment of language that meets three criteria:

1-It is a word or part of a word that has meaning.

2-It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts without violation of its meaning or meaningless remainders.

3-It recurs in differing verbal environments with relatively stable meaning.

In the light of this criteria " straight " /streit/, is a word . It cannot be subdivided without violation of meaning. For example, it can be divided into smaller meaningful units like trait /treit/,rate /reit/, and ate /eit/, but the meaning of these violate the meaning of straight. It recurs with relatively stable meaning in environments as straightedge ,straighten and straight line. Thus, straight meets all the criteria of a morpheme.

A second example, the morpheme " bright" (light) compared with "brighten" ( to make light).The only difference in form between the two is" –en " and meaning it added the sense of make in brighten. Thus, it can be seen that " –ed " is a part of a word that has meaning. It is also well known that it cannot be divided into smaller

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meaningful units and that it recurs with stable meaning in words such as cheapen , darken, deepen, soften and stiffen. It is therefore, obvious that /-en /must be considered a morpheme.

In English the word stopped, for example, is composed of two morphemes : stop + past. Similarly, the word men consists of two morphemes, man + plural ,and worse consists of the two morphemes , bad + comparative. Conventionally , the reference to a morpheme is to use one of its morphs or shapes between braces .So, it can be said that the word stopped consists of {stop} and {-ed}. Similarly, we can say that men consists of {man} and {-s} and worse consists of {bad} and {-er}.

It equal to "Atom" in the composition of the universe.

What is a morph?

Morphs are, grammatically speaking, the smallest segments of an utterance. For example, the following utterance " he hated such films ", can be segmented as follows: He + hate + ed + such + film + s

It is observed that no further division of these utterances into grammatically units is possible. If we divide these segments further ,we will only have vowels and consonants which have no grammatical significance.

Exercise 1

After each word write a number showing how many morphemes it contains.

1-play ----------------------------- 11-keeper ----------------

2-replay------------------------------- 12-able--------------------

3-date------------------------------ 13-unable.………………

4-antedate------------------------- 14-maniskirt------------------

5-hygiene-------------------------- 15-rainy-------------------------

6-weak----------------------------- 16-rainy-------------------------

7-Weaken---------------------------- 17-cheap--------------------------

8-man-------------------------------- 18-cheaply --------------------------

9-manly--------------------------- 19-cheapewr-----------------------

10-keep--------------------------- 20-cover -----------------------

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Exercise 2

Write the meaning of the underlined morpheme.

1-antedate----------------------------------------------------

2-replay------------------------------------------------------

3-manly------------------------------------------------------

4-keepre----------------------------------------------------

5-unable---------------------------------------------------

6-rainy------------------------------------------------------

7-cheapest-------------------------------------------------

8-Inactive---------------------------------------------------

9-impossible-----------------------------------------------

10-malfunction-----------------------------------------(N)

What is the difference between a morph and morpheme?

The difference between morphs and morphemes can be demarcated as follows:

(i)A morpheme is the minimal grammatical unit of language whereas a morph is its orthographical or phonological shape. In walked the initial morph is "walk "and the final morph is "ed".In " moved " the initial morph is "move" and the final morph is –d". Thus, the final morph of walked is not the same as the final morph of moved. The final morpheme of these two words is, however, the same. In other words, the past tense morpheme has taken two orthographical shapes in these two words.

Just as a morpheme can be differentiated from its orthographic shape, it can also be differentiated from its phonological shape. In the verb "missed"/mist/, For example, the initial morph is /mis/ and the final morph is /t/.Similarly, in the verb moved /mu:vd/ the initial morph is /mu:v/and the final morph is /d/.The final morpheme of these two words is ,however, the same. In the verb parked /ba:kt/ the initial morph is /pa:k/ and the final morph is /t/.In the verb parted /pa:tid/ the initial verb is /pa:t/ and the final morph is /id/.The final morpheme of these two words is the same .thus, we can say that a morpheme is an abstract element of grammatical analysis, whereas a morph is the phonological or the orthographic realization of that abstract grammatical concept.

(ii )A Morph is an identifiable segment in the linear sequence of morphological segments in an utterance. A morpheme ,on the other hand, is not really an identifiable segment but a factorial component. In nouns like men ,mice, geese, and

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women, the plural morpheme has been so fused with the root morpheme that it can only be understood as a factorial component. These nouns are composed of only one morph each, though there are two morphemes in each of them. The same thing applies to adjectives like better, best, worse and worst and irregular verbs like stood, ran, took, came, rang and sang.

Types

In linguistics, we would further classify morphemes as either as phonemes (the smallest units of grammar recognizable by sound) or graphemes (the smallest units of written language). For our purposes, we will focus on graphemes.

Let's examine the word nonperishable, analyze it, and then discuss terms associated with it.

Nonperishable is comprised of 3 morphemes - non-, perish, and -able. It actually has five syllables, though, which is a good example of why morphemes and syllables are not synonymous.

Non- is an example of a prefix, or a morpheme that precedes a base morpheme. Perish is an example of a base morpheme, as it gives the word its essential meaning. -Able is an example of a suffix, or a morpheme that follows a base morpheme. Both non- and -able are examples of an affix, a morpheme attached prior to or following a base that cannot function independently as a word.

A Morpheme as a Word

When we can take a morpheme independently and use it as a stand-alone word in a sentence, it is known as a base. As the chart indicates above, these can be nouns, verbs, adjectives, conjunctions, prepositions, or determiners. We also classify a morpheme that can function as a stand-alone word as free.

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In the sentence, 'The bird-like man hardly touched his food at dinner,' there are a total of 11 morphemes, and 9 of the 11 are free:

The (part of speech: article)bird (part of speech: noun)man (part of speech: noun)hard (part of speech: adjective, but with the -ly: adverb)touched (part of speech: verb)his (part of speech: determiner)food (part of speech: noun)at (part of speech: preposition)dinner (part of speech: noun)

The other two morphemes, '-like' and '-ly', are types of affixes, which brings us to our next topic.

What is portmanteau morph ?

A portmanteau morph is a morph which represents a togetherness of two or more morphemes. The word was ,for example, represents a togetherness of {be}, {past} and {singular}.Similarly, the word is represents a togetherness of { be}, {third person},{singular} and {present}.

ArabicIn modern Arabic languages )dialects( portmanteau is a pretty common phenomenon, in which mostly prepositions are added to other words to create a word with a new meaning. For example the Hejazi word for "not yet" is /لسه lessa/lessaʕ(, which is a( لسعcombination of the words لـ )li, for( and الساعة )assaʕa,the hour(. Other examples in Hejazi Arabic include:

.)shayʔ, thing( شيء and )ay, which( أي from ,)eːsh, what( إيش

.)shayʔ, thing( شيء and )ay, which( أي and )li, for( لـ from ,)leːsh, why( ليش

.)ayn, where( أين and )fiː, in( في from ,)feːn, where( فين

.)an, that( أن and )ilaː, to( إلى from ,)ileːn, until( إلين

.)alħiːn, part of time( الحين and )thaː, this( ذا from ,)daħeːn or daħiːn, now( دحين

عشان/ ,shaʔn( شأن and )ʕalaː, on( على from ,)ʕashaːn/ʕalashaːn, because( علشانmatter(.

.)an that( أن and )kamaː as( كما from ,)kamaːn, also/more( كمان

)ʕalayh, on him( عليه and )maː, nothing( ما from ,)maʕleːsh, is it ok?/sorry( معليشand شيء )shayʔ, thing(.

.)allaːh, god( الله and )wa , and( و and )iː, yes( إي from ,)iːwa, yes( إيوهMorphemes and Allomorphs ?

A morpheme is not always represented by the same morph; it may be represented by different morphs in different environments. At the end of word like boys the

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plural morpheme, for example is realized as /z/,at the end of words like cats, it is realized as /s/ and at the end of words like buses it is realized as /iz/.Similarly, at the end of a verb like stopped, the past tense morpheme is realized as /t/ ,at the end of a verb like bombed it is realized as /d/,but at the end of a verb like wanted it is realized as /id/.In other words ,/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are the three alternative realizations of the plural morpheme in English. Similarly,/t/,/d/ and /Id/are the three alternative realization of the past tense morpheme. Such alternative realizations of a morpheme are known as allomorphs. To summarize, allomorphs are the alternative realizations of a morpheme.

What are the hazards that one may take if deliberation and cautions are not taken in segmenting morpheme ?

Exercise 8-28 Explain why a/an are allomorphs of one morpheme.

Need for caution in the segmentation of morphemes:

If one is not very careful in segmenting words into their morphological segments, one may often go wrong. For example, the following two types of words may mislead an analyst because certain words have apparently similar shapes but they are not morphologically similar.

1 2 3

Builder observer butcher

Climber player carpenter

Hunter remover grocer

Words in column 1 and 2 can be segmented in two morphemes each but the words in the third column cannot be segmented like that. They are to be looked upon as unanalyzable whole like the following words:

Contain ,detain, maintain, retain, conceive ,deceive, perceive, receive. It can be argued that each of these words are segmentable into two morphs because -tain and -ceive are roots in Latin ; however, they are not productive any more in English. Sometimes there are serious insoluble difficulties in morphemic analysis for the differences in individual stock of morphemes (vocabulary peculiarly for oneself),for example, automobile and chronometer may be different morphemes for Tom, Dick, Harry and Sadie. Some are not aware of its presence in various words: as in the agentive "-er"(spelled)"-er", " –or", "-ar" as in singer, actor ,professor, voucher, cracker and tumbler.

One problem is that of obsolescence. Morphemes may fade away into disuse as the decades and centuries role by, affecting our view of their morpheme-hood. For

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example, we can be shore that troublesome, burdensome, lonesome and cuddlesome are two morpheme words consisting of a base form plus the suffixal morpheme –some .Winsome, however, has an obsolete base(old English wynn , pleasure, joy),so the word now monomorphic. Between these two extremes

are words like ungainly .This means of course "not gainly" ,but what does gainly mean ?

What is a free and bound morpheme? Give examples.

Morphemes are of two kinds; namely, free and bound morphemes. Free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning such as the words straight or bright. A bound morpheme ,unlike the free morpheme ,cannot be uttered alone with meaning. It is always annexed(connected /joined ) to one or more morphemes to form a word. The underlined morphemes in exercise 2 above are all free morphemes and the not underlined morphemes are examples of bound morphemes

Exercise 3

Underline the bound morphemes in the following words. It is possible for a word to consist of entirely bound morphemes .

1-speaker 6-biomass

2-kingdom 7-intervene

3-petrodollar 8-remark

4-idiolize 9-dream

5-selective 10-undo

Affixes /Affixation

An affix is a bound morpheme that occurs before or within or after a root. There are three kinds: prefixes, infixes, and suffixes.

Prefixes are those bound morphemes that occur before a root ,as in import, prefix , reconsider. They are small class of morphemes, numbering about seventy-five. Their meaning are often those of English preposition and adverbials.

Exercise:8,8 Give the meaning that fits the word and write it in the first column. In the second column write another word containing the same prefix.

1-antifreeze .………………………………… ..………………………………………………

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2-circumvent ………………………………….……………………………………………………………

3-copilot .……………………………………….……………………………………………………………

Collapse ………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Compact, .……………………………………..……………………………………………………………

Convene ……………………………………..……………………………………………………………

Corrode ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

4-contradict …………………………………………………………………………………………………

5-devitalize .…………………………………………………………………………………………………

6-disagreeable ……………………… …………………………………………………………………

Imperfect ………………………………… …………………………………………………………………

Illegible ..………………………………… ..………………………………………………………………

Irreverent ..……………………………… ..………………………………………………………………

7-insecure …………………………………………………………………………………………………

8-inspire .…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Imbibe …………………………………….………………………………………………………………

9-intervene ……………………………..……………………………………………………………………

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10intramural ……………………….………………………………………………………………………

11-obstruct .……………………….…………………………………………………………………

Oppose ..……………………… .…………………………………………………………………

12-prewar ………………………..…………………………………………………………………

13-post war ………………… ..………………………………………………………………

14-proceed .………………… .……………………………………………………………………

15-retroactive .……………….………………………………………………………………………

16-semiprofessional ..…………… ..…………………………………………………………

17-subway ..……………………………..……………………………………………………………

18-superattendant ……………………… ..……………………………………………………

19-unlikely .………………………………………………………………………………………………

20-undress ..…………………………………….…………………………………………………………

Infixes are bound morphemes that have been inserted within a word. Generally speaking, English does not have infixes, although some exceptional cases are found, but they are consider as exception, such as men ,man, feet ,foot, geese, goose, mice,

mouse, lice ,louse.

State the morphological phenomenon that is used in the formation of this paradigm.

foot/feet, goose/geese, man/men, mouse/mice, as well as blood/bleed, foul/filth, broad/breadth, long/length, old/elder, whole/hale/heal/health, et

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Suffixes:

Suffixes are bound morphemes that occur after a base ,such as shrinkage, failure, noisy, realize nails dreamed Suffixes may pile up to the number of three or four,

whereas prefixes are commonly single .

Exercise 8-9

After each word write the number of suffixes it contains

1-organists 4-atomizers 7-trusteeship

2-personalities 5-frienliest 8-greasier

3-flirtatiously 6-contradictorily 9-countrified

10-responsibility

Exercise8-10

Each group contains a base and suffixes. Make each into a word In each case see if more than one order is possible.

1—ed,live,-e

n…………………………………………………………………………………………..………………

2—ing,-ate, termi

n…………………………………………………………………………………………………

3—er, -s, mor,-al, -iz

e..………………………………………………………………………………………

4-provinc,-s, -ism, -ial……………………………………………………………………………………

5-ly,-some,gru

e…………………………………………………………………………………………..

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6- -ity, work ,-abl

e.………………………………………………………………………………………

7 -in,-most ,-e

r………………………………………………………………………………………….…

9- -dom, -ster, gan

g………………………………………………………………………………………

10- -ly, -ion, ate, affect …………………………………………………………………………………

Latin & Greek Roots & Affixes

The United States of America is well known as the 'Land of the Free' and a place where liberties are protected. Now, what is liberty?

To understand the meaning of this word, and a lot more, we can take a look at the parts that form them. In this lesson, we will learn how to increase our vocabulary by understanding the meaning of words through their Latin and/or Greek roots and affixes.

Roots

The root of a word is the minimum unit with meaning and cannot be broken down any further. 'Bio' is an example of a root. It has its own meaning, but when we add other parts, it forms more words with the same root, as in 'biology,' 'biography' and

'bionic'.

Here are some common roots you may be familiar with:

rootlanguage

meaningexample

bioGreeklifebiology

celeLatinhonorcelebrate

cracGreekgoverndemocracy

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durLatinto holddurable

ethnGreeknationethnicity

hydrGreekwaterhydrated

hyperGreekabovehypertension

hypoGreekbelowhypotension

ignGreekfireignite

legLatinto chooselegislature

liberLatinfreeliberty

microGreeksmallmicroscope

multiLatinmanymultiple

negLatindenynegative

similLatinlikenesssimilar

thermGreekheatthermometer

Types of Affixes

Affixes by definition are always bound or (affixed) to a root. They are divided into two different types depending on where they attach to the root.

Prefixes occur before a root (although several prefixes can be strung together before a single root). Suffixes occur after a root (although multiple suffixes can occur at the ends of words).

The two types of affixes also differ in how they affect the meaning of the word.

Prefixes modify the meaning of the root in some way. Often, they provide spatial information about an action named by the root. For example, the root ced 'go' can be combined with a variety of prefixes which modifying the direction in which the "going" occurs (although the sense of 'go' may be rather metaphorical in some cases).

secede 'to go apart'intercede 'to go between'recede 'to go back'decedent 'one who goes away'

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concede 'to go together'precede 'to go before'

Notice that in constructing the literal meanings, the meaning of the prefix occurs after the meaning of the root. This is necessary to make a sensible English phrase. English grammar requires that the verb is followed by a spatial preposition. Latin (from which all these morphemes came) conveyed the same concepts of ACTION plus DIRECTION in reverse order and in a single word.

Suffixes have two functions, which we'll discuss in WebLecture 1.4. Their most important function is to indicate the part of speech of the word. Suffixes identify a word as being a NOUN, VERB, ADJECTIVE, or ADVERB. They can change the word from one part of speech to another. In fact, multiple suffixes can be added to a single root, changing it first to one part of speech and then another. For example,

verb --> verbal --> verbalize --> verbalizationNOUN ADJECTIVE VERB NOUN

Because this use of suffixes is so important with Latin and Greek vocabulary, we'll spend some time discussing how to identify the different parts of speech.

Roots and affixes : Comparison

In a word which consist of more than one morpheme, there is usually one morpheme which is central and one or more morphemes which are peripheral. The central morpheme functions like the head and the peripheral morphemes function like modifiers. This central morpheme is known as the root and the peripheral morphemes are known as affixes. A root, in other words, is that part of a word which remain after all the affixes have been removed. In the word international, for example, nation is the root and inter- and –al are affixes. In the word historians, history is the root and –ian and –s are affixes. Affixes are formative morphemes added to roots. An important difference between a root and affix lies in the fact that whereas affixes are limited in number and can be exhaustively listed, roots are

virtually unlimited number .

Prefix, the suffix and the infixed:

Affixes can be divided into three types known as prefixes suffixes and infixes. A prefix is a word-element that is added at the beginning of a word to form another word. A suffix is a word –element that is added at the end of a word to form another word or to obtain another form of the same word. An infix is a word-element that is inserted into the middle of the word to form another word. In the word unfriendly, for example, un- is a prefix, and –ly is a suffix. Similarly in denationalize, de is a prefix and -al and -ize are suffixes. Infixes can easily be illustrated from Arabic.

Differences between Inflection and Derivation:

The tradition followed by most standard dictionaries ,speak speaks, spoke, spoken, and speaking are considered different forms of the same word, whereas speaker is considered to be a new word with its own set of forms like speaker, speakers, speaker's, speakers'. Similarly ,write writers, wrote, written, and writing are considered different forms of the same word whereas writer is considered to be a

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new word with its own set of form like writer, writers, writer's and writers'. This kind of distinction is based on the distinction between inflection and derivation. Word forms like speak ,speaks ,spoke ,spoken and speaking are created by the morphological process of inflection 'whereas new words like speaker and write are created by the morphological process of derivation. By adding inflectional suffixes to a root ,we create different grammatical forms of the same word and we create a new word by adding a derivation suffix to a root.

What are the types of in flexional suffixes in English :

Inflexional suffixes in English include the following nine types:

1-{ -s pl }dogs, bushes noun plura

2-{-s sg ps }boy's noun singular possessive

3-{-s pl ps) boys' noun plural possessive

4-{-s 3d }runs, catches present thir- person singular

5-{-ing vb }discussing present participle

6-{-D pt }chewed past tense

7{-D pp }chewed eaten past participle

8{-Er cp }bolder, sooner nearer comparative,

9-{-EST }boldest soonest ,nearest superlative

All the other types of suffixes are derivational suffixes.

What is the difference between inflectional and derivational suffixes.

The difference between inflexion and derivation can be stated as follows:

1-Inflectional suffixes do not change the part of speech.

Examples:

sled, sleds (both nouns), cough coughed (both verbs); cold, colder(both adjectives)

In many cases ,but not all ,a derivational suffix changes the part of speech of the word to which it is added: act (N) becomes adjective :active and a verb: activate

2-They come last in a word when they are present

Examples: waited, villainies, industrializing

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Derivation usually do not close off the word; that is, after a derivational suffix one can sometimes add another derivational suffix and can frequently add an inflectional suffix: fertilize + re becomes fertilizer + s becomes fertilizers.

3-They go with all stems of a given part of speech.

Examples: He eats, drinks ,dreams entertains ,motivate

Derivational suffixes combine selectively with the words ,i.e. the suffix " -ment " can combine only with certain words such as adorn becomes adornment, -ure combines with fail to make failure.

4-They do not pile up only one ends a word.

Examples: flakes, working, higher, written

They pile up /cluster at the end of a word : condition al ly

Exercise 8-11 Write the name of each inflectional suffix.

1-The flagpole remained in front of the Main Hall………………1-{D pt} past tens

2-Four pledges were initiated………………………………………………2-{-s pl} noun plural

3-Shirley pledges to do here best…………………3-{-s 3d} present third person singular

4-The pledge's shirt were torn………………………4-{-s sg ps} noun singular possessive

5-the pledges' shirts were torn………………………5-{-s pl ps} noun plural possessive

6-We were discussing the editorial……………… 6-{-ing vb} present participle

7-The novel was shorter than I was expected…7-{-ER cp} comparative

8-They waited at the dock…………………………… 8-{-D pt} past tense

9-which is the longest route……………………………9-{EST sp} superlative

10-Have you taken calculus yet………………………10-{-D pp} past participle

11-Chris played well in the second set……………11-{-D pt}past tense

12-The dealer weighed the poultry…………………12-{-D pt} past tense

13-Would you mind repeating the question?....13-{-ING vb} present participle

14-The sheet were soon ironed………………………14-{-s pl} noun plural

15-Henever locks the door……………………………15-{-s 3d} present third person singular

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Exercise 8-12: The left-hand contains ten words. The right-hand column contains thirteen derivational suffixes used to make nouns and having the general meanings of "state, condition, quality, or act of " .By combining these suffixes with the words listed ,make as many nouns as you can.

1-happy 1- -hood 11- -ance

2-friend 2- -acy 12- -th

3-boy 3- -ism 13- -ure

4-compose 4- -ness

5-shrink 5- -ment

6-active 6- -age

7-supreme 7- -y

8-true 8- -ation

9-pagan 9- -ship

10-discover 10- -ity

Nouns: 1 happiness 2 friendship 3boyhood-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Exercise:8-13

The words in the second column are formed by the addition of a derivational suffix to those in the first column. After every word in both columns indicate its pat of speech classification by N (noun),V (verb), Adj. (adjective),or Adv. (adverb).Some of the words may belong to more than part of speech.

1-break …………………………………… breakage

2-desire …………………….. desire

3-conspire …………………… conspire

4-rehearse ……………………………. rehearse

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5-ideal …………………………….. ideal

6-false …………………………… false

7-sweet ………………………. sweet

8-doubt …………………….. doubt

9-mout ………………………… mout

10-sing …………………….. sing

11-familiarize ………………. familiarize

12-passion ……………… passion

13-host …………… host

14-gloom …………………… gloom

15-martyr ,…………………… martyr

16-novel …………………-novel

17-day ………………… day

18-prohibit …………………..-prohibit

19-excel …………………...-excel

20-create ……………………… create

21-vision …………………………. vision

22-cube ……………………….. vision

23-ripe ……………………….. ripe

24-real ………………………. real

25-accept ………………… … accept

Exercise 8-14 :Add a derivational suffix to each of these words ,which already end in a derivational suffix.

1-reasonable ………………………………………………..

2-formal ………………………………………………..

3-organize ……………………………………………….

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4-purity ………………………………………………

5-realist ………………………………………………….

Exercise 8-15: Add an inflectional suffix to the following words .

1-kindness ……………… …………… 6-arrival …………….. …………………………..

2-beautify ……………… ……………7-arrival ……………….. ……………………………….

3-quarterly……………….. …………..8- orientate ………………. ………………………….

4-pupularize …………… ……………9-friendly………………… ……………………………..

5-depth …………… ……….,….10funny………………………….. ………………………..

Exercise 8-16: Give all the forms in the derivational paradigm of each of the following words:

1-sin

1-kind

3-live

4-transport( port=carry)

5-audible (aud-=hear)

Root

A root is that part of a word which remain after all the affixes have been removed. In other words ,a root cannot be analyzed further either in terms of inflectional or derivational morphology. The word cigarettes has two affixes in it .These two affixes are -ette ,which is derivational suffix, and –s ,which is an inflectional suffix .If these two affixes are removed ,the part of the word which will remain is cigar. This part of the word cannot be analyzed further in terms of affixes and can , therefore ,be taken to be a root. Similarly the word divorcees has two suffixes one of which is –ee, a derivational suffix, and –s which is an inflectional suffix .

Stem

A stem is that part of a word which remain after all the inflexional affixes have been taken away. In the word cigarettes ,for example, cigarette is the stem and –s is an inflectional suffix .In the word transformationalists' ,transformationalist is the stem and –s and the possessive marker are the two inflectional suffixes .Stem cannot be analyzed in terms of inflectional suffixes but in many cases it can be analyzed in

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terms of derivational suffixes. , cigarette and transformationalist are stems , although they can be analyzed further in terms of derivational affixes.

In many cases , the same part of a word happens to be a root as well as stem.

In John's ,for example, John is a root as well as stem. Similarly, teach is the root as well as stem of the word teaching ,and walk is the root as well as stem of walked.

In some cases, the stem of a word consists of more than one root. In boy-friend the stem, boy-friend consist of two roots and ,similarly ,son-in-law is a stem which consists of two three roots, and dog-in-the manager which consists of four roots.

Base

Abase is any form to which an affix of any kind has been added. Theorize, for example, is the base for theorizing and theory is the base of theorize. Teachable is the base of reachability and teach is the base of the teachable. Similarly, Americanize is the base of Americanization ,American is the base of Americanize and America is the base of Amarican.

Exercise 8-4 Underline the roots in these words :

1-womanly 6- Lighten 11-unlikely

2-endear 7-enlighten 12-prewar

3-failure 8-friendship 13-subway

4-famous 9-befriend 14-falsify

5-infamous 10-Bostonian 15-unenlivened

Exercise 8-4 Underline the base in these words :

1-womanly 6- Lighten 11-unlikely

2-endear 7-enlighten 12-prewar

3-failure 8-friendship 13-subway

4-famous 9-befriend 14-falsify

5-infamous 10-Bostonian 15-unenlivened

Exercise 8-4 Underline the stem in these words :

1-womanly 6- Lighten 11-unlikely

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2-endear 7-enlighten 12-prewar

3-failure 8-friendship 13-subway

4-famous 9-befriend 14-falsify

5-infamous 10-Bostonian 15-unenlivened

Exercise 8-4 Underline the derivational suffix and prefix in these words :

1-womanly 6- Lighten 11-unlikely

2-endear 7-enlighten 12-prewar

3-failure 8-friendship 13-subway

4-famous 9-befriend 14-falsify

5-infamous 10-Bostonian 15-unenlivened

Word and lexeme : Sing, sang ,sung, sings ,singing are considered different forms of the same word .They represent one paradigm .Any one of these forms is a member of the inflectional paradigm .All these word-forms in the inflectional paradigm represent an abstract form of the word .Such abstract forms are called lexemes. A lexeme in other words, is that abstract form of the word which all the word forms in its inflectional paradigm represent .A lexeme subsumes all the word forms in a paradigm. It refers not to the shape that a word has on one occasion but to all shapes that it can have in a paradigm. Similarly, singer is another lexeme which subsumes singer, singers, singer's, singers' as a different forms of the same lexeme.

Prefixes in English :

The primary function of a prefix in English is to change the meaning of the base to which it is added and in small cases changes the grammatical class of the base. Whereas suffixes almost always change the grammatical class of the base except in the case of inflection. So, the best way of classifying the prefix in English on the basis of their meaning and suffixes on the basis of the their grammatical function.

Semantically classify prefixes in English.

Prefixes can be semantically classified into the following:

1-Prefixes referring to parts of human body or their functions:

Audi(o) = hear audition ,auditorium ,audio-visual

Cardi(o) = heart cardiology , cardiologist, cardiac

Derm- = skin dermatitis ,dermatology ,dermatologist

Hemo - = blood hemoglobin ,hemophilia ,hemorrhage

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Nephr(o)= kidney nephritis ,nephrology, nephrologist

Neuro- = nerve neurology, neurologist ,neurosis

Osteo- = bone osteopathy, osteopath , osteology

Physi(o)= body physiotherapy ,physiotherapist ,physiognomy

Psych(o)=mind psychology, psychoanalysis ,psychophysical

2-Prefixes referring to man's immediate or larger environment:

Astro- = star astronaut, astrophysics, astronomy

Cosm(o) = universe cosmonaut ,cosmopolitan ,cosmologist

Geo = earth geography, geology ,geometry

Hydro =water hydrophobia, hydrology ,hydromechanics

Photo = light photophobia, photoelectric, photogenic

Pneum = air pneumonia ,pneumatic , pneumatologist

Socio(o) = society sociologist, socio-economic ,socio-political

Therm(o)=heart thermometer , thermoflask ,thermodynamic

Zoo- = animal zoology, zoologist, zoomorphic

3- Evaluative prefixes (prefixes denoting praise or dis like)

Mal- = bad(ly) maltreat ,maladjustment ,malfunction

Mis = wrong(ly ) misinform ,mislead misconduct

Pseudo-= false pseudo-intellectual, pseudo-religious ,pseudo-scientific

Super- =of a good variety superman ,superhuman ,superfine

Ultra- = excessively ultra-modern ,ultra-conservative ,ultra-religious

Reversative prefixes:

Prefixes of this type denote the undoing of something that has already happened .

De- do the opposite of decentralize, defrost ,denationalize ,dehumanize

Dis- do the opposite of disconnect, disinfect ,dispossess, discolored

Un- do the opposite of undo, unpack, unwrap

4-Locative Prefixes (prefixes of place):

Inter- = between intercontinental ,international , intercollegiate

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Intra- =inside intramuscular, intravenous,

Pan- = all over pan-Indian, pan-European, Pan-American

Super = above superscript, superimpose , superstructure

Tele = distance telephone, telepathy , telecommunication

Out- =distance outhouse, outpost, outdoor

Under=located undercurrent, undergrowth, undersigned

Beneath

5-prefixes of time

Ante- = before antenatal, antepenultimate, antenuptial

Chrono- = time chronology, chronometer, chronological

Ex- = former ex-president, ex-minister, ex-husban

Neo- = new, revived neo-classical ,new-Victorian, Neolithic

Paleo- = old paleolithic, paleography

Pre = before premarital , pre-Augustan, pre-Chaucerian

Post- = after post-war, post-Victorian, post-graduate

Proto- = first ,original prototype, protozoa

Re = again redo, rebuild, reconnect

6-Prefixes of size or Extent

Hyper- =extreme hyperactive, hypercritical, hyperacidity

Micro- =small microcomputer, microbiology , micrometer

Mini- =small miniskirt, minicab, mini-factory

Sub- = below subconscious, subnormal, suborbital

Ultra- =beyond ultrasonic ,ultraviolet, ultrasound

Under- = small, less underdeveloped ,underestimate, underprivileged

7-Prefixes of orientation

Anti- = against anticlockwise, anti-Sematic, antisocial

Counter = against counteract, counter-attack, counter-revolution

Pro- = in favor of pro-American, pro-British, pro-Islamic

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8-Negative prefixes

a- =not amoral, asexual, ascientific

dis =(do) the opposite of disobey, discontent, disorder

il- =(do)the opposite of illegal, illegitimate, illogical

im = not immoral ,immortal ,impossible, improbable

in- = not incomplete, incompetent, incomparable

ir = not irregular , irresponsible, irrelevant,

non = not non-alcoholic, non-smoker, on-vegetation

un = not unable, unavailable, unwise

Number Prefixes

Ambi- =two ambiguous , ambivalence, ambidextrous

Bi-,di = two biannual, bilingual, ditransitive, dioxide,

Tri- = three trimester , tripartite, triplicate

Tetra = four tetrameter, tetrachlorine

Penta = five pentameter, pentagon, pentagonal

Mono = one monogamy ,monotony, monotonous

Multi = many multilateral, multimillionaire, multistoried,

Poly- = many polyclinic, polygamy, polyglot

Uni- = one unidirectional, unilateral

Suffixes can be classified with reference to the word-class that results when they are added to a base. Alternatively, they can be classified with reference to the grammatical class of the base to which they are added. The suffix –ish at the end of words like boyish , childish, and snobbish, for example, can be described as an adjective suffix because the addition the suffix results in the formation of an adjective. We can also say that this suffix has a denominal function in the sense that it changes a noun into another word-class. The suffix -ee at the ends of words like employee and examinee is a noun suffix because the addition of this suffix results in the formation of a noun. This suffix has a deverbal function in a sense that it added to a verb.

A suffix may belong to one grammatical class in the case of some other words. But it may have to be classified differently in case of some other words. In words like brotherly, friendly and scholarly,-ly is an adjective suffix having a denominal function

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but in words like foolishly and wisely, it operates like an adverb suffixes in English can be discussed in terms of the following types and subtypes.

Adjective suffixes are classified into the following types:

1-Adjective suffixes having a denominal function( )of a word( derived from a noun )

The work is being phased over a number of years.

-al accidental, magical, musical, philosophical

-ed diseased, talented, blue-eyed, simple-minded

-ful eventful, graceful, peaceful, useful

-ic atomic, heroic, poetic, romantic

-ish boyish, childish, foolish, snobbish

-less careless, colourless, harmless, useless

-ly brotherly, cowardly, motherly, scholarly

-ous glamorous, humorous, poisonous, zealous

Worthy- blameworthy ,praiseworthy

-y dusty, filthy, hairy, wealthy

2-Adjective suffixes having de-adjectival function (devoid of an adjective )

-ly deadly

-al economical

-ish boyish, bluish, greenish

-some queersome

3-Adjective suffixes having a de-verbal function(devoid of a verb )

-able changeable, drinkable, eatable, likable

-ive active, constructive, decorative, possessive

Adverb suffixes

Like adjective suffixes ,adverb suffixes also are of two types:

1-Adverb suffixes having a de-adjectival function

-ly beautifully, foolishly, nicely, wisely

2-Adverb suffixes having a denominal function

-ward(s) earthwards, backwards, homewards, northwards

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-wise discipline-wise, education-wise, money-wise

Noun Suffixes are classified into the following types and subtypes

1.a. Suffixes that are used in the formation of abstract noun:

–age frontage, mileage, postage

-ery machinery, robbery, rocketry, slavery, bravery

-hood brotherhood, manhood, widowhood, womanhood

-ism Hitlerism, impressionism, racism, criticism

-ship dictatorship, friendship, lectureship, membership, relationship

Order-ship

b-Suffixes that are used in formation of concrete nouns

-eer auctioneer, mountneer, villager

-er Londoner, three-wheeler, villager

-ess actress, hostess, lioness, waitress, mistress

-ette cigarette, kitchenette, leatherette ,

-let booklet, leaflet rivulet, starlet

2-Noun suffixes having a de-adjectival function

-ism classism, fanaticism, romanticism, romanticism, vulgarism, vandalism

-ity falsity, nicety, obesity, vulgarity, humanity

3-Noun suffixes having a deverbal function

-al denial, recital, revival, survival, approval

-ant assistant ,informant, participant, accountant

-ation examination, justification, rationalization, starvation, humiliation

-ee appointee, employee, examinee, payee

-er driver, player, reader, number, speaker, writer

-or accelerator, actor, supervisor, survivor

-ment amazement, embezzlement amusement, development

From the above examples it can be inferred that –er and or are two variants of the same noun suffix.

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Verb suffixes are of two main types:

1-verb suffixes having a denominal function

-ate chlorinate,hyphenate,orchestrate

-fy beautify, codify, solidify, identify

-ize computerize, dramatize ,hospitalize, symbolize,

2-verb suffixes having a de-adjectival function:

-en harden, ripen, sadden soften

-ize legalize, modernize, rationalize

Notes: There are adjectives derived from adjective bases, and nouns derived from noun bases, there is no verb derived from another verb.

Some prefixes have more than one meaning.

1-Noun Feminine Forms

English has a small group of nouns with feminine derivational suffixes. All of these feminizing suffixes are of foreign origin except one (ster).They have been added to masculine form or to the base form. Here is a list of most of them, with examples of feminine nouns to which they have been attached and the corresponding masculine forms.

Suffix Masculine Feminine

1- -e fiancé fiancée

2- -enne comedian comedienne

3- -ess patron patroness

4- etta Henry Henrietta

5- ette usher usherette

6- -use masseur masseuse

7- -ina Georgina Georgina

8- -ine hero heroine

9- -ster spinner spinster

10- -stress teamster seamstress

11- -ix aviator aviatrix

Exercise 8-23: Write the feminine form of the following words by consulting a dictionary and the suffixes listed above.

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1-paul----------------------------------- 9-Carol-----------------------------------------

2-chanteur--------------------------- 10-emperor-----------------------------------

3-protégé--------------------------- 11-launderer ---------------------------------

4-czar-------------------------------- 12-executor---------------------------------

5-songster----------------------- 13-properties---------------------------------

6-major------------------------- 14-waiter-------------------------------------

7-heir-------------------------- 15-tragedian ------------------------------

8-equestrain ------------------

Noun Diminutive Form

Six diminutive suffixes can be found in English. These are morphemes that convey a meaning of smallness or endearment/intimacy or both. They are the following:

1—ie,-I,-y as in auntie, Betty, sweetie, Willy(pronounced /i/

2-ette as in dinette, towelette, novelette(pronounced /i/)

3-kin,ikin,kins as in babykins

4-ling as in duckling, darling,(=little dear)

5—et as in circlet

6- -let as in booklet ,starlet

Exercise 8-24

1-Bob------------------------------------ 6-lamb ---------------11-hatch

2-goose-------------------------------- 7-pack----------------12-drop

3-statue ------------------------------ 8-pup ------------- 13-lad

4-pig------------------------------------ 9-eagle------------- 14-disk

5dear------------------------------------ 10-Ann--------------- 15-cigar

In addition to these six many others have come to English as a part of borrowed words. These were diminutive in their parent language but non-morphemic.

Mosquito , panel, Venezuela, bambino ,morsel, quartet, armadillo, damsel, bulletin (two successive diminutive here),peccadillo, flotilla, Priscilla, cookie, colonel, citadel, novel, scalpel, satchel, muscle, particle, pupil, violin, violoncello, puppet, falsetto, stiletto, Maureen, lochan, formula, capsule, calculus

Immediate Constituents

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IC is the hierarchical analysis of the word morphemes into binary divisions according to the sequence of putting them together to build the structure that is called a word.

The word blaze has just one unitary part. However, a word like beautiful is obviously composed of two parts.

Beauty ful

However, a word of three or more morphemes is not made up of strange of individual parts; it is built of hierarchy of twosomes. As illustration let us examine the word "gentlemanly"

Gentleman ly gentle man ly

We continue to cut every part into two parts as in the word "ungentlemanly". Until we have reduced the word into its ultimate constituents i.e unit morphemes into which it is composed.

Un gentle man ly pre conceiv ed mal formation s

If the word ends in an inflectional suffix, the first cut is between this suffix and the rest of the word as in "perceived" and "malfunctions". One of the IC should be if possible free form.

En large ment en large ment in depend ent in depend ent

The meaning of the IC should be related to the meaning of the word. It would be wrong to cut "restrain "and "starchy" like these.

Rest rain star chy The correct will be re strain starch y

Exercise 8-25 :One of the following IC diagrams showing the layers of the structure wrong. Which one is it and why?

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Answer: Unlawful is wrongly cut because the first cut leaves "unlaw" which is not a free form.

Starch بالرسميات التمسك التمسك نشاء بالرسميات

1 2 3 4 5

Help less em bodi ment in suffer abl y re im burse ment s re fertile ize

6 7 8 9 10

Start ed life less ness anti cler ic al favor it ism un law ful

Exercise -8-26 : Diagram these to show the layers of structure.

1- item ize d 2-ice land ic 3-news paper dom 4-counter 5- de clar ation

6-contra dict ory 7-dis en throne 8-mid after noon

9-ice land ic 10-super natur al 11-un com fort able 12-fest iv al

13-en gag ing 4-ex press ion ism 15mis judg ment

This exercise is intended to give you a practice in the morphological analysis of words in English. Try to include as much relevant information in your analysis as possible. Two words have been analyzed as example of the way of illustration.

Reliability: At the first level of analysis this word can be divided into constituents: "reliable" and "ity".The first one operates as the base and the second one as a derivational suffix added to that base. The second constituent is a noun suffix having a de-adjectival function. Reliable in its turn has two constituents :" rely" and "-ble " .Rely is the base of the word reliable and the root of the word reliability. The

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other constituents ,-able is a derivational suffix .It is an adjective suffix having deverbal function.

Helpless: At the first level of analysis ,this word can be divided into two constituents: helpless and –ly .Helpless is the base of the word helplessly and –ly is a derivational suffix. This derivational suffix is an adverb suffix having de-adjectival function. Helpless can be further analyzed as help +less .Help is the base of the word helpless and the root of the word helplessly. The second constituent ,-less is a derivational suffix .It is an adjective suffix having a denominal function.

Give a detailed morphological analysis of each of the following words

1-Beautifully 2-international 3-unverbalized 4-irresistable 5-differentiated 6-monomorphic 7-nationalization 8-monosyllabic 9-unanalyzable 10-meaningfully 11-Americanaization 12-collectively 13-historian 14-manifestation 15-unhesitatingly 16-unconstitutional 17-derivational 18-unkindly 19-unatainable 20-connectives 21-starvation 22-histerically 23-consumption 24-nationally 25-unspecified 26-uninteresting 27-irreparable 28-intensely 29-pasteurized 30-insufferable 31-self-presentation 32-infinitude

Syntax is the study of the ways in which words combine into the structure of phrases , clauses and sentences .The word syntax consists of two word elements ;namely, syn-, the first of the two words elements , is the Latinised form of the Greek preposition sun which means "together". The second word-element , -tax, is derived from Greek root ,which means "to put in order" .Thus, the entomological meaning of syntax is "putting things together in an

orderly meaning".

In accordance with this entomological meaning, syntax was, in traditional grammar ,the study of the ways in which words strung together to form acceptable sentences.

The standard recommended ways for studying of grammar was the study of parts of speech and the typical exercise used in the study of the parts of speech is parsing. Parsing is resolving sentences into their component parts of speech. And then, describing the grammatical features of each part of speech in every sentence.

Inadequacies of the traditional approach.

The underlying assumption that a sentence is a mere string of words in an acceptable order and the proper study of the syntax is the study of the parts of speech .

Structuralist emphasizes the study of the syntax in term of the successive layers of grammatical unit i.e. they first to highlight the fact that words were not the immediate constituent of a sentence and that there were a number of intermediary units of grammatical structure between sentences and its words.

Form and Function:

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Form is the internal structure of a unit of grammatical analysis. We think of categorical labels like noun phrase etc. When we talk about functional labels like subject , object, direct object, indirect object etc.

State the hierarchy of a syntax.

The four grammatical units ,words, phrase ,clause and sentences constitute a hierarchical order of IC of a sentence .A sentence is the highest level in the hierarchy and the word is the lowest level within the same.

Discuss the components of a sentence.

Error/mistakes/blunder

A sentence consists of one or more clauses ,e.g. He is short but he is strong . He plays football. He sleeps while I was writing. A clause consists of one or more phrases, The people (who are)concerned have left. A phrase consists of one or more words, e.g. His account NP contains VP many historical solecism NP . Each phrase has a head or principle word. The three heads are the noun' account ',the verb contains ( the only word),and the noun solecisms. The three phrases are named after their heads. Each phrase is assigned a grammatical function : His account is a subject :NP Contains verb: verb Phrase ; many

historical solecisms Direct object NP,.

Exercise 14-1 Underline the head of the following noun phrases or NPs in sentences :

The yellow tulips That new aluminium fence The fence between the houses The old fence which was painted green The old fence between the houses which was painted green My worn-out putter My worn-out putter lying in the attic a used car, broken down by abusive driving The children's swings in the park which were in use all the daylong The yellow tulips in the garden which were blooming Small boys who are not in school often build dams in the spring.

Jim wanted a new sports car with wire wheels which would have a fast getaway .

Exercise 14-2Make each list of words into a noun phrase and underline the headword.

1-table, the, small, study 2-European, any, opera, great 3-somber, evening, that, sky 4-my, shoes, roommate's, tennis 5-linen,white, handkerchiefs, the, other, all

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6-soft,a,onthe head, pat 7-hard, a, which, staggered him, blow 8-ski, that, lying in the basement, broken 9-with a lame leg, a, who was walking on crutches, junior 10-the, in the front row, whose books he was carrying, girl

We must know that rules apply to a phrase apply equally whether a phrase consists of one word or more than one word. This is because we can reduce the phrases into the head words or replace them by pronouns ,e.g. It (subject :NP) contains (Verb phrase ) Solecism (direct object :NP)

Some syntactic categories of a noun:

The count-noun class includes everything that is readily countable ,such as beetles, books, sounds concepts. Count nouns have both singular and plural forms. Countable nouns always have singular and plural nouns. In the singular form, they must always be preceded by a determiner.

A car drove by.

(x) Car drove by.

In the plural they may occur either with the plural or singular.

Cars are dangerous on slippery roads.

Those cars are dangerous on slippery roads.

Count nouns can be modified by many and mass noun by much .

Exercise 14-4 In the blanks write count or mass to classify the underlined words.

1-The factory releases dingoes gases into the atmosphere. ……………………………………

2-The price of gas jumped over the weekend. ………………………………….

3-Hobson enjoys his leisure. ………………………………………

4-There is truth in what he says. ……………………………………..

5-These truths you must never forget. …………………………………….

6-Mrs.Lopez buys juice every day . ……………………………………

7-Please bring me a juice . ……………………………………..

8-Charles studied Russian in College. ………………………………………

9-Today's world puts a high value on knowledge. ……………………………………..

10-We heard a Russian at the United Nation ………………………………………

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Proper Nouns

Proper- noun class consists of the names of a particular, often unique, persons, places and things e.g., Charlotte Brook, the Mona Lisa, Queen Mary, the Rocky Mountains, Mount Washington . They are considered a subclass of nouns because most of them confirm in part to the noun Paradigm. Syntactically, they behave like count nouns with few restrictions that are worth noting.

1-In the singular proper noun appear without a determiner. For example,

June is the month of wedding. We talked with Margaret.

The inside of Charters Cathedral is beautiful in the sunshine.

However, a determiner is used with a singular proper nouns when such nouns are restrictive modified, as in these cases:

The Jun in which she was married was warm.

It was a Jun to remember.

The Margaret whom I remember had a red hair.

2-Proper nouns that are always plural are normally accompanied by "the" ,occasionally by a different determiners. For example,

The Appalachians are an old mountain chain.

I do not like your Bahamas, they are too commercialized .

We are going to visit the Hebrides.

3-Certain proper nouns are say singular and take "the". For example,

We took the Maasdam (ship)to Rotterdam.

The Museum of Modern Art has a new show.

He waded across the Rio Grande

We stayed at the Americana.

The Atlantic ocean is rough at winter.

Exercise 14-5 Classify the underlined nouns by count, mass, or proper. The proper names have been left uncapitalized.

1-Aunt Tilda's favourite month is may…………………………………… …………………………………

2-There is dust on the mantelpiece …………………………………….. ………………………………………

3-The class had a picnic at riverview park……………………………. …………………………………..

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4-Coton is more absorbent than linen. ……………………………….. …………………………………

5-In the alps are many lovely valleys. …………………………………… …………………………………

6-Do you like whipping cream on your sundae? ……………………………. ……………………………

7-Numerouse injustices were perpetrated by the invaders………………………….. ……………….

8-Can one expect justice in this court? ………………………………………………… ………………………

The americans visiting us next week…………………………………………………… ……………………

They sailed on the statendam for the canary islands……………………………. ………………………

1.3.2. How words are used - NOUNS, VERBS and ADJECTIVES

Identifying the part of speech (or grammatical class) of a word is important for constructing an appropriate literal meaning. The most important parts of speech for our purposes are NOUNS, VERBS and ADJECTIVES. The majority of English words fall into one of these three classes.

NOUNS, VERBS and ADJECTIVES have both meaning properties and form properties. The meaning (or functional) properties are usually more familiar to students; however, the form (or structural) properties are often the most useful in identifying a word's part of speech.

Functional properties are "uses" which a word serves in a sentence or the meaning it conveys.

FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES

NOUN identifies the entities a speaker is referring to names a person, place, thing, or idea

VERB identifies an action or state of being

ADJECTIVE modifies the meaning of a noun identifies a property or characteristic of the noun

Structural properties include both the kinds of affixes a word can take as well as its position in a sentence relative to other words. Some of the most useful (but by no means all) structural properties are given below:

STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES

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VERB

permits the suffix -ed 'past tense' (They talked.) may follow the infinitive marker "to" (They

wanted to talk.)

NOUN

may be plural; usually indicated by the suffix -s (the two tables)

is the last word in a phrase beginning with the articles "a" or "the" or a possessive pronoun (a table, the table, her table )

ADJECTIVE

may have the suffixes -er 'comparative' or -est 'superlative' (redder, reddest)

comes before a NOUN and often after an article or possessive pronoun (the red book, his gigantic turnip)

In English, it is frequently impossible to determine the part of speech of a word unless you consider it in the context of an entire sentence. Native words are especially problematic because they often have no suffixes when given in their dictionary or citation form. For example, while we sometimes imprecisely refer to words like skirt, table, chair, hand, and arm as NOUNS, they all can be used as verbs without any alteration. Below, the highlighted words are all clearly VERBS in the first column because they have the past tense suffix -ed or follow the infinitive marker "to". In the second column, the same words are all clearly NOUNS because they have the plural suffix -s; they also follow either the word "the" or a possessive pronoun.

VERBS NOUNSThey skirted the issue. Their skirts were long.They tried to table the motion.( postpone consideration of or

األعمل جدول على يضعThe tables were carefully set.

She chaired the committee. The chairs were pushed in.He handed her the letter. Her hands rested on her lap.They wanted to arm the bomb. His arms were crossed over his chest.

Latin and Greek words usually have suffixes which should help us identify the part of speech. Unfortunately, these suffixes often have more than one meaning.

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They delegated the matter to the committee.

The delegate was confused about the issues.

Since we can only determine the exact meaning by seeing the word in the context of a sentence, exam questions will always provide a word in a sentence whenever you need to determine its part of speech.

Verb Phrase

A verb phrase consists of a verb and all the words and word groups that belong with the verb and cluster around it. The verb itself is called the headword or head, and the other words and word groups are the auxiliaries ,modifiers and complements of the verb. Complements are the generic term for the complements of the verb, which we will later learn to know as direct object, indirect object, objective complement, and subjective complement. In the phrases below, the head is underlined. Examples: soon arrived ; arrived late ;soon arrived at the station ; arrived just as the plane came in ; was waiting at the door ; may have been stolen by the cashier.

Exercise 14-6 Underline the head in these verb phrases.

1- stepped lightly 2-stepped into the room

3-quickly stepped in 4-stepped where he was told

5-at once shouted to the crowd to stand back

6-without hesitation shouted for help 7-were watching for the signal

8-Has been eaten by the cat 9-would have driven to the fair

10-spoke loudly 11-built a scoter

12-built his son a scooter 13-seemed gloomy and dejected

14-elected George a member of the fraternity

15-became a president of his class

Exercise 14-7 Underline the head of these verb phrases.

1-sold his last semester's books 2-sold me his last semesters books

3-appeared happy in his new job 4-alawys chose Jim as a dishwashing committee

5-Still remained the best candidate 6.cheerfully gave a handsome contribution

7-never paid his bills on time 8-immediately called his uncle a name

9-often were weary after his workout 9-soon returned the book she had borrowed

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Exercise 14-8 Draw a vertical line separate these sentences into a noun phrase and a verb phrase. Underline the noun head and the verb head.

1-The red pony in the pasture galloped along the fence.

2-Many of the students attend the Christmas party.

3-The pipes in the classroom bounded noisily.

4-The choir in the loft sang the hymen softly.

Exercise 14-9 Add a verb phrase to each of these noun phrases, making complete sentences.

1-The tiny leak in the hose ……………………………………………………………….

2-The canoe that he wanted …………………………………………………………………

3-The pie ………………………………………………………………………………………………

4-the steaming apple pie

5-The passengers in the front seat who was watching the speedometer

Exercise 14-10 Add a noun phrase to introduce each of the following verbs.

1………………………..later regretted his decision…………………………………………………..

2- came after his dog. …………………………………………………………

3-…………………….will soon return to the college. ……………………………………………….

4-………………….. always seemed to have a complaint to make. …………………

5-…………………..merrily swung the heavy pack on his back………………………………..

to begin the long hike.

Some syntactic categories of verbsDepending on the kind of head verb, a verb phrase is categorised into three different verb types, namely, transitive followed by nominal which receives the action of the verb, as in Jack bought the car.

A second type of verbs is" intransitive" ,as in" The distraught parent wept"., which involve action but no required following element to receive the action. Sometimes this type can function both transitive and intransitive, for example, in the sentence "we are eating the sandwich, the verb is transitive ; however, in the sentence 'we are eating' the verb is intransitive. It does not need a direct object (complement).

The third type of verbs includes verbs such as be, become, seem and look which introduce a kind of equivalence or descriptive relationship as Ahmed is

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a doctor. Salwa looks angry. Verbs that introduce such structures are called " linking" verbs.

Exercise 14-11 Indicate whether the underlined verbs are transitive (Tr) intransitive (Intr)or linking (Lv) in the following sentences.

1-Carlos felt very happy about how he did in chemistry test………2-She sang the anthem beautifully..…………………………

3Your hair cut looks great………………………………4-He was not supposed to look…………………………………5-Susan prepared the manuscript for publication………………

6-Have you ever made taffy …………………………?7-When the store owner called ,the police came quickly.

8-The instructions were clear.9-The mold grew quickly

10-The contestant grow confident during the competition.Verbs are also classified into the following:

1-Verbs that are followed by to plus a verb stem but not by –ing formHe agreed to come.

2--Verbs that are followed by –ing form but not by to plus a verb stem.He enjoyed eating.

3-Verbs that are followed by both –ing form and by to plus a verb stem1-He preferred sleeping. and 2-He preferred to sleep.

Exercise 14-12Give the form of the verbal complement that immediately follows each verb

by writing in the blanks -ing or to + infinitive or both .1-Wish 2-miss 3-start 4-want 5-postpone

6-continue 7-promise 8-avoid 9-hate 10-try11-decide………. 12-risk…………. 13-cease …….... 14-mention……

Verbs Followed by an InfinitiveShe agreed to speak before the game.

agreeaimappeararrangeask attemptbe ablebegbegincare choose

consentcontinuedaredecidedeservedetestdislikeexpectfailforgetget

havehesitatehopehurryintendleapleavelikelonglovemean

offeroughtplanpreferprepareproceedpromiseproposerefuseremembersay

shootstartstopstriveswearthreatentryusewaitwantwish

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condescend happen neglect

Verbs Followed by an Object and an InfinitiveEveryone expected her to win.

adviseallowaskbegbringbuildbuychallenge

choosecommanddaredirectencourageexpectforbidforce

havehireinstructinviteleadleaveletlike

lovemotivateorderpaypermitpersuadepreparepromise

remindrequiresendteachtellurgewantwarn

Note: Some of these verbs are included in the list aboveand may be used without an object.

Verbs Followed by a GerundThey enjoyed working on the boat.

admitadviseappreciateavoidcan't helpcompleteconsider

delaydenydetestdislikeenjoyescapeexcuse

finishforbidget throughhaveimaginemindmiss

permitpostponepracticequitrecallreportresent

resistresumeriskspend (time)suggesttoleratewaste (time)

Verbs Followed by a Preposition and a GerundWe concentrated on doing well.

admit toapprove ofargue aboutbelieve incare aboutcomplain aboutconcentrate onconfess to

depend ondisapprove ofdiscourage fromdream aboutfeel likeforget aboutinsist onobject to

plan onprevent (someone) fromrefrain fromsucceed intalk aboutthink aboutworry about

Grammatical functionThe name of a word and its function is different. For example, "John" in "John raked the leaves," is the performer of the action represented by the verb and is therefore, the subject of the sentence. While ,John is a noun by its part of speech ,it is a subject by its function within the sentence. The function of a particular constituent is highly correlated its particular location in the sentence. For example, in the previous sentence John occupies the first element in the sentence ,therefore, it is the subject and the noun phrase "the leaves" comes after the verb and receives the action is the object.

Label of function Grammatical meaning

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1-Subject of verb That which perform the action of a verb, is described or identified or about the assertion is

made, e. g. .The leopard stalked its prey. The book was large .

2-Verb That which asserts an action or state. Example: Their monkey climbed the trees .

His claim seems ridiculous.3-Subjective complement That which follows linking verbs, as be and become

And Identifies or describe the subject. The woman was a doctor.

The artist seemed upset.4-Direct object That which undergoes the action of the verb.

Malcolm bought a chandelier.5-Indirect object That person or thing to or for whom an action is

performed. The coach bought the athletes some

uniforms. The realtor found the buyer a nice house.

6-Objective complement That which completes the direct object and describes or identify it.

We considered the manager incompetent. They elected Henry treasurer.

7-Object of preposition The dog ran near the river. Sally paid rent for her mother.

Exercise 14-13 Identify the grammatical function of each of the italicized words below.

1-We sent Mathilda a letter .……………………………

2-We sent a letter to Mathilda ..……………………………

3The coach wearing the green shorts yells a lot ..……………………………

4-The campaign committee will locate potential donors .……………………………

5-The unscrupulous salesman has called his customers suckers ...…………………………

6-The scuba driver was an expert ..…………………………

7-She read the book carefully .………………………………

8-Jason appeared confident with the decision ...……………………………

9-We should buy Waldo a new suit ...………………………………

10-They spoke to Jim about the problem .………………………………

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Sentence Patterns 1:We have to be familiar with the concept of a tree diagram in the sentence analysis because it is very appealing. So, we can represent a sentence pattern on a tree diagram format (design)or the organization of the elements in the tree diagram as static (not moving/fixed) representation of the structure of the sentence at the bottom of the diagram i.e. we can draw a tree diagram to every single sentence in English. Alternative opinion is to treat the tree diagram as a dynamic format in the sense that it represents a way of generating not only that one sentence, but a very large number of sentences with the similar structure. This alternative view is very appealing since it will make it possible for use to generate a large number of sentences with only

small number of rules. These rules are called phrase structure rules .

Patterns 1: SV (subject + verb)In this pattern the subject occurs in the first noun phrase position and the grammatical meaning of the subject is "that which perform the action". The verb is intransitive which is self-sufficient ,i.e. Stands alone with its subject.Ex. The sportsman fished. The sportsman were fishing.It can be modified by words and word groups known as adverbs and adverbials.Ex. The sportsman fished early. The sportsman were fishing in the stream.The sportsman were fishing when we drove up.

But an intransitive verb is usually not completed by a noun phrase( which could involve a noun or pronoun).For example, in

"They finished late." , finished is intransitive verb, but in ,"They finished the game ."They finished the it( game).

Finished is not intransitive because it is completed by a noun phrase. If you are in doubt whether a word following the verb is a modifier that goes with an intransitive verb or a completer of a transitive verb ,a substitution can settle the matter. If you can substitute him, her, it, or them, the word is a completer and the verb is not intransitive. For example,

1-He harmed fast. One cannot substitute it without spoiling the structural meaning .

2-He hammered the nail. One can substitute " the nail" by " it" because "He hammered it" is a suitable equivalent for "He hammered the nail". Therefore, hammered in sentence 1 is intransitive and in 2 transitive.

Some intransitive verbs of pattern one do not occur alone but take adverbial modifier. Example, lurk, sneak, lurch, sally, sidle, tamper, lie live. Live takes adverbial modifier in three meanings: (1)reside, as in "He lives in Wadi Ad-Dawasir.,(2) stay alive ,as in "He lives on soy bean products"., and (3)be alive ,as in "He lives in the

first half of the twentieth century ."If the intransitive verb requires an adverbial modifier in order to be completed,

consider that verb to be part of pattern three .

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Exercise:15-1 Write InV. (intransitive verb) after each sentence that contain InV.an SV sentence pattern .

1-The audience clapped.2-The audience clapped loudly.

3-The audience clapped loudly after the main act.4-The audience clapped their hands.

5-They were relaxing quietly at the table.6-They were drinking a bottle water.

7-She always paid.8-He paid his bills on the first of the month.

9-Jack left early.10-Jack left his clothes on the closet.

11-We travelled comfortably.12-A strange man is waiting outside.

13-He studied through the night.14-Who brought my fishing tackle?

15-The children behaved admirably .

Pattern 2: SVC (subject + verb + complement ) Subjective complement Direct object Indirect object Objective complement

Object of preposition

The program became elaborate. Our friend is a senator.

The grammatical meaning of the subject is "that which is descr˃ibed or which may be identified .Complement in a broader sense is used for referring to an element that is necessary to complete a VP. In this pattern the complement refers to the subject complement which is joined to the subject with a linking verb.

Pattern 2 is divided into subpattern 2A + 2B (NP + linking Verb+ adjective/adjectival, that is an adj. like element)

The food is good.

The manager seems upset.

Linking verbs are be and its variant forms and the following verbs and their respective forms: seem, appear, become, grow, remain, taste, look, feel , sound, get, continue, or go.

In order to know whether the pattern belongs to the subpattern 2A when it involve the linking verb be, we have to apply a distinguishing test of expansion.

That food is good˃ That good food is very good.

The food is poisonous ˃ That poisonous food is very poisonous.

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If the sentence will not undergo this expansion ,it usually belongs to some pattern other than subpattern 2A.For example,

My mother is outside ˃ X My outside mother is very outside. (This sentence does not belong to subpattern 2A type. The adj. in subpattern 2A is, ungrammatical meaning ,a modifier of the subject).

Exceptions such as main , utter, afraid,

Sometimes a prepositional phrase will ,as a modifier of the NP, occupy the adjective position, as in

The teacher was in a bad mood.(=irritable)

His explanation was over my head.(=incomprehensible).

Exercise:15-2 Apply the expansion test to see which of these sentences belong to subpattern 2A.Write 2A after each sentence.

1-The box is large…………………………………………………………………………………………

2-The box is here…………………………………………………………………………………………

3-My mother is kind…………………………………………………………………………………….

4-My mother is out……………………………………………………………………………………..

5-The boys were busy………………………………………………………………………………….

6-The boy were below…………………………………………………………………………………

7-The dahlias have been lovely. …………………………………………………………………..

8-The party must have been enjoyable……………………………………………………….

9-The party was afterward………………………………………………………………………….

10-Here brother was hungry………………………………………………………………………

Another distinguishing test can be applied to verify whether the element follows the verb is an adjectival describing the subject of the sentence and the verb is a linking verb and, consequently, subpattern A. This test is the replacement of the verb with the verb seem. For example, John appeared weary can be replaced by John seemed happy but, "John grow quickly" cannot be replaced by John seemed quickly. Therefore, it can be said that the first sentence is a subpattern 2Aand involve a linking verb whereas the second one does not.

Write the subpatern number 2A or other after each sentence.

Grammatical Hierarchy

Grammatical hierarchy is subdivided into two ways :at the same level and across levels .A grammatical unit can contain other units at the same level in the hierarchy .Compound

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words are composed of more than one word as in headache , and babysit .Phrases commonly contains other phrases: The title of the course in 'The title of the course was woodland Ecology' there are two phrases : 'the title' (NP) and ' Of the course' (PP) .The NP contains within it the PP.

The relationship is expressed systematically as follows: the title of the course NP of the course PP the course NP

A clause also can contain another clause :If you have been given a voucher ,because you have a low income, the value of your voucher may be reduced. The if- clause ends at' income' and the because clause is within if-clause. A sentence can be embedded within another sentence in direct speech, as in the sentence marked off by quotation marks as in the following sentence.

Prince Charles duly walked down the line, chook hands with who was there, and then, showing splendid sense of hummer said' you know ,I could have commanded him to be here

tonight .

Units at a higher level in the grammatical hierarchy can function within units at lower level. For example ,the clause pays you earn can be embedded in the NP the pay-as-you earn policy.

More commonly ,the embedded clause follows the head noun .For example ,the that clause in the following sentence which modifies the word things.

I had a whole list of things that I wanted to buy eventually .

Types of Sentences : What are the types of Sentences ? Identify the types of sentences.

1-Simple Sentence is that sentence which has one subject and a predicate. Examples,

A)-He plays football. B)-Boys read books. C)-He studies English. D)-I went there last week. E)-My Right Honourable Friend the Secretary of State met health authority chairman on the tenth of July and more recently at briefing seminar in Cardiff on the

nineteenth of October .

2-Compound sentence is that which has two or main clauses at the same grammatical level joined together with the help of conjunction. Each of the clauses could be independent

clause. It gives more than one idea. Examples .

A)- He is rich but he is stingy . B)-He plays and I run .It has only been a week and I feel lonesome without you.

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3-Complex Sentence has one main clause and one subordinate clause as one of its constituents.

A)- I study when he plays. B)-She came while it was raining. B)-Men of rank and education in the provinces understood that the preponderance of Roman strength doomed resistance or revolt to failure (the that clause is a direct object ). for question (Do you work hard. 3- imperative for directives .(look at the beautiful scenery here) 4-exclamatives for exclamation. What strong words you use. What an idea you have got .What an

opportunity. How clever she is.

The Basic

Look at the following sentence :Men of rank and education understand that (simple sentence)

4-Compound- Complex Sentences has two main clauses and at least one subordinate clause.

A-He plays when read and sings when I sleep .

In respect of their major uses in communication, four types of sentences can be distinguished .

1-declarative for statement (they work hard) 2-interrogative (How do they work?)

Sentence Structure

It is sensible to examine the basic structures of sentences that are declarative (typically making statement).positive rather than negative, active rather than passive and complete rather than elliptical. The constituents of a basic sentence structure appear in their normal order and they consist of phrases that do not themselves contain clauses.

1-I am sending you this card. 2-He shrugged his shoulder. One can always add an adverbial or two which are optional constituents .

3 -I am sending you this card to stand in your bed room. 4-He merely shrugged his shoulders. The basic structures have two or three or four obligatory constituents depending on the nature of the verb : intransitive verb does not need a complement. It has

only two obligatory constituents i.e .

Subject and verb denoted by the symbols SV ,such as,

1-All the flowers have disappeared. 2-The enemy tanks are retreating . 3-You should be working. 4- All my friends laughed .

However, the verb to be ,to have ,to do , linking verbs and transitive verbs must have one or two complements .The types of complements are: Direct object : O ; Indirect Object: O; Subject predicative : P: object Predicative :P .They are exemplified in the sentences below:

1-I (S) hate (V) this noise (O). 2-The idea (S) could make (V) her (O) a fortune (O).

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3-The party treasurer (S) is (V) very hospitable(P). 4-They drove us crazy (P). 5-They (S) drove(V) us and everybody else( O) crazy (P) 6-He (S) is driving(V) his father's car (O). 7-He(S) is driving(V) me (O) mad (P).

The first or the only word in a verb phrase determines the tense of a sentence. For example, the tense is present in 'I like the music'; past in 'I liked the music'; and present in' I have thanked them for the gift; in contrast I had thanked them for the gift 'is past.

Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, for instance ,the verb eat can be both transitive or intransitive as in: I am eating. intr.V.; the basic structure is SV and 'I am eating

( Tr.V.) my lunch (Do )and the basic structure is SVO .

Some transitive verbs need two objects (indirect object and direct object) as in ,I am sending you (indirect Object) an official letter of complaint(Direct Object). Well if you give me it tomorrow, I might be able to finish it the day after tomorrow. The basic structure here is SVOO.

Subject Predicative/Subject complement renames or describes the subject as in , 1-The water-bed was very comfortable(P). 2-The baby tortoise was the size of a large soup plate(P). 3-The disastrous consequence s are obvious. 4-The disastrous consequences became obvious. 5-My name is Saleh(P). 6-It just sounds a little affected . 7-I feel so self-conscious in high heels. 8-The third world constitute most of Asia ,Africa and Latin America .

Object Predicative /Object Complement/object attribute is that information that rename or describe the object, as in ,

1-I (S)have made(V) my position (O)clear(P). 2 They (S)called (V) it (O) freelance teaching (P).

The verb that has a direct object and object predicative is a complex transitive verb. Both complex transitive verb and ditransitive verb have two complements. One fundamental difference between the two sets of complements is that there is a predicative relationship between the direct object and the object predicative. The relationship is analogous to that between the subject and the subject predicative. Thus, the relationship can be shown clearly when we introduce a copular verb between the direct object and the object predicative.My position becomes clear. It was a freelance teaching.

The other difference is that only the direct object in SVOP structure can be made subject of a passive sentence. For example,

I have made my position clear . My position has been made clear.In contrast ,both complements in SVOO structure (the indirect object and the direct object ) can be made a passive subjects. For example,

I (S) am sending (V) you (O) an official letter of complaint (O).This can be passivized in two waysYou (S) are being sent (V) an official letter of complaint.An official letter of complaint (S) is being sent (V) you (O). More examples of SVOP.

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But state courts upheld a challenge by consumer groups to the commission's rate increase and found the rate(O) illegal(P).

But Asian nations' memories of their military domination by Japan in the early part of this century (S) make (V) them (O) fearful of falling under Japanese economic hegemony now.(P)The basic structures can be expanded by adverbials .For example,

I met a girl on the train (A) today (A). You need a lot of strength in the right hand(A)Well(A)presumably (A)she called him.

Phrases and WordsThere are five types of phrases ,named after the head of a phrase:

1-noun phrase a weak government (head :Noun Government)

2-verb Phrase may have succeeded (head :succeeded) 3-adjective phrase far more enjoyable (head: adjective enjoyable) 4-adverb phrase too noisy

(head :adverb noisy) In ) (head preposition 5- prepositional phrase in a

wine bar

Word class (part of speech) are divided into open classes and closed classes. The former readily admit new words. The productivity of language is operative .Closed classes, on the other hand, rarely admit new words so that it is possible to list all the words belong to them. The productivity of language is inoperative. For example, we can list all the pronouns, however ,it would be difficult to list all nouns not only because they are numerous but primarily because new words are being created all

the time .There are four open classes.

1-Noun Texas ,Riyadh ,freezer, hygiene ,2-Verb(main verb) remember ,depend ,become

3-adective personal ,afraid, mere4-adverb lavishly ,luckily, consequently

The closed classes1-auxilary (auxiliary verb) will, have ,be,

2-conjunction and ,if ,also3-preposition of ,by ,into

4-determiners the, a, an ,no some, five ,twentieth, one-sixth ,5-pronoun she ,none ,some,

6 -interjection oh ,ouch , wowVerbs: Seven categories apply to the verbs (main verbs and auxiliaries)affecting the form that verbs take.

a)mood: Three moods are distinguished for English: indicative ,imperative and subjunctive

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1-Indicative mood applies to most verbs used in declarative, interrogative ,and exclamatives, as in, Envy is deep and agonizing .;Could that be a joke; How preposterous the poem seemed

2-imperative and present subjunctive have the same uninflected form of the verb ,as in ,'Pay me next time.'

3-Subjunctive are present and past subjunctives. For example,Israel insists that it remain in charge on the border.

The technology of hard disks systems requires that the disk be spinning at about 3000 revolution per minute.

He proposed last June that American medical be acquired by new employee stock ownership planGod help Saudia. So be it . If I were you I could complain. We insisted that she be in charge.It is important that he sign the petition.b)modality is a semantic category that deals with two types of judgements:

1-Those referring to factuality f what is said:(certainly , probability , possibility )2-Those referring to human control over situation: Ability ,intention ,obligation,

permissionC)Tense is a grammatical category referring to the time of a situation.English has two tenses

Present :speaks .is speaking ,has been speakingPast :spoke ,has been speaking ,was speakingd) Aspect is a grammatical category referring to the way that the time is viewed by the speaker or writer. Aspect is indicated by a combination of auxiliary and a following verb form 1- prefect aspect :has called ,may have called, could have been called, had written ,will have written, should have been written.

2-The progressive aspect requires the perfect auxiliary have and a following -ed participle: is calling ,may be calling ,is being called ,was writing, will be writing , was being writing.

e)Voice

f) number and person: Number and person are categories that affect only the present tense. The –s form is used for the third person singular and the bas or uninflected form is used for the rest.My children write letter home every day. My son writes to me regularly .

The s-form is used with the third person singular(he ,she ,it )whereas the uninflected form is used with the rest of pronouns.

Case is a grammatical category that distinguish differences in the grammatical function(such as subject )or semantic relationship (such as possessor).Common case

is child and genitive case is child's .

A noun phrase has as its head a noun: recent deluges of reports

Verbs(or main verbs or lexical verbs or full verbs) function as a head of a verb phrase , either alone or preceded by one or more auxiliaries. For example, the main verb prepare in its various forms : They prepared the meal. They may prepare the

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meal. They should have prepared the meal. They may have been preparing the meal .

Adjectives serve as a head of an adjective phrase. Used alone or with one or more modifiers They have two characteristic functions .Premodifier of a noun (1)and

subject predicative (2) .1-In short ,she was one of those happy natures who finds life 'fun' and never take

offence if They asked out to dinner at six o'clock.

2-Weather has been great these last few days so I am happy.

Attributive adjectives attribute a quality or characteristic to what is denoted by the noun they modify: pleasant company ,pleasant dreams

Predicative adjective is part of the predicate linked to the subject by a copular/linking verb :The company was pleasant. Your dream seems pleasant .

Some adjectives are attributives only: I usually think advertising and publicity is a complete and utter west of money. At encounters like this the sheer which the united states can exert is glaring.

Adverbs are a heterogeneous class ,varying greatly in their functional and positional ranging. They constitute a series of overlapping subclass,and some of them belong to more than one class. For example ,the adverb very is an intensifier that functions only as a premodifier as in ,very large, very careful whereas ' too' is intensifier when it function as a premodifier as in too small ,too quickly, but it has different meaning (in addition )when it function as an adverbial. The food was

good ,'too.'

Adverb is a name of a word class ( or part of speech).An ad verb phrase is a phrase headed by an adverb :very carefully,

Prepositions typically function as a the first constituent of a prepositional phrase. The second constituent is the complement (or object) of the prepositional phrase. Thus, 'in a hurry 'is a prepositional phrase in which 'in ' is the preposition and 'a hurry' is its complement .Prepositional phrase chiefly take as their complements

(1)noun phrase,(2)nominal –ing participle clause ( 3)and nominal wh-clause: 1-And every single person without a computer background failed.

2-That is a good way of trying to get to know each other.3-It is just a question of which is the more efficient approach

Parasitestomonious

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The Grammatical Hierarchy: Words, Phrases, Clauses, and SentencesWords, phrases, clauses, and sentences constitute what is called the GRAMMATICAL HIERARCHY. We can represent this schematically as follows:

sentences consist of one or more...

clauses consist of one or more...

phrases consist of one or more...

words

Sentences are at the top of the hierarchy, so they are the largest unit which we will be considering )though some grammars do look beyond the sentence(. At the other end of the hierarchy, words are at the lowest level, though again, some grammars go below the word to consider morphology, the study of how words are constructed.At the clause level and at the phrase level, two points should be noted:

1. Although clauses are higher than phrases in the hierarchy, clauses can occur within phrases, as we've already seen:

The man who lives beside us is ill

Here we have a relative clause who lives beside us within the NP the man who lives beside us.

2. We've also seen that clauses can occur within clauses, and phrases can occur within phrases.

Bearing these two points in mind, we can now illustrate the grammatical hierarchy using the following sentence:

My brother won the lottery

This is a simple sentence consisting of a matrix clause (MC)

S/MC NP Det My N brother VP V won Det the N lotteryAs a means of illustrating the grammatical hierarchy, the labelled brackets wehave used here have at least one major drawback. You've probably noticed it already -- they are very difficult to interpret. And the problem becomes more acute as the sentence becomes more complex. For this reason, linguists prefer to employ a more visual method, the TREE DIAGRAM.

S/MC

NP VP

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D N V NP

Category: Grammatical Form, Linguistics|October 21, 2013 7:00 am

English Sentence Structure: Simple, Compound, Complex, and Compound-Complex SentencesMore Information : adjective clause, adverb clause, clause, complex sentence, compound sentence, compound-complex sentence, dependent clause, independent clause, main clause, matric clause, noun clause, relative clause, sentence, sentence structure, simple sentence, subordinate clause, superordinate clause, verb clause

Sentence structure refers to the structure of sentences in a language. Four types of sentence structures exist in the English language: simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences.

Simple SentencesThe first type of sentence in the English language is the simple sentence. A simple sentence consists of one verb clause. Verb clauses are independent clauses that consist of a subject and a predicate. Some grammars refer to verb clauses as main clauses, matrix clauses, or superordinate clauses.

Subject | Predicate She | laughed. The fire alarm | sounded loudly. A strange girl | visits the library with her father. Forty-two thousand muskrats and one lone ox | have plotted to destroy the city.

Compound SentencesThe second type of sentence in the English language is the compound sentence. A compound sentence consists of two or more verb clauses joined by )1( a coordinating conjunction or )2( a correlative-coordinating conjunction pair. For example, the following sentences are compound sentences:

Verb Clause | Coordinating Conjunction | Verb Clause She loved the ocean, | yet | she had never traveled to the sea. The boys picked burgers, | and | the girls chose chicken sandwiches. He hoped to buy a new car, | so | he saved up all of his money. The teacher allowed notes during the test, | but | all of the students failed anyway. Correlative Conjunction | Verb Clause | Coordinating Conjunction | Verb Clause Both | the stream flooded the bridge, | and | a fallen stream blocked the road. Either | he stops his rude behavior, | or | I leave the dinner early. Either | the news station is experiencing technical difficulties, | or | some really weird events

are happening. Neither | the package arrived on time, | nor | the company received the shipping invoice.

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Complex SentencesThe third type of sentence in the English language is the complex sentence. A complex sentence consists of one verb clause and one or more adverb clauses. Adverb clauses are dependent, or subordinate, clauses that consist of a subordinating conjunction followed by a clause and that perform adverbial functions. For example, the following sentences are complex sentences:

Adverb Clause | Verb Clause After I made a mad dash to my car, | the rain started to let up. If he is early to the party, | the hostess will dash on the table in a lampshade. Verb Clause | Adverb Clause She failed her first semester of classes | because she partied too much and studied too little. The woman wore a football jersey | even though she disliked the sport. Adverb Clause | Verb Clause | Adverb Clause Although she felt badly, | the little girl refused to apologize | because she had a crush on the

little boy. While his father worked on the truck, | the young man took careful notes | lest he miss an

important step in the process.Compound-Complex SentencesThe fourth type of sentence in the English language is the compound-complex sentence. A compound-complex sentence consist of two or more verb clauses and one or more adverb clauses. In other words, compound-complex sentences are combinations of one or more compound sentences and one or more complex sentences. For example, the following sentences are compound-complex sentences:

Verb Clause | Adverb Clause | Conjunction | Verb Clause She had worked at the library | since she graduated, | but | she hoped to find a new job. Adverb Clause | Verb Clause | Conjunction | Verb Clause Although he loved the changing leaves, | he had never travelled to New England in the fall, |

so | he decided to book a trip for next September. Verb Clause | Adverb Clause | Conjunction | Verb Clause | Adverb Clause Dad mowed the lawn | even though he is allergic to grass, | and | Mom baked some banana

bread | even though she despises the smell of bananas.Noun Clauses and Adjective ClausesDifferent grammars analyze sentences containing noun clauses and adjective, or relative, clauses differently. One definition of the complex sentence is a sentence that contains a verb clause and a dependent, or subordinate clause. In addition to adverb clauses, noun clauses and adjective clauses are both dependent clauses. According to this definition, the following sentences are analyzed as complex sentences:

That she failed her art class seriously surprised me. )noun clause( His parents gave that he wanted a computer for his birthday some thought. )noun clause( The woman to whom you delivered the flowers makes the final hiring decisions. )adjective

clause( Reading, which is one of my favorite pastimes, keeps the mind stimulated. )adjective clause(

According to my definition of the complex sentence — a sentence that consists of one verb clause and one or more adverb clauses — sentences that consist of a single verb clause that contains noun clauses or adjective clauses )or both( are simple sentences. For example, I analyze the previous sentences as simple sentences.

Unlike adverb clauses, many noun and adjective clauses cannot be removed from the sentence without changing the grammar of the verb clause. For example, in the first sentence — That she failed her art class seriously surprised me — the noun clause That she failed her art class functions as the subject of the verb clause. Without the noun clause, the verb clause lacks a subject. The noun and adjective clauses are therefore constituents of the verb clause.

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Adverb clauses, however, are never constituents of the verb clause and can be removed without changing the grammar of the verb clause.The constituency of noun and adjective clauses versus adverb clauses thus determines my definition of the complex sentence as a sentence that consists of one verb clause and one or more adverb clauses. A sentence that consists of a single verb clause, with or without noun or adjective clauses, is a simple sentence regardless of any noun or adjective clauses embedded in the grammatical structure of the verb clause.

The four types of sentence structures in the English language are simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences.

ReferencesBrinton, Laurel J. & Donna M. Brinton. 2010. The linguistic structure of Modern English, 2nd edn. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.Hopper, Paul J. 1999. A short course in grammar. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.Huddleston, Rodney. 1984. Introduction to the grammar of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

English Grammar: Types of PhrasesGot grammar? See Everything You Need to Improve Your English Grammar.

 

A phrase is a group of words without both a subject and predicate. Phrases combine words into a larger unit that can function as a sentence element. For example, a participial phrase can include adjectives, nouns, prepositions and adverbs; as a single unit, however, it functions as one big adjective modifying a noun (or noun phrase). See this overview of phrases for more.

Noun Phrase - "The crazy old lady in the park feeds the pigeons every day." A noun phrase consists of anoun and all of its modifiers, which can include other phrases (like the prepositional phrase in the park).More examples.

o Appositive Phrase - "Bob, my best friend, works here" or "My best friend Bob works here." An appositive (single word, phrase, or clause) renames another noun, not technically modifying it. See this page from the Armchair Grammarian for everything you ever wanted to know about appositives.

o Gerund Phrase - "I love baking cakes." A gerund phrase is just a noun phrase with a gerund as its head.

o Infinitive Phrase - "I love to bake cakes." An infinitive phrase is a noun phrase with an infinitive as its head. Unlike the other noun phrases, however, an infinitive phrase can also function as an adjective or an adverb. More examples.

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Verb Phrase - The verb phrase can refer to the whole predicate of a sentence (I was watching my favorite show yesterday) or just the verb or verb group (was watching).

Adverbial Phrase - The adverbial phrase also has two definitions; some say it's a group of adverbs (very quickly), while others say it's any phrase (usually a prepositional phrase) that acts as an adverb -- see thissecond definition.

Adjectival Phrase - As with adverbial phrases, adjectival phrases can either refer to a group of adjectives(full of toys) or any phrase (like a participial or prepositional phrase) that acts as an adjective -- see thissecond definition.

Participial Phrase - "Crushed to pieces by a sledgehammer, the computer no longer worked" or "I think the guy sitting over there likes you."  A participial phrase has a past or present participle as its head. Participial phrases always function as adjectives.

Prepositional Phrase - "The food on the table looked delicious." A prepositional phrase, which has apreposition as its head, can function as an adjective, adverb, or even as a noun.

Absolute Phrase - "My cake finally baking in the oven, I was free to rest for thirty minutes." Unlike participial phrases, absolute phrases have subjects and modify the entire sentence, not one noun. Almost aclause, the absolute phrase can include every sentence element except a finite verb. For example, "My cake finally baking in the oven" would be its own sentence if you just added one finite verb: "My cake was finally baking in the oven." See Absolute Phrase for more.

2) Roots have freer distribution; that is, they can occur almost anywhere in a word. Look back at the examples we just discussed. We find pter at the beginning, at the end, and in the middle of the word. On the other hand, affixes are restricted to certain positions within a word. In our examples, pro- is always at the beginning of the word. In fact, since it is a prefix, it must be in front of a root. Consequently, it will always occur at or near the beginning of the word.

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WORDS ANALYSIS TIPSMemorize the hyphens Roots are written without hyphens.

Affixes have a hyphen at the location where they must attach to a root.

Strip off obvious affixes first This is especially helpful if you can't spot the root.

Look for the roots They will give you the most information about the word.

Find AT LEAST one root per word If you can't find at least one root, your analysis is wrong!

 

Types of Roots

Free Roots are roots that can occur alone as whole words. Many native words such as blue and berry, are free roots because they can stand alone as single words. Free roots can also be combined with other roots or affixes to form more complex words, for example blueberry and bluish.

Bound Roots can never occur alone as whole words. For example, the roots cran and rasp cannot stand alone; they must occur in combination with other morphemes, such as cranberry and raspberry.

WORD HISTORY

Cranberry literally means 'crane berry' from Dutch and German words. Early Dutch and German settlers to the U.S. used this term for the berry that grows in bogs, replacing the earlier British settlers' term ,"fen berry."

Raspberry comes from the earlier "raspis berry." It's believed to be the same word as Middle English raspis 'kind of wine'. It is highly speculative whether this has any relationship to the word rasp 'to scrape'. This may be a "folk etymology."

Almost all the Latin and Greek roots we are studying are bound roots. Some examples are:

log prologueiatr pediatricsphob phobia

Compounds are words constructed from two or more roots. They may or may not have affixes. For example,

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blueberry a compound of two free rootsanthropology a compound of two bound roots

Morphology

In Linguistics, morphology is the branch of grammar devoted to the study of the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of the morpheme construct. It is traditionally distinguished from syntax.

Syntax

In Linguistics, syntax is a traditional term for the study the rules governing the combination of words to form sentences. It is distinguished from morphology, which is the study of word structure.

Morpheme

A morpheme is a unit of meaning. It does not necessarily relate to the "word count" or "syllable count" of an utterance. Here is an example of the way morphemes are counted in the words happy, unhappy, unhappily, and unhappiest, and the sentence 'He meets the unhappiest boys:

happy 'Happy’ is ONE WORD, it has TWO SYLLABLES (ha-ppy), and because it contains only

one unit of meaning it is ONE MORPHEME.

unhappy If you add another unit of meaning, such as ‘un’, to make 'happy' into ‘unhappy’ you still have ONE WORD, but THREE SYLLABLES (‘un-ha-ppy’) and TWO MORPHEMES (‘un’ and ‘happy’).

unhappily'Unhappily' is ONE WORD, FOUR SYLLABLES (un-happ-i-ly), and THREE MORPHEMES

('un', 'happy' and 'ly').

unhappiest'Unhappiest' is also ONE WORD, FOUR SYLLABLES (un-happ-i-est), and THREE

MORPHEMES ('un', 'happy', 'est').

He meets the unhappiest boys'He meets the unhappiest boys' is 1-sentence, it has 5-words, and 8-syllables, and it

contains nine morphemes:

 

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Hemeetstheunhappiestboys

123456789

 

The girl's mother slowly filled the bucket with water'The girl's mother slowly filled the bucket with water' is 1-sentence, it has 9-words,

and 13-syllables, and it contains twelve morphemes:

 

 

A lexeme )  pronunciation )help·info(( is a unit of lexical meaning that exists regardless of the number of inflectional endings it may have or the number of words it may contain. It is a basic unit of meaning, and the headwords of a dictionary are all lexemes. [1] Put more technically, a lexeme is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughly corresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word. For example, in the English language, run, runs, ran and running are forms of the same lexeme, conventionally written as RUN.[2] A related concept is thelemma )or citation form(, which is a particular form of a lexeme that is chosen by convention to represent a canonical form of a lexeme. Lemmas, being a subset of lexemes, are likewise used in dictionaries as the headwords, and other forms of a lexeme are often listed later in the entry if they are not common conjugations of that word.

A lexeme belongs to a particular syntactic category, has a certain meaning )semantic value(, and in inflecting languages, has a corresponding inflectional paradigm; that is, a lexeme in many languages will have many different forms. For example, the lexeme RUN has a present third person singular form runs, a present non-third-person singular form run )which also functions as the past participle and non-finite form(, a past form ran, and a present participle running. )It does not include runner, runners, runnable, etc.( The use of the forms of a lexeme is governed by rules of grammar; in the case of English verbs such as RUN, these include subject-verb agreement and compound tense rules, which determine which form of a verb can be used in a givensentence.

A lexicon consists of lexemes.

In many formal theories of language, lexemes have subcategorization frames to account for the number and types of complements. They occur within sentences and other syntactic structures.

The notion of a lexeme is very central to morphology, and thus, many other notions can be defined in terms of it. For example, the difference between inflection and derivation can be stated in terms of lexemes:

Inflectional rules relate a lexeme to its forms.

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Thegirlsmotherslowlyfilledthebucketwithwater

123456789101112

Derivational rules relate a lexeme to another lexeme.

Decomposition[edit]

The lexemes of a language are often composed of smaller units with individual meaning called morphemes, according to root morpheme + derivational morphemes + desinence )not necessarily in this order(, where:

The root morpheme is the primary lexical unit of a word, which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced to smaller constituents.[3]

The derivational morphemes carry only derivational information.[4]

The desinence is composed of all inflectional morphemes, and carries only inflectional information.[5]

The compound root morpheme + derivational morphemes is often called the stem.[6] The decomposition stem + desinence can then be used to study inflection.

See also[edit]Best Answer:  A lexeme is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughly corresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word. For example, in the English language, run, runs, ran and running are forms of the same lexeme, conventionally written as

run. 

In linguistics, a word is the smallest element that may be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content )with literal or practical meaning(.

English prefixFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

English prefixes are affixes )i.e., bound morphemes that provide lexical meaning( that are added before either simple roots or complex bases )or operands( consisting of )a( a root and other affixes, )b( multiple roots, or )c( multiple roots and other affixes. Examples of these follow:

undo )consisting of prefix un- and root do( untouchable )consisting of prefix un-, root touch, and suffix -able( non-childproof )consisting of prefix non-, root child, and root proof( non-childproofable )consisting of prefix non-, root child, root proof, and suffix -able(

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English words may consist of multiple prefixes: anti-pseudo-classicism )containing both an anti- prefix and a pseudo- prefix(.

In English, all prefixes are derivational. This contrasts with English suffixes, which may be either derivational or inflectional.

Contents  [hide] 

1Selectional restrictions 2Changes in lexical category 3Native vs. non-native )neo-classical( prefixing 4Initial combining forms vs prefixes 5List of English prefixes

o 5.1Native[5]

o 5.2Neo-classical[5]

o 5.3Archaic 6See also 7Notes 8External links 9Bibliography

Selectional restrictions[edit]

As is often the case with derivational morphology, many English prefixes can only be added to bases of particular lexical categories )or "parts of speech"(. For example, the prefix re-meaning "again, back" is only added to verb bases as in rebuild, reclaim, reuse, resell, re-evaluate, resettle. It cannot be added to bases of other lexical categories. Thus, examples of re-plus a noun base )such as the ungrammatical *rehusband, *remonopoly( or re- plus an adjective base )*renatural, *rewise( are virtually unattested.[1]

These selectional restrictions on what base a prefix can be attached to can be used to distinguish between otherwise identical-sounding prefixes. For instance, there are two different un-prefixes in English: one meaning "not, opposite of", the other meaning "reverse action, deprive of, release from". The first prefix un- "not" is attached to adjective and participle bases while the second prefix un- "reverse action" is attached to either verb or noun bases. Thus, English can have two words that are pronounced and spelled the same and have the same lexical category but have different meanings, different prefixes, a different internal morphological structure, and different internal bases that the prefixes are attached to:

unlockable "not able to be locked" unlockable "able to be unlocked"

In the first unlockable "not able to be locked", the prefix un- "not" is attached to an adjective base lockable )which, in turn, is composed of lock + -able(. This word has the following internal structure:

[ un [ [ lock ]verb able ]adj ]adj

In the second unlockable "able to be unlocked", the prefix un- "reverse action" is attached to a verb base lock, resulting in the derived verb unlock. Subsequently, the -able suffix is added after the newly created unlock adjective base deriving the adjective unlockable. This word has the following internal structure:

[ [ un [ lock ]verb ]verb able ]adj

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Only certain verbs or nouns can be used to form a new verb having the opposite meaning. In particular, using verbs describing an irreversible action produces words often considered nonsense, e.g. unkill, unspend, unlose, unring. These words may nevertheless be in occasional use for humorous or other effect.

Changes in lexical category[edit]

Unlike derivational suffixes, English derivational prefixes typically do not change the lexical category of the base )and are so called class-maintaining prefixes(. Thus, the word do, consisting of a single morpheme, is a verb as is the word redo, which consists of the prefix re- and the base root do.

However, there are a few prefixes in English that are class-changing in that the word resulting after prefixation belongs to a lexical category that is different from the lexical category of the base. Examples of this type include a-, be-, and en-. a- typically creates adjectives from noun and verb bases: blaze )noun/verb( > ablaze )adj(. The relatively unproductive be- creates transitive verbs from noun bases: witch )noun( > bewitch )verb(. en- creates transitive verbs from noun bases: slave )noun( > enslave )verb(.

Native vs. non-native (neo-classical) prefixing[edit]

Several English words are analyzed as a combination of a dependent affix and an independent base, such as those found in words like boy-hood or un-just. Following Marchand )1969(, these types of words are formed by native word-formation processes.

Other words in English )and also in French and German( are formed via foreign word-formation processes, particularly processes seen in Greek and Latin word-formation. These word types are often known as neo-classical )or neo-Latin( words and are often found in academic learned vocabulary domains )such as in science fields(, as well as in inkhorn terms coined in the 17th and 18th centuries. Words of this nature are borrowed from either Greek or Latin or have been newly coined based upon Greek and Latin word-formation processes. It is possible to detect varying degrees of foreignness.[2]

Neo-classical prefixes are often excluded from analyses of English derivation on the grounds that they are not analyzable according to an English basis. [3] Thus, anglicized neo-classical English words such as deceive are not analyzed by Marchand as being composed of a prefix de- and a bound base -ceive but are rather analyzed as being composed of a single morpheme )although the Latin sources of these English words are analyzed as such, as Latin words in the Latin language(.[4] However, not all foreign words are unanalyzable according to an English basis: some foreign elements have become a part of productive English word-formation processes. An example of such a now native English prefix is co- as in co-worker, which is ultimately derived from the Latin prefix com- )with its allomorphs co-, col-, con-, and cor-(.

Initial combining forms vs prefixes[edit]

Combining form

List of English prefixes[edit]

Native[5][edit]

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Prefix Meaning Example

a- verb > predicative adjective with progressive aspect afloat, atremble

a- not acyclic, asexual, atonal, atheist

after- following after, behind aftermath, afterlife

anti- against, opposite anti-freeze, antivirus, anticlimax, Antichrist

back- behind an object/structure (locative/directional) backporch, backhoe, backfire

be- equipped with, covered with, beset with (pejorative or facetious)

bedeviled, becalm, bedazzle, bewitch

by- near to, next to byway, bypass, byproduct

co- joint, with, accompanying co-worker, coordinator, cooperation

counter- against, in opposition to counteract, counterpart

de- reverse action, get rid of de-emphasize

dis- not, opposite of disloyal, disagree

dis- reverse action, get rid of disconnect, disinformation

down- from higher/greater to lower/lesser download, downright, downbeat

en-/em- to make into, to put into, to get into enmesh, empower

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ex- former ex-husband, ex-boss, ex-colleague, ex-friend

fore- before, in front forearm, forerunner, forebode

hind- after hindsight, hindquarters

mal- bad(ly) malnourish, maladjusted

mid- middle midstream, midlife

midi- medium-sized midi-length, Midibus

mini- small minimarket, mini-room, minivan

mis- wrong, astray misinformation, misguide, misfortune

off- non-standard, away off-color, offish

on- immediate proximity, locative onset, onlook, ongoing, oncoming

out- better, faster, longer, farther outreach, outcome, outlier

over- excessive, above overreact, overact, overbearing

post- after, behind post-election, post-graduation, post-war

pre- before prevent, previous, pre-election, pre-enter, pre-select

pro- for, forward, in favor of propulsion, propound, pro-life

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re- again, back redo, revisit, rerun, reorganize

self- self self-sufficient, self-explanatory

step- family relation by remarriage stepbrother, stepmother

trans- across, from one place to another transatlantic, transSiberian

twi- two twibill, twilight

un- not, against, opposite of unnecessary, unequal, undesirable, unhappy

un- reverse action, deprive of, release from undo, untie, unexpected, unlock

under- below, beneath, lower in grade/dignity, lesser, insufficient

underachieve, underpass, understand, undergo

up- greater, higher, or better upgrade, uplift, upright

with- against, back, away (from) withstand, withhold

Neo-classical[5][edit]

Prefix Meaning Examples

Afro- relating to Africa Afro-American, Afro-Caribbean

ambi- both ambidextrous, ambitendency

amphi- around, two, both, on both sides amphiaster, amphitheatre, amphibian

an-/a- not, without anemic, asymmetric

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ana-, an- up, against anacardiaceous, anode, analog

Anglo- relating to England Anglo-Norman, Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-American

ante- before antenatal, antechamber, antedate

anti- opposite, against antivenom

apo-, ap- away from, detached aphelion, apogee, apomorphine

arch- ruling, dominating, most extreme (pejorative) archangel, archaen, archconservsative

astro- star astrobiology, astrology, astronomy

auto- self autobiography, automatic, autonomy,

bi- two bicycle, biped

bio- life, biological biology, biotic

circum- around, surrounding circumnavigate, circumlocution,

cis- on this side of cislunar, cisgender

con-/com-/col-/cor-/co- together or with confederation, commingle, colleague,

correlation, cohabit

contra- opposite contradict, contraindication

cryo- ice cryogenics

crypto- hidden, secret cryptography

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de- down depress, descend

demi- half demigod

demo- people democracy, demography

deuter- second deuteragonist, deuterogamy

di- two dicotyledon, digamy, dioxide

dia- through dialysis, diameter

dis-/di-/dif- apart differ, dissect, divide

du-/duo- two dual, duet

eco- ecological ecosystem

electro- electric, electricity electro-analysis, electromagnetic

en-, el-, em- in ellipsis, emphasis, energetic

epi-, ep- upon, at, close upon, in addition ephemeron, epicentre, epidermis

Euro- European Eurocentric

ex- out of exit, expel, explode, exploit, explore, export

extra- outside extracurricular

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Franco- French, France Francophile, Franco-British, Franco-German

geo- relating to the earth or its surface geography, geology, geometry

gyro- spinning on an axis gyrocopter, gyroscope, gyrosphere

hetero- different heterosexual

hemi- half hemimorphic, hemisphere

homo- same homogenous, homologous

hydro- relating to water, or using water hydroelectricity, hydrant

hyper- above, over hyperthermia

hypo- under or below something, low hypothermia

ideo- image, idea ideograph, ideaology

idio- individual, personal, unique idiolect, idiopathic

in- in, into insert, include

Indo- relating to the Indian subcontinent Indo-European

in-, il-, im-, ir- not, opposite of illicit, impossible, inexact, irregular

infra- below, beneath infrared

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inter- among, between internet, intercede, international

intra- inside, within intravenous

iso- equal isochromatic, isotherm

macr- long macrobiotic

maxi- very long, very large maxi-skirt

mega-, megalo- great, large megastar, megalopolis

meta- after, along with, beyond, among, behind metabolism, metaphysics

micro- small microbacillus

mono-, mon- sole, only monogamy, monotone, monosyllabic

multi-, mult- many multicultural, multi-storey, multitude

neo- new neolithic, neoether

non- not nonexistent

omni- all omnipotent, omnipresent, omnivore

ortho- correcting or straightening orthodontics, orthotropic

paleo- old paleolithic

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pan- all, worldwide pan-African, pandemic, panorama

para- beside, beyond parallel, paraplegic, parasail

ped- foot pedal, pedestrian

per- through, completely, wrongly, exceedingly permeate, permute

peri- around, near or adjacent perihelion, periphrase

photo- light photoelectric, photography

pleo- more pleonasm, pleroma

pod- foot podiatrist

poly- many polygon, polyhedron

post- after postfix, postpone, postscript

pre- before predict, prepare, preview

preter- beyond, past, more than preternatural

pro- for, substitute, deputy proconsul

pro- before procambium

pros- toward prosthesis, prostrate, prose

proto- first, original protoplasm, prototype

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pseudo- false, imitation pseudonym

pyro- fire pyrokinetic, pyrotechnic

quasi- partly, almost, appearing to be but not really quasi-religious

retro- backwards retrograde

semi- half semicircle

socio- society, social, sociological sociopath

sub-, sup- below, under submarine, subterranean, suburban, support

super- above, over supervisor, superintendent

supra- above, over suprarenal

sur- above, over surreal, surrender, surplus

syn-, sy-, syl-, sym- together, with syllable, symbol, synthesis, system

tele- at a distance telegraph, telephone, telescope, television

trans- over, through, across transverse, transfat, transform

tri- three tricycle, tripartite

ultra- beyond ultramagnetic, ultrasonic, ultraviolet

uni- one, consisting of only one unicycle, universal

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vice- deputy vice-president, vice-principal, vice-admiral

Archaic[edit]

Prefix Meaning Example

gain- against gainsay

umbe- around umbestound

y- inflectional prefix yclad, yclept (both archaic words)

See also[edit]

Number prefix English grammar English compound Affix

Notes[edit]

1. Jump up^ Occasionally, these selectional restrictions are violated for stylist effect, as in the coinage of the word Uncola in Seven-Up soft drink advertisements. The prefix un- meaning "not" is typically added to adjectives, thus adding it to a noun cola makes the word more noticeable.

2. Jump up^ See Marchand )1969: 7(.3. Jump up^ See, for example, Quirk et al. )1985(.4. Jump up^ Marchand's )1969:5-6( argumentation: "Bearing in mind the bi-

morphemic, i.e. two-sign character of derivatives and the ensuing opposability of both elements, it seems a little embarrassing to revert to the topic of the analysis of conceive, deceive, receive described as bimorphemic by Bloomfield, Harris and Nida. Newman establishes such suffixal derivatives as horr-or, horr-id, horr-ify; stup-or, stup-id,stup-efy. What are the bases horr- and stup- and what are the meanings of the suffixes? With the exception of ‘‘stupefy’’, which by forced interpretation could be made to look like syntagma, none of the 'derivatives' is analysable into two significates.... The fact that we can align such formal series as con-tain, de-tain, re-tain; con-ceive, de-ceive, re-ceive does not prove any morphemic character of the formally identical parts as they are not united by a common significate. The preceding words are nothing but monemes. Conceive, deceive, receive are not comparable to syntagmas such as co-author'joint-author', de-frost 'remove the frost', re-do 'do again', the correct analysis of which is proved by numerous parallel syntagmas )co-chairman, co-defendant, co-hostess; de-gum, de-horn, de-husk; re-furbish, re-hash, re-write(. If the two series con-tain, de-tain, re-tain / con-ceive, de-

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ceive, re-ceive, through mere syllabication and arbitrary division of sound complexes yield morphemes, why should we not be allowed to establish the similar morpheme-yielding series ba-ker, fa-ker, ma-ker / bai-ling, fai-ling, mai-ling? If we neglect content, how can we expose such a division as nonsensical? .... In fact, nobody would think of making the wrong morpheme division as our memory keeps perfect store of free and bound morphemes as significant/significate relations. It is only with a certain restricted class of words of distinctly non-native origin that we fall into the error of establishing unisolable morphemes.... If conceive, deceive, receive, are matched by the substantives conception, deception, reception, this is so because Latin verbs in -cipere are anglicized as verbs in -ceive while the corresponding Latin substantives conceptio, deceptio, receptio in English have the form given above. The alternation -sumevb/-sumption sb is obviously restricted to pairs corresponding to the Latin alternation -sumere vb/-sumptio sb. Nobody, unless he was trying to be witty, would extend the correlative pattern to pairs of words outside the particular structural system to which the words ultimately belong.... The natural synchronic description will therefore deal with foreign-coined words on the basis of the structural system to which they belong."

5. ^ Jump up to:a b Bauer, Laurie; Lieber, Rochelle; Plag, Ingo (2013). The Oxford Reference Guide to English Morphology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780-19-957926-6.

External links[edit]

Chart of English Language Roots

Bibliography[edit]

Adams, Valerie. )1973(. An introduction to modern English word-formation. London: Longman.

Ayers, Donald M. )1986(. English words from Latin and Greek elements )2nd & rev. ed.(. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press.

Bauer, Laurie. )1983(. English word-formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bauer, Laurie; Lieber, Rochelle; Plag, Ingo )2013(. The Oxford Reference Guide to English Morphology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Brown, Roland W. )1927(. Materials for word-study: A manual of roots, prefixes, suffixes and derivatives in the English language. New Haven, CT: Van Dyck & Co.

Cannon, Garland Hampton. )1987(. Historical change and English word-formation: Recent vocabulary. New York: P. Lang.

Jespersen, Otto. )1942(. A modern English grammar on historical principles: Morphology )Part 6(. London: George Allen & Unwin and Ejnar Munksgaard.

Marchand, Hans. )1969(. The categories and types of present-day English word-formation )2nd ed.(. München: C. H. Beck.

Quirk, Randolph; Greenbaum, Sidney; Leech, Geoffrey; & Svartvik, Jan. )1985(. Appendix I: Word-formation. In A comprehensive grammar of the English language )pp. 1517–1585(. Harlow: Longman.

Simpson, John )Ed.(. )1989(. Oxford English dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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